Lesson 1 - Leveling

Leveling - the process of finding the difference in elevation between two points by
measuring the vertical distance between the level surface through points.

Definition of Leveling Terms:

Horizontal line
Level line thru point A
(level surface)
A horizontal line
Difference in elevation between A and B
Level line thru point B B
(level surface)
Ground Surface

Elevation of Point B
Elevation of point A Vertical line
Vertical line thru Pt. B
Thru point A
Datum
(Mean Sea Level)

Where:

Level Surface - is a curved surface every element of which is normal to plumb line.
Level line - is a curved line in a level surface by which all parts are equidistant from the
earth center.
Horizontal line - is a straight line tangent to a level line.
Elevation - is a vertical distance above or below some arbitrarily assumed level surface or
datum.
Mean Sea Level - is the surface of the sea exactly midway between high and low tides.
Datum - is a surface of reference coincident or parallel with mean sea level to which all
elevations of a given region are referred.
Difference in elevation - is the vertical distance between an imaginary level surface
containing the high point and a similar surface containing the low point.

1
 WORKSHEET NO. 1
Definition of Leveling Terms

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
Define the following terms. Draw and indicate those terms in an illustration.
a. Level Surface b. Level Line c. Vertical Line
d. Horizontal Line e. Elevation f. Mean Sea Level
g. Datum h. Difference in Elevation i. Leveling

2
 Lesson 2 - Differential Leveling
The procedure of running a line of differential levels follows:
a. Select a reference bench mark and a suitable route to be taken to reach the other point whose
elevation is to be established.
b. After the instrument is set up and leveled take a reading on the rod held on the bench mark.
c. Compute the elevation of the line of sight (HI) by adding the backsight reading to the bench mark
elevation.
d. Transfer the rod on a solid point which is as far from the instrument as the bench mark is and in
the general direction in which to advance. Take a foresight on this rod. Designate this point as a
turning point and compute its elevation by subtracting the foresight from the height of instrument.
e. Move the instrument to a new location from which a sight can be taken to the turning point just
established, and which is advantageously located for sighting another turning point.
f. From this new sight set up take a backsight to the turning point just established. The new height of
instrument can now be computed in the same way as when a backsight was taken to the reference
benchmark. With the height of instrument known, the elevation of the second turning point is now
determined by taking a foresight to it.
g. Repeat the above process until a foresight is taken on the final point whose elevation is to be
determined.
Leveling rod

Horizontal line
BSD Level Station FSD
Level Station
BS
FS FS

BS TP
L-1
HI1 Elevation of TP BM-B
BM-A Elev.
Elevation of
of BM-A BMB
(Unknown)
Datum (Mean Sea Level)
Example 1:
Complete the differential level notes shown below and perform the customary
arithmetic check.
Station BS HI FS Elevation
BM-A 3.23 1533.67m
TP1 2.97 0.42
TP2 4.87 0.23
BM - B 0.96
Tabulated Solution:
Station BS HI FS Elevation
BM-A 3.23 1536.9 1533.67
TP1 2.97 1539.45 0.42 1536.48
TP2 4.87 1544.09 0.23 1539.22
BM-B 0.96 1543.13
∑BS = 11.07 ∑FS = 1.61
DE1 = ∑BS - ∑FS = 9.46m DE2 = Elev. of BM-B - Elev. of BM-A = 9.46
Since DE1 = DE2 the computation is correct.

3
 WORKSHEET NO. 2
Differential Leveling Terms

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
Define the following terms used in differential leveling. Draw and indicate those
terms in an illustration.
a. Bench Mark b. Backsight c. Foresight
d. Backsight Distance e. Foresight Distance f. Turning Point
g. Height of Instrument

4
 WORKSHEET NO. 3
Differential Leveling

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
Complete the differential level notes shown and perform the customary arithmetic
check. Show your computation.
Station BS HI FS Elevation
BM 230 2.37 3,466.27m.
TP1 2.95 3.42
TP2 3.86 1.87
TP3 3.99 3.40
TP4 2.30 2.10
TP5 1.34 3.10
TP6 1.67 1.89
TP7 2.35 2.60
BM 240 2.56

5
 WORKSHEET NO. 4
Differential Leveling (Double - Rodded Lines)

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
Complete the differential level notes shown below and perform the customary
arithmetic checks.
Station BS HI FS Elevation
BM-45 3.456 2546.76m.
3.466
TP -1L 4.244 1.697
TP-1H 4.253 1.769
TP -2L 4.452 2.423
TP-2H 4.533 2.589
TP-3L 4.921 1.223
TP-3H 4.954 1.457
TP - 4L 3.454 1.996
TP-4H 3.589 1.999
TP-5L 4.232 2.243
TP-5H 4.337 2.542
BM-46 2.861
2.978

6
Example 2
Complete the differential level notes shown below and perform the customary
arithmetic check.

Station Backsight HI Foresight Elevation

Hair Rdgs. Mean S Hair Rdgs. Mean S
BM-10 3.779 567.68
3.068
2.355
TP-1 9.134 3.664
7.941 2.951
6.748 2.238
TP-2 5.619 6.235
4.724 5.042
3.825 3.845
TP-3 8.499 4.757
6.871 3.860
5.245 2.965
TP-4 2.997 7.250
2.395 5.623
1.795 3.995
BM-11 5.225
4.626
4.025

Tabulated Solution:
Station Backsight HI Foresight Elevation
Hair Rdgs. Mean S Hair Rdgs. Mean S
BM-10 3.779 3.067 1.424 570.747 567.68
3.068
2.355
TP-1 9.134 7.941 2.386 575.737 3.664 2.951 1.426 567.796
7.941 2.951
6.748 2.238
TP-2 5.619 4.723 1.794 575.419 6.235 5.041 2.390 570.696
4.724 5.042
3.825 3.845
TP-3 8.499 6.872 3.254 578.43 4.757 3.861 1.792 571.558
6.871 3.860
5.245 2.965
TP-4 2.997 2.396 1.202 575.203 7.250 5.623 3.255 572.807
2.395 5.623
1.795 3.995
BM-11 5.225 4.625 1.200 570.578
4.626
4.025

7
 WORKSHEET NO. 5
Differential Leveling (Three-Wire Method)

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
Complete the differential level notes shown below and perform the customary
arithmetic checks.
Station Backsight HI Foresight Elevation
Hair Rdgs. Mean S Hair Rdgs. Mean S
BM-10 4.777 784.35m
4.064
3.353
TP-1 8.134 2.664
7.944 1.950
6.749 1.232
TP-2 6.629 5.335
5.734 4.142
4.835 2.945
TP-3 9.489 3.755
7.881 2.861
6.255 1.964
TP-4 3.996 8.252
3.375 6.625
2.695 4.997
BM-11 4.224
3.625
3.024

8
 Lesson 3 - Profile Leveling
A column for intermediate foresights (IFS) is usually added to the standard format in the
preparation of profile level notes. This is for intermediate radiation or side shots and is handled
exactly like foresights except that they are just intermediate shots along the way and not part of
the main circuit.
Example:
Complete the following set of profile level notes and show the customary arithmetic check.
Station BS HI IFS FS Elevation
BM-A 2.34 3524.76m
900+00 2.31
900+10 2.67
900+20 1.23
900+30 1.89
TP - 1 4.89 0.34
900+40 3.67
900+50 2.11
TP - 2 5.20 0.22
900+60 4.35
900+70 3.21
900+80 2.10
900+90 1.70
TP - 3 4.12 0.90
1000+00 4.56
1000 +10 3.45
1000 + 20 2.34
1000 + 30 4.70
1000 + 40 2.10
Tabulated Solution:
Station BS HI IFS FS Elevation
BM-A 2.34 3527.1 3524.76m
900+00 2.31 3524.79
900+10 2.67 3524.43
900+20 1.23 3525.87
900+30 1.89 3525.21
TP - 1 4.89 3531.65 0.34 3526.76
900+40 3.67 3527.98
900+50 2.11 3529.54
TP - 2 5.20 3536.63 0.22 3531.43
900+60 4.35 3532.28
900+70 3.21 3533.42
900+80 2.10 3534.53
900+90 1.70 3534.93
TP - 3 4.12 3539.85 0.90 3535.73
1000+00 4.56 3535.29
1000 +10 3.45 3536.40
1000 + 20 2.34 3537.51
1000 + 30 4.70 3535.15
1000 + 40 2.10 3537.75
∑BS = 16.55 ∑FS = 1.46
DE1 = ∑FS - ∑BS = 15.09m ; DE2 = Elev. Ref. BM - Last HI = 3524.76 - 3539.85 = 15.09m.
Since DE1 = DE2 the computation is correct.

9
 WORKSHEET NO. 6
Profile Leveling

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
Complete the following set of profile level notes and show the customary arithmetic check.
Station BS HI IFS FS Elevation
BM-A 4.32 3452.78m
600+00 3.32
600+10 1.87
600+20 4.22
600+30 2.99
TP - 1 3.79 0.24
600+40 3.67
600+50 2.11
TP - 2 3.90 0.22
600+60 3.95
600+70 3.81
600+80 3.50
600+90 2.70
TP - 3 4.32 0.60
700+00 3.56
700 +10 4.47
700 + 20 3.37
700 + 30 5.10
700 + 40 3.10

10
 Lesson 4 - Reciprocal Leveling
Reciprocal leveling is employed in topographic features such as rivers, lakes,
deep ravines and canyons using the method of reversion.
Example:
Reciprocal leveling were taken across a deep and wide river and between two
points BM 35 and BM 36 as follows: From the first instrument set up near BM 35: on
BM 35, 4.31, 4.34, 4.36 and 4.22 meters; on BM 36, 2.30, 2.35, 2.36 and 2.28 meters. For
the set up near BM 36 the readings are: on BM 36, 4.99, 4.90, 4.94 and 4.96 meters; on
BM 35, 6.89, 6.92, 6.96 and 6.93 meters. Determine the following:
a) The difference in elevation between the two bench marks.
b) The elevation of BM 36 if the elevation of BM 35 is 1345.64 meters.

Leveling rod Leveling rod

bm bm'
am' am
TDE = ? BM 36
BM 35

Elevation of BM 35 Elevation of BM 36

To datum To datum

Solution:
Mean rod reading (am) on BM 35 with set up near BM 35:
am = (4.31 + 4.34 + 4.36 + 4.22) / 4 = 4.31m

Mean rod reading (bm) on BM 36 with set up near BM 35:

bm = (2.30 + 2.35 + 2.36 + 2.28) / 4 = 2.32m

Mean rod reading (bm') on BM 36 with set up near BM 36:

bm' = (4.99 + 4.90 + 4.96 + 4.93) / 4 = 4.95m

Mean rod reading (am') on BM 35 with set up near BM 36:

am' = (6.89 + 6.92 + 6.96 + 6.93) / 4 = 6.92

DE1 = am - bm = 4.31 - 2.32 = 1.99m

DE2 = am' - bm' = 6.92 - 4.95 = 1.97m.

True difference in elevation (TDE) between the two bench marks:

TDE = (DE1 + DE2) / 2 = (1.99 + 1.97) / 2 = 1.98m.

Elevation of BM 36 = 1345.64 + 1.98 = 1347.62m.

11
 WORKSHEET NO. 7
Reciprocal Leveling

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

Reciprocal leveling were taken across a deep and wide river and between two
points BM 43 and BM 44 as follows: From the first instrument set up near BM 43: on
BM 43, 5.11, 5.14, 5.19 and 5.22 meters; on BM 44, 1.10, 1.15, 1.06 and 1.18 meters. For
the set up near BM 44 the readings are: on BM 44, 5.99, 5.82, 5.94 and 5.96 meters; on
BM 43, 6.87, 6.90, 6.94 and 6.83 meters. Determine the following:
c) The difference in elevation between the two bench marks.
d) The elevation of BM 44 if the elevation of BM 43 is 11335.67meters.

12
 Lesson 5 - Earths Curvature and Atmospheric Refraction
A Point of Tangency B Horizontal Line

C Line of Sight

Level Line

1. Curvature:
C = 0.667 M2 = 0.024(f/1000)2
Where:
C = is the curvature effect, in feet, of a level surface from horizontal line.
M = is the distance AB in miles
f = the same distance in feet.
2. Atmospheric Refraction:
R = 0.09 M2 = 0.003 (f/1000)2
Where:
R = is the refraction effect in feet
3. Combined Effect of Curvature and Refraction:
a) h'1 = 0.577M2 c) h'3 = 0.0671K2
2
b) h'2 = 0.021(f/1000) d) h'4= 0.0671(m/1000)2
Where:
M = distance of the object sighted from the point of tangency in miles.
f = same distance in feet
K = same distance in kilometers
m = same distance in meters
h'1 & h'2 = combined effect of curvature and refraction in feet
h'3 & h'4 = combined effect of curvature and refraction in meters
Example #1:
Determine the combined effect of the earth's curvature and mean atmospheric refraction in the following
distances: 500 ft, 3.0 miles, 250 meters, 10.0 kms.
Solution:
a) h' = 0.021(f/1000)2 = 0.021(500/1000)2 = 0.00525 ft.
b) h' = 0.577(M) 2 = 0.577(3.0) 2 = 5.193 ft.
c) h' = 0.0671 (m/1000) 2= 0.0671(250/1000) 2 = 0.00419 m.
d) h' 0.0671 (k) 2 = 0.0671(10) 2 = 6.71 m.
Example #2:
A woman standing on a beach can just see the top of a lighthouse 24.140 kms. Away. If her eye height above
sea level is 1.738 m., determine the height of the lighthouse above sea level.
Figure:
Woman on shore horizontal line point of tangency lighthouse

h'w

W K1
K2 L h'L =?
K

Solution:

hw' = 0.0671(K1)2 ; 1.738 = 0.0671(K1)2 ; K = 5.089 kms.

K2 = K - K1 = 24.140 - 5.089 = 19.051 kms.
h'L = 0.0671 (K2)2 = 0.0671(19.051)2 = 24.353 m.

13
 WORKSHEET NO. 8
Effects of Curvature and Refraction 1

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

Determine how far, in kms, out from shore an inter-island vessel will be when a
red light on its deck, 10.46 meters above the water, disappears from the sight of a child
standing on shore whose eye level is 1.32 meters above the water.

14
 WORKSHEET NO. 9
Effects of Curvature and Refraction 2

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

An observer standing on shore can just see the top of a lighthouse 15.0 miles
away. The eye height of the observer above sea level is 5.7 feet. What is the height of the
lighthouse above sea level?

15
 Lesson 6 - Direct or Spirit Leveling
Leveling Rod
Leveling Rod
Horizontal I Instrument
h'b
h'a Level Line Thru Point I

Hb hb

ha Ha Ground Surface L

H B

Level Line thru point A Elev.

A Level Line thru point BS of B
Elev. of A (known) (Unknown)

Difference in Elevation between A and B:

H = Ha - Hb = (ha - ha') - (hb - hb')
Where:
A = point of known elevation
B = point of unknown elevation
ha = rod reading on A
hb = rod reading on B
ha' = effect of curvature and atmospheric refraction for the horizontal distance from I to B.
hb' = effect of curvature and atmospheric refraction for the horizontal distance from I to B.
Ha = difference in elevation between A and I.
Hb = difference in elevation between B and I.
H = difference in elevation between A and B.
Example:
Two points A and B, are 1000 ft. apart. The elevation of A is 615.03 ft. A level is set up on
the line between A and B and at a distance of 250 ft. from A. The rod reading on A 1s 9.15 and that on B is
2.07 ft. Making due allowances for curvature and refraction, what is the elevation of B?

Horizontal line
h'A h'B hB=2.07
HB
hA=9.15' HA Ground Surface H B
L
A
AL = 250' AB = 1000' BL = 750 '

Solution:
hA = 9.15 ft. h B = 2.07 ft.
h' = 0.021(AL/1000) = 0.021(250/1000) = 0.0013 ft.
h' = 0.021(BL/1000) = 0.021(750/1000) = 0.0118 ft.
H = H - H = (h - h') - (h - h') = (9.15 - 0.0013) - (2.07 - 0.0118) = 7.09 ft.
Elev. B = Elev. A + H = 615.03 + 7.09 = 622.12 ft.

16
 WORKSHEET NO. 10
Effects of Curvature and Refraction 2

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

Two points, M and N are 259.146 meters apart and the elevation of M is
1963.28 meters. A level is set up on line and distant 76.219 meters from M in the
direction of N. The rod reading on M is 2.416 meters and on N is 3.416 meters.
a. Neglecting the effects of curvature and refraction, determine the difference in
elevation between the two points, and the elevation of point N.
b. Making due allowance for curvature and refraction, determine the difference in
elevation between the two points, and the elevation of point N.

17
 Lesson 7 - Trigonometric Leveling
Vertical (Plumb) Line Vertical (Plumb Line)

Level Line thru B B

hB
Line of Sight
C H Elev. of
h'B Point B
 (Unknown)
Level Line Thru A A D

Elev. of Point A (DATUM MSL)

(Known)
Horizontal Line
Where:
H = difference in elevation between A and B, (H = h B  hB')
hB = vertical distance of point B above or below the horizontal line thru A, (h B = AC Tan )
h'B = correction for curvature and refraction
 = Observed vertical angle (positive or negative) from A to B.
A = point of known elevation
B = point whose elevation is to be determined.

Example:
Two points A and B, are each distant 2,000 ft. from a third point C, from
which the measured vertical angle to A is +2321' and that to B is +1032'. What is the
difference in elevation between A and B. Level Line Thru A
Level Line Thru B
A
H Level Line Thru C

hA
HA A = +23 21' B = +10 32' hB
C HB
h'B
h'A
HBC = 2,000 ft.
HAC = 2,000 ft.

Solution:
hA = (HAC)Tan A = 2000 Tan (2321') = 863.41 ft.
hA' = 0.021(HAC/1000)2 = 0.021(2000/1000)2 = 0.08 ft.
hB = (HBC)Tan B = 2000Tan (1032') = 371.88 ft.
hB' = 0.021(HBC/1000)2 = 0.021(2000/1000)2 = 0.08 ft.
H = HA - HB = (hA + hA') - (hB + hB') = (863.41 + 0.08) - (371.88 + 0.08)
H = 491.53 ft.

18
 WORKSHEET NO. 11
Trigonometric or Indirect Leveling

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

Two points A and B are 4,134.50 meters apart. From a third point, C, on the
line between A and B, and 2,992.25 meters from A. The measured vertical angle to A is
+3528' and that to B is -1514'. What is the difference in elevation between A and B
making due allowance for the effect of curvature and atmospheric refraction?

19
 Lesson 8 - Borrow Pit
Volumes of Borrow-Pit Excavations:
V = A (h1 + h2 + h3 + h4)1/4
Where:
V = volume of square or rectangular truncated prism
A = area of the right or horizontal section, A = L(W)
h1, h2, h3, & h4 = the cuts or corner heights of the four corners of the prism.
V = A (h1 + h2 + h3)1/3
Where:
V = volume of a triangular truncated prism
A = area of the right or horizontal section, A =1/2 (b)h
h1, h2 & h3 = the cuts or corner heights of the three corners of the prism.

Example:
Determine the volume in cubic meters of the borrow-pit sketched below.
Corner heights are in meters.

3.2

5.0
A
4.7 5.4

5.0
B 15.0
C
5.2 6.2 3.9

D 5.0
E

3.8 4.7 3.3

4.0 4.0 4.0

12.0 M.
Solution:
VA = A(h1 + h2 + h3 )1/3 = 1/2 (4.0)(5.0)(3.2 + 5.4 + 4.7)1/3 = 44.34 cu.m.
VB = A(h1 + h2 + h3 + h4)1/4 = 4.0(5.0)(4.7 + 5.4 + 3.9 + 6.2)1/4 =101.0 cu.m.
VC = A(h1 + h2 + h3)/3 = 1/2 (4.0)(5.0)(4.7 + 6.2 + 5.2)1/3 =53.67 cu.m.
VD = A(h1 + h2 + h 3+ h4)1/4 = 4.0(5.0)(5.2 + 6.2 + 3.3 + 4.7)1/4 = 97.0 cu.m.
VE = A(h1 + h2 + h3)1/3 = 1/2 (4.0)(5.0)(5.2 + 4.7 + 3.8)1/3 = 45.67 cu.m.

V = VA + VB + VC + VD+ VE
V = 44.34 + 101.00 + 53.67 + 97.00 + 45.67 = 341.68 cu.m. say 342 cu.m.

20
 WORKSHEET NO. 12
Volumes of Borrow-Pit Excavation

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

Determine the volume in cubic meters of the borrow-pity sketched below.

Corner heights are in meters.

4.2

5.0
A
5.7 4.4

5.0
B 15.0
C
6.2 6.2 4.9

D 5.0
E

4.8 5.7 4.3

5.0 5.0 5.0

15.0 M.

21
Assembly of Prisms Method:
V = A (h1 + 2h2 + 3h3 + 4h4)1/4
Where:
V = volume of the excavation
A = area of one right or horizontal section in the assembly
h1 = sum of all heights applying to one square
h2 = sum of all heights common to two squares
h3= sum of all heights common to three squares
h4= sum of all heights common to four squares
Example:
Find the quantity in cubic meters of the borrow-pit given in the figure below. Corner heights (cuts)
indicated are in meters.
1 2 3 4 5

A
3.3 4.1 4.5 3.7
10.0

B
4.4 5.2 6.7 4.8
10.0

C 40.0 M
5.5 7.2 8.9 7.6
10.0

D
6.3 9.5 6.7 5.9 4.7

E
3.9 4.2 5.1 3.0 2.5
12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0

Tabulated Solution:
Corner h1 H2 H3 h4
A-1 3.3
A-2 4.1
A-3 4.5
A-4 3.7
B-1 4.4
B-2 5.2
B-3 6.7
B-4 4.8
C-1 5.5
C-2 7.2
C-3 8.9
C-4 7.6
D-1 6.3
D-2 9.5
D-3 6.7
D-4 5.9
D-5 4.7
E-1 3.9
E-2 4.2
E-3 5.1
E-4 3.0
E-5 2.5
Sums h1 = 18.1 h2 = 49.5 h3 = 5.9 h4 = 44.2
A = (12.0)(10.00) = 120.0 sq.m. Where: h 1 = heights applying to one rectangle.
V = A (h1 + 2h2 + 3h3 + 4h4)1/4 h2 = heights common to two rectangles
V = (120/4)[18.1 + (2)(49.5) + (3)(5.9) + (4)(44.2)] h 3 = heights common to three rectangles
V = 9,348 cubic meters h 4 = heights common to four rectangles

22
 WORKSHEET NO. 13
Trigonometric or Indirect Leveling

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

Find the quantity in cubic meters of the borrow-pit given in the figure below.
Corner heights (cuts) indicated are in meters.

1 2 3 4 5

A
4.3 5.1 6.5 3.7
9.0

B
3.4 6.2 5.7 3.8
9.0

C 36 M
4.5 6.2 7.9 7.6
9.0

D
5.3 7.5 5.7 7.9 4.7
9.0

E
4.9 5.2 6.1 4.0 3.5
11.0 11.0 11.0 11.0

23
 Lesson 9 - Principle in Stadia Measurement
Standard Symbols Used in Stadia Measurement:
f1 f2

stadia rod
A

Telescope of Instrument

b b'
I m Line of Sight s
A a'

c f B

C d
D

Plumb Line thru instrument center

Where:
f = focal length of the lens
f1 = image distance
f2 = object distance
i = distance or spacing between stadia hairs
c = distance from the center of the instrument to the center of the objective
lens.
C = Stadia constant or the distance from the center of the instrument to
Principal focus. C = c + f
d = distance from the focal point in front of the telescope to the face of the
Rod. d = (f/I)s
D = distance from the instrument center to the face of the rod.
D = d + (f + c) = (f/i)s + C = Ks + C
K = Stadia interval factor. K = f/I
S = Stadia or rod intercept.

24
Example 1
Determine the stadia interval factor of the instrument. Assume that the stadia
constant (C) is zero.
Point Distance from Stadia Hair Readings
transit to rod (m) Upper (m) Lower (m)
A 30 0.96 0.66
B 45 1.10 0.64
C 60 1.21 0.60
D 75 1.35 0.58
E 90 1.47 0.56
F 105 1.57 0.53
G 120 1.72 0.50
Figure:

1.72
1.47 1.57
0.96 1.10 1.21 1.35

0.66
0.64
0.60 0.58 0.56
0.53 0.50

a b c d e f g
30 m. 15 m. 15 m. 15 m. 15 m. 15 m. 15 m.

Solution:
Ka = da/sa= 30/(0.96-0.66) = 100.00
Kb = db/sb = 45/(1.10-0.64) = 97.83
Kc = dc/sc = 60/(1.21-0.60) = 98.36
Kd = dd/sd = 75/(1.35-0.58) = 97.40
Ke = de/se = 90/(1.47-0.56) = 98.90
Kf = df/sf = 105/(1.57-0.53) = 100.96
Kg = dg/sg = 120/(1.72-0.50) = 98.36

Ave. K = (Ka + Kb + Kc + Kd + Ke + Kf + Kg)/7

= (100.00 + 97.83 + 98.36 + 97.40 + 98.90 + 100.96 + 98.36)/7
Ave. K = 98.83

25
 WORKSHEET NO. 14
Stadia Interval Factor

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

A theodolite is set up at one end of a level base line 100.0m long. Stakes
marks the line at every 25.0 m. and a stadia rod is held at each stake. The stadia intercept
at each location of the rod is observed as follows: 0.298, 0.597, 0.894, 1.195 and 1.475
meters, respectively. Compute the stadia interval factor (K) for each distance and also
determine the average value of K.

26
Example 2
A dumpy level with an internal focusing telescope was set up on the left bank
of a river and the rod readings tabulated below were taken on a stadia rod held
successively at the left and right water edges. If the stadia interval factor of the
instrument is 100, determine the width of the river.

Rod Position Hair Readings

Upper (a) Middle (c) Lower (b)
Rod held at LWE 2.189m 2.172m 2.155m
Rod held at RWE 2.277 2.173 2.069

Figure:

Dumpy level (K=100, C=0) Stadia Rod held @ LWE Stadia Rod held @ RWE
a2

a1 c2
c1

b1 b2
Water Surface

Left Water Edge (LWE) Ri ght Water Edge (RWE)

Ground Surface Underwater

d1 Width of river (W)

d2

Solution:
S1 = (a1 - b1) = (2.189 - 2.155) = 0.034m
S2 = (a2 - b2) = (2.277 - 2.069) = 0.208m

d1 = ks1 + C = 100(0.034) + 0 = 3.4m

d2 = ks2 + C = 100(0.208) + 0 = 20.8m

W = d2 - d1 = 20.8 - 3.4 = 17.4m.

27
 WORKSHEET NO. 15
Horizontal Stadia Sights

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

An automatic level with an internal focusing telescope was set up somewhere

at mid-length of a long-span steel bridge. The rod readings tabulated below were
observed on a stadia rod held successively at the vicinity of the concrete abutments in the
southern and northern approaches of the bridge. If the stadia interval factor of the
instrument is 98.5, determine the length of the bridge.

Rod Position Hair Readings

Upper (a) Middle (c) Lower (b)
Rod at Southern Approach 2.98m 1.68m 0.38m
Rod at Northern Approach 3.54 2.02 0.49

28
 Lesson 10 - Inclined Stadia Sights

Stadia rod

ID
d a' a
P

c b b' RR
f
c N VD
o m F 
DE
i HD D
HI

M Instrument Station

Where:
K = Stadia Interval factor, K = f/I
a = upper stadia hair reading
b = lower stadia hair reading
P = horizontal cross hair reading or rod reading, P = RR
S = stadia interval, S = a-b
 = Observed Vertical Angle of elevation or depression.
C = Stadia constant of the instrument, C = c + f, Assume C = 0 for internal
focusing telescopes.
ID = The inclined or slope distance from the center of the instrument O to the
Horizontal cross hair reading at P. ID = Ks cos  + C
HD = The horizontal distance between the instrument and the rod.
HD = Ks Cos2 + C cos 
VD = The vertical distance between the telescope axis at O and the
Horizontal cross hair reading at P. VD = Ks cosSin + C sin
DE = the difference in elevation between the instrument station at M and the
Distant stadia point at N. DE = HI + VD - RR.

29
Example #1
The following data were obtained by stadia measurement: vertical angle = +1823', and
observed stadia intercept = 2.20 m. The stadia interval factor of the instrument used is 95.5 and C = 0.30m.
If the height of instrument is 1.62m, and the rod reading is taken at 1.95m, determine the following:
a) horizontal distance (HD) from the instrument set up at A to the rod held at point B.
b) Vertical Distance (VD) from the center of the instrument to the point of the rod bisected
by the horizontal cross hair.
c) Inclined or slope distance (ID) from the instrument center to the point on the rod bisected
by the horizontal cross hair.
d) Difference in elevation (DE) between the point over which the instrument is set up and
the point on which the rod was held.

Stadia rod

ID
d a' a
P

c b b' RR= 1.95m
f
K=95.5 c B VD
C=0.30m o m F  = 1823'
DE
i HD D
HI = 1.62m.

A Instrument Station

Solution:
HD = Ks Cos2 + C cos 
= 95.5(2.20)Cos2 (1823') + 0.30Cos(1823')
HD = 189.48m.

VD = Ks cosSin + C sin
= 95.5(2.20)Sin(1823')Cos(1823') + Sin(1823')
VD = 62.97m

ID = Ks Cos + C
= 95.5(2.20) Cos(1823') + 0.30
ID = 199.68m.
Check:
ID = (HD) 2 + (VD) 2 = (189.48) 2 + (62.97) 2 = 199.67m.

DE = HI + VD - RR
= 1.62 + 62.97 -1.95
DE = 62.64m.

30
 WORKSHEET NO. 16
Inclined Stadia Sights

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
The following data were obtained by stadia observations: vertical angle =
+925', upper stadia hair and lower stadia hair readings are 2.352m and 0.995m,
respectively. The stadia interval factor is known to be 99.0 and C is 0.381m. The height
of instrument above the instrument station (point A) is 1.496m and rod reading is taken at
1.598m. Determine the following:
a) horizontal, vertical and inclined distances by exact stadia formulas.
b) Elevation of the point sighted (point B) if the elevation of point A is
776.545m.
c) Difference in elevation between the two points.

31
Example #2
The upper and lower stadia hair readings on a stadia rod held at station B
were observed as 3.50 and 1.00m, respectively, with the use of a transit with an internal
focusing telescope and having a stadia interval factor of 99.5. The height of the
instrument above station A is 1.45m. and the rod reading is taken at 2.25m. If the vertical
angle observed is -2334', determine the following:
a) horizontal, vertical, and inclined stadia distances.
b) Difference in elevation between the two stations.
c) The elevation of station B, if the elevation of station A is 155.54m above
mean sea level.

Instrument Horizontal Line of Sight

K=99.5, C=0

HI=1.45  = -2334' ID
Line of Sight a=3.5 VD
A

DE
b=1.0 RR=2.25m
Elev. of A
155.54m. B
HD
Reqd. Elev.of B

Reference Datum (m.s.l)

Solution:
a) S = (a-b) = 3.50 - 1.00 = 2.50m.

HD = Ks Cos2 + C cos  = 99.5(2.50)cos2 (2334') = 208.99m.

VD = Ks cosSin + C sin = 99.5(2.50)sin(2334')cos(2334') = 91.16m

ID = (HD) 2 + (VD) 2 = (208.99) 2 + (91.16) 2 = 228.00m

b) DE = RR + VD - HI
DE = 2.25 + 91.16 -1.45 = 91.96m.

c) Elev. of B = Elev. of A - DE
= 155.54 - 91.96
Elev. of B = 63.58m.

32
 WORKSHEET NO. 17
Inclined Stadia Sights

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
A stadia interval of 1.325m is observed on a stadia rod held over a turning
point using an engineer's transit with a stadia interval factor of 98.5 and a stadia constant
of 0.300m. The elevation of the instrument station is 379.246m. and the height of
instrument above the station is 1.245m. If the rod reading is 1.649m. and the vertical
angle observed is -1517', determine the horizontal, vertical, and inclined distances by
exact stadia formulas. Also determine the difference in elevation between the turning
point and the instrument station.

33
Example #3
Given the following set of stadia level notes, the instrument used has a stadia interval factor of 100 and equipped
with an internal focusing telescope. Completye the tabulation and perform the customary arithmetic check.
Sta Backsight Foresight Change in Elev.
Intercept Vertical RR VD Intercept Vertical RR VD Elevation
(s) Angle() (s) Angle()
BMa 1.55 -525' 1.50 550.50m.
TP1 1.74 +815' 1.68 1.76 +1030' 1.48
TP2 0.95 -448' 1.77 1.98 +1208' 1.66
BMb 2.49 -1250' 2.53 1.06 722' 2.05
TP3 2.14 +1405' 1.79 2.67 -1532' 1.92
TP4 1.92 -941' 1.33 2.16 -759' 1.25
BMc 2.65 +732' 1.88
Stadia Rod

Level Line
Line of Sight

BMb BMc
TP2 DE3 DE4 TP3

DE2 DE6
DE1 TP1 DE5
Elev. BMb TP4
Elev. TP2 Elev. TP3 Elev. BMc
BMa Elev. TP1 Elev. TP4
Elev. BMa
Datum (m.s.l.)

Solution:
A) Computation of Vertical Distances on backsights and foresights using VD = Ks CosSin
Station Backsight Foresight
BMa VDbs= 100(1.55)cos525'sin525' = +14.57m.
TP1 VDbs = 100(1.74)(cos815')sin815' =-24.71m. VDfs=100(1.76)cos 1030' sin 1030' =+31.54m.
TP2 VDbs = 100(0.95)cos 448'sin 448' = +7.92m. VDfs = 100(1.98)cos128' sin128' =+53.93m.
BMb VDbs = 100(2.49)cos 1250'sin1250' = +53.93m. VDfs = 100(1.06)cos722'sin722' = +13.48m.
TP3 VDbs = 100(2.14)cos145'sin145' = -50.51m. VDfs = 100(2.67)cos1532'sin1532' = -68.89m.
TP4 VDbs = 100(1.92)cos941'sin941' = +31.83m. VDfs = 100(2.16)cos759'sin759' = -29.71m.
BMc VDfs = 100(2.65)cos732'sin732' = +34.44m.
b. Computing change in elevation between backsights c. Determining elevations of Turning Points and Bench Marks:
and foresights using CE = RRbs  VDbs  VDfs - RRfs Elev TP1 = Elev. BMa  CE1 = 550.50 + 46.13 = 596.63m.
CE1 = 1.50 + 14.57 + 31.54 -1.48 = +46.13 m. Elev TP2 = Elev. TP1  CE2 = 596.63 + 16.00 = 612.63m.
CE2 = 1.68 - 24.57 + 40.69 - 1.66 = +16.00 m. Elev BMb = Elev. TP2  CE3 = 612.63 + 21.12 = 633.75m
CE3 = 1.77 + 7.92 + 13.48 - 2.05 = +21.12m. Elev TP3 = Elev. BMb  CE4 = 633.75 - 14.35 = 619.40m
CE4 = 2.53 + 53.93 -68.89 - 1.92 = -14.35m. Elev TP4 = Elev. TP3  CE5 = 619.40 - 79.68 = 539.72m
CE5 = 1.79 - 50.51 - 29.71 - 1.25 = - 79.68m. Elev BMc = Elev. TP4  CE6 = 539.72 + 65.72 = 605.44m.
CE6 = 1.33 + 31.83 + 34.44 - 1.88 = +65.72m
Sta Backsight Foresight Change in Elev.
Intercept Vertical RR VD Intercept Vertical RR VD Elevation
(s) Angle() (s) Angle()
BMa 1.55 -525' 1.50 +14.57 550.50m.
TP1 1.74 +815' 1.68 -24.71 1.76 +1030' 1.48 +31.54 +46.13 596.63
TP2 0.95 -448' 1.77 +7.92 1.98 +1208' 1.66 +40.69 +16.00 612.63
BMb 2.49 -1250' 2.53 +53.93 1.06 722' 2.05 +13.48 +21.12 633.75
TP3 2.14 +1405' 1.79 -50.51 2.67 -1532' 1.92 -68.89 -14.35 619.40
TP4 1.92 -941' 1.33 +31.83 2.16 -759' 1.25 -29.71 -79.68 539.72
BMc 2.65 +732' 1.88 +34.44 +65.72 605.44
d) Arithmetic Check: DEb = 54.94
DEa = Elev. BMc - Elev. BMa = 605.44 - 550.50 = 54.94m. Note: Since DEa = DEb, the solution was assumed correct.

34
 WORKSHEET NO. 18
Stadia Leveling

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
Complete the stadia level notes shown below and perform an arithmetic
check. Assume K =100 and C = 0.0.

Station Backsight Foresight DE Elev.

S  RR VD S  RR VD (m) (m)
(m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
BM-10 1.245 -425' 2.42 1,552.35
TP-11 2.044 320' 1.08 1.515 818' 1.55
TP-12 1.720 -640' 1.46 1.438 -325' 3.06
TP-13 2.426 -915' 2.08 1.025 1005' 0.45
BM-14 1.326 422' 1.45

35
 WORKSHEET NO. 19
Stadia Leveling

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
Following are the notes for a line of stadia levels. The elevation of BM-15 is
184.29m. The stadia interval factor is 100.00 and C = 0.381m. Rod readings are taken at
height of instrument. Determine the elevations of remaining points and tabulate values
accordingly.

STA Backsight Foresight DE Elevation

S  VD S  VD (m) (m)
(m) (m) (m) (m)
BM-15 1.30 -140'
TP-16 0.87 -243' 0.97 228'
TP-17 1.01 055' 0.83 -406'
TP-18 0.69 210' 1.36 -036'
BM-20 0.94 825'

Lesson 11 - Subtense Bar Method

Subtense bar is a convenient and practical device used for quick and accurate
measurement of distances. The bar, which is precisely 2 meters long, consists of a round
steel tube through which runs a thin invar bar. At each end of the frame are housed the
target marks which are made of special transparent material for easy illumination when
used at night. The figure shows the principle of the subtense bar:
Left Target Mark X

Theodolite Subtense Bar 1.00

/2
 B 2.00
A

36
 1.00

Right Target Mark Y

Horizontal Distance (HD)

Tan (/2) = (XY/2)/(AB)

AB = (XY/2)/Tan(/2)
Since XY = 2.00m and HD = AB
HD = 1/Tan(/2)
Example 1:
A 2-meter long subtense bar was first set up at A and subsequently at B, and
the subtended angles to the bar, as read from a theodolite positioned somewhere along the
middle of line AB, were recorded as 44'32" and 52'12", respectively. Determine the
length of AB.
Figure:
Subtense bar theodolite subtense bar

a = 44'32" b = 52'12"

2.00 A B 2.00

da db

Dab

Solution:
da = 1/tan(a/2) = 1/tan(44'32"/2) = 154.39 m.
db = 1/tan(b/2) = 1/tan(52'12"/2) = 131.71 m.
Dab = da + db = 154.39 + 131.71 = 286.10 m.

WORKSHEET NO. 20
Subtense Bar Method

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

A subtense bar 2 meters long is set up near the middle of a traverse line MN.
At M, the angle subtended is 38'05", and at N the angle is 63'16". Find the length of MN.

37
Example 2
A traverse line AB is being measured by theodolite and subtense bar. At
station A, the horizontal axis of the theodolite is 1.48m. above the ground mark and the
horizontal angle subtended by a 2-meter subtense bar set up at station B is 42'18". The
subtense bar is 1.22m. above the ground mark and the vertical angle measured to it on the
theodolite is +1356'. Determine the length of the line AB and the difference in elevation
between the two ground station marks.

Figure:
Subtense bar 2.00m.
B'

HB=1.22
 = 42'18" VD

38
 A' B
 = +1356' DE
C
HI=1.48

A HD

Solution:
a) HD = 1/tan(/2) = 1/tan (42'18"/2) = 162.54 m.

b) From triangle A'B'C

tan  = VD/HD
VD = (HD) tan = (162.54)tan(1356') = 40.32m.

Solution check:
ID1 = HD/cos = 162.54/cos(1356') = 167.47m.
ID2 = (HD)2 + (VD)2 = (162.54)2 + (40.32)2 = 167.47m
Since ID = ID it is assumed that the solutions are correct.

c) DE + HB = VD + HI
DE = VD + HI - HB = 40.32 + 1.48 - 1.22 = 40.58m.

WORKSHEET NO. 21
Subtense Bar Method

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

A traverse is being measured by theodolite and subtense bar. At one station,

the theodolite axis is 1.36m above the ground mark and the horizontal angle subtended by
a 2-meter subtense bar placed at the second station is 42'48". The subtense bar is 1.23m.
above the grouind mark, and the vertical angle measured to it on the theodolite is
+2214'. Determine the horizontal and vertical distances between the two station marks.

39
 Lesson 12 - Plane Table Surveys
Plane table is an oldest type of surveying instrument consisting of board used as a drafting table for
plotting map details and ground contours while conducting field works. The board is attached to a tripod in such a way
that it can be leveled or rotated to any desired direction. The advantages of the plane table method are the following:
1. In the actual survey the map is plotted that requires only significant points or details to be located.
2. Stream banks, contours and other irregular lines are represented accurately since the terrain is
viewed as the outlines are plotted.
3. No need to use field notes since plotting is done in the field. This makes errors in recording and
plotting in the office avoided.
4. Checks on the plotted points are readily made in the field.
5. Since office work is reduced mapping is done in a shorter period.
Some disadvantages of the plane table method are the following:
1. More time is spent on the field.
2. Unsuited for heavily forested areas since plane table equipment and accessories are cumbersome.
3. To gain proficiency, considerable time is required.
4. For precise plane table work, horizontal and vertical control must be plotted in advance.
5. The clearance of lines of sight above possible obstruction were lower since the height of the plane
table is usually set lower than a transit.
6. Limited to relatively open country and only to favorable weather conditions
The stepping or interval method is used to determine differences in elevation when the slope of the
ground is so small that assumed the horizontal distance practically equal to inclined distance.

Example:
The plane table and alidade is set up at A and the rod is held at point B. First, the alidade is sighted at
the rod held at B, and the stadia interval is observed as 1.39 m. The line of sight of the alidade is then rotated in a
vertical plane until the telescope is level, and the position of the horizontal line of sight on some clearly defined object
on the ground is noted at 1. The telescope is raised until the lower stadia hair cuts 1, and the position of the upper stadia
hair on the ground is noted at 2. The telescope is again rotated about the horizontal axis until the lower stadia hair cuts
2, and the position of the upper stadia hair on the ground is now noted at 3. Finally, the telescope is rotated until the
lower stadia hair cuts 3, when the upper stadia hair is seen to intersect the rod at 4, which is at rod reading of 0.40 m. If
the height of the instrument is 1.35 m., what is the difference in elevation between points A and B.
Figure: level or stadia rod

S = 1.39 m.

RR = 0.40 m. B
3

Alidade
2

D.E. 1
Horizontal line of sight Plane Table
HI = 1.35m.

40
 A

Solution:
D.E. = 1.35 + 3(1.39) - 0.40 = 5.12 m.
Note:
Similar procedure is followed for negative vertical angles.
Stepping method is usually limited to inclination less than 2 degrees and where the number of steps does not exceed
three.

WORKSHEET NO. 22
Stepping Method in Plane Table Survey

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

When an alidade and a plane table were set up over a point the elevation of
The line of sight of the alidade was 406.29m. In order to determine the elevation of point
M, the stepping method was used. The interval intercepted between the stadia hairs on a
rod held on M was 1.95m. After the line of sight was elevated for five steps from the
horizontal line of sight, the rod reading at the horizontal cross hair was 2.62m. Determine
the elevation of point M.

41
 WORKSHEET NO. 23
Stepping Method in Plane Table Survey

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

In Worksheet No. 15, if the same values were observed but this time the line
of sight was instead depressed for five steps from the horizontal line of sight, determine
the elevation of point M.

42
 Lesson 13 - Radiation by Plane Table
Radiation is one of the most common methods in plane table survey where a
series of points are located in relation to the plotted position of the table. In the figure, the
plane table is shown in position over station N. The plotted location of the plane table is
indicated at n on the plane table sheet. The alidade is pivoted at this point and while
sights are taken at points A, B and C, rays are drawn. With the distances plotted to scale
along the corresponding rays, points a, b and c are located on the map. HI above the
datum is determined by adding the measured distance from the ground to the telescope
axis of the alidade to the elevation of the ground station. From these quantities, the
corresponding elevations of all other points sighted can be determined and indicated on
the map.

Figure:
A

N n

b c

43
 WORKSHEET NO. 24
Radiation With Plane Table

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
A series of points are to be located by the principle of radiation using a plane table and an alidade set up
over a control station whose elevation is 147.75m. above mean sea level. The height of the instrument's line of sight
above the occupied station is 1.22m. The value of K is 100 and C = 0. The observed data are shown in the
accompanying tabulation. Plot the six points sighted and determine their respective elevations.

point Hair Readings Vertical Azimuth Horizontal Elevation

upper Middle lower angle from south distance
10 2.02 1.62 1.22 +215' 10044'
11 1.88 1.28 0.68 +1618' 17536'
12 3.25 2.45 1.65 -1206' 20430'
13 3.43 2.73 2.03 +554' 22718'
14 2.54 1.94 1.34 -733' 32007'
15 2.38 1.88 1.38 +1604' 1525'

44
 Lesson 14 - Map
Map - a graphic representation of all portion of the earth's surface or other celestial body, by means of signs and
symbols or photographic imagery at some given scale or projection, to which lettering is added for identification.
Classification of Maps
1. Topographic Map - is a representation of the earth's surface in three dimensions.
2. Planimetric Map - is a representation of the earth's surface in the two horizontal dimensions only.
3. Computer-Generated Maps - Computer graphics system is used in the production of maps.
4. Photomaps - It is a reproduction of an aerial photgraph on which grid lines, contours, boundaries,
placenames and marginal information have been added or overprinted.
Map Scales
Scales refers to the relationship which the distance between any two points on the map bears to the
corresponding distance on the ground. Map scales are classified as a) Large- Scale Maps having scales of 1: 2000 or
larger and with contour intervals ranging fro 0.10 to 2.0 meters, b) Medium Scale Maps having scales ranging from
1:2,000 to 1: 10,000 and with contour intervals ranging from 1.0 to 5.0 meters, c) Small-Scale Maps having scales of 1:
10,000 or smaller and with contour intervals ranging from 5 to 2,000 meters. Map scales are portrayed by:
a) Words and figures or an equivalence
Examples:
1 inch = 1 mile
1 centimeter = 1 kilometer
3 inches = 200 feet
b) By scale ratio or representative fraction - the scale of a map can be expressed in ratio such as 1: 5,000
or as a fraction such as 1/5000. A fraction indicating a scale is termed the representative fraction (RF) or scale ratio
(SR).
SR = MD/GD Where: MD = the map distance or the scaled distance between any
two selected points on the map.
GD = the corresponding distance on the ground.
c) Graphically.

Example:
1 1/2 0 1 2 3 Mile

Common Map Scales and their equivalents:

Map Scale One inch represents One Centimeters One Mile is One Kilometer is
represents represented by represented by
1: 2,000 56 yards 20 meters 31.68 inches 50.0 cm.
1: 5,000 139 yards 50 meters 12.67 inches 20.0 cm
1: 10,000 0.158 mile 0.1 km 6.34 inches 10.0 cm.
1: 20,000 0.316 mile 0.2 km 3.17 inches 5.0 cm.
1: 25,000 0.395 mile 0.25 km. 2.53 inches 4.0 cm.
1: 50,000 0.789 mile 0.50 km. 1.27 inches 2.0 cm.
1: 75,000 1.18 miles 0.75 km. 0.845 inch 1.33 cm.
1: 100,000 1.58 miles 1.0 km. 0.634 inch 1.0 cm.
1: 125,000 1.97 miles 1.25 km. 0.507 inch 8.0 mm
1: 250,000 3.95 miles 2.50 km. 0.253 inch 4.0 mm
1: 500,000 7.89 mile 5.0 km 0.127 inch 2.0 mm

45
1: 1,000,000 15.78 miles 10.0 km. 0.063 inch 1.0 mm

Example #1
Determine the scale of a sketch wherein one centimeter represents one hundred
meters on the ground.

SR = MD/GD = 1cm/ (100cm)(100cm/1m) = 1/10,000

Example # 2
If the equivalence scale of a map is 5 cm = 10 km, what is the scale ratio?

SR = MD/GD = 5cm/(10km)(1,000m/1km)(100m/1m) = 5/1,000,000 = 1/200,000

Example #3
The ground distance between two points on a map is 4 kilometers. If the distance
between the same two points on a map is 8 centimeters, determine the scale of the map.

SR = MD/GD = 8cm/(4km)(1,000m/1km)(100cm/1m) = 8/400,000 = 1/50,000

Example #4
On a map with a scale of 1 cm = 3,000m, the measured length of a power
transmission line is 5.25 cm. What is the equivalent ground length of the line?

GD = MD/SR = 1cm/(3,000m)(100cm/1m) = 5.25(3,000)(100)cm = 1,575,000 cm =

15,750 m.

Example #5
On a map with a scale of 1cm = 250 m, the measured length of an irrigation canal is
0.20m. Determine the equivalent ground length of the canal in kilometers.

GD = MD/SR = (0.20m)(100cm/1m)/(1cm/250m) = (250)(0.20)(100)m = 5,000m or

5 km.

Example #6
On a map of scale 1:75,000 the map distance measured between points A and B is
5.0 cm. Determine the scale of a sketch of the same area in which drawn distance between the
same points measured 12.5 cm.

For the map:

GDm = MDm/SRm = 5cm/(1/75,000) = 375,000cm

For the sketch:

GDs = MDs/SRs = 12.5cm/SRs

46
 Since ground distances are equal for both map and sketch:
GDm = GDs
375,000cm = (12.5cm/SR)
SR = 12.5/375,000 = 1/30,000

WORKSHEET NO. 25
Map Scales

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

The ground distance between two points is 25km. If the distance between the
same two points on topographic map is 50mm, determine the scale of the map.

47
 WORKSHEET NO. 26
Scale Ratio

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

The measured ground distance between two points is 3,525.65 m. If the

corresponding distance between the two points on a map is 2.35 cm, determine the scale
of the map.

48
 WORKSHEET NO. 27
Equivalence Scales

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

On a map with a scale of 1cm = 150m, the measured length of a concrete

fence is 0.20m. Determine the equivalent ground length in kilometers.

49
 WORKSHEET NO. 28
Determining Unknown Scale

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

On a map of scale 1:25,000, the map distance measured between points X and
Y is 32.750cm. Determine the scale of a sketch of the same area in which the drawn
distance between the same points measures 10.916 cm.

50
 WORKSHEET NO. 29
Dimensions From Maps

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

Compute the approximate are, in square meters, of a rectangular shaped tract

of land whose sides measure 29.67mm by 64.19mm on a map drawn to a scale of
1:25,000.

Lesson 15 - Topographic Surveys

Contour Line Representation of Terrain:

40

30

20

10

0
Elevation or Section Thru Line AB

10

51
 20 20

A 30 30 B

Index contour

Intermediate
contour

Plan or Outline of the Hill Represented by Contour Lines

Types of Contours
1) Index contour - this is presented by a heavier line at regular intervals in order to provide a
convenience in scaling elevations and to ease and speed in reading contours.
2) Intermediate contour - This is presented by lighter lines found between the index contours, not
usually labeled except where the terrain is relatively flat and their elevations are not readily obvious.
3) Depression Contour - This is drawn to show low spots such as excavations around which contours
close.
4) Supplemental Contours - They are drawn as dashed lines to show properly important breaks in the
terrain.
5) Approximate Contours - If contour accuracy cannot be definitely determined, the map maker has to
make an educated guess rather than have a blank area in the map.

Contour Interval for Different Map Scales:

Scale Interval Scale Interval
1/500 0.50m 1/25,000 10m
1/2,000 1 1/50,000 20m
1/5,000 2 1/100,000 25
1/10,000 5 or 10 1/250,000 50
Characteristics of Contours:
1. All points on any one contour have the same elevation.
2. Every contour closes on itself either within or beyond the limits of the map.
3. A contour that closes within the limits of the map indicates either a summit or depression.
4. Contours on the ground cannot cross one another except where an overhanging cliff, a vertical ledge or wall
is represented on a map.
5. Contours are spaced evenly on a uniform slope.
6. Contours are straight and parallel to each other on a plane surface.
7. Irregular contours signify rough, rugged terrain.
8. The horizontal distance between adjacent contours indicates the steepness of the slope of the ground.
9. Contours cross curbs and a crowned sloping street in typical U-shaped curves.
10. As a contour approaches a stream, the contour turns upstream until it intersects the shoreline.
Locating Contour Lines by Interpolation:
The methods included in locating contour lines by interpolation are the following:

52
 a) by estimation - this method is suitable on small-scale maps where the ground form is not
too irregular.
b) Rubber band method - the rubber band is stretched between two plotted points so that
these points fall at scale divisions corresponding to their elevations.
c) Triangle and scale method - This method by which the engineer' scale and triangle are
used provides an accurate and rapid procedure for interpolating contour lines in which
mathematical computation is eliminated.
d) Template method - Contour template, consists of a series of equally spaced parallel lines
that are drawn on transparent film or paper, allow many interpolations to be made
quickly and accurately.
e) Analytical method - Arithmetical computations is well suited if high accuracy is desired
in drawing large scale maps.

By Similar Triangles:
hm/de = H/DE B
hm = (de/DE)(H)

Ground Surface (Uniform Slope)

M
DE

De Elevb

Hm Elev m

Eleva H

Datum (m.s.l.)

Where:
A & B = established points on the ground of known elevation.
M = a point on a contour crossing the lie between A and B.
hm = horizontal map distance from A to M. (cm)
de = difference in elevation between M and A (m).
DE = difference in elevation between A and B (m).
H = horizontal map distance between A and B (cm).

Example #1
The map distance between two benchmarks, A and B, is 15 cm. and their
elevations above sea level are 850.50m and 939.60m, respectively. Assuming uniformity
of slope between A and B, calculate the map distance from A where each of the
following contours will cross the line between the two benchmarks: 860, 880, 900, and
920m:
Figure:

h4 Elev = 939.60m

h3 B
4
3
h2

53
 2 de 4 DE
h1 de3
de2
1
de1
A
Elev. 850.50m
H = 15 cm

Solution:
a) Difference in elevation:
DE = elevb - eleva = 939.60 - 850.50 = 89.10m.
de1 = elev1 - eleva = 860.00 - 850.50 = 9.50m
de2 = elev2 - eleva = 880.00 - 850.50 = 29.50m
de3 = elev3 - eleva = 900.00 -850.50 = 49.50m
de4 = elev4 - eleva = 920.00 - 850.50 = 69.50m

b) Horizontal distance of contours from A:

h1 = (de1/DE)H = (9.50/89.10)(15) =1.599 say 1.6cm.
h2 = (de2/DE)H = (29.50/89.10)(15) = 4.966 say 5.0cm.
h3 = (de3/DE)H = (49.50/89.10)(15) = 8.333 say 8.3cm
h4 = (de4/DE)H = (69.50/89.10)(15) = 11.70 say 11.7cm.

WORKSHEET NO. 30
Interpolating Contours Analytically

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

On a map the scaled distance between points A and B is 15.45 cm, and the
given elevation of the two points are 815.26m and 836.45m, respectively. Assuming
uniformity of slope between the two points, calculate the distance from point A on the
map where each of the following contour lines will cross the line joining the two points:
820, 825, 830, and 835m.

54
 WORKSHEET NO. 31
Interpolating Contours Graphically

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
The accompanying tabulation gives elevations of points over the ares of a 30m by 40m city lot. The
elevations were obtained by the Checkerboard Method using 10-m squares. Point A-1 is located at the northwest corner
of the lot and point E-4 at the southeast corner. All elevations are in meters.
Point 1 2 3 4
A 878.8 882.5 883.5 883.6
B 883.2 885.9 893.7 887.2
C 882.8 888.6 891.8 889.3
D 882.5 890.4 892.6 889.5
E 883.2 888.5 892.8 893.6

Requirements:
a) Plot the contours using a horizontal scale of 6cm = 10m and a contour interval of 1 meter.
b) Arrange the plotting paper so that the longer side is vertical (Use 81/2" by 11" bond paper)

55
 c) All corner designations and corresponding elevations must be indicated, including all vertical and
horizontal lines.
d) Show the direction of north and indicate the scale used.
e) Indicate the elevations of the following index contours: 880, 885, 890, and 895m. The thickness of
the index contours must be drawn about twice the thickness of intermediate contours.
f) Use a pencil for the initial plot and ink the final plot using a technical pen.

WORKSHEET NO. 32
Slopes From Contours

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

On a map of scale 1cm = 50m with a contour interval of 1.5m, two adjacent
contour lines are 1.37cm apart. What is the slope of the ground in percent?

56
 Lesson 16 - Control Surveys
Adjustment of A Chain of Triangles.
The adjustment of triangulation data may be undertaken by the exact method called the method of least
squares which is based upon the theory of probability and the Approximate method which is a simple and convenient
method used for adjusting the angles and sides of triangulation systems which are of lower order of precision.
Example #1
For the given chain of triangles shown in the accompanying figure and tabulation, perform station and
figure adjustment by the approximate method.

j
a q
A D F
b m l k r
c

g
p

57
 e f h o
d B C E
I h

Tabulation Data:
Angle Observed value Angle Observed Value
A 24021'00" J 18909'51"
B 6029'10" K 3905'01"
C 5910'05" L 7140'02"
D 30134'49" M 6005'10"
E 5825'15" N 24935'30"
F 6225'10" O 4510'20"
G 5925'10" P 6514'10"
H 6310'08" Q 28419'47"
I 17459'24" R 7540'19"
Tabulated Solution for station adjustment:
Station Angle Observed Value Correction Adjusted Value
A A 24021'00" -05" 24020'55"
B 6029'10" -05" 6029'05"
C 5910'05" -05" 5910'00"
Sum 36000'05" -15" 36000'00"
B D 30134'49" -02" 30134'47"
E 5825'15" -02" 5825'13"
Sum 36000'04" -04" 36000'00"
C F 6225'10" +02" 6225'12"
G 5925'10" +02" 5925'12"
H 6310'08" +02" 6310'10"
I 17459'24" +02" 17459'26"
Sum 35959'52" +08" 36000'00"
D J 18909'51" -01" 18909'50"
K 3905'01" -01" 3905'00"
L 7140'02" -01" 7140'01"
M 6005'10" -01" 6005'09"
Sum 36000'04" -04" 36000'00"
E N 24935'30" 00" 24935'30"
O 4510'20" 00" 4510'20"
P 6514'10" 00" 6514'10"
Sum 36000'00" 00" 36000'00"
F Q 28419'47" -03" 28419'44"
R 7540'19" -03" 7540'16"
Sum 36000'06" -06" 36000'00"
Tabulated Solution for Figure Adjustment:

Triangle Angle Angles From Correction Value After

Station Figure
Adjustment Adjustment
ABC C 5910'00" -08" 5909'52"
D 5825'13" -08" 5825'05"
E 6225'12" -09" 6225'03"
Sum 18000'25" -25" 18000'00"
ACD B 6029'05" +12" 6029'17"
G 5925'12" +11" 5925'23"
M 6005'09" +11" 6005'20"
Sum 17959'26" +34" 18000'00"
CDE H 6310'10" -10" 6310'00"

58
 L 7140'01" -11" 7139'50"
O 4510'20" -10" 4510'10"
Sum 18000'31" -31" 18000'00"
DEF K 3905'00" +11" 3905'11"
P 6514'10" +11 6514'21"
R 7540'16" +12" 7540'28"
Sum 17959'26" +34" 18000'00"

WORKSHEET NO. 33
Adjustment of A Chain of Triangles

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

Given in the tabulation are the observed angles of a chain of triangles as

shown in the accompanying sketch. Perform station and figure adjustments using the
approximate method.
a A

b D j

c
B

59
 f
d
e

g C i
n

E l

Angle Measured Value Angle Measured Value

a 3120'24" H 6653'30"
b 4759'40" I 5210'20"
c 13710'29" J 28900'30"
d 5702'42" K 7059'30"
e 10040'25" L 28043'58"
f 6506'20" M 2718'12"
g 24105'13" N 5157'53"

Lesson 17 - Adjustment of Quadrilateral

The following sequence of steps are performed in the adjustment of a quadrilateral:

1) The angles about each station are adjusted to total 360 degrees before the next adjustment is made.
2) The sum of the interior angles of the quadrilateral is adjusted to equal (n-2)180 or 360 degrees.
3) The opposite angles at the intersection of the diagonals should be equal.
4) The trigonometric condition is satisfied by means of computations involving the sines of the angles. The
angles are adjusted so that the computed length of an unknown side opposite a known side will be the same
regardless of which of the four possible routes is used.

C
d
B
c e
b

A h

60
 f
g
D

Angle Condition Equations:

From Overlapping Triangles ABC, BCD, ABD, and ACD:
a + b + c + d = 180
c + d + e + f = 180
a + b + g + h = 180
e + f + g + h = 180
From the quadrilateral ABCD:
a + b + c + d + e + f + g + h = (n-2)180 = 360 , since n = 4
Considering the opposite angles at the intersection of the diagonals:
a+b=e+f
c+d=g+h
Corrections to the angles:
v1 = v2 = (1/4)I1 - (1/4)[I2 - (1/2)I3 - (1/2)I1]
v3 = v4 = (1/4)I1 + (1/4)[I2 - (1/2)I3 - (1/2)I1]
v5 = v6 = (1/4)I3 + (1/4)[I2 - (1/2)I3 - (1/2)I1]
v7 = v8 = (1/4)I3 - (1/4)[I2 - (1/2)I3 - (1/2)I1]
Where v1, v2, etc., are corrections to be determined for angles a, b, etc., and I1, I2, and I3 are the errors of
closure of the triangles.

Side Condition Equations:

CD = (AB)(sin b)( sin h)/(sin e)(sin g)
CD = (AB)(sin a)(sin c)/(sin d)(sin f)

(Sin a)(Sin c)(Sin e)(Sin g)/(Sin b)(Sin d)(Sin f)(Sin h) = 1

Considering the logarithms of both members of the equations:

(Log Sin a + Log Sin c + Log Sin e + Log Sin g) - Log Sin b + Log Sin d + Log Sin f + Log Sin h = 0

Example #1
The observed angles of a quadrilateral, after station adjustment, are given in the accompanying tabulation and sketch.
Adjust these angles by use of both the angle and the side equations.
Angle Observed Value Angle Observed Value
A 4238'36" E 6200'46"
B 6452'28" F 4529'58"
C 4032'57" G 3331'32"
D 3156'07" H 3857'40"

C
B d e
c Where:
b A, B, C, and D are triangulation stations
of the quadrilateral ABCD and the
observed angles are a, b, c, d, and etc.

a h f
A g
D
Solution:
a) Sum of angles:
For triangle ABC = a + b + c + d = 4238'36" + 6452'28" + 4032'57" + 3156'07" = 18000'08"

61
 d1 = 180 - (a + b + c + d) = 180 - 18000'08" = -08"
For triangle BCD = c + d + e + f = 4032'57" + 3156'07" + 6200'46" + 4529'58" = 17959'48"
d2 = 180 - (c + d + e + f) = 180 - 17959'48" = +12"
For triangle CDA = e + f + g + h = 6200'46" + 4529'58" + 3331'32" + 3857'40" = 17959'56"
d4 = 180 - ( e + f + g + h) = 180 - 17959'56" = +04"
b) Determining the values of corrections:
k = (1/4)[d2 - d3/2 - d1/2] = d2/4 -d3/8 -d1/8 = (+12"/4) - (+04"/8) - (-08"/8) = 3.5"
v1 = v2 = d1/4 - k = (-08"/4) - 3.5" = -5.5"
v3 = v4 = d1/4 + k = (-08"/4) + 3.5" = +1.5"
v5 = v6 = d3/4 + k = (+04"/4) + 3.5" = +4.5"
v7 = v8 = d3/4 - k = (+04"/4) - 3.5" = -2.5"
c) Applying corrections to the angles:
a' = a  v1 = 4238'36" - 5.5" = 4238'30.5" e' = e  v5 = 6200'46" + 4.5" = 6200'50.5"
b' = b  v2 = 6452'28" - 5.5" = 6452'22.5" f'' = f  v6 = 4529'58" + 4.5" = 4530'02.5"
c' = c  v3 = 4032'57" + 1.5" = 4032'58.5" g' = g  v7 = 3331'32" - 2.5" = 3331'29.5"
d' = d  v4 = 3156'07" + 1.5" = 3156'08.5" h' = h  v8 = 3857'40" - 2.5" = 3857'37.5"

d) Side Adjustment
Angle Log sine Tabular diff. For I" Angle Log sine Tabular difference
for I"
a' 9.830853449 22.86 b' 9.956825228 9.87
c' 9.812984077 24.61 d' 9.723428685 33.78
e' 9.945991446 11.19 f' 9.853247226 20.70
g' 9.742174071 31.78 h' 9.798501028 26.04
sums 9.332003043 90.44 9.332002167 90.39
Diff. = 304.3 - 216.7 = 87.6
Corr. = diff./(sum1+ sum2 = 87.6/(90.44 + 90.39) = 0.48"
Notes:
1) The tabular difference for I" is taken from logarithmic tables for trigonometric functions or by use of electronic calculator.
2) The correction is then added to each of the angles whose log sine is smaller, and added from each of the other angles.
e) The final adjusted Angles:
Angle First Adjusted Value Corr. Finally adjusted value
a 4238'30.5" +0.48" 4238'30.98"
b 6452'22.5" -0.48" 6452'22.02"
c 4032'58.5" +0.48 4032'58.98"
d 3156'08.5" -0.48" 3156'08.02"
e 6200'50.5" +0.48" 6200'50.98"
f 4530'02.5" -0.48" 4530'02.02"
g 3331'29.5" +0.48" 3331'29.98"
h 3857'37.5" -0.48" 3857'37.02"
sums 36000'00" 36000'00"

WORKSHEET NO. 34
Adjustment of A Quadrilateral

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
The observed angles of a quadrilateral are given in the accompanying tabulation and sketch. Adjust the
angles about each station by the approximate method.

i D
k
C g j

62
 a e
b d B f
c A
base line

Angle Observed value Angle Observed value

a 5721'10" G 3001'55"
b 3137'05" H 7115'05"
c 27101'30" I 25842'45"
d 2222'00" J 6800'00"
e 5731'25" K 2150'30"
f 28006'50" L 27009'30"

Lesson 18 - Strength of Figure

Expressions For Determining Strength of Figure:
R = [(D - C)/D][2A + AB + 2B] = (F)(2A + AB + 2B)
Where:
R = Relative strength of figure.
D = Number of directions observed (forward and back), not including the fixed or known side of a
given figure.
F = A factor for computing strength of figure = (D - C)/D
A, B = Tabular difference for I second, expressed in units of the sixth decimal place, corresponding to
angles A and B of a triangle.
( +  + ) = The summation of values for particular chain of triangle through which the
computation is carried from the known line to the line required.
C = Number of geometric conditions to be satisfied in a given figure.
C = (n' - s' +1) + (n - 2s + 3)
Where:
n' = Number of lines observed in both directions, including the fixed or known side of a given figure.
s' = Number of occupied stations.
n = Total number of lines in figure, including fixed or known line.
s = Total number of stations.
Example #1
Determine the strength of figure factors of the following:

63
 a) Single Triangle:
D=4 C = (n' - s' + 1) + (n - 2s + 3)
n' = 3 C = (3 - 3 + 1) + [3 - 2(3) + 3)
Known line B s' = 3 C=1
n=3 F = (D -C)/D = (4 -1)/4 = 0.75
s=3

C
A

b) Completed Quadrilateral
D =10
D n' = 6 C = (n' -s' + 1) + [n -2s +3]
s' = 4 C = (6 - 4 + 1) + [6 - 2(4) + 3]
C n=6 C=4
s =4
F = (D - C)/D = (10 - 4)/10 = 0.60

A
Known line B

c) Triangle with interior station

D = 10 C = (n' - s' + 1) + (n - 2s + 3)
n' = 6 C = (6 - 4 + 1) + [6 - 2(4) +3]
B s' = 4 C=4
n=6
Known line D s=4 F = (D - C)/D = (10 - 4)/10 = 0.60
C

A central point

WORKSHEET NO. 35
Strength of Figure Factors

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
Given the accompanying six-sided central-point figure with one diagonal JM. The triangulation stations are I, J, K
, L, M, N, and O. The known side is IJ. If all the stations were occupied and all lines, including the diagonal were
observed in both directions, determine the following strength of figure factors: C, D, and F.

K
I

64
 L

Example 2
Given the quadrilateral ABCD in the accompanying figure and assume that the observed interior angles
have already been subjected to station and figure adjustment. If all triangulation stations were occupied and all
lines observed in both directions, determine the following:
a) Strength of figure factors
b) Distance angles and the equations for determining the length of CD by different routes.
c) Strength of figure for each chain of triangles.
d) Length of the check base CD using the strongest route if the base line AB is 1,586.85m.
Figure: check base
D
C 40 36 53

47
43 B
40 37
A Base line
Solution:
a) Determining strength of figure factors:
n' = 6 C = (n' - s' + 1) + (n -2s + 3)
s' = 4 C = (6 - 4 + 1) + [6 - (2)(4) + 3]
n=6 C=4
s=4

65
 D = 10 F = (D - C)/D = (10 - 4)/10 = 0.60
b) Determining distance angles and length of CD by different routes:
Considering triangles ABC and ACD with AC as the common side: CD = (AB)(sin43)(Sin 40)/(sin 60)(sin36)
Considering triangles ABD and ACD with AD as the common side: CD = (AB)(sin90)(sin40)/(sin53)(sin104)
Considering triangles ABC and BCD with BC as the common side: CD = (AB)(sin77)(sin47)/(sin60)(sin89)
Considering triangles ABC and BCD with BD as the common side: CD = (AB)(sin37)(sin47)/(sin53)(sin44)
c) Determining strength of figure for each chain of triangles:
1) Consider triangles ABC and ACD with AC as the common side:
For distance angles 43 and 60 of triangle ABC the value of X is interpolated as follows:
5 3 40 -------11 a 2 a/3 = 2/5 [A2 + AB + 2B] = X +Y
43 -------X a = 1.2 = 9.8 + 22.2
45 --------9 X = 11 - a =11 - 1.2 = 32
X = 9.8 R = [(D - C)/D]( +AB +2B)
For distance angles 36 and 40 of triangle ACD the value of Y is = F(X +Y)
interpolated as follows: b/1 =4/5 = 0.60(32)
5 1 35 23 b 4 b =0.8 R = 19.20
36 Y Y = 23 - b = 23 -0.8
40 19 Y = 22.2
2) Consider triangles ABD and ACD with AD as the common side and using the same procedure of computation in 1): X = 2.4,
Y = 5.2, and R = 4.56
3) Consider triangles ABC and BCD with BC as the common side and using the same procedure of computation in 1): X = 2.0,
Y = 3.7, and R = 3.42
4) Consider triangles ABD and BCD with BD as the common side and using the same procedure of computation in 1): X = 15.2,
Y = 12.8, and R = 16.80
Tabulation of Data
Quadrilateral Chain of triangles Common sides Dist 2A + AB + 2B Relative Strength
angles Each Summation of Figure ( R )
ABC AC 43; 60 9.8 32.0 19.20
ABCD ACD 36 ; 40 22.2
ABD AD 53 ; 90 2.4 7.6 4.56
ACD 40 ; 104 5.2
ABC BC 60 ; 77 2.0 5.7 3.42
BCD 47 ; 89 3.7
ABD BD 37 ; 53 15.2 28.0 16.80
BCD 44 ; 47 12.8

d) Determining length of CD using the strongest route.

Triangle ABC and BCD with BC as the common side provides the strongest chain. To compute CD, use therefore the equation:
CD = (AB)(sin77)(sin47)/(sin60)(sin89) = 1,305.94m.

WORKSHEET NO. 36
Strength of Figure

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
For the quadrilateral CDEF shown below, calculate the value of the relative strength of figure ( R ).
Assume that the angles of the quadrilateral have already been adjusted, all stations were occupied, and all lines were
observed in both directions. If the base line CD is 3,254.26m long, determine the length of EF using the strongest
chain.

E F
1040' 1620'
6130' 7710'

9130' 7550'
1410' 1250'
C D

66
 Lesson 19 - Reduction to Sea Level
Derivation of sea level reduction factor:
Measured length of line AB

A s = (d - c) h
B'

A'

Sea level

67
 Length of Line AB R R+h

Where:
A&B = Two points on the earth's surface defining a line
Which is part of a triangulation system.
d = horizontal distance measured between the two points.
c = correction to be applied to the measured length.
s or A'B' = equivalent length of line AB at sea level or (d - c) O
h = average elevation above sea level of the two points.
R = average radius of curvature of the earth at the vicinity of line AB.
Since the lengths of arcs are proportional to their radii:
(d - c)/R = d/(R + h)
the equation may be expressed into expanded form:
d/R - c/R = d/R - d(h/R2) + d(h2/R3) - d(h3/R4) + ….
Where:
c = d(h/R) - d(h2/R2) + d(h3/R3)
From the figure:
s = (d - c) = d - d(h/R) = d(1 - h/R)
Sea level reduction factor is given by:
FSL = (1 - h/R)
Sea-Level Reduction Factors for R = 6,372,226 m.:

Elevation Sea-level Elevation Sea-level Elevation Sea-level Elevation Sea-level

(h) Reduction (h) Reduction (h) Reduction (h) Reduction
meters Factor fSL meters Factor fSL meters Factor fSL meters Factor fSL
100 0.9999 8430 600 0.9999 0584 1100 0.9998 2737 1600 0.9997 4891
150 0.9999 7646 650 0.9998 9799 1150 0.9998 1952 1650 0.9997 4106
200 0.9999 6861 700 0.9998 9014 1200 0.9998 1168 1700 0.9997 3321
250 0.9999 6076 750 0.9998 8230 1250 0.9998 0383 1750 0.9997 2537
300 0.9999 5292 800 0.9998 7445 1300 0.9997 9598 1800 0.9997 1752

350 0.9999 4507 850 0.9998 6660 1350 0.9997 8814 1850 0.9997 0967
400 0.9999 3722 900 0.9998 5876 1400 0.9997 8029 1900 0.9997 0183
450 0.9999 2938 950 0.9998 5091 1450 0.9997 7245 1950 0.9996 9398
500 0.9999 2153 1000 0.9998 4306 1500 0.9997 6460 2000 0.9996 8613
550 0.9999 1368 1050 0.9998 3522 1550 0.9997 5675 2050 0.9996 7829
Example 1
A line measures 6,844.89m. at an average elevation of 500m. If the average
radius of curvature in the area is 6,354,243m, determine the equivalent sea level length
by a) using the table for sea level reduction, b) the derived formulas.

Solution:
a) Using the table for sea level reduction and by interpolation:

150 50 450 - 2938 a 2354

500 - X
600 - 584

68
 a/2354 = 50/150

a = (50/150)(2354) = 785

X = 2938 - a = 2938 - 785 = 2153

FSL = 0.99992938 - 0.99992153

FSL = 0.99990785

S = d(fSL) = 6,844.89(0.99990785)
S = 6,844.26 m.

b) Using the formula:

fSL = (1 - h/R)
= (1 - 500/6,354,243)
fSL = 0.99992131

S = d(fSL)
= 6,844.89(0.99992131)
S = 6,844.35 m.

WORKSHEET NO. 37
Reduction To Sea Level

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

The elevation of the two end points of a base line measures 3,123.45m and
3,133.22m, respectively. If the measured length of the base line is 4,566.79m and the
mean radius of the earth at the vicinity of the base line is 6,368,597m, determine the
equivalent sea level length of the line.

69
 Lesson 20 - Intervisibility of Stations
In triangulation work where there are problems regarding the intervisibility of triangulation stations and
in the construction of observation towers can be solved using the following formula:
In metric system:
h = h1 + (h2 - h1)d1/d2 - 0.065d1d2
Where:
h = elevation of line of sight at obstruction in meters
h1 = elevation of the first station in meters
h2 = elevation of the second station in meters
d1 = distance between first station and obstruction in kms.
d2 = distance between obstruction and second station in kms.
d3 = distance from first station to second station or d 1 + d2 in kms.
In English system:
h = h1 + (h2 - h2)d1/d3 - 0.574 d1d2
Where:
h, h1 and h2 are in feet; d1, d2 and d3 are in miles

Figure: 2nd Station

B
Obstruction X Line of Sight
C

70
 h2-h1

1st Station
A 0.065d 21 0.065(d1 + d2)2
h h1 h2

h1
d2

d1

Derivation of the formula:

From the figure:
h = h1 + 0.065d12 + X Eq. 1

Also:

X/d = [(h2 - h1)d1 - 0.065(d1 + d2)2]/(d1 + d2)

Or:

X = (h2 - h1)d1/(d1 + d2) - 0.065d12 - 0.065d1d Eq. 2

Substituting the value of X to eq. 1:

h = h1 + (h2 - h1)d1/d2 - 0.065d1d2

Example:
Cathedral Hill, with an elevation of 1,138.253m is on a line between Aurora Hill and Mirador Hill (see
accompanying figure). It is 16.608km. from Aurora Hill and 11.878km. from Mirador Hill. The elevations of Aurora
Hill and Mirador Hill are 1,136.264m. and 1,152.428m, respectively. If a line of sight originating from Aurora Hill is
directed toward Mirador Hill, determine the following from Aurora Hill is directed toward Mirador Hill, determine the
following:
a) Whether Mirador Hill is visible from Aurora Hill.
b) Height of identical towers which could be constructed at Aurora Hill and Mirador Hill so that the
line of sight would clear cathedral Hill by 3 meters.
c) Height of a tower which could be constructed on Aurora Hill so that the line of sight would clear
the ground at Cathedral Hill by 3 meters, if no tower is to be constructed on Mirador Hill.
d) Height of a tower which could be constructed on Mirador Hill so that the line of sight would clear
the ground at Cathedral Hill by 3 meters, if no tower is to be constructed on Aurora Hill.
e) Of the three options stated in requirements b, c, and d, which would be the most logical choice.
Solutions:
a) Determining if Mirador Hill is visible from Aurora Hill.

Cathedral Hill
(Obstruction) Line of Sight
Mirador Hill
(2nd Station)
de

71
Aurora Hill
(1st Station)
h3 = 1,138.253kms.
h d = 11.878kms h 2 = 1,152.428m

d1 = 6.608km.
d3

h1 = 1,136.264km.
Datum (mean sea level)

Solution:
d3 = d1 + d2 = 16.608 + 11.878 = 28.486km.
h = h1 + (h2 - h1)d1/d3 - 0.065 d1d2
= 1,136.264 + (1,152.428 - 1,136.264)(16.608/28.486) - 0.065(16.608)(11.878)
h = 1,132.865m
de = h - h3 = 1,132.865 - 1,138.253 = -5.388m, therefore Mirador Hill is not visible from Aurora Hill.

b) Determining height of identical towers at both stations:

Tower Modified Line of Sight Tower

3.0m (reqd. clearance)

H H2
Original line of sight de = 5.388m.
H1

Cathedral Hill Mirador HIll

Aurora Hill

From the figure:

H1 = H2 = H3 = c + de
= 3.0 + 5.38
H1 = 8.388m

c) Determining height of a single tower at Aurora Hill:

Required Tower Modified Line of Sight

c = 3.0m (required clearance)

de = 5.388

H1
Original line of sight

Cathedral Hill Mirador Hill

Aurora Hill d 2 = 11.878km

d1 = 16.608km

d3 = 28.486 km

Solution:

72
 H1/d3 = (c + de)/d2
H1 = d3/d2 (c + de)
= (28.486/11.878)(30 + 5.388)
H1 = 20.116m

d) Determining height of a single tower at Mirador Hill: Required Tower

Modified Line of Sight

Original Line of Sight c = 3.0m (reqd. clearance) H2

de = 5.388m

Cathedral Hill Mirador Hill

Aurora Hill d 2 = 11.878km

d2 = 16.608km.

d3 = 28.486km

Solution:
H2/d3= (c + de)/d1

H2 = d3/d1 (c + de)
= (28.486/16.608)(3.0 + 5.388)
H2 = 14.387m

e) The most logical option is to construct a single tower at Mirador Hill. The required tower is the shortest, it will be
the least expensive to construct than the other two options.
WORKSHEET NO. 38
Intervisibility of Stations

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

It is desired to sight from Dimasalang Hill (elev. = 196.85m) to Humabon Hill

(elev. = 198.15m) 40 km. Away. Sikatuna Hill (elev. = 197.65m), 2.2km away,
apparently obstructs the line of sight. If towers of equal height on Dimasalang Hill and
Humabon Hill are to be constructed so that the line just clears Sikatuna Hill by 3.50m,
what will be the height of these towers? How high a tower would be required on
Humabon Hill alone? On Dimasalang Hill alone?

73
 WORKSHEET NO. 39
Intervisibility of Stations

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

Cathedral Hill is on a line between Constable Hill and Aurora Hill. Cathedral
Hill is 6.253 km away from the Constable Hill and Aurora Hill is 11.081 km from the
Constable Hill. The elevations of the hills are: Constable Hill, 1260.86m; Aurora Hill,
1266.44m; and Cathedral Hill, 1261.04m. Determine the following:
a) Elevation of the line of sight from Constable Hill at the vicinity of
Cathedral Hill.
b) Height of identical towers to be constructed at Constable Hill and Aurora
Hill so that the line of sight will clear cathedral Hill by 5.0m.
c) Height of tower to be constructed on constable Hill so that the line of
sight will clear the ground at Cathedral Hill by 5.0m, if no tower is to be
constructed on Aurora Hill.

74
 d) Height of tower to be constructed on Aurora Hill so that the line of sight
will clear the ground at Cathedral Hill by 5.0m, if no tower is to be
constructed on Constable Hill.

Lesson 21 - Spherical Excess

The value of the spherical excess is used to test the closure of the triangle. It
is also used in making the least squares adjustment. A more exact value for determining
the spherical excess in seconds is given by the formula:

e" = Area/R2 Sin 01"

Where:
e" = Spherical excess in seconds of angle.
Area = Area of the triangle in square meters
R = mean radius of curvature of the earth in meters.
Example:
The interior angles in triangles ABC are A = 5830' 30", B = 6417'25", and C = 5712'17". The
distance from A to B has been found from preliminary calculations to be 36,285.55m. Assuming the average radius of
curvature to be 6,372,160m, determine the following:
a) Spherical excess in the triangle
b) Values of the angles corrected for spherical excess.

75
 B Given:
A = 5830'30"
B = 6417'25"
C = 5712'17"
c = 36,285.55m
c a R = 6,372,160m

A b C

Solution:
a) Determining spherical excess:
By sine law:
a/Sin A = c/Sin C

a = c Sin A/Sin C
a = 36,285.55(sin5830'30")/Sin5712'17"
a = 36,808.07m.

Area = (1/2)acSin B = (1/2)(36,808.07)(36,285.55)(sin6417'25")

= 601,690,565.40 sq.m.

e" = Area/R2 sin01" = 601,690,565.40/(6,372,160)2sin 01"

e" = 3.06"
Correcting the angles for spherical excess:
Corr. = e"/3 = 3.06"/3 = 1.02"

A = 5830'30" - 1.02" = 5830'29.98"

B = 6417'25" - 1.02" = 6417'23.98"
C = 5712'17" - 1.02" = 5712'15.98"
Note: 18000'09.94"
The spherical excess is always subtracted. The remaining 09.94" can be considered random which
is to be compensated in the subsequent adjustment of the triangulation.
WORKSHEET NO. 40
Spherical Excess

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

Calculate the spherical excess in a triangle two sides of which are 3,950.55m
and 6,245.25m with an included angle of 4330'. Assume the average radius of curvature
to be 6,372,160m.

76
 WORKSHEET NO. 41
Spherical Excess

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

For a given triangle ABC, the observed interior angles are A = 5730'25", B =
6547'35", and C = 5642'16". The distance from A to B as determined by EDM
equipment is 25,485.65m. Compute the spherical excess in the triangle and correct the
observed angles for spherical excess. Assume the earth's mean radius of curvature to be
6,372,160m.

77
 WORKSHEET NO. 42
Spherical Excess

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

Compute the number of square kilometers in a triangle on the surface of the

earth which has a spherical excess of 1.75 seconds. Use 6,372,157m as the mean radius
of curvature of the earth.

78
 Lesson 22 - Arc and Time Measure

Arc and Time Conversion Table:

 h.m.  h.m.  h.m.  h.m.  h.m  h.m.  h.m.  h.m.

' m.s. ' m.s. ' m.s. ' m.s. ' m.s. ' m.s. ' m.s. ' m.s.
1 0 04 46 3 04 91 6 04 136 9 04 181 12 04 226 15 04 271 18 04 316 21 04
2 0 08 47 3 08 92 6 08 137 9 08 182 12 08 227 15 08 272 18 08 317 21 08
3 0 12 48 3 12 93 6 12 138 9 12 183 12 12 228 15 12 273 18 12 318 21 12
4 0 16 49 3 16 94 6 16 139 9 16 184 12 16 229 15 16 274 18 16 319 21 16
5 0 20 50 3 20 95 6 20 140 9 20 185 12 20 230 15 20 275 18 20 320 21 20
6 0 24 51 3 24 96 6 24 141 9 24 186 12 24 231 15 24 276 18 24 321 21 24
7 0 28 52 3 28 97 6 28 142 9 28 187 12 28 232 15 28 277 18 28 322 21 28
8 0 32 53 3 32 98 6 32 143 9 32 188 12 32 233 15 32 278 18 32 323 21 32
9 0 36 54 3 36 99 6 36 144 9 36 189 12 36 234 15 36 279 18 36 324 21 36
10 0 40 55 3 40 100 6 40 145 9 40 190 12 40 235 15 40 280 18 40 325 21 40
11 0 44 56 3 44 101 6 44 146 9 44 191 12 44 236 15 44 281 18 44 326 21 44
12 0 48 57 3 48 102 6 48 147 9 48 192 12 48 237 15 48 282 18 48 327 21 48
13 052 58 3 52 103 6 52 148 9 52 193 12 52 238 15 52 283 18 52 328 21 52
14 0 56 59 3 56 104 6 56 149 9 56 194 12 56 239 15 56 284 18 56 329 21 56
15 1 00 60 4 00 105 7 00 150 10 00 195 13 00 240 16 00 285 19 00 330 22 00
16 1 04 61 4 04 106 7 04 151 10 04 196 13 04 241 16 04 286 19 04 331 22 04
17 1 08 62 4 08 107 7 08 152 10 08 197 13 08 242 16 08 287 19 08 332 22 08

79
18 1 12 63 4 12 108 7 12 153 10 12 198 13 12 243 16 12 288 19 12 333 22 12
19 1 16 64 4 16 109 7 16 154 10 16 199 13 16 244 16 16 289 19 16 334 22 16
20 1 20 65 4 20 110 7 20 155 10 20 200 13 20 245 16 20 290 19 20 335 22 20
21 1 24 66 4 24 111 7 24 156 10 24 201 13 24 246 16 24 291 19 24 336 22 24
22 1 28 67 4 28 112 7 28 157 10 28 202 13 28 247 16 28 292 19 28 337 22 28
23 1 32 68 4 32 113 7 32 158 10 32 203 13 32 248 16 32 293 19 32 338 22 32
24 1 36 69 4 36 114 7 36 159 10 36 204 13 36 249 16 36 294 19 36 339 22 36
25 1 40 70 4 40 115 7 40 160 10 40 205 13 40 250 16 40 295 19 40 340 22 40
26 1 44 71 4 44 116 7 44 161 10 44 206 13 44 251 16 44 296 19 44 341 22 44
27 1 48 72 4 48 117 7 48 162 10 48 207 13 48 252 16 48 297 19 48 342 22 48
28 1 52 73 4 52 118 7 52 163 10 52 208 13 52 253 16 52 298 19 52 343 22 52
29 1 56 74 4 56 119 7 56 164 10 56 209 13 56 254 16 56 299 19 56 344 22 56
30 2 00 75 5 00 120 8 00 165 11 00 210 14 00 255 17 00 300 20 00 345 23 00
31 2 04 76 5 04 121 8 04 166 11 04 211 14 04 256 17 04 301 20 04 346 23 04
32 2 08 77 5 08 122 8 08 167 11 08 212 14 08 257 17 08 302 20 08 347 23 08
33 2 12 78 5 12 123 8 12 168 11 12 213 14 12 258 17 12 303 20 12 348 23 12
34 2 16 79 5 16 124 8 16 169 11 16 214 14 16 259 17 16 304 20 16 349 23 16
35 2 20 80 5 20 125 8 20 170 11 20 215 14 20 260 17 20 305 20 20 350 23 20
36 2 24 81 5 24 126 8 24 171 11 24 216 14 24 261 17 24 306 20 24 351 23 24
37 2 28 82 5 28 127 8 28 172 11 28 217 14 28 262 17 28 307 20 28 352 23 28
38 2 32 83 5 32 128 8 32 173 11 32 218 14 32 263 17 32 308 20 32 353 23 32
39 2 36 84 5 36 129 8 36 174 11 36 219 14 36 264 17 36 309 20 36 354 23 36
40 2 40 85 5 40 130 8 40 175 11 40 220 14 40 265 17 40 310 20 40 355 23 40
41 2 44 86 5 44 131 8 44 176 11 44 221 14 44 266 17 44 311 20 44 356 23 44
42 2 48 87 5 48 132 8 48 177 11 48 222 14 48 267 17 48 312 20 48 357 23 48
43 2 52 88 5 52 133 8 52 178 11 52 223 14 52 268 17 52 313 20 52 358 23 52
44 2 56 89 5 56 134 8 56 179 11 56 224 14 56 269 17 56 314 20 56 359 23 56
45 3 00 90 6 00 135 9 00 180 12 00 225 15 00 270 18 00 315 21 00 360 24 00
Time and Arc Relations:
24h = 360 1m = 15' 1 = 4m
h s
1 = 15 1 = 15" 1' = 4s
Example 1
Change an arc measure of 8544'36" to time measure by the use of the Arc and Time
Conversion Table.
Solution:
85 = 5h 40m 00.0s
44' = 02m 56.0s
36" = 02.4s
Sum = 5 42 58.4s
h m

WORKSHEET NO. 43
Arc and Time Measure

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

Using the arc and time conversion table, perform the following conversions:
a) Express in arc measure a difference in longitude of 2h 39 m 44 s, 8 h 42 m 29 s, 14 h
52 m 12 s, 20 h 40 m 35 s, and 23 h 09 m 10 s.

80
 b) Express in time measure a difference in longitude of 515'18", 1338'35",
12008'20", 14552'10", and 17958'16".
Check your answers by a calculator.

Example 2
The longitude of Washington is 7704'00" West and that of San Francisco is
12225'45" West. Determine the following:
a) Difference in solar time between Washington and San Francisco.
b) Time in Washington when it is 9:03:00AM (9h 03m 00s) at San Francisco.
c) Time at San Francisco when it is 7:54:30 PM (19h 54m 30s) at Washington.

Figure:

81
 TSF (Time in San Fransisco) TW (Time in Washington)

Difference In Longitude Longitude of Greenwich

(Reference Meridian)

122 25' 45" W 77 04' 00"W

(Longitude of San Francisco) (Longitude of Washington)

Solution:
a) Diff. = Long. of San Francisco - Longitude of Washington
= + 12225'45" - (+7704'00")
= 4521'45" arc measure or 3h 01m 27s

Note: The difference in solar time between any two points on the earth's surface is
equal to the difference in their longitudes.

b) TW = T  Diff. = 9h 03m 00s + 3h 01m 27s

= 12h 04m 27s or 04m 27s
= 0:04:27 PM
Note: The solar time difference is added since Washington is East of San Francisco.

c) TSF = TW  Diff. = 19h 54m 30s - 3h 01m 27s

= 16h 53m 03s
= 4: 53: 03 PM

Note: The difference in solar time is subtracted since San Francisco is West of
Washington.

WORKSHEET NO. 44
Longitude and Time

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

The longitude of Bogota, Colombia is 4h 58 m 29 s West and that of San Jose,

Nueva Ecija is 8 h 20 m 18 s East. Determine the time at San Jose when the time in Bogota
is 23 h 08 m 45 s on March 18, 1986.

82
Example 3
What is the Greenwich civil time (GCT) when at a given instant the standard
or mean time at:
a) 120 East longitude is 4:45 PM?
b) 120 East longitude is 9:30 AM?
c) 90 West longitude is 3:15 AM?
d) 75 West longitude is 4:45 PM?
e) 150West longitude is 10:05 PM?
Solution:

83
 a) tm = 4:45 PM or 1645 H
= 16h 45m or 16.75h (Mean or standard time at 120 E longitude)

TZC = 120(1h/15) = 8h (Time zone correction, 15 = 1h) 

GCT = tm  TZC = 16.75h - 8h = 8.75h or 8:45 AM(Equivalent Civil Time on the same day)
Note: The TZC is subtracted since the Greenwich central meridian is 8 hours behind that of 120 East longitude.

b) tm = 9:30 AM or 0930H
= 9h 30m or 9.50h

TZC = 120(1h/15) = 8h

GCT = tm  TZC = 9.50h - 8 h = 1.50 h or 1:30 AM

Note: The TZC is subtracted since the Greenwich central meridian is 8 hours behind that of 120 East longitude.

c) tm = 3:15 AM or 0315 H
= 3h 15m or 3.25h

TZC = 90(1h/15) = 6h

GCT = tm  TZC = 3.25 h + 6 h = 9.25 h or 9:15 AM

Note: The TZC is added since the Greenwich central meridian is 6 hours ahead of 90 West longitude.

d) tm = 4:45 PM or 1645 H
= 3.25 h + 6 h
= 16 h 45 m or 16.75 h

TZC = 75(1h /15) = 5 h

GCT = tm  TZC = 16.75 h + 5 h = 21.75 h or 9:45 PM

WORKSHEET NO. 45
Greenwich Civil Time

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
Determine Greenwich Civil Time when it is:
a) 8:35 AM at 90 West longitude.
b) 10:08 AM at 120 East longitude.
c) 9:39 PM at 150 East longitude.

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 d) 11:53 PM at 150 West longitude.
e) 7:00 PM at 145 West longitude.

WORKSHEET NO. 46
Standard Time and Local Time

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
Calculate the following conversions:
a) The longitude of Naguilian is 12025'15". What is the standard time (at 120 East)
when the local time is 16h 19m 47?

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 b) If the longitude of a place is 12513'15", what is the local time at the place when
the standard time is 13h 42m 17s on 13 June 1986?

WORKSHEET NO. 47
Greenwich Mean Time

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
The longitude of Baguio is 8h 02 m 21s East of Greenwich, England.
Determine Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) when:
a) the standard time in Baguio is 15h 18m 30s.

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 b) The Baguio local mean time is 15h 39m 25s.

Lesson 23 - Astronomical (PZS) Triangle

A spherical triangle is the figure formed by joining any three points on the
surface of a sphere by arcs of great circle. The spherical triangle PZS in the figure is
called the astronomical triangle.

87
 Parallactic Angle
Polar Distance (p)
Co-latitude
Bearing of Body

S t
Zenith Distance (Z)
Declination (d)
Z
O Latitude (Z)

A M
Celestial Equator

Where:
P - the north pole of the celestial sphere.
Z - the observer's zenith which is a point on the celestial sphere found by
projecting the center of the instrument at the time of observation upward along the
direction opposite to that of gravity.
S - the heavenly body observed which may be the sun or any other known star
such as Polaris.
PS or p - the polar distance or codeclination. It is equal to 90 minus the
declination (d) of the observed heavenly body (S).
PZ or y - the colatitude of Z. It is equal to 90 minus the latitude (I) of the
observer.
ZS or z - the zenith distance or coaltitude of the observed heavenly body (S).
It is equal to 90 minus the true altitude (h).
Z - true azimuth of the heavenly body. Its value may exceed 90 but is always
less than 180.
S - the parallactic angle.
t - the meridian angle.

Example #1
During an instant of observation at latitude N1810.1', the sun's apparent
declination and true altitude (already corrected for refraction and parallax) were recorded
as 1410.5' and 3250.2', respectively. Determine the length (in angular units) of the three
sides of the astronomical or PZS triangle.

88
Figure: P (Celestial Pole)

Polar distance (PS or p) co-latitude of Z (PZ or y)

Zenith Distance (ZS or z)

Z (observer's Zenith)

Given:
I = N 1810.1' (latitude of place of observation)
d = 1410.5' (sun's apparent declination)
h = 3250.2' (true altitude of sun)

Solution:
PS = (90-d)
= (90 -1410.5')
PS = 7549.5'

PZ = (90 - I)
= (90 - 1810.1')
PZ = 71 49.9'

ZS = (90 - h)
= (90 - 3250.2')
ZS = 57 9.8'

WORKSHEET NO. 48
Astronomical Triangle

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________
During an instant of observation at a place whose latitude is N3829'42", the
sun's apparent declination (d) already corrected for refraction and parallax, and true

89
altitude (h) were determined to be N1724'29" and 3255'30", respectively. Determine the
length (in angular units) of the three sides of the astronomical triangle formed by the sun,
the observer's zenith, and celestial pole.

WORKSHEET NO. 49
True Altitude of Sun

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

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 The mean altitude of the sun (h') after three sets of pointing measured 5222'.
If the observation was made at an elevation of 487m when the average temperature was
28C, determine the true altitude (h) and zenith distance (z) of the sun.

WORKSHEET NO. 50
Apparent Declination of Sun

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

91
 For zero hours (0h) GCT, June 19 and 20, 1977, the sun's apparent
declinations are N2325.1' and N2325.9', respectively. If the difference in declination
for one hour between the two given periods is 0.03', what is the sun's apparent declination
and polar distance if the observation was made at 9:35 AM, 19 June 1977 along 120
East longitude.

Lesson 24
Sun's Azimuth
Using the fundamental equations in spherical triangle may solve the
astronomical or PZS triangle.

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 P

y = 90- l p = 90-d

Z z =90h S

From Cosine Law of Spherical Trigonometry:

Cos a = Cos b Cos c + Sin b Sin c Cos A

Cos (90-d) = Cos (90 - l) Cos (90-h) + Sin (90-l) Sin (90-h) CosZ
Sin d = Sin l Sin h + Cos l Cos h Cos Z
or:
Cos Z = (Sin d - Sin l Sin h)/(Cos l)(Cos h)

Cos Z = Sin d/(Cos l)(Cos h) - (Sin l)(Sin h)/(Cos l)(Cos h)

Cos Z = Sin d/(Cos l)(Cos h) - Tan l Tan h

AlternativeEquations For Determining Z:

Cos (Z/2) =  (Cos s)[Cos (s-p)]/(Cos l)(cos h)

Sin (Z/2) =  Sin (s-h) Sin (s-l)/(Cos l)(Cos h)

Tan (Z/2) = Sin (s-l) Sin (s-h)/(Cos s)[Cos (s-p)]

Sin (Z/2) =  Cos 1/2 (z + l + d) Sin 1/2 (z + l - d)/(Sin z) (Cos l)

Determining True Bearing of Sun:

Reference Formula: Cos Z = (Sin d - Sin h Sin l)/(Cos h Cos l)

A) MORNING OBSERVATION:
N N Sun

True Meridian

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 Z=

Z
W E W E
(Instr. Sta) O (Instr. Sta.) O

S Sun S
CASE I CASE II
a) Value of Cos Z is negative. a) Value of Cos Z is positive.
b) Angle Z represents azimuth of sun b) Angle Z represents azimuth of sun measured clockwise
measured clockwise from north with a from north with a value ranging from 0 to 90.
value ranging from 90 to 180. c) The sun is east of the meridian and falls somewhere in
c) The sun is east of the meridian and falls the northeast quadrant.
somewhere in the southeast quadrant. d) Where  = Z, and true bearing of sun is N  E.
d) Where  = 180-Z, and true bearing of
sun is S  E.

B) AFTERNOON OBSERVATION:
Sun N
N
Z=
True Meridian
Z
W E W E
O (Instr. Sta) O (Instr. Sta.)

Sun

S N

CASE III CASE IV

a) Value of Cos Z is negative. a) Value of Cos Z is positive.
b) Angle Z represents azimuth of sun b) Angle Z represents azimuth of sun measured counter
measured counter clockwise from north clockwise from north with a value ranging from 0
with a value ranging from 90 to 180. To 90.
c) The sun is west of the meridian and falls c) The sun is west of the meridian and falls somewhere in
somewhere in the southwest quadrant. the northwest quadrant.
d) Where  = 180 - Z, and true bearing of d) Where  = Z, and true bearing of sun is N  W.
sun is S  W.

WORKSHEET NO. 51
True Directions

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

94
 Using the given values in a problem in worksheet no. 40, and assuming that
the clockwise horizontal angle from the line to the sun is 27515'35", determine the true
bearing of the sun and of the line if the observation was done in the morning. Employ
each of the following formulas for determining azimuth of the sun: a) cosine formula, b)
sine formula, and c) tangent formula.

WORKSHEET NO. 52
True Directions

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

95
 A solar observation is made in the afternoon and the following quantities have been
determined:
N1405' = latitude of place of observation (l)
4032' = true latitude of sun (h)
N0723' = sun's apparent declination (d)
The instrument is set up at point A and mark is sighted at point B. If the measured horizontal clockwise
angle from the line to the sun were recorded as follows: 22208', 22212', 22209', 22213', 22216', and
22220', determine the following:
a) the sun's azimuth from north
b) true bearing of the sun
c) true bearing of line AB.

WORKSHEET NO. 53
Solar Observation

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

96
 Given the following data for sightings made on the sun:
N 1722' = latitude of place of observation
23.89C = temperature during observation
1682.317m = elevation of place of observation
120east = meridian of place of observation
22 Jan 77 = date of observation
TELESCOPE POSITION HORIZONTAL ANGLE VERTICAL ANGLE TIME
(Clockwise from mark to the sun)
Direct (Normal) 5754.0' 4348.0' 9:20 AM
5812.5' 4325.8'
5822.0' 4315.9'
Reversed (Plunged) 5906.8' 4248.9' 9:30 AM
5916.3' 4235.2'
5938.2' 4223.6'
The transit is set up at point A and a mark is placed on B. Determine the following:
a) Mean horizontal angle from mark to sun.
b) Mean vertical angle to sun.
c) Mean time at place of observation.
d) GCT when observation was made.
e) Sun's apparent declination on date and time of observation.
f) True altitude of sun corrected for refraction and parallax.
g) The value of angle Z and the sun's true bearing.
h) True bearing of the line AB.

Lesson 25 - Hydrographic Surveying

Locating Soundings:
The following are the various methods used for locating soundings:
1. Time interval along a range line.
2. Range line and an angle from shore.

97
 3. Intersecting range lines.
4. One angle and stadia distance from shore.
6. Two angles from shore.
Scow Measurement:
The quantity of material dredged from any body of water can be determined either by
soundings or scow mwasurements.

Waterline of Loaded Scow

Waterline of unloaded or light Scow
Wd Ld

Dredge Mtls. Loaded on Scow Deck of Scow

Ls Du Dl

Lb
Lu

Ll

Formulas:
Vw = (1/2)(Lu + Lb)(Du)(Wd) equation 1
Disp = (1/2)(Ll + Lb)DlWd equation 2
Ww = (Disp - Vw)(WtDw) equation 3
Vm = Ww/WtDm equation 4
Where:
Lb = Length of scow bottom
Ld = Length of scow deck
Wd = width of scow deck
Ls = length of vertical side of scow
Ll = length of waterline when scow is loaded
Lu = length of waterline when scow is unloaded or ligth
Du = draft of unloaded or light scow
Dl = draft of loaded scow
WtDw = weight density of the water.
WtDm = weight density of the material loaded on the scow.

Notes:
1. Use equation 1 to determine the volume of water (cu.m.) displaced when the scow is
unloaded or light.
2. Use equation 2 to determine the displacement loaded (cu.m.).
3. Use equation 3 to determine the weight of the water displaced (kg) by the load.
4. Use equation 4 to determine the volume of material (cu.m.) loaded in the scow deck.

Example #1
A rectangular deck scow 30.50 m. long, 6.10 m. wide, and 3.66 m. high has a draft of 3.05 m
when loaded. The bottom length of the scow is 23.15 m. The waterline is 29.26m long when the scow is
loaded with rocks and 25.60 m. long when light. If seawater weighs 1026 kg/cum. and the loaded dredged
material weighs 3208 kg/cum., determine the following:
a. volume of water displaced when unloaded or light
b. displacement loaded

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 c. weight of the water displaced by the load
d. volume of the loaded rock.

Figure:

Waterline of Loaded Scow

Waterline of unloaded or light Scow
6.10m 30.50

Dredge Mtls. Loaded on Scow Deck of Scow

3.66 1.22m 3.05

23.15m
25.60m

29.26m

Solution:
a) Vw = (1/2)(Lu + Lb)(Du)(Wd
= (1/2)(25.60 +23.15)(1.22)(6.10)
Vw = 181.40 cu.m.

b) Disp = (1/2)(Ll + Lb)DlWd

= (1/2)(29.26 + 23.15)(3.05)(6.10)
Disp = 487.54 cu.m.

d) Ww = (Disp - Vw)(WtDw)
= (487.54 - 181.40)(1026)
Ww = 314,099.64 kg.

e) Vm = Ww/WtDm
= 314,099.64/3208
Vm = 97.91 cu.m.

WORKSHEET NO. 54
Three-Point Problem

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

99
 In the accompanying figure, triangulation stations A, B, and C are observed from P, a
hydrographic station whose location is to be established by the principle of the three-point problem. The
known data are: the angle BAC (the exterior angle) = 10245'20", alpha (angle BPA) = 2634'50", beta
(angle APC) = 4415'15", b or side AC = 6883.4m, and c or side AB = 6605.3m. By the analytical method
determine the values of X, Y, d, e, and m which are needed to locate P.

B C

X c b Y

d e

WORKSHEET NO. 55
Discharge by Velocity-Area Method

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

100
 At a certain section of a river the left and right water edges are 3.0 and 45.0 meters
respectively from an initial reference point. Verticals are located at distances 7.0, 12.0, 16.5, 19.5, 23.0,
27.0, 32.0, 35.0 and 39.5 meters from the initial point. Depths of verticals are 1.8, 3.5, 4.6, 3.4, 5.8, 6.6, 5.7,
3.6, and 1.2 meters. Mean velocities in the verticals are 0.15, 0.30, 0.45, 0.50, 0.48, 0.55, 0.54, 0.48, and
0.20 meters per second, respectively. Determine the following:
a) Cross sectional area of the river (sq.m.)
b) Discharge of the river (cum/sec)
c) Average velocity of flow of the river (m/sec)
Sketch the cross section of the river. Assume that the discharge in the end zones to be
negligible or zero.

WORKSHEET NO. 56
Capacity of Reservoir by Contours

Name:___________________________________________Course/Year:_____________
Date Submitted:___________________________________

101
 A hydrographic survey of a lake produced the following approximate data:
13,340 sq.m. = area enclosed by the water line
8,550 sq.m. = area enclosed by contour 1
5,149 sq.m. = area enclosed by contour 2
2,088 sq.m. = area enclosed by contour 3
1,975 sq.m. = area enclosed by contour 4
If the vertical distance between contour levels is 3.0 meters determine the approximate total
volume of the lake above the level of contour 4.

Bibliography

102
 Juny Pilapil La Putt. Elementary Surveying. Third Edition. Baguio City: Baguio
Research and Publishing Center. 1987

Juny Pilapil La Putt, Surveying Laboratory Manual. Baguio City: Baguio

Research and Publishing Center. 1985

Juny Pilapil La Putt. Higher Surveying. Baguio City: Baguio Research and
Publishing Center.

Venancio I. Besavilla Jr. Theory and Practice in Surveying. Cebu City: VIB
Publisher. 1981

103