Physics 3 Laboratory Fall 1996

LAB NO.5 - SURFACE TENSION

A. Theory

This laboratory is an investigation of some of the

interesting properties of liquids that arise because of surface
tension, an effect caused by molecular forces in the liquid. In
the middle of a fluid neighbors on all sides of a molecule pull
equally hard in all directions, but on the surfaces molecules are
pulled into the bulk liquid. As a result, the surface tension
makes the fluid behave as if it had an elastic skin. The surface
can be between a liquid and air, as with rain drops; or between
two liquids, as with a dispersion of oil in water; or between a
liquid and a solid surface, as with fluid drawn into a capillary.
Surface tension makes water dripping from a tap break into a
stream of drops, and surface tension in water supports bugs
running on its surface as if it were a rubber sheet.

Surface tension effects can be demonstrated with the

apparatus illustrated in Fig. (1). A wire ring has a loop of
thread attached to it; when the ring and thread are dipped in a
soap solution and removed, a thin film of liquid is formed in
which the thread "floats" freely, as shown in part (a). If the
 Lab #5 Surface Tension page 2

film inside the loop of thread is punctured, the thread springs

out into a circular shape as in part (b) because the surface of
the liquid pulls radially outward on it. These same forces were
acting even before the film was punctured, but then there was film
on both sides of the thread, and the net force was zero.

Another simple apparatus for demonstrating surface tension is

shown in Fig.(2). A piece of wire is bent into a U shape and a
second piece of wire is used as a slider. When the apparatus is
dipped in a soap solution and removed, the slider is quickly
pulled up to the top of the U (if its weight w1 is not too great).
The slider may be held in equilibrium by adding a second weight w2.
Surprisingly, the same total force F = w1 + w2 will hold the slider
at rest in any position, regardless of the length of the liquid
film (dimension x in the figure). That is, the elastic force does
not increase as the surface is stretched farther. This is quite
different from the elastic behavior of a sheet of rubber, for
which the force would increase as the sheet was stretched.

Although a soap film like that in Figs. (1) and (2) is very
thin, its thickness is still enormous compared with the size of a
molecule. Hence we can consider a soap film as made up chiefly of
bulk liquid, bounded by two surface layers a few molecules thick.
When the slider in Fig.(2) is pulled down and the area of the film
 Lab #5 Surface Tension page 3

is increased, molecules formerly in the main body of the liquid

move into the surface layers. These layers are not "stretched" as
a rubber sheet would be, and the surface tension is not changed.

Let L be the length of the wire slider. Since the film has
two surfaces, the total length along which the surface force acts
on the slider is 2L. The surface tension γ in the film is defined
as the ratio of the surface force F to the length d (perpendicular
to the force) along which the force acts:
γ =F .
d Hence, in the case, d = 2L and
Fγ=
2L
Note that although the term tension has previously been used
to mean force, surface tension is a force per unit length. The SI
unit of surface tension is the newton per meter (N⋅ m-1), but the
unit in common use is the cgs unit, the dyne per centimeter (dyne
cm-1), with the conversion factor 1 N m-1 = 1000 dyne cm-1. Some
typical values of surface tension are shown in Table I.

Table I Experimental Values of Surface Tension

Surface tension,
Liquid in Contact with Air T, deg C dyne⋅ cm-1

Benzene 20 28.9
Carbon tetrachloride 20 26.8
Ethyl alcohol 20 22.3
Glycerine 20 63.1
Mercury 20 465.0
Olive oil 20 32.0
Soap solution 20 25.0
Water 0 75.6
Water 20 72.8
Water 25 72.0
Water 30 71.2
Water 100 58.9
Oxygen -193 15.7
Neon -247 5.15
Helium -269 0.12
__________________________________________________________________

Soap Bubbles
 Lab #5 Surface Tension page 4

Surface tension causes a pressure difference between the

inside and outside of a soap bubble or a liquid drop. A soap
bubble consists of two spherical surface films very close together
with a layer of liquid between. The molecules on the surface are
so small compared to the film thickness that the film is really
two surfaces sandwiched around a layer of bulk fluid. Surface
tension causes the films to contract, compressing the air inside,
reaching a balanced interior pressure that prevents further
contraction. The liquid film will draw itself into a spherical
bubble, minimizing the surface area. One way to calculate the
pressure in the bubble is to write an equation setting the force
due to the pressure difference between the inside and the outside
of the bubble, which is tending to push the bubble apart, equal to
the force of the surface tension holding it together.

The bubble is imagined to be sliced in half; the pressure

pushes directly out on each side, while the surface tension pulls
it together along the circumference, as illustrated in Fig.(3).
The pressure difference pushes horizontally on the projected area
πR2, not the total surface 2πR2, because the 'vertical' components
of the force cancel out. The force exerted towards the left in
figure, due to surface tension, is 2γ(2πR) where 2πR is the
circumference, γ is the surface tension, and the factor 2 is
included to account for both surfaces. The force due to the
pressure difference, ∆p, is ∆p⋅ π R2. Setting these equal we have
∆p⋅ π R2 = 2γ ⋅ 2πR or
∆p = 4γ/R (soap bubble) (1)

For a liquid drop, which has only one surface film, the difference
between pressure of the liquid and that of the outside air is half
that for a soap bubble:
∆p = 2γ/R (liquid drop)
 Lab #5 Surface Tension page 5

Capillarity

Thus far we have talked about surface films at the boundary

between a liquid and a gas. Additional surface-tension effects
occur when such a film meets a solid surface, such as the wall of
a container, as shown in Fig.(4). In general, the liquid-gas
surface curves as it approaches the solid surface, and the angle θ
at at which it meets the surface is called the contact angle.
When the surface curves up, as with water and glass, θ is less
than 90°, as shown in Fig.(4a); when it curves down, as with
mercury and glass, θ is greater than 90°, as shown in Fig.(4b).
The first case is characteristic of a liquid that tends to "wet"
or adhere to the solid surface; the second is characteristic of a
non-wetting liquid.

An important surface-tension phenomenon is the elevation or

depression of the liquid in a narrow tube, as shown in Fig.(5).
We call this effect capillarity; this term stems from the
description of such tubes as capillary, which means "hairlike".
For a liquid such as water, which wets the tube with contact angle
of less than 90° and the liquid rises until it reaches an
equilibrium height y as illustrated in Fig.(5a). This height is
 Lab #5 Surface Tension page 6

determined by the requirement that the total surface-tension force

around the line where the liquid-gas surface meets the solid
should just balance the extra weight of the liquid in the tube.
The curved liquid surface is called a meniscus. Figure (5b)
shows the situation with a non-wetting liquid such as mercury and
a contact angle of greater than 90°. Again a meniscus forms, but
the surface is depressed, pulled down by the surface-tension
forces. In the case of the two fluids used in this laboratory,
water and soap solution, the liquid is drawn up.

If the tube is no larger than a millimeter in diameter the

curved surface at the top of the liquid column, the meniscus, can
be considered to be a section of a sphere. This spherical "bowl"
is held up by the force of surface tension acting around the rim.
The force pulls up and away at the angle θ, being the contact
angle between the meniscus and the tube.

Referring to Figs. (4a) and (5a), let R be the radius of

curvature of the meniscus, r the radius of the tube, ρ the liquid
 Lab #5 Surface Tension page 7

density, h the height the meniscus above the outside level, and γ
the coefficient of surface tension. The total force is 2πrγ, while
the vertical component of this force is 2πrγcos(θ). The weight of
the fluid being held up by this force is πr2hρg. Setting the force
equal to the weight, we have:

2γcos(θ) ρghr
ρgh = , or γ = (2)
r 2cos(θ)
Since r = R cos(θ), this equation can also be written

2γ ρghR
ρgh = , or γ = (3)
R 2

Capillarity is responsible for the rise of ink in blotting

paper, the rise of melted wax in the wick of a candle, and many
other everyday phenomena. It is also an essential part of many
life processes. A familiar example is the rising of aqueous
solutions from the roots of a plant to its foliage, due partly to
capillarity and partly to osmotic pressure developed in the roots.
In the higher animals, including humans, blood is pumped through
the arteries and veins, but capillarity is still important in the
smallest blood vessels, which indeed are called capillaries.
 Lab #5 Surface Tension page 8

B. Experiment

In this laboratory three methods of measuring the surface

tension are applied to two fluids, distilled water and soapy
water. The three methods of measuring surface tension can be done
in any order. The surface tension is
a) measured with a tensiometer, an instrument used in medical
and industrial laboratories. There are two models of
tensiometer in the lab; one is of research quality, the
other is made for student labs.
b) deduced by measuring the pressure inside a soap bubble,
using a water manometer;
b) found by measuring the rise of the fluid into a capillary;

The Tensiometer and Surface Tension Balance

Both the tensiometer and the surface tension balance are

sensitive instruments that measure the force required to pull a
ring of wire (for the former) or a glass slide (for the latter)
out of a fluid. The ring or slide is pulled down by its weight
and by the surface tension force of the fluid. Referring to
Fig.(6), let L be the length and t the thickness of the glass
slide, and let C be the circumference of the wire ring. Since the
film has two surfaces, the total length along which the surface
force acts is 2(L + t) or 2C. The surface tension is the film, γ,
is defined as the ratio of the surface force to the length along
which the force acts. Hence, in this case, γ is given by
γ = F/2C or γ = F/2(L + t) (4)
where F is the measured force.

There are two tensiometers of each type, student and

professional, available in the lab. The student model is for use
with distilled water, the other for use with soap solution. They
are kept apart, because distilled water is easily contaminated a
large amount of water, lowering the surface tension considerably.
Detailed instructions for the use of the tensiometers are supplied
in a separate handout.
 Lab #5 Surface Tension page 9

Soap Bubble Apparatus

A frame of tubing and valves is provided for blowing soap

bubbles at the end of a glass tube (with individual mouthpieces
provided to prevent epidemics), or for attaching a sensitive
manometer to measure the pressure inside a small bubble. Rulers
and circle-hole templates are provided to measure the radii of
bubbles. There are also extra small beakers and bottles of
distilled water and soap solution. The apparatus is shown with the
manometer attached in Fig.(7), and in the double bubble mode in
Fig.(8).
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Lab #5 Surface Tension page 11
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After gaining familiarity and proficiency with the soap

bubble apparatus, observe qualitatively the following property of
soap bubbles: If two spherical bubbles are connected, air flows
from the smaller to the larger. Next, blow a small soap bubble
and measure the pressure inside using the water manometer, as
described below. A measurement of the pressure inside a water
bubble is possible, but difficult,because the bubbles are so
fragile. Try it to test your luck and dexterity, but don't waste
a lot of time on it.

To make the pressure measurement with the manometer, first

open the 'bubble side' of the manometer to the atmosphere, turn
the micrometer and note the reading when the needle makes a
visible dimple in the fluid surface. Close the two valves that
isolate the 'bubble side' and blow a bubble. Close all valves,
then open the valve connecting the bubble to the manometer. Wait
for the liquid to come to equilibrium, and read the micrometer
when the needle again just forms a dimple. Now measure the
diameter of the bubble using the circle template. Assuming that
the cross section of both glass tubes is the same, the water level
difference between the two sides, ∆h, is twice the difference
between the micrometer readings. The pressure difference between
the inside and outside of the bubble is ρg∆h, where ρ is the
density of water.

The pressure difference is given by ∆p = 4γ/R (see Eq.(1));

and so γ is given by γ = Rρg∆h/4. Estimate the fractional error δH
and δR in the measurement of ∆h and R, and calculate the fractional
error in γ from
∆γ 2 2
= δ+δ
γ HR
Capillaries

When working with the capillaries, keep one just for pure
water and one for soap solution. Dip the capillary into the
liquid, and note that surface tension will keep the liquid in the
tube after you remove it. Let both soap and pure water be drawn
into the two capillaries provided. Measure the height with a
 Lab #5 Surface Tension page 13

ruler; measure the capillary diameter and the angle of contact

using the magnifier as illustrated in Fig.(9).

The angle can also be measured by a shadowing technique which

will be demonstrated by the TA. Also, be sure to record the room
temperature, because as can be seen from Table I, the value of γ
for water is quite temperature dependent. Calculate γ for both
liquids using Eq. (2): γ = ρghr/2cos(θ).

Estimate the fractional error in the measurements of h(δh),

r(δr), and sin(θ)(δθ). The fractional error in the radius is the
same as that of the diameter, and for the fractional error in
sin(θ) the error in θ itself can be used. For γ the error is
∆γ 2 2 2
= δ + δ +δ
γ h r θ
Date Analysis and Report

Compare the values of the surface tension measured by the

three different methods. In particular, note the calculated
fractional error in each case, and compare these. Which method
gave results closest to the values in Table I? If the room
temperature (TR) is between values in Table I (T1 and T2), and the
values of γ at T1 and T2 are γ1 and γ2, the interpolated value of γ
at TR is
(TR - T1)(γ 2 - γ 1) + γ1
T2 - T1
Lab #5 Surface Tension page 14

Appendix I

Instructions for Using the Fisher Tensiometer

The most important general instruction is to treat the

instrument with care, being especially careful not to increase the
torsional stress on the wire to the point of breaking it. Also, be
careful not to bend the ring, which is very delicate.

The principles of operation of the tensiometer can be seen by

referring to Fig.(1). A lever clamped to a fine steel wire is
held in position by the torsional stress in the wire. A ring is
suspended from the end of the lever, and a dish of liquid (soap
solution) is raised to immerse the ring, and then lowered. As the
liquid surface is drawn away, the surface tension in the liquid
pulls the ring down. The downward force due to surface tension is
countered by increasing the torsion in the wire with the torsion-
adjust knob. A dial with a calibrated scale converts the position
of the torsion-adjust knob to read in units of surface tension,
dynes/cm. By following the procedure below, one can deduce the
surface tension from the reading of the torsion dial.

1. Fill a 100 ml beaker with 40 ml the soap solution provided.

2. Clamp the balance arm. Rinse the ring in fresh water and hang
the ring from the arm.

3. Place the beaker on the platform and raise it until the ring is
immersed about 3 mm below the surface. The platform should now
be about as high as it can be raised with the teflon knob. If
not, adjust the platform by moving it on the main support post
in back (see the TA if in doubt).

4. Release the balance arm. Turn the torsion adjust knob until
the indicator bar coincides with the line on the mirror.

5. Turn the zero adjust knob until the zero on the moving arm
coincides with the zero on the large scale.
Lab #5 Surface Tension page 15

6. Slowly lower the beaker by turning the teflon knob. As the

balance arm is pulled down, turn the torsion adjust knob so as
to keep the indicator bar and the fiducial mark on the mirror
together. Continue to lower the dish and increase the tension,
keeping the balance arm level.

7. Eventually the ring will pop out of the fluid. The dial
reading at this point is the uncorrected value of the surface
tension of the soap solution in dynes/cm.

8. Using the values given on a separate sheet, correct the

dial reading. Interpolate between the readings if necessary.

(To interpolate, use the following procedure: Suppose, for

example, the dial reading is 30.6. Note that in this range the
corrected surface tension value is between 3.4 and 3.5 less than
the dial reading. One should then subtract 3.5, being the closer
value, from the dial reading. The surface tension is 27.1)
 Lab #5 Surface Tension page 16

Appendix II
Instructions for Using the Surface Tension Balance

Each station has a homemade surface tension balance which is

used to measure the surface tension of distilled water. The
balance measures the force required to pull a partially immersed
glass slide out of the water. The slide is pulled down by its
weight and by the force of surface tension, and is pulled up by
the force of the balance. The balance is calibrated by moving an
aluminum disk on the beam to produce a deflection equivalent to
that of the surface tension.

Referring to Fig.(1), let L be the length and t the thickness

of the slide. Since the film has two surfaces, the total length
along which the surface force acts is 2L + 2t. The surface
tension is the film, γ, is defined as the ratio of the surface
force to the length along which the force acts. Hence, in this
case, γ is given by
γ = F/2(L + t) (1)
where F is the measured force.
 Lab #5 Surface Tension page 17

The lever arm of the surface tension balance is illustrated

in Fig.(2). The aluminum disk is used to calibrate the balance,
and should be placed near or against the beam support when the
measurement is made. The counterweight is adjusted to make the arm
horizontal when the glass slide is hung on the hook. A laser beam
is reflected off the mirror at the back of the lever arm to a
vertical ruler. The position of the laser beam on the ruler
records the angular displacement of the lever.

A dish of distilled water is raised by a small lab jack to to

immerse the bottom of the slide, and then lowered. As the liquid
surface falls away the surface tension in the liquid pulls the
ring down. The deflection of the lever at the moment before the
ring pops loose measures the downward force of the surface
tension. After the glass slide has popped loose from the liquid,
a small aluminum disk is slid along the arm until the deflection
is the same as it was just before the slide broke loose. The
measurements are made in the following steps:

1) Align the balance and the laser so the laser beam hits the
centimeter scale on the ruler, and the light moves up and down
 Lab #5 Surface Tension page 18

this scale when the balance is deflected. Place the dish of

distilled water on the lab jack and under the glass slide, so that
it can be raised up and immerse the slide. Hang the slide as
nearly level as possible with the liquid.

2) Measure the distance from the torsion wire to the slide

hanger, and the distance from the torsion wire to the aluminum
disk when it is next to the rod support (L1 and L2 in the figure
above). Record the mass of the disk, which is given.

3) Raise the dish until the slide is immersed, then lower

slowly, watching the laser beam on the ruler. Note to highest
point the beam reaches as the slide pops loose. This operation can
be repeated, and should give consistent results.

4) Lower the dish and move it away carefully. Slide the aluminum
disk along the lever until the laser beam is back to the point
where it was when the slide broke loose. The torque on the beam is
now presumably the same.

5) The surface tension is given by the following:

m = mass of aluminum slider in grams.

L1 = distance from torsion wire to slide hanger.
L2 = distance from torsion wire to aluminum disk when slide
was being pulled down.
L3 = distance from torsion wire to aluminum disk when the beam
deflection was the same as caused by surface tension.
The slides are 7.62 cm long (L) and 0.051 cm thick (t).
g = 980 cm/sec2

The surface tension is γ = mg(L3 - L2)/2(L + t)L1.