Physics 123 PROPERTIES OF MATTER PDF

Initiative of Information Management and Administrators System (InfoMAS).
The online assistance site for

students of FUTMinna.
http://futmininfo.muf.mobi
Email: [email protected]
Follow us on Facebook: FUTMinna Informant (http://facebook.com/o1425 )
Call: 08141902333
Typist/Digital Formulator 1
Mr. B. A Thomas of InfoMAS team (Student)
Initiative of Information Management and Administrators System (InfoMAS). The online assistance site for
Call: 08141902333
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY MINNA

SECOND SEMESTER
PHYSIC 123 HANDOUT
DIGITALLY PREPARED BY:

Information Management and Administrators System
InfoMAS
The online assistance site for students of FUTMinna
TYPIST/DIGITALLY FORMULATED BY:

MR. B. A THOMAS of InfoMAS team
(Student SICT, Computer Science Department)
For All Students of FUTMinna
Download this at
THIS HANDOUT IS FREE FOR EVERYONE TO DOWNLOAD,

PRINT AND SHARE. THIS HANDOUT MUST NOT BE PRINTED
IN BULK FOR COMMERCIAL SALES TO STUDENTS OR ANY
OF SUCH SIMILAR MOTIVE WITHOUT THE KNOWLEDGE
OF InfoMAS OR THE DEPARTMENT IN CONNECTION TO
THIS HANDOUT
Call: 08141902333
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Structure of matter
Electron
Matter Molecules Atoms

Protons
Nucleus
Neutrons
A simple diagrammatical description of matter is shown above.
Matter:
THis is anything that has mass and occupies space. The force of
attraction on the electron leads to nucleus weakening when the electron
are further apart it gets to a point where they move under the influence of
nucleus.
Electron:
This is the outer skin of matter, when electron are charged i.e. rubbed
one’s palm together, heat is generated. Matter is electrically stable due to
its equilibrium (Same positive and negative charged particles)
Solid:
Intermolecular forces exist in solid since they are closely packed. The
intermolecular force is high and this makes solid very difficult to
break. As a result of the strong intermolecular force of solid, it gives the
solids a definite shape and the molecules are arranged in a repeated
regular pattern known as lattice.
Call: 08141902333
Solid can vibrate at a foxed position transforming energy from points

to point.
The molecules of solid vibrate in their mean position therefore; there

is restriction in the movement of solid particles
Liquid:
In a liquid the molecules are arranged in this order NB: the force of
attraction between the molecules is therefore weak compared to those of
solids.
Gas:
The molecules in a gas are scattered.
NB: the force of attraction is very weak so it becomes infinitesimal (it
appears as if it doesn’t exist). Energy in gas is transfer from molecules to
molecules.
NB:
- Liquid boil
- Solid melts
- Gas condense
Remember that Q = Mc θ + ML (During change of state i.e. when liquid

changes to gas of solid to liquid)
Call: 08141902333
Differences between boiling and evaporation
Boiling Evaporation
It increases in internal energy It causes cooling
It occurs in the entire container It occurs at the surface
It occurs at definite temperature It occurs at varying temperature
Remember that S. V P = Saturated Vapour Pressure

Q = Mct
Q = Ct
Q = ML
Q = mgh = ½ mv2 = IVt
EFFECT OF HEAT
1. It causes increase in temperature (occurs in solid, liquid and

gas)
2. Melting ( it involves change in temperature, is applicable to
solid only)
3. NB: When there is change in state the temperature is constant
4. It causes change in state (It is applicable to liquid)
5. It causes temporary madness
6. It causes thermal agitation in molecules
7. it causes expansion
8. it causes boiling
SATURATED VAPOR PRESSURE
Call: 08141902333
This is a pressure/degree of how hot or cold a body is. It is also the

parameter that determines the direction of heat flow when two bodies are
in thermal contact
Note that when three bodies are in contact, they are said to be in
thermonic equilibrium.
ZENOTH’S LAW
For instance, when A = B = C. The temperature of the three bodies when
they are equal is said to be constant.
Zenoth’s law states if the temperature of three bodies after
separation remains the same they are said to be in thermodynamic
equilibrium Frictionless Piston
P F
Distance (s)
Consider a mass of gas enclosed in a cylinder by frictionless piston of

cross sectional area (A) which is in equilibrium under the action of an
external force (F) ,acting to the left and a force view to be pressure (P) of
a gas acting on the right as shown on the diagram.
F = PA
Initial
dw = P.dv
Final
W = P(V2 – V1) where V2 > V1

W = PdV
Call: 08141902333
NB: dV = change in pressure so that

P.dV = Pressure × Change in Volume (dV)
So Work done (W) = P.dV
From the first law of thermodynamics,
dq = du + dw
Hence
dq = du + PdV - - - 2
Remember that PV = RT (Gas law)
Hence,
RT
V =
P
HEAT CHANGE
Principle of heat capacity of gas
Molar heat capacity at constant volume (Cv) is the heat required to produce a rise in
temperature in one mole of a gas when volume is kept constant.
Molar Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure (Cp):This is the heat required to

produce a unite rise in temperature in one mole of gas when the pressure remains
constant.
From equation (2) above, dq = du + Pdv
NB
dq = change in quantity of heat
du = change in internal energy
PdV = change in external energy
dq = No. of moles × Cp × Change in Temperature

i.e. dq = nCpdt - - - - 3
Call: 08141902333
NB: In the increase of internal energy (du) heat is needed to break the temperature so
that
du = No. of moles × Cv
du = nCvdt - - - - - - - 4
Substitute dq and du in equation (2)
From equation (2) dq = du + PdV
nCpdt = nCvdt + PdV - - - - - 5
However, from ideal gas equation

PV = RT
P(V + dv) = R(T + dT) - - - - 6
PdV = RdT - - - - - - 7 (when differentiated)
Substitute equation (7) in equation (5)
NB: from equation (5) CpdT = RdT + PdV
CpdT = CvdT + RdT - - - - - - 8
(Cp – Cv)dT = RdT
Cp – Cv = R - - - - - - 9
NB: R is called universal constant (R = 0.8205Nm/K)
Cp
However, Cp = =γ
Cv
And γ = 1.40
QUESTION
Why is Cp greater than Cv
Ans: Cp is greater than Cv because at constant volume, heat energy is higher.
Call: 08141902333
GAS LAW
NB: Pressure, Volume and Temperature are known as macroscopic .properties of
matter
Remember from ideal gas law; PV = RT
Also remember that an ideal gas is a gas in which its volume is negligible compare
with the volume of the container
A real gas is a gas that deviates from Raull’s Law (Remember the Raul’s Law?)
From Boyle’s law PV = K
Charles Law V/T = K
From Pressure Law P/T = K (remember all of that? Great)
PV
Now show that =K NB: K = constant
T
Therefore, PV = KT
QUESTIONS
1. A cylinder contains oxygen at the temperature of 20oC and a pressure of
15atm in a volume of 100L. A piston is lowered into the cylinder decreasing the
volume occupied by the gas to 80L and raising the temperature to 25oC. Assuming
oxygen behaves like an ideal gas under this condition, what is the pressure?
Solution
From the question;
P`1V 1 T 1
= NB: P1 = 15atm, P2 = ? V1 = 100L V2 = 80L T1 = 30 + 27
P 2V 2 T 2
T2 = 25 + 273 = 293
Hence
15 × 100 293
=
P 2 × 80 298
Solving for P2, therefore P2 = 19.1atm
QUESTION:
Call: 08141902333
Calculate Cp and Cv of oxygen if their ratio is 1.40 and the density of oxygen is
1.43Kgm-3 at STP, the pressure at 1atm = 1.01 × 105 and the molar mass of oxygen =
32× 10-3
Solution
From equation; Cp : Cv = 1.40 - - 1
NB: Density of O = 1.43kgm-3, Pressure = 1.01 × 105Nm-2 and molar mass O = 32 ×
10-3
But from the formulas state above; R = Cp - Cv - 2
So, from equation (1) Cp = 1.40Cv - - 3
Substitute the value of Cp in equation (2); R = Cp - Cv
Hence, 0.8205 = 0.40Cv
Therefore, Cv = 2.05
Substitute the value of Cv in equation (3); Cp = 1.40Cv
Therefore Cp = 1.40(2.05) = 2.87
Cp 2.87
NB: Check that = = 1.40 correct!
Cv 2.05
QUESTION
The Pressure of a constant volume gas thermometer is 1500N/m2 at 28oC. What will
be the temperature of the gas when the pressure increases by 1/3atm?
Solution
From the equation
P 1 / P 2 = T1 / T2
NB: P1 = 1500N/m2, P2 = 1/3 × 1500 = 500 + 1500 = 2000Nm-2
T1 = 28 + 273 = 301K and T2 = ?
Hence,
301 / 200 = 301 / T2
Therefore, T2 = 401.3K
KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
Call: 08141902333
Kinetic theory of matter shows the comparison of how macroscopic properties

of gas are related to the microscopic properties of a gas.
Examples of microscopic properties of gas are;
- speed
- mass
NB: Macroscopic Properties of gas are
- Pressure
- Volume
- Temperature
ASSUMPTION OF KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

1. The volume of the molecules is negligible compared to the volume of the
container
NB: In ideal gas, the volume of the molecule of a gas is negligible compared
to the containers while in real gas both the volume of the gas and the container are
considered
2. The molecules of the gas moves in random motion, still obeying Newton’s law
of motion
3. The intermolecular force of attraction between the gas molecules is negligible
4. The molecules are the solid
c m u
x
v
y
5. The collision between the molecules of a gas and the wall of the container is
perfectly elastic
Call: 08141902333
Suppose a gas in a cubical box has a side L contains molecules each of mass (m)
Consider with one molecule moving with velocity (c) as shown in diagram above. We
can resolve that (c) in three components (u, v, w) in x, y and z axis respectively
NB: A cubic box is used because it has three dimensional surfaces and matter has
three states.
The molecules has momentum (Mu) to the right and on striking the wall of the
container it rebounds with a momentum hence; change in momentum = 2Mu - - - -(1)
If the molecules traveled to the wall of the container and rebound back with u again
without striking any molecule on its way, it covers a ,distance 2L i.e. in time 2L/u i.e.
t = 2L/u
dP d ( Mu ) m(v − u ) mdV
NB: = = = = Ma = F
dT dT dT dT
Hence,
dP 2 Mu Mu 2
F= = =
dT 2L( )
u
L
Mu 2
F= - - - - (2)
L
Similarly,
M 2
Fx = (u1 + u22 + u32 + ...un2 ) - - (3)
L
Where u1, u2, u3 …un are the different “Ox” components of the velocities of the
molecules of (1, 2, 3, …n)
Since the gas molecule exerts pressure on the container
Hence P = F / A
M 2
ρP= 2
(u1 + u22 + u32 + ...un2 ) - - (4)
L
Call: 08141902333
__
2
If u represents the mean value of the square of all the velocities components in the
__
2 (u12 + u22 + u32 + ...un2 )
Ox direction then u =
N
- - - (5)
From equation No. (5)

__
2
u = u12 + u22 + u32 + ...un2 - - - - (6)
From equation (4)

_
NM u 2
ρ= - - - - - (7)
L2
NB: Resolving “c” the velocity into three dimensional surfaces, hence
C2 = u2 + y2 + w2 - - - - (8)
2
The Mean Square Value of the velocity (C ) can be given as
− − − −
C 2 = u 2 + v 2 + w2 - - - (9)
Since N (number of molecules ( ) is large and the molecules moves randomly the
−
mean square velocity C 2 are equal. Hence
−
C 2 = 3u2 - - - - (10)
From equation (10)
=
C2
2
u = - - - - (11)
3
Substituting equation (11) into (7) we obtain

− 2
Nm C
P= - - - - (12)
3L2
NB: L3 = Volume (V)

Therefore,
− 2
Nm C
P= - - - - - (13)
3V
1 − 2
PV = Nm C - - - (14)
3
Also remember that density d is given by the relationship
Call: 08141902333
No.ofMass
d = (i.e) d = m/V
Volume
Therefore, by substituting this into equation (13) we have that
3P = dC2
Therefore,
− 2 −
Nm C dC 2
P= =
3V 3
where d is the density of the molecules and C is root mean square velocity
Observe from equation (14) above that
Macroscopic property = Microscopic property
- Molecules of a gas in the container they move

- Molecules of gas collide with the wall of the container and rebounds
- It obeys the law of motion (molecule of a gas)
- The molecules of gas move in the same direction have different momentum
- i.e. P = MV
TEMPERATURE IN KINETIC THEORY
Recall that
1 − 2
PV = Nm C - - - (1)
3
1 − 2
PV = N A mC - - - (2)
3
Where NA = Avogadro’s number
2 1 −2
PV = N A m C - - (3)
3 2
You should know that equation (2) and (3) are both equal. (Can you figure out why?)
Recall also that,
PV = RT - - - - (4) (from General gas law)
So that,
2 1 −2
PV = N A m C = RT - - (5)
3 2
Hence
Call: 08141902333
1 −2 3 R
mC = T - - - - (6)
2 2 NA
(Try rearrange equation (5) and confirm to yourself that equation (6) is perfectly
correct)
NB: ½ mc2 is known as kinetic energy or translational motion
So we can see that R α N A
The ration R : NA = Boatman’s constant = k
By introducing this constant to equation (6) therefore,
1 −2 3
mC = kT - - - - (7)
2 2
1 −2 3
K. E = mC = kT
2 2
Therefore equation (7) explains the kinetic theory of temperature.
DEDUCTION FROM KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

1. It is used to determine Avogadro’s law
1 − 2
From PV = Nm C
3
1 −
2
P1V1 = N 1 m1 C 1
3
1 −
2
P2V2 = N 2 m2 C 2
3
Hence,
P1V1 = P2V2
1 −
2 1 −
2
N 1 m1 C 1 = N 2 m2 C 2
3 3
If the pressure, volume and temperature are the same, then P1 = P2, V1 = V2
1 −
2 1 −
2
N 1 m1 C 1 = N 2 m2 C 2 ( i.e. P1V1 = P2V2)
3 3
Hence, equal volume of ideal gas existing under the same condition of temperature,
pressure contains equal number of molecules. This statement is known as Avogadro’s
Law
2. It determines Dalton’s law of partial pressure.

The kinetic theory attributes gas pressure to bombardment of the walls of
the containing vessels by molecules. In a mixture of ideal gasses we might therefore
expect the total pressure to be the sum due to individual gas i.e.
Call: 08141902333
P1V1 P2V2 PV; y1 + y2 = y
3. It determines grahams law of diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of gas molecules in air from one place to another
GAS1 GAS2
Ratio of diffusion of Gas1

Ratio of diffusion of Gas2
− 2
C1
= −
2
C2
− 2
NB: C is the mean square velocity (Crms)
P =1
− 2
C1 d1
_
=
2 d2
C2
Rate of diffusion of Gas 1

Rate of diffusion of Gas 2
d1
=
d2
Therefore, the rate of diffusion of gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its
density
QUESTION
Calculate the root mean square speed of the molecules of hydrogen at (a) 273K (b)
373K
Density of hydrogen at s.t.p = 9.0 x 10-2kg/m3
1atm = 1.01 x 105N/m2
Solution
From equation above
−
dC 2
P=
3
Where P = pressure, C 2 = mean square velocity and d = density
Call: 08141902333
3P = dC2 NB: Crms = C

But P = 1atm = 1.9 x 105Nm-2 (convert 1atm to N/m2)
P = RT/V
Therefore
0.8205 × 273
1.9 x 105 = (NB: R = 0.8205)
V
so solving the above therefore V = 2.196 x 10-3m3
_ 2
0.8205 × 273 5
3 = 9 × 10 C
2.2 × 10 −3
−
dC 2
NB: P = so that 3P = dC2
3
_ 2
Solving the equation above for C, confirm for yourself that C = 18.4 x 102m/s.
Now, (b) since mean square speed of hydrogen is known, therefore the root mean
square speed of 373K can be calculate
Let Cr rep[resents root mean square of hydrogen at 373K and C represents root mean
square speed of hydrogen at stp. Therefore
Cr 373
= Where C = 1.8 40 x 10-3m/s
C 273
Once again, confirm for yourself that Cr = 2.150 x 103m/s
QUESTION
From the following speed below
0.5, 2.5, 1.6, 2.75, 3.2, 0.72
Compute
_
(i) Average speed (mean speed value) ( C )
_ 2
(ii) Mean Speed square ( C )
(iii) Root Mean Square (Crms)
Solution
_ 2
0.5 + 2.5 + 1.6 + 2.75 + 3.2 + 0.72
(i) Mean speed value C = = 1.88m / s
6
_ 2
(ii) Mean Speed Square ( C ) =
(0.5) 2 + (2.5) 2 + (1.6) 2 + (2.75) 2 + (3.2) 2 + (0.72) 2
= 4.56m / s
6
Call: 08141902333
_ 2
(iii) Root Mean Square Speed (Crms) = C = 4.56 = 2.1m / s
_ 2 _ 2
NB: This example shows clearly how to compute C , C and Crms
ADIABATIC EXPANSION
P
Adiabatic Expansion
Isothermal Expansion
V-1
An adiabatic system is an isolated system in which no heat leaves the system or enters
the system
NB: dq = du + PdV
When dq = 0, then
0 = du + PdV
du = -PdV
When there is increase in thermal energy by the system it means work is been done on
the system. But when there is decrease in thermal energy of the system, it means work
is been done by the system.
EXAMPLES OF ADIABATIC PROCESS

i. Expansion of steel in the cylinder of steel engine
ii. Expansion of hot gases in an internal combustion engine
iii. Compression of air in a diesel engine/in air compressor
NB: To do something adiabatically is to do something quickly for example, in a

calorimeter, in other to avoid heat loss or heat gain by the solution in the calorimeter.
The calorimeter is lagged with cotton wool or silk.
REPRESSIBLE ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION
dW = PdV - - - - (i)
recall also that
PV = RT - - - - (ii)
From equation (ii) we have that
Call: 08141902333
RT
P= - - - (iii)
V
Substitute (iii) in (i) therefore we have that
RT
dW = dV - - - - (iv)
V
Cp
Dividing through by Cv (NB: γ = ) then
Cv
dVCp 1 dVCv 1
× + × =0
V Cv P Cv
(Because du + PdV = 0)
dV Cp dV
× + =0
V Cv P
dV dV Cp
γ+ =0 (NB: γ = )
V P Cv
Similarly,
dP dV
+γ =0
P V
Furthermore,
ln P + γ ln V = 0
ln PV γ = 0
γ γ
ln P1V1 = ln P2V2
This equation is for adiabatic process at constant temperature

P1V1 = P2V2 - - - - - (i)
P1V 1 P 2V 2
= - - - - - (ii)
T1 T2
NB: PV = RT
Dividing equation (i) by (ii)
γ −1 γ −1
T1V1 = T2V2
( TV γ −1 = constant)
Similarly,
γ −1 γ −1
P1 P2
γ
= γ
T1 T2
P γ −1
( is constant)
Tγ
Call: 08141902333
REAL GAS; VAN DER WAAL EQUATION
P
Region of
c super cooling
(unstable)
A a
e
Region of
super heating b B
(unstable) y
a
P+ (V − b ) = RT
V2
a This is the value that is not negligible

V2
Lets consider a typical isotherm x, A, b, a c, e, y above consider the behaviour at “a”,

suppose we started with a homogeneous phase along the phase, the slope dP/dV is
positive. This means that a small increase in volume is accompanied by increase in
pressure, hence there is a spontaneous expansion towards C, that also implies that a
small decrease in volume will lead to a spontaneous contracti8on towards “b”
V2 P1
dW = RT . linV ===> W = RT lin ==> W = RT lin - - 5
V1 P2
V2 P1
NB: we use and because P1V1 = P2V2.
V1 P2
In reversible adiabatic process, we move the piston extremely slowly from an ideal
γ −1
T2 V1
gas, an adiabatic expansion gives a temperature drop while the ratio =
T1 V2
Cp
NB γ = .
Cv
But for a real gas, the temperature drop is greater because of the energy expended in
overcoming lthe intermolecular forces of attraction from dq = du + dW
NB: dW = PdV
Hence, dq = du + PdV - - - - - (i)
When dq = 0 then,
Call: 08141902333
0 = du + PdV - - - - - - (ii)
NB: du = CvdP
0 = CvdP + PdV - - - - - (iii)
CvdP = -PdV - - - - - - (iv)
PdV
CvdP = − - - - - - - (v)
Cv
Recall that PV = RT (from ideal gas), therefore,
PdV + VdP = RdT - - - - - (vi)

PdV + VdP
dT = - - - - - (vii)
R
But, Cp – Cv = R. Therefore, by substitution into equation (7) we have
PdV + VdT
dT = - - - - - (viii)
Cp − Cv
PdV + VdT PdV
=− - - - - - (ix)
Cp − Cv Cv
PdV
NB: dT = from equation (5)
Cv
PdVCp + VdPCv = 0 - - - - - (x)
Dividing through by V
PdVC p
+ dPC v = 0 - - - - - - (xi)
V
Dividing through by P
dpC v
dVC p + =0
P
This process constitutes the initial separation in the two phases gaseous at “c” and
liquid at “b”. The part “B” is unstable. The liquid can be made in this region. But
generally, the phase to “A” expended from “b” and the region becomes supper
heating. So therefore, the region c is also known as unstable region because a gas ca
be made at super cooling. Supper cooling from b to c and can also spread to e but
some isotherms can give negative phase i.e. b may be below the v-axis. This also
occurs in liquid phase.
In figure B, the two turning points B and C collapse into a single region at Z.
(i.e. Critical Isotherm at Z).
Condition for critical isotherm
dP/dV = 0 d=c for the turning point at c.
2 2
d P/dV = 0 at z
multiplying V with Van der Waal equation;
a
V P + 2 (v − b ) = RT
V
Call: 08141902333
a
PV + − Pb − ab = RT - - 3
V
dP a dP 2ab
P +V T − −b T+ 2 =0 - - 4
dV v dV V
dP
T =0
dV
a 2ab
P= 2 − 3 - - - - - 5
V V
dP 2a 6ab
=− 3 + 4 =0
dV V V
a
Vc = 3b, Pc =
27h 2
8a
T c=
27 Rb
RT c
for a single gas; - - (critical coefficient)
PcV c
Coefficient lies between 3 – 3.5
Call: 08141902333
UNIT TWO
ELASTICITY
Plastic Flow
c d
b
Breaking
a stress
Stress Elastic
limit
Strain C||
C|| -----> Plastic Definition

At yield point a stretched material can still return to its original shape but it does not
obey Hooke’s law
At point d, small increase in stress will brings large increase in strain
NB:
Tensile stress = F/A
Tensile Strain = e/L
Tensile stress F/A α tensile strain e/L
Therefore,
F e
α
A L
F e
=K
A L
K = elastic modulus measures of how difficult it is for a material to be deformed.
TYPES OF MODULUS
1. Young Modulus (E)
2. Shear Modulus ( ε )
3. Bulk modulus (B)
Call: 08141902333
Young Modulus = Tstress α Tstrain

T stress
Young Modulus =
T strain
F
A =E
e
L
Ts
=E
T || s
From the diagram below we have
F
L e
(mgh = Fs = fh = P.E)
NB: s is distance covered while h is the height
Hence,
1
W = Fe
2
NB:
1
Fe
2 1 F e 1 Tstress
= × =
AL 2 A L 2 Tstrain
When stress is applied to a material we have dW/W

While strain applied to a material is e/L
Hence,
dW e e
α = −ϕ
W L L
dW
- ϕ = poison ratio = W = dW × L
e W e
L
Example:
A material 4m long and 2cm2 in cross section stretched 2mm ,when a mass of 20Kg is
placed at the lower end. Find E (Young Modulus)
Call: 08141902333
F
Recall that E = A = F×L
e A e
L
Hence,
200 × 9.8 4
E= −4
× = 1960 x 107Nm-2
2 × 10 2 × 10− 3
SHEAR MODULUS
F|| (Force line is tangential
F|| = Force line is tangential

A = Area
a c dL = change in Length
L = Original length
Ts α T||s
b d
Share Modulus for a particular material is 50Pa. with which a shear force of 10N is
applied to the lower surface of the material that is 5cm on each end. Find the sheer
stress
(2) How far will the surface be displaced NB: material under consideration is cube.
Solution
(Please follow the solving to this example in your lecture. No working was provided
to this problem as at the time of typing this note)
EXAMPLE
Two parallel and opposite forces each 4000N are applied tangentially to the upper and
lower phases of a cubical metal box which is 25cm on the side
Find the angle of shear and the displacement of the upper surface relative to the lower
surface shear modulus (G = 80gPa.)
EXAMPLE
Compute the volume change of a solid copper cube 10mm on each edge when
subjected to pressure of 5mPa, the bulk modulus of copper is 1000mPa
EXAMPLE
For a matter or a student bombarded by pressure on every side
NB for question (1)

B = dPV / Vy
Call: 08141902333
VyB = dPV
Vy = dPV / B
Where B = 1000mPa. dP = 5mPa, V = 10mm = 10-6m3 Vy = ?
Vy = 5 x 10-6 / 103 = 5 x 10-9m3
Cohesion
Change of
contact
• The force of cohesion is greater than the force of adhesion e.g. mercury.
• Change of contact is above 900
• The molecule of cohesion does not wet glass
• It has a convex shape
• It resultant tends towards the right
SURFACE TENSION
dx
F
2LT
dx
Remember that surface tension is the force acting parallel per unit length at the
surface of a liquid. Also you should know that surface tension is the elastic tendency
of liquids which makes them enquires the least surface area possible.
F
Surface tension = γ = unit is N/m
2L
Work done
HYDROSTATIC
Pressure
Buoyancy is the ability to float
Call: 08141902333
F
Pressure P = = ρgh (unit N/m2)
A
Where ρ = density g = acceleration and h = height
NB: for any object to float, weight = upthrust
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE
Surface tension: when the surface of a liquid acts as an elastic surface skin as pressure
is applied, the force acting per unit length is perpendicular to the surface where the
force acts.
F
NB: Surface tension = γ =
2L
ADHESION: This involves the molecules of different substances. Where there is

presence of attractive forces.
COHESION: This involves the forces acting between the same molecules.
NB: The force of adhesion is

- greater than the force of cohesion e.g. in water
- The angle of contact is less than 90o
- it causes wetting of glass
- It has a concave shape
- Resultant force tends towards the left.
Call: 08141902333
EXAMPLE:
The excess pressure “P” within a bubble of a radius 0.1mm in water. Take surface
tension T = 72.7 x 10-3 (A bubble of “A” within liquid that has liquid A surface =
2T/r) where T = 72.7 x 10-3, r = 0.1/1000 = 10-4
2T 2 × 72.7 × 10 −3
Therefore P = = = 1454 N / m
r 1 × 10 − 4
CAPILLARITY
The narrower the capillary tube, the faster the movement of the liquid above
the tube, while the wider the capillary tube the slower the movement of the liquid
above the capillary tube.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. A body weighs 0.20N in air, 0.12N when fully immersed in water and 0.25
N when ‘fully ‘immersed in liquid. Calculate ( i) It lost weight (ii) it
relative density
2. An object of density 10g/cm3 weight 100g when suspended with a string
from a spring balance, it is then put into a liquid of density 0.5gcm3 until ¾
of its volume in water is immersed in the liquid.
3. Differentiate between cohesive and adhesive forces. Draw a di9agram
where applicable
4. If adhesive forces are greater than cohesive forces, what happens to the
liquid in capillary tube?
5. Differentiate between surface energy and surface tension
6. If a surface is wetted by water, what will be the angle of contact?
7. Determine the volume of 200g of liquid for which its relative density is
1.60; relative density of water to be 1000kg/m3
NB: Relative density of substance = RD

<You may refer to your Secondary school not for help>
VISCOSITY AND COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY
Viscosity is the inherent property of all fluids and may be called the internal
friction offered by a fluid to the flow. For water in a beaker, when stirred and left to
itself. The motion subside after sometimes which can happen only in the presence of a
resisting force acting on the liquid. The temporary resistance offered by fluids to the
shearing stress is called viscosity. Viscosity is that property of fluid due to which they
opposes relative motion between its adjacent layers.
Liquid like water, kerosene etc. which flows readily are said to be mobile,
while liquid such as tar, pitch which do not flow readily are said to be viscous.
Liquids like honey, engine oil are said to be more viscous than tar.
Consider a liquid contained in between two plate A and B, a small distance
apart as shown below.
F
A
g
Call: 08141902333
If the liquid is assumed to be divided into diffinty. Thin parallel horizontal layer and
the upper plate are polished with a small force (F) in the direction indicated. By doing
so, we applied a tangential force or tangential stress ‘on the liquid and as a result we
find the topmost layer of the liquid moving with a constant velocity after initial
acceleration produced become zero.
The next layer also moves with a constant velocity but its velocity is slightly
less than the velocity of the upper layer. The velocity of the layer next to it is also
constant and it is still smallest. In fact, all the layers moves but the velocity keep
decreasing towards B and the velocity of the layer in contact with B is zero. The
liquid may be regarded as a pile of tin sheet placed one above the other just as a pile
of playing cards. Each layers of the liquid like each card drags with the next lower
layer. As it happen when one card moves over the surface of the other, it moves is
opposed by the force of friction.
Similarly, due to sliding of one area over the other, forces are called into
action within the liquid which resist the motion of layers. This force is called vicious
and the property of the liquid is called viscosity.
Consider a layer AB of a liquid moving with a velocity (V) ant a parallel layer
(CA) at a distance (DS) from it moving with a velocity of (V + DV). As shown in the
figure 2 above. Then DV/DS is known as velocity gradient. This difference of
velocity is caused by force acting parallel to the upper layer in the direction of the
layer. In the absence of this force the relative motion between the two layer cease
after some time.
Newton force and viscous force acting tangential on a layer of the fluid is directly
proportional to
1. Velocity gradient (DV/DS) in a direction perpendicular to the layer
Call: 08141902333
2. The surface area of the lay
DV
F α − And
DS
Fα A
So,
DV
Fα − .A
DS
Therefore,
DV
F =− A - - - - (i)
DS
This is called Newton’s law of viscous flows in straight line motion. The
symbol is a constant and it depends upon the nature and temperature of the liquid.
The –ve sign indicates that air is a backward dragging force. i.e. force acts in a
direction opposite to the one in which the layer moves.
Now if A = 1, DV/DS = 1, then

F= (coefficient of viscosity)
Hence, the coefficient of viscosity of a liquid may be defined as the tangential
force per unit are which resist the flow of two parallel layer having unit velocity
gradient perpendicular to the streamline flow. The unit in which the coefficient of
velocity is expressed is called POISEM system. The coefficient of velocity of a liquid
is equal to the tangential force per unit area that is required to maintain unit relative
velocity between its two layer unit distances
STREAMLINE AND TURBULENT

A streamline flow is that in which all particles of the liquid moves in an orderly
pattern and the part of every particles is the same as that of the liquid as a whole.
When a liquid flows steadily such that each particle passing a certain point flows
exactly the same path and has the same velocity as its preceding particles, the flow is
called streamline flow. In such a flow the velocity of every point within the liquid
remains constant both in magnitude and direction the flow remains streamline so long
as the velocity is not large and remain the load in a certain velocity is called critical
velocity beyond which the flow becomes turbulent and is hardly regular. The velocity
at which the laminar or streamline flow changes into turbulent is known as critical
velocity
REYNOLDS NUMBER
Call: 08141902333
Reynolds studies the motion of fluid in detail and observed that the
critical velocity (Vc) of a fluid is related to the density of the liquid, its coefficient of
viscosity and radius of the two by the following relation
V c= Kn - - - (ii)
ρr
K is constant known as Reynolds number. On the basis of series of experiment,
Reynolds concluded that the constant K which is the combination of four factors
determines whether the flow is streamline or turbulent that is, Reynolds number
determines the nature of the flow of liquid through a fluid on the basis of the
experiment, it is observed that for a tube of 1cm, flow is laminar if K is 2000 and in
general when K is less than about 2000, the flow is laminar, where as above 3000, the
flow is turbulent. In the transition region between 200 to 3000, the flow is unstable
and may change from one type to another.
POISEUILE EQUATION FOR THE FLUID OF LIQUID THROUGH A TUBE
When a liquid is flowing under a constant pressure between the end of a capillary, the
tube of radius (A) and length (m) it is assumed that;
The flow of liquid is parallel to the axis of the tube everywhere and to the streamline.
The flow of liquid is steadily i.e. there is no acceleration of the liquid at any point.
The velocity of the liquid layer in contact with the wall is zero and increases regularly
and continuously towards the interior becoming maximum along the axis of the tube.
Axis
x dx
Fig. 3
Consider a cylinder layer of liquid to coaxial to the tube and radius shown in fig
above. The surface area of the lay above is 2πrl and the velocity of the flow is the
same at all points and since the velocity of flows increase as we move towards the
axis of the cylinder from the wall of the cylinder, the liquid outside these imaginary
cylindrical shape layer which will be moving slower than the inside of it. And hence,
will exert a backward tangential force on the inner faster moving liquid. The viscous
force or retarding force according to Newton’s law of viscosity is given by
DV
F=- A
Dx
Call: 08141902333
DV
F = − 2πrx
Dx
THIS NOTE IS ABOUT 95% COMPLETE AS MADE AVAILABLE TO US
THE TYPIST HAS BEEN THE VERY PROLIFIC TYPIST, ADDICTED TO

TYPING LIKE WINE (MR. B. A. THOMAS OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT FUTMINNA) THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR GIVEN
YOUR SUPPORT.
Information Management and Administrators System (InfoMAS), the online

assistance site for students of FUTMinna.

Physics 123 PROPERTIES OF MATTER PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Physics 123 PROPERTIES OF MATTER PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Physics 123 PROPERTIES OF MATTER PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Initiative of Information Management and Administrators System (InfoMAS).

The online assistance site for

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY MINNA

DIGITALLY PREPARED BY:

TYPIST/DIGITALLY FORMULATED BY:

THIS HANDOUT IS FREE FOR EVERYONE TO DOWNLOAD,

Matter Molecules Atoms

A simple diagrammatical description of matter is shown above.

Solid can vibrate at a foxed position transforming energy from points

The molecules of solid vibrate in their mean position therefore; there

Remember that Q = Mc θ + ML (During change of state i.e. when liquid

Differences between boiling and evaporation

Remember that S. V P = Saturated Vapour Pressure

1. It causes increase in temperature (occurs in solid, liquid and

This is a pressure/degree of how hot or cold a body is. It is also the

Consider a mass of gas enclosed in a cylinder by frictionless piston of

W = P(V2 – V1) where V2 > V1

NB: dV = change in pressure so that

Molar Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure (Cp):This is the heat required to

dq = No. of moles × Cp × Change in Temperature

However, from ideal gas equation

KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

Kinetic theory of matter shows the comparison of how macroscopic properties

ASSUMPTION OF KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

From equation No. (5)

From equation (4)

Substituting equation (11) into (7) we obtain

NB: L3 = Volume (V)

Also remember that density d is given by the relationship

Observe from equation (14) above that

Macroscopic property = Microscopic property

- Molecules of a gas in the container they move

TEMPERATURE IN KINETIC THEORY

Therefore equation (7) explains the kinetic theory of temperature.

DEDUCTION FROM KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

2. It determines Dalton’s law of partial pressure.

P1V1 P2V2 PV; y1 + y2 = y

3. It determines grahams law of diffusion

Ratio of diffusion of Gas1

Rate of diffusion of Gas 1

3P = dC2 NB: Crms = C

Once again, confirm for yourself that Cr = 2.150 x 103m/s

EXAMPLES OF ADIABATIC PROCESS

NB: To do something adiabatically is to do something quickly for example, in a

REPRESSIBLE ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION

This equation is for adiabatic process at constant temperature

REAL GAS; VAN DER WAAL EQUATION

a This is the value that is not negligible

Lets consider a typical isotherm x, A, b, a c, e, y above consider the behaviour at “a”,

PdV + VdP = RdT - - - - - (vi)

C|| -----> Plastic Definition

K = elastic modulus measures of how difficult it is for a material to be deformed.

Young Modulus = Tstress α Tstrain

From the diagram below we have

When stress is applied to a material we have dW/W

F|| (Force line is tangential

F|| = Force line is tangential

NB for question (1)

ADHESION: This involves the molecules of different substances. Where there is