R. Hobbs & S.

McGee, Journal of Media Literacy Education 6(2), 56 - 67

Available online at www.jmle.org

The National Association for Media Literacy Education’s

Journal of Media Literacy Education 6(2), 56 - 67
Teaching about Propaganda:
An Examination of the Historical Roots of Media Literacy
Renee Hobbs and Sandra McGee
Harrington School of Communication and Media, University of Rhode Island

Abstract

Contemporary propaganda is ubiquitous in our culture today as public relations and marketing efforts have become core
dimensions of the contemporary communication system, affecting all forms of personal, social and public expression. To examine the
origins of teaching and learning about propaganda, we examine some instructional materials produced in the 1930s by the Institute for
Propaganda Analysis (IPA), which popularized an early form of media literacy that promoted critical analysis in responding to
propaganda in mass communication, including in radio, film and newspapers. They developed study guides and distributed them
widely, popularizing concepts from classical rhetoric and expressing them in an easy-to-remember way. In this paper, we compare the
popular list of seven propaganda techniques (with terms like “glittering generalities” and “bandwagon”) to a less well-known list, the
ABC’s of Propaganda Analysis. While the seven propaganda techniques, rooted in ancient rhetoric, have endured as the dominant
approach to explore persuasion and propaganda in secondary English education, the ABC’s of Propaganda Analysis, with its focus on
the practice of personal reflection and life history analysis, anticipates some of the core concepts and instructional practices of media
literacy in the 21st century. Following from this insight, we see evidence of the value of social reflection practices for exploring
propaganda in the context of formal and informal learning. Crowdsourcing may help create increased informational clarity for
consumers because ambiguous, incomplete, blurry and biased information actually inspires us to have conversations, share ideas, and
listen to each other as a means to find truth.

Keywords: media, education, media literacy, propaganda, history, persuasion, public relations, advertising, English, education,
curriculum, instruction

Ladies and gentlemen, we interrupt our program War of the Worlds.” In the 1930s, radio was not just a
of dance music to bring you a special bulletin source of entertainment for millions; it also had become
from the Intercontinental Radio News. At twenty a way for people to stay informed. When the Hindenburg
minutes before eight, Central Time, Professor airship exploded just a year earlier, news of the
Farrell of the Mount Jennings Observatory, explosion spread over radio waves. The radio message
Chicago, Illinois, reports observing several was far-reaching and capable of reaching millions of
explosions of incandescent gas, occurring at Americans, much like the Internet today. By 1939, an
regular intervals on the planet Mars estimated 28 million American households would own a
radio. When audiences heard of an alien invasion on Oct.
“The War of the Worlds” radio broadcast, 30, 1938, many listeners believed it – and panicked,
Oct. 30, 1938 becoming a textbook example of mass hysteria (Cruz,
2008). Newspapers published stories of the hysteria
Listeners may or may not have heard those first caused by the radio broadcast for days after. Some told
words when they turned on their radios on that Sunday stories of deserted New York streets and terror caused
night during the height of radio's Golden Age when by the alien invasion story.
Welles presented his now famous radio program, “The Today, some scholars believe that newspapers
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greatly sensationalized the panic to discredit radio interpretation and empowered to create meaning, with a
broadcasts (Pooley & Socolow, 2013). Whether or not focus on participation, play and performance, not critical
Welles' radio broadcast about an alien invasion caused analysis and skepticism. But we maintain that the need
mass panic, the fictional radio story taught those in for people to develop sense of ‘crap detection’ is ever
education a powerful lesson. The broadcast raised more essential as a result of the rise of Internet culture;
questions about the American public lacking “general as Rheinhold (2009, para. 2) explains, “Unless a great
habits of analysis, attitudes of skepticism, and many many people learn the basics of online crap detection
similar qualities” (Cummings, 1939, p. 394). The and begin applying their critical faculties en masse and
possibility of believing an alien invasion – even one very soon, I fear for the future of the Internet as a useful
fabricated in newspapers – showed a need to teach source of credible news, medical advice, financial
people how to recognize the difference between fiction information, educational resources, scholarly and
and nonfiction, and to analyze and evaluate ‘truth’ in scientific research.”
media messages. By the 75th anniversary of Welles’ One early form of ‘crap detection’ occurred in
broadcast, hoaxes more plausible than an alien invasion the first half of the 20th century when a combination of
appear rampant across the current mass media form - the journalists, educators and business leaders worked to
Internet. raise awareness about the role of propaganda in
The Internet has become a key medium for contemporary culture. In this paper, we look at the
disseminating propaganda in all forms and flavors and, practice of teaching about propaganda and consider the
like radio, it routinely conflates entertainment, legacy of Edward Filene and Clyde Miller, two people
information and persuasion. Rampant Internet- who were instrumental to the creation of the Institute for
advertising scams proliferated during the 2000s (Clark, Propaganda Analysis (IPA), an independent organization
2013) and in 2013, CNN named it “The Year of the that included journalists, college faculty and secondary
Online Hoax,” describing some of the many ways that teachers that functioned as a proto-media literacy group
Internet users were fooled by news hoaxes, including the of its time. After examining the rise of propaganda as
story of Diane, the rude airplane passenger in 7A; a culture, we offer a brief look at the origins of this
homophobic comment written to a waitress; and even the organization. Then, we compare the IPA’s more popular
death of famous celebrities (Gross, 2013). However, list of seven propaganda techniques (with clever terms
none of these hoaxes caused as much panic as TV show like “glittering generalities” and “bandwagon”) to the
host Jimmy Kimmel’s “girl on fire” video. The YouTube less well-known list, the ABC’s of Propaganda Analysis,
video depicts a young woman dancing or ‘twerking,’ and which emphasizes the importance of personal reflection
later falling onto a glass table covered in lit candles; and examination of how one’s family and cultural values
therefore, catching on fire. The video had attracted more shape message interpretation. While the seven
than 15 million views as of Jan. 16, 2014 and was shown propaganda techniques, rooted in ancient rhetoric, have
on mainstream media, including MSNBC, Fox News endured as the dominant approach to explore persuasion
and The View TV show. Kimmel later revealed the and propaganda in secondary English education, the
video to be a hoax, saying to the stuntwoman who ABC’s of Propaganda Analysis, with its focus on the
appeared in the video, “Thank-you for helping us practice of personal reflection and life history analysis,
deceive the world” (Lombardi, 2013). This statement is anticipates some of the core concepts and instructional
both chilling and disturbing; Kimmel thanks a woman practices of media literacy in the 21st century.
for complying in a joke about someone being physically
harmed. Propaganda as Culture
The pleasure and power associated with the
ability to ‘deceive the world’ is ever more evident as Propaganda involves the intentional sharing of
easy access to the tools of communication enable facts, opinions, and ideas designed to change behavior or
everyone to be a propagandist, manipulating messages motivate action. Although we generally think of
and meanings for fun and profit. But today, some may propaganda as a historical term, scholars from both the
consider the study of propaganda to be a little old- social sciences and the humanities acknowledge it is
fashioned, with its focus on avoiding the risks and harms simultaneously a philosophical, psychological, rhetorical
of being duped or misled by persuaders who may appear and sociological concept (Cunningham, 2002). Some
to be friends, entertainers or even experts. Jenkins and definitions of propaganda focus on the concept of
colleagues (2006) prefer an approach to media literacy intentionality and motive on the part of the author,
education that positions people as actively engaged in impact on the receiver’s actions and behaviors as well as
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receiver’s level of free will in accepting or rejecting the work against their actual self-interest? Was true self-
message (Cunningham, 2002). During the Great War at governance even possible in light of the public’s partial,
the beginning of the 20th century, the governments of selective and incomplete understanding of public events
Germany, Britain and the United States began the as Walter Lippmann (1921) had suggested? The British
systematic use of the power of public communication to and U.S. propaganda used during the Great War was a
shape public opinion through propaganda. In 1917, direct source of inspiration to Adolf Hitler and Joseph
President Woodrow Wilson needed to motivate Goebbels, who were able to make skillful use of
American support for the war, so he established the propaganda, first, as a political tool to promote a new
Committee on Public Information (CPI). Under the leader in an emerging, democratic Germany; then as a
directorship of George Creel and with a nearly $10 means to emotionally engage, inspire and unify the
million budget, the CPI became the nation’s first German people during wartime; and finally as a weapon
“propaganda ministry.” The CPI drafted news stories for to silence dissent, define and marginalize enemies, and
media and monitored media, using newspapers, films cause an unimaginable and unprecedented scale of
and influential community leaders, known as the “Four- destruction against Jews and others during the Holocaust
Minute Men,” a group of 75,000 public speakers who (U.S. Memorial Holocaust Museum, 2009).
delivered war updates at theaters and other public The term propaganda itself had such negative
gatherings throughout the country. The CPI also valance in the minds of many that during the 1920s the
delivered their governmental policy objectives in schools term ‘public relations’ was used as a substitute. But
through the distribution of curricular materials, which whatever the label used, propaganda was inescapable in
included more than 75 million pieces of literature in a 1930s America, from radio advertising to pro-
two-year span (Glander, 2000). government or anti-fascist messages in entertainment
Edward Bernays, often called the father of films, to newspaper columnists, political figures,
public relations, was among the earliest to define religious leaders and celebrities including Father Charles
propaganda as “a consistent, enduring effort to create or Coughlin, Senator Huey Long and Charles Lindbergh.
shape events to influence the relations of a public to an Lasswell’s landmark content analysis of wartime
enterprise, idea, or group" (1923, p. 25). propaganda techniques, published in 1938, revealed the
While many scholars distinguish between public effectiveness of mobilizing constituencies or sub-groups
relations, advertising and propaganda, Bernays treated to disseminate opinions and ideas on behalf of a
public relations and propaganda as equivalent, noting propaganda effort in order to create a variety of
that propaganda may be either beneficial or harmful to concurring messages from multiple sources, creating an
the public, depending on the context and point of view illusion of diverse perspectives. At Columbia University,
of the interpreter. 1 It may help individuals decide what sociologist Robert S. Lynd joined discussions with the
to think about or alter their opinions in ways that could Rockefeller Foundation Group on Mass Communication
be beneficial to them both as individuals and to society’s Research along with George Gallup, a leader of public
functioning as a whole. In Crystallizing Public Opinion opinion polling, Frank Stanton, future president of CBS,
(1923), Bernays acknowledged the relationship between and Paul Lazersfeld, a social scientist who became a
propaganda and education, explaining, “the only leader in communication research. They all recognized
difference between propaganda and education, really, is the need for research in communication to address the
the point of view. The advocacy of what we believe in is nature of mass communication, the rise of public
education. The advocacy of what we don't believe is relations and advertising, and its impact on the political
propaganda” (p. 212). process (Glander, 2000).
This perspective on propaganda was challenged During this time period, American public
by those who emphasized the negative connotation of education was in a state of crisis brought on, in part, by
the term and suspected that propaganda could be rapid changes in cultural norms and values and declining
hindering democracy. Could the appeal of propaganda school budgets as a result of The Great Depression.
lead people to be swayed to hold opinions that would Although the early 20th century was replete with
ambitious experiments to modernize the curriculum to
1
The first author had the opportunity to meet Edward Bernays in
address the needs of the increasingly diverse population,
1986 at the home of Professor Frank Genovese, a labor economist by 1932, school budgets had been slashed. Educators
who taught at Babson College in Wellesley, Massachusetts. Bernays, were concerned about the loss of health education,
then in his 80s, maintained his belief in the positive value of music, art and home economics and school libraries,
propaganda and acknowledged the value of educational efforts to worried that the back-to-basics movement was
analyze and evaluate propaganda’s design, implementation and
effectiveness. negatively impacting children and young people.
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Table 1: Seven Propaganda Devices

Name Definition Example

1. Name Calling Trick to make us accept a conclusion Father Coughlin calls President
without full consideration of essential Franklin D. Roosevelt “a liar.”
facts in the case.

2. Band Wagon A trick used to seize our emotions, to Everybody’s doing it.
make us follow the political Pied
Pipers and bring others along with us.

3. Glittering Generalities An attempt to sway emotions through "What America needs," says
the use of shining ideals or virtues, Roosevelt, "is economic security for
such as freedom, justice, truth, all."
education, democracy in a large,
general way.

4. Flag Waving A trick in which the propagandist Roosevelt made a symbol of the horse
holds up a symbol, such a flag, that and buggy when he spoke of an anti-
we recognized and respect. New Deal Supreme Court decision.

5. “Plain Folks” A trick in which the propagandist It is proverbial that political

demonstrates they are like the rest of candidates always kiss babies.
us or just plain folk.

6. Testimonial Best represented by the straw vote, If large numbers of individuals can be
this trick involves getting not only seen voting for Roosevelt or for
good, plain, solid citizens, but also Landon, it is likely to cause many
social and business leaders to endorse additional votes for them.
the party or the candidate.

7. Stacking the Cards A trick in which the propagandist In 1936, with unemployment still the
intentionally or unintentionally stacks serious issue in America, the
the cards against the facts. Republican propagandists blames the
Democrats for not ending it.

SOURCE: Clyde Miller & Violet Edwards (1936, October). The intelligent teacher’s guide through campaign propaganda. The Clearing House,
11(2), 69-77.

High school teachers were also gaining more awareness seemed then, for education to be more directly relevant
of the power of radio broadcasting in the lives of young to the real-world experience of growing up in “new
people, as it was then a rising new technology that was times.”
free to all. While recognizing radio as a key source of
the dreams, ideals and inclinations of adolescents, Fighting Propaganda with Education
educators also experimented with educating with and
about radio (Tyler, 1939) and debated the role of Education is a powerful antidote to propaganda.
advertising in reshaping cultural values towards During the 1930s, while university scholars were
sensationalism (DeWitt, 1934). Despite or perhaps as a studying the influence of radio on listeners and
result of The Great Depression, it was important, it documenting the rise of propaganda through research
activities, a group of journalists, college faculty and high

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school teachers, working with business and civic leaders, support the Institute for Propaganda Analysis in creating
were involved in designing and delivering resources to and distributing educational materials helping teachers
help educators introduce propaganda analysis into the engage students in critically analyzing propaganda.2
classroom. By the time of Welles’ broadcast in 1938, a Filene’s motivations for investing in propaganda
team had already been working for more than a year to education may have been personal. Filene’s father,
develop curricular resources for teaching the process of originally named Wilhelm Katz, emigrated from Prussia
analyzing propaganda in the classroom. Founded in 1937 in the late 1840s along with other Jewish immigrants.
in New York City, NY, the Institute for Propaganda Many Jewish families had fled Europe in the late 1800s
Analysis (IPA) helped the public detect, recognize and due to persecution and abuse. According to a story told
analyze propaganda. Among the most enduring works of by Edward Bernays, who once worked for Edward
this organization is the list of propaganda techniques, Filene, Katz intended to change his name to “Feline,”
borrowed from classical rhetoric, that are designed to but a misspelling at the Boston customs’ office resulted
help people recognize and resist propaganda. Table 1 in the name being recorded as “Filene.” In 1908, Edward
shows the list of propaganda devices from a 1936 Filene became president of his father’s business, which
publication. was then called Filene’s Sons Co. Filene was innovative
It’s important to note that the list of rhetorical as a Jewish social reformer and capitalist. He helped
devices is explicitly presented as knowledge needed to form one of the earliest employee unions in America;
avoid being victimized by a presumably powerful and helped pass the Workmen’s Compensation Law; and
manipulative persuader. IPA documents describe these favored a “buying wage” for workers instead of a “living
seven propaganda devices as of “folk origin,” but wage.” He is also credited with launching the credit
“tremendously powerful weapons for the swaying of union movement in the United States (Stillman, 2004).
popular opinions and actions.” It is argued that Clyde Miller, who oversaw the IPA’s editorial
awareness of these devices “keeps us from having our operations and helped published the first five
thought processes blocked by a trick,” keeping people Propaganda Analysis issues, was a progressive journalist
from being fooled or manipulated (Miller & Edwards, who had worked on a commission formed by the
1936, p. 24). The repeated use of the word ‘trick’ in the American Association of School Administrators to study
formulation of the seven propaganda devices suggests the relation of education to public welfare. He was also a
that the rhetorical tools themselves are somehow faculty member at the Columbia University Teachers
inherently immoral or unethical practices of College where he had taught a course entitled, “Public
communication. Given the rise of Fascism, this approach Opinion and Education” and served as a publicist for the
is not surprising but it does seem inconsistent with university (Teachers College, Columbia University, n.d.,
earlier articulations of propaganda as potentially either para. 1).
“good” or “bad” depending on the motives of the To help teachers, the IPA developed short
communicator. informational articles in a magazine format with titles
including “How to Detect Propaganda,” “How to
Philanthropic Support for Analyze Newspapers” and “The Public Relations
Propaganda Education Counsel and Propaganda,” just to name a few (Glander,
2000, p. 23). With generous financial backing from
The 1930s’ propaganda education received an Filene, these publications were mailed to thousands of
enormous boost from philanthropists with interests in high schools, colleges and public libraries throughout the
civic education. In understanding the work of the United States.
Institute for Propaganda Analysis and their still-famous
list of propaganda techniques, it’s important to
acknowledge the role of Edward Filene (1860-1937), the 2
Exactly how Filene and Miller became associated with each other
business leader and philanthropist who owned Filene’s remains unclear. Miller, once a reporter for the Cleveland Plain
department store in Boston. In 1937, Filene worked with Dealer, was mocked by his colleagues in the press for attracting such
journalist and educator Clyde Miller to financially an important financial backer. On The Miami Daily News’ editorial
page for April 4, 1938, in an opinion section entitled “New York Day
establish the Institute for Propaganda Analysis (IPA) for By Day,” columnist Charles B. Driscoll mocks Miller as a “short,
the sole purpose of creating teaching methods and stooped, middle-age man with a sardonic smile that’s graven in his
curricular material for combatting propaganda. Defining features.” Driscoll continues, “Jokingly, he (Miller) talked about
propaganda in broad terms, they included all forms of defeating propaganda by analyzing it, and wrote a spoofing piece
persuasion designed to change attitudes or behaviors about it. Edward A. Filene, late Boston merchant, took him seriously
and supported the Propaganda Analysis institute, which is now one of
(Glander, 2000). Filene spent more than $1 million to Miller’s serious activities.”
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Teaching about Propaganda framing of propaganda as a merely set of rhetorical

“tricks” designed to “fool people” seemed to contribute
During the first half of the 20th century, many to a significant increase in the level of student cynicism.
educators has strong feelings about the importance of Indeed, even the term ‘tricks’ is itself a manipulative
teaching critical thinking skills as a way to respond to phrase designed to diminish the value of expressive
the barrage of information and entertainment available. rhetorical techniques.
In 1939, teacher Helen I. Davis, a high school English Then as now, educators worry that increasing
teacher at De Witt Clinton High School in New York critical thinking skills and increased transparency in a
City, undertook an experiment using the IPA study media culture may contribute to levels of cynicism and
guides, which included the list of seven propaganda alienation. One educator noted, “The objection most
devices. Davis encouraged her students to analyze frequently voiced by teachers who have used propaganda
newspaper content, as well as editorial letters. Davis analysis in their classes is that the students tend to
wrote about her efforts as a member of the IPA's Study become cynical and 'smarty'” (Cummings, 1939, p. 398).
Program Committee, believed it to be “exciting days” Another educator critical of the IPA’s curriculum
and challenging to teach “changing pupils in a changing wondered if the methods of teaching propaganda
world” (Davis, 1939, p.26). The IPA's curriculum promote democracy or “simply promote an attitude of
material made Davis' role as an English teacher more generalized cynicism, a feeling that you can't trust any
efficient, as she explains: newspaper, any radio commentator, any political
speaker?” (Smith, 1941, p. 250).
The need to vitalize the teaching of composition, Indeed, while in some schools, the analysis of
especially exposition; the need to stimulate our propaganda was likely a powerful and even
students to read decent magazines and transformative learning experience for young people, in
newspapers; the responsibility of the teacher of other classrooms, lessons may have consisted on
English to bring his students closer to the life and listening to a teacher talk (either approvingly or
problems of our difficult and confusing 1938 disparagingly) about Father Coughlin or Senator Huey
world - these demands upon my knowledge and Long, two of the most famous political propagandists of
courage were satisfyingly met with peculiar their day. Other students may simply have been required
efficacy by the institute studies. (p. 27). to memorize a list of propaganda devices and write them
out for a test. In responding to this criticism, Miller
One of the assignments asked students to analyze a distinguished between merely resisting propaganda and
student-written letter in Scholastic magazine entitled “In understanding it. He didn’t want teachers to simply urge
Defense of Hitler,” published on May 28, 1938. Davis' students to respond negatively to propaganda – he
class checked the letter for factual errors and prejudice wanted them to analyze it carefully. While noting that
claims. The students then responded to this pro-Nazi perhaps as many as two in 50 students may experience a
letter, voted on the best letters, and sent them to the temporary condition of “defeatism, fatalism or
Scholastic magazine. The letters had a powerful impact cynicism,” the vast majority of students find that
on the magazine editors, who eventually published their learning to understand propaganda strengthens their
own analysis and crafted an editorial policy toward belief in democracy, deepening their appreciation for
fascism (p. 29). political, economic and social freedom (1941, p. 662).
However, once the United States entered World Today’s students may find that sharing ideas through
War II, there was some critical backlash against teaching informal digital networks activates similar levels of
about propaganda and, in particular, the use of the seven optimism about the power of democratic action in
propaganda devices. Some critics even found these addressing social, cultural, economic, environmental and
teaching methods to be dangerous because they omitted political issues.
an examination of the social context as a whole. For
example, one educator claimed that “concentration on Personal Reflection as Pedagogy
propaganda as verbal and psychological tricks and
grammatical constructions, ignoring the study of the Early media literacy educators who were
total context which permits their use, results in fighting propaganda realized the power of storytelling
forgetting that Fascist methods are appropriate to a and personal narrative. While education may be a
Fascist setting” (Garber, 1942, p. 244). Educators who powerful antidote to propaganda, it was not sufficient to
taught about propaganda also discovered that the merely understand the techniques of the propagandist.
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Analyzing propaganda also requires personal reflection. “[o]nly drastic changes in our life conditions, with new
A careful reading of the IPA materials reveals and different experiences, associations, and influences,
significantly more complexity beyond the list of seven can offset or cancel out the effect of inheritance and long
rhetorical techniques. In an article published in Public years of environment.”
Opinion Quarterly in 1941, Miller notes that “merely to This nicely compares to the Core Principles of
detect propaganda and go no further may be worse than Media Literacy Education (NAMLE, 2007), which
useless,” emphasizing that the practice of reflecting on explain that media literacy teaches students “how they
one’s own biases and world view is an essential can arrive at informed choices that are most consistent
dimension of analyzing propaganda (p. 662). with their own values” and how to “become aware of
One instructional practice suggested by the IPA and reflect on the meaning that they make of media
includes the “life history technique,” where students are messages, including how the meaning they make relates
asked what life values they hold now, how these differ to their own values.”
from what they have held in the past, what influences in The list of questions offered in the ABC’s of
home, church or neighborhood, or economic status or Analyzing Propaganda also anticipates the practice of
political teaching have created the differences between inquiry that is articulated in the Core Principles of Media
what they believe now and what they have believed in Literacy Education, which emphasizes learning specific
the past (Miller, 1941). Princeton psychology professor questions “that will allow them to gain a deeper or more
Hadley Cantril, a distinguished scholar who served for a sophisticated understanding of media messages.” The
time as the head of the IPA, similarly pointed out that we questions, as shown in Table 2, primarily cluster around
must “understand our own biases, the forces in the recognizing the author and purpose of the message,
environment that have given us our particular status and identifying the use of language techniques (words and
our particular opinions” (1938, p. 220). Although, it is symbols), and the relationship between the author’s
perhaps inevitable that we will accept propaganda that motives and the larger social and cultural context.
suits our personal interests and reinforces our identity, Indeed, the 1936 ABC’s of Analyzing
the processes of selecting, filtering and assessing Propaganda anticipates all five of the key concepts of
propaganda can be made more intentional and mindful media literacy as articulate in NAMLE’s Core
through personal reflection. Principles: (1) All media messages are constructed; (2)
Now, we will show how these less well-known Each medium has different characteristics, strengths and
instructional practices developed by the IPA actually a unique ‘language’; (3) media messages are produced
anticipate key concepts and instructional methods of for particular purposes; (4) people use their individual
media literacy as practiced today. Table 2 shows the skills, beliefs and experiences to construct their own
ABC’s of Propaganda Analysis, which emphasizes the meaning from media messages; and (5) media can
importance of examining contemporary (not just influence the beliefs, attitudes, values and behaviors and
historical) examples of propaganda in the fields of the democratic process. Educators and activists in the
business, health, education, work, religion and politics. 1930s viewed education as a means of civic engagement.
We don’t know who authored the ABC’s of Propaganda But it’s worth pointing out that this kind of “advice”
Analysis, because the work has no byline, but given the about understanding propaganda was delivered with the
nature of the IPA’s work functioning, this document is kind of crisp, bold journalistic prose that stood in
likely to have had the active involvement and editorial striking contrast to the more bland and scientific
oversight of Clyde Miller. discourse of academic scholars like Harold Lasswell and
The ABC’s recommend that after identifying others. This led us to wonder why the seven rhetorical
conflict elements in propaganda, learners “behold your devices became the dominant approach to teaching about
own reaction” and examine personal opinions while propaganda while the ABC’s of Propaganda Analysis
recognizing how they are shaped by “inheritance and faded into obscurity.
environment.” The ABC’s point out the difficulty of
really evaluating our own propagandas, noting that

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Table 2: The ABC’s of Propaganda Analysis

ASCERTAIN the conflict element in the propaganda you are analyzing. All propaganda contains a conflict element in some form or
other-either as cause, or as effect, or as both cause and effect.

BEHOLD your own reaction to this conflict element. It is always necessary to know and to take into consideration our own opinions
with regard to a conflict situation about which we feel strongly, on which we are prone to take sides. This information permits us to
become more objective in our analysis.

CONCERN yourself with today's propagandas associated with today's conflicts. These are the ones that affect directly our income,
business, working conditions, health, education, and religious, political, and social responsibilities. It is all too easy to analyze some
old example of propaganda, now having little relation to vital issues.

DOUBT that your opinions are “your very own.” They usually aren't. Our opinions, even with respect to today's propagandas, have
been largely determined for us by inheritance and environment. We are born white or black, Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, or ‘pagan’;
rich or poor; in the North or East, South or West; on a farm or in a city. Our beliefs and actions mirror the conditioning influences of
home and neighborhood, church and school, vocation and political party, friends and associates. We resemble others with similar
inheritance and environment and are bound to them by ties of common experience. We tend to respond favorably to their opinions and
propagandas because they are "our kind of people." We tend to distrust the opinions of those who differ from us in inheritance and
environment. Only drastic changes in our life conditions, with new and different experiences, associations, and influences, can offset
or cancel out the effect of inheritance and long years of environment.

EVALUATE, therefore, with the greatest care, your own propagandas. We must learn clearly why we act and believe as we do with
respect to various conflicts and issues-political, economic, social, and religious. Do we believe and act as we do because our fathers
were strong Republicans or lifelong Democrats, because our fathers were members of labor unions or were employers who fought
labor unions; because we are Methodists, Seventh Day Adventists, Catholics, or Jews? This is very important.

FIND THE FACTS before you come to any conclusion. There is usually plenty of time to form a conclusion and believe in it later
on. Once we learn how to recognize propaganda, we can most effectively deal with it by suspending our judgment until we have time
to learn the facts and the logic or trickery involved in the propaganda in question. We must ask:
Who is this propagandist?
How is he trying to influence our thoughts and actions?
For what purpose does he use the common propaganda devices?
Do we like his purposes?
How does he use words and symbols?
What are the exact meanings of his words and symbols?
What does the propagandist try to make these words and symbols appear to mean?
What are the basic interests of this propagandist?
Do his interests coincide with the interests of most citizens, of our society as we see it?

GUARD always, finally, against omnibus words. They are the words that make us the easy dupes of propagandists. Omnibus or
carryall words are words that are extraordinarily difficult to define. They carry all sorts of meanings to the various sorts of men.
Therefore, the best test for the truth or falsity of propaganda lies in specific and concrete definitions of the words and symbols used by
the propagandist. Moreover, sharp definition is the best antidote against words and symbols that carry a high charge of emotion.

SOURCE: Alfred McClung Lee & Elizabeth Briant Lee (1939). The Fine Art Of Propaganda; A Study of Father Coughlin's Speeches.
The Institute for Propaganda Analysis. Harcourt, Brace and Company, New York

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We also wonder why the IPA did not survive as a non- to the social movement called general semantics, with its
profit organization, think tank or even within the context focus on how language shapes reality, its inspirational
of higher education. Such questions, while important, are leader Alfred Korzybski, and featuring the young Neil
beyond the limited scope of this paper. Future research Postman who served as editor for their journal, E.T.C.).
should examine the institutional history of the IPA as an
organization and trace the articulation of propaganda Propaganda: Past, Present and Future
analysis curricula through English education textbooks
and curriculum materials immediately after World War It’s fair to say that today, “everything is
II and into the second half of the 20th century. We can coercive,” as Rushkoff (1999, p. 18) has put it.
only speculate that the ABC’s of Propaganda Analysis, Marketing, advertising and public relations drive
with its explicit invitation urging students to critically technology and culture forward with efforts to discover
analyze the immediate family and extended kinship clan ever more creative approaches to shape attitudes and
as a source of propaganda, may have been controversial control behavior. Growing up in a world where current
to local religious and political leaders. It’s also possible events, ideas and opinions are spread through both
that the strident and simplistic tone of the seven entertainment and information, and through social
propaganda devices, presented as ‘tricks,’ fitted well media, children and young people are learning from an
with the ideological values of American teachers early age how to get noticed in an attention economy. By
immediately after World War II, as characterized by posting to Facebook, they shape messages about their
Barzun’s (1945, p. 19) description of American public own lives in order to construct a representation of
education with its “various forms of deceit” including identity, and accomplish their social and personal goals.
social promotion and minimum competency tests. In representing themselves online, children learn to
Why did the ABC’s get forgotten while the list make rhetorical choices to get results. In a very real
of propaganda techniques had staying power? It’s sense, by becoming active media creators, children learn
possible that the ABC’s of Propaganda Analysis was the practice of propaganda, which, essentially is a matter
controversial because it made no effort to hide or mask of creating highly attention-getting, effective
its explicitly anti-racist perspective at a time when racial communication that leads people to some form of action:
attitudes were still highly polarized. In 1942, Miller “it simplifies complicated issues through the use of
wrote that in order to combat the unscientific theories of evocative symbols, whether in written, musical, visual or
racism “which Hitler and Goebbels have utilized so digital forms, in order to help channel complex human
effectively to create mass hatreds,” propaganda analysis emotions and shape attitudes and behaviors” (Hobbs,
was essential. Miller proudly claimed that: 2013, p. 626).
A look at the history of teaching propaganda
No student, once he has gone through the reminds us that reflective and metacognitive thinking is
recommended educational program of the Institute, a key dimension of media literacy and that this practice
is likely to succumb to propaganda causing him to continues to be essential today. But reflective thinking is
hate Jews as Jews and Negroes as Negroes. This not purely personal. Reflective thinking is fundamentally
approach does immunize students against social. Just as Clyde Miller and Edward Filene forged a
propagandas inciting to hatred based on racial and strategic alliance using the publication of a magazine
religious differences (p. 664). and curricular materials to help nurture a discourse
community of people dedicated to understand, evaluate
The inevitable provincialism of American public and critique the propaganda that surrounded them, media
education, with its local control of schools, may have literacy educators today continue to deepen reflective
contributed to the disappearance of the ABC’s of thinking about media and technology through
Propaganda Analysis. But some teachers continued to collaboration, conferences, webinars, publications,
use the ABC’s and other resources as a tool for civic professional development programs, and the
learning and civic engagement. For example, Miller development and sharing of curricular materials. The
describes the work of Lois G. Sinnigen, a teacher in the rise of participatory culture has actually heightened our
public schools of Hackensack, N.J. whose seventh grade awareness of how fundamentally social the practice of
boys and girls “formulate in their own language the developing critical thinking really is. As we see it,
minimum essentials of democratic living” (1941, p. reflection in response to the “wisdom of the crowds”
663), learning to reject violence as a solution for may be a fresh new format for exploring propaganda in
resolving conflict. After World War II, educators with the context of formal and informal learning. Perhaps we
interests in propaganda analysis may have been attracted need to engage with a wide variety of interpretations of
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messages – including our own and those of people who Crowdsourcing can help reveal dimensions of the
are different from us -- in order to recognize and resist communicative context that help support critical
propaganda. Crowdsourcing may help create increased analysis. In this paper, we have learned about history in
informational clarity for consumers, as Hobbs (2013) order to reflect on propaganda education – past, present
notes that ambiguous, incomplete, blurry and biased and future. In the future, we will begin to consider how
information actually “inspires us to have conversations, these concepts may be recovered for the 21st century.
share ideas, and listen to each other as a means to find The creative work of media literacy is designed to
truth” (p. 637). The complex interplay of entertainment, refresh our vision and re-vision ourselves and our
advocacy and information, which once was novel, now communities, inspired by the spirit of communication
seems familiar, routine and ‘natural’ as we are enmeshed and democratic problem-solving that activates mutual
in a sign system that quickly becomes invisible to us. respect, shared social discourse and critical inquiry.

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