PHD Masumi Yamamoto PDF

The Use of Meantone Temperament in the
Performance of Keyboard Music by Johann Jacob Froberger
Masumi Yamamoto
Doctor of Philosophy
UNIVERSITY OF YORK
MUSIC
June 2015
ABSTRACT
The music of Johann Jacob Froberger (1616-1667) poses challenges for the performer when
selecting an appropriate tuning system. Froberger lived at a time when meantone
temperaments were commonly used on keyboard instruments, but many scholars today
consider it appropriate to play his music in temperaments that appeared later, because
certain notes found in his works do not fit the traditional meantone framework.
In meantone temperaments, only 12 notes are available per octave because some
enharmonic notes and intervals are so far from pure that they are unusable. Composers of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries understood the limitations of prevalent
temperaments but some chose to expand those limits either by using notes that lie beyond
the normal disposition of meantone, or by making use of the ‘harsh’-sounding intervals.
This study examines the music of Froberger and investigates how best to tune the
harpsichord for selected works. The works chosen for the purpose of this study contain
notes beyond the 12 that are typically available in meantone temperament. The study
suggests effective ways to tune the harpsichord in order to give convincing performances.
The dissertation is divided into three chapters. It contains information on historical
temperaments; instruments from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries particularly those
with divided keys and the music written for them; instruments that may have been known to
Froberger; internal evidence in Froberger's works that might identify features of the
instruments he had in mind; and case studies of Froberger's music discussing intervals and
notes in context, and suggestions on tuning and interpretation. This study will be of
assistance to performers exploring the music of Froberger, by highlighting issues to
consider when choosing a particular way to tune the harpsichord, and how this may affect
interpretation and performance.
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................. iii
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... vii
LIST OF EXAMPLES ................................................................................................. viii
SOUND EXAMPLES .................................................................................................. x
LIST OF SOURCES FOR FROBERGER'S MUSIC .................................................. xi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... xii
DECLARATION ......................................................................................................... xiii
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
Historical Background ............................................................................... 2
Aim of the Research .................................................................................. 3
Current State of Research .......................................................................... 5
Editions and Sources for Froberger's Works ............................................. 7
Pitch Notation ............................................................................................ 12
Summary ................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER I: Temperament ......................................................................................... 14
Regular Temperaments ............................................................................. 16
1. Meantone Temperaments ................................................... 16
2. Equal Temperament ........................................................... 19
Irregular Temperaments ............................................................................ 21
1. Werckmeister III ................................................................ 21
iii
2. Kirnberger III ..................................................................... 22
3. Vallotti ca. 1730, Neidhardt I, and Barnes ......................... 23
4. French Tempérament Ordinaire ......................................... 25
CHAPTER II: Keyboard Instruments in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries .... 33
Instruments with More than 12 Notes to the Octave ................................. 33
Music for Instruments with More than 12 Notes to the Octave ................ 41
Instruments Froberger May Have Known ................................................. 49
Johann Mayer: 1619, Stuttgart ............................................... 49
Giovanni Celestini: 1587, Venice .......................................... 51
The Compass and Other Features in Froberger's Music ........................... 52
Conclusion ................................................................................................. 58
CHAPTER III: Case studies: Intervals in Context Within the Keyboard Works of
Froberger ....................................................................................................................... 60
Affligée et Tombeau faît à Paris sur la mort de Monsieur Blanchrocher,
FbWV 632a ............................................................................................... 60
Suite in G minor, Lamentation sur ce, que j’ay êté vole. Et se joüe à la
discretion, et encore mieux que les soldats m’ont traicté – Courant –
Sarabande – Gigue, FbWV614 .................................................................. 67
Meditation faite sur ma mort future, la quelle se joüe lentement avec
Discretion - Gigue - Courante - Sarabande, FbWV 620 .......................... 70
Ricercar in F# minor, FbWV 412 / C# minor, FbWV 406 ....................... 71
Other Ricercars in 'Libro IV' and 'Libro di capricci e ricercate' ................ 76
Suite in E minor, Allemande faite en passant le Rhin dans une barque en
grand peril, la quelle se joüe lentement â la discretion - Courante -
Sarabande - Gigue, FbWV 627 ................................................................. 77
iv
Suite in A minor, FbWV 630, Plaincte faite à Londres pour passer la
Melancolie la quelle se joüe lentement et à discretion - Courante -
Sarabande - Gigue ..................................................................................... 82
Lamentation faite sur la tres douloreuse mort de Sa Majeste Imperiale,
Ferdinand le Troisiesme, et se joüe lentement avec discretion,
FbWV 633 ................................................................................................. 85
Toccata FbWV 112 in A minor ................................................................. 88
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 91
APPENDIX I: Recital Programme (25th September 2015).......................................... 94
APPENDIX II: DVD Track Listing from the Recital .................................................. 97
APPENDIX III: Scores of Works Included in the Recital ........................................... 98
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................ 136
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Pitch notation ................................................................................................ 12
2. Short-octave keyboard ................................................................................... 38
3. Split-key short-octave keyboard and divided D#/E♭, G♯/A♭ keys ................. 38
4. Suggested retuning for Mayone's Toccata Quarta (1609) ............................. 42
5. Johann Mayer's harpsichord of 1619 .............................................................. 50
6. Viennese short octave .................................................................................... 51
7. Depiction of heaven at the end of Lamento, FbWV 612 ............................... 56
8. GG/BB Split-key short octave ....................................................................... 57
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. List of pure intervals in cents ......................................................................... 15
2. Quality of triads in quarter-comma meantone ............................................... 17
3. Quality of triads in sixth-comma meantone ................................................... 18
4. Quality of triads in equal temperament .......................................................... 20
5. Quality of triads in Werckmeister III ............................................................. 22
6. Quality of triads in Kirnberger III .................................................................. 23
7. Quality of triads in Vallotti ............................................................................ 24
8. Quality of triads in Neidhardt I ...................................................................... 24
9. Quality of triads in Barnes .............................................................................. 25
10. Detailed analysis of intervals in quarter-comma meantone ........................... 28
11. Detailed analysis of intervals in sixth-comma meantone .............................. 29
12. Detailed analysis of intervals in Kirnberger .................................................. 30
13. Detailed analysis of intervals in Werckmeister III ........................................ 31
14. Detailed analysis of intervals in Vallotti ........................................................ 32
vii
LIST OF EXAMPLES
Example Page
1. Philips, Pavana Dolorosa, bars 81-83 from the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book .. 39
2. Bull, Ut re mi fa sol la, bars 10-12 ................................................................ 40
3. Mayone, Toccata Quarta (1609), bars 7-10 .................................................. 42
4. Mayone, Toccata Quarta (1609), bars 30-39 ................................................ 43
5. Mayone, Toccata Quinta (1609), bars 8-23 ................................................... 44
6. Frescobaldi, Cento Partite sopra Passacagli, bars 124-126 .......................... 47
7. Rossi, Toccata Settima, bar 67 ....................................................................... 48
8. Froberger, FbWV 606, Variation 4 (Libro II and Grimm 1698/99) .............. 53
9. Froberger, Toccata FbWV 101, chord in bar 6 .............................................. 53
10. Froberger, FbWV 613 Sarabande, chord in bar 8 .......................................... 54
11. Froberger, FbWV 611, Courante, bar 6 ......................................................... 54
12. Froberger, FbWV 112, bar 9 .......................................................................... 55
13. Froberger, FbWV 407, bar 46 ........................................................................ 55
14. Froberger, FbWV 612, Lamento, bar 13 ........................................................ 56
15. Froberger, FbWV 620, Gigue, end of bar 5 ................................................... 57
16. Froberger, FbWV 632a, extended trill at bars 18-19 ..................................... 61
17. Froberger, FbWV 632a, Tombeau, bar 5 ....................................................... 62
18. Froberger, FbWV 632a, Tombeau, bar 3 ....................................................... 63
19. Froberger, FbWV 632a, Tombeau, bar 6-7 .................................................... 64
20. Froberger, FbWV 632a, end of bar 14 ........................................................... 64
21. Froberger, FbWV 614, Lamentation, bars 1-5 ............................................... 66
22. Froberger, FbWV 620, Meditation, end of bar 3 ........................................... 71
23. Froberger, FbWV 412, Ricercar, Wobbly title ............................................... 73
viii
24. Froberger, Titles of Ricercars FbWV 407-411 .............................................. 73
25. Froberger, FbWV 627, Allemande faite en passant le Rhin, bar 7 ................. 79
26. Froberger, FbWV 627, Allemande faite en passant le Rhin, bar 5 ................ 80
27. Froberger, FbWV 630, Plaincte faite à Londres, bars 2-3 ............................ 83
28. Froberger, FbWV 630, Plaincte faite à Londres, end of bar 4 ...................... 83
29. Froberger, FbWV 630, Plaincte faite à Londres, bars 6-7 ............................ 84
30. Froberger, FbWV 633, Lamentation, bar 1 .................................................... 86
31. Froberger, FbWV 633, Lamentation, bars 7-9 ............................................... 88
32. Froberger, FbWV 633, Lamentation, bar 15 .................................................. 88
33. Froberger, FbWV 612, Toccata, bars 14-19 .................................................. 90
ix
SOUND EXAMPLES
Track Number Track Description
Track 1 Wolf in quarter-comma meantone E♭-G#
Track 2 Chromatic scale in quarter-comma meantone E♭-G#
Track 3 Wolf in sixth-comma meantone E♭-G#
Track 4 Chromatic scale in sixth-comma meantone E♭-G#
Track 5 Bull, Ut re mi fa sol la in quarter-comma meantone E♭-G#, bars 10-

12
Track 6 Bull, Ut re mi fa sol la in simulated 19-divisions meantone, bars 10-

12
Track 7 Bull, Ut re mi fa sol la in Kirnberger's temperament, bars 10-12
Track 8 Bull, Ut re mi fa sol la in equal temperament, bars 10-12
Track 9 Froberger, FbWV 632a, poignant d♭2 in quarter-comma meantone,

bar 5
Track 10 Froberger, Tombeau, FbWV 632a, back-dotted notes inégale

quarter-comma meantone, bar 3
Track 11 Froberger, Tombeau, FbWV 632a, strong interrupted cadence in

quarter-comma meantone, bar 6
Track 12 Froberger, Tombeau, FbWV 632a, straight rhythms in

sixth-comma meantone, bar 3
Track 13 Froberger, Tombeau, FbWV 632a, notes inégale in sixth-comma

meantone, bar 3
Track 14 Froberger, Lamentation, FbWV 614, played with no adjustment to

A♭s in quarter-comma meantone, bars 1-5
Track 15 Froberger, Lamentation, FbWV 614, Pure A♭s, bars 1-5
Track 16 Froberger, Lamentation, FbWV 614, sixth-comma meantone, bars

1-5
Track 17 Froberger, Toccata, FbWV 112, lingering on e#1, bars 14-19
Track 18 Froberger, Toccata, FbWV 112, no lingering, bars 14-19
Sound examples are also available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RdghWgjeOIk
x
LIST OF SOURCES FOR FROBERGER'S MUSIC
Source Location Other Information
Libro Secondo (II) Österreichische Dedicated to Emperor Ferdinand III

Nationalbibliothek, Vienna in 1649
Mus Hs 18706
Libro Quarto (IV) Österreichische Dedicated to Emperor Ferdinand III
Nationalbibliothek, Vienna in 1656
Mus Hs 18707
Libro di capriccio e Österreichische Dedicated to Leopold I c.1658
ricercate Nationalbibliothek, Vienna Mus Hs 16560 ('Libro Terzo III'
incorrectly added by a later hand)
SA 4450 Sing-Akademie, Berlin SA 4450, c. 1662-1667
Bulyowsky 1675 Saxon State and University Written by Michael Bulyowsky de

Library in Dresden Dulic, dated 1675
Mus. 1-T-595
Tappert c. 1670 Biblioteka Jagiellonska in Tablature book, c.1660-70 (Source

Cracow X in DTO)
WMin 743 Minorite Monastery in Dated 1708-9 (Source KK in DTO)

Vienna
Grimm 1698/99 Österreichische Tablature book written by C.

Nationalbibliothek, Vienna Grimm, dated 1698 and 1699
(Source Y in DTO)
Mus Hs 16798
Sotheby's Unknown Autograph, c.1664-1667

Sold at Sotheby's in London,
November 2006
Auction catalogue gives limited
information
xi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Peter Seymour for his

support and encouragement during the course of this research
project. I would also like to thank Daniela Braun and Eva Caballero
for their help in reading German and Portuguese texts. A huge
thanks goes to Geoff Irwin for his continuous assistance with proof-
reading, typesetting and generally giving me moral support.
xii
DECLARATION
The material presented in this dissertation is the original work of the

author. It has not been submitted to be examined for any other
qualification, nor has it been published elsewhere.
xiii
1
INTRODUCTION
Musicians today generally agree on using a type of meantone temperament when
performing keyboard works from the seventeenth century (Rowland 2001, 39).
Meantone temperament, as will be discussed more in detail below, belongs to a group of
temperaments classified as regular (or non-circular), and is based on tempering fifths
regularly around the circle of fifths. This resulted in some intervals being so far from
pure that they were deemed unusable. These intervals were referred to as the 'wolf'
because they resembled 'the howling of a wolf' (Oldham and Lindley 2001).
Although Johann Jacob Froberger1 (1616-1667) lived and worked entirely in the
seventeenth century, scholars often state that his works need irregular (or circular)
temperaments in which there is no wolf, temperaments which are associated more with
the eighteenth century. Mary Cyr, in her book Performing Baroque Music, refers to
works by Froberger in keys that were then unusual, such as F# minor, B minor and E
major, to support her argument (Cyr 1992, 66). Some have suggested that he was an
advocate of equal temperament, as he was a pupil of Girolamo Frescobaldi (1583-1643)
who is believed to have advocated the use of equal temperament.2
Many scholars consider the use of notes outside the normal disposition of
quarter-comma meantone as proof that Froberger used a circular temperament.3 It is true
that Froberger seems to explore the limits of meantone temperament in some of his
compositions, but when the context in which these notes appear is taken into account,
Froberger is not as liberal as he first appears. Indeed, trying to play his pieces in a
1
Froberger's given names appear in publications in a variety of spellings. According to Rampe, Froberger
was baptized as 'Joh. Jacob' although he signed his letters 'Hanβ Jacob' (Rampe 2008, XXVI). The
spelling 'Johann Jakob' is also frequently used in recent literature.
2
Many writers refer to a comment believed to have been made by Giovanni Battista Doni (1595-1647) to
support this (Cyr 1992, 66; Norman 1992, 171-2; Pollard 1985, 89).
3
The normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone is E♭ to G#. This will be discussed in more detail in
Chapter I.
2
meantone temperament can reveal another level of understanding of his works, and can
provide another dimension to the expressive palette for performers.
Historical Background
Johann Jacob Froberger was born in Stuttgart in May 1616. He was a son of Basilius
Froberger (c.1575-1637), a tenor at the Stuttgart court chapel who later became the
Kappellmeister in 1621. There were many foreign musicians employed at the Stuttgart
court, and he may have been taught by Andrew Borell, an English lutenist, who was
known to have taught one of Basilius's children. From 1637, Froberger studied in Rome
with Frescobaldi, and later travelled widely across Europe including England. At the
end of his life, he stayed with Duchess Sibylla of Württemberg at Héricourt Palace near
Montbéliard where he died in May 1667 (Buelow 1985, 154; Rampe 2002, XLVI).
When speaking of his works, Froberger is reported to have asked Duchess
Sibylla 'to give nothing to anyone … since people may not know how to play them, but
would only spoil them.' (Kilbuck, 1976:3) He is further reported to have asked her to
circulate only the works he authorised. According to Rampe, this information is
contained in his will, and works in B minor and E major were not included in volumes
complied during his lifetime (Kilbuck 1976, 3; Rampe 2003, 6-7). Rampe states:
The main reason for Froberger’s particular reluctance to provide free
access to his works written in keys like B minor, F sharp minor, C
minor and E major surely lay in the way mean-tone temperament
prevailed from the fifteenth until far into the eighteenth century….
Mean-tone temperament ensures physically almost pure intervals for a
central group of favoured keys and makes other keys sound so out of
tune that they are practically unusable (Rampe 2003, 8).

3
Froberger’s output is almost entirely for the keyboard. The issue of temperament
is particularly relevant when composing for keyboard instruments. The existence of
works written in keys that would sound ‘out of tune’ in meantone and the protection
Froberger gave them by trying to prevent people from accessing these works could
indicate that he was aware of the problems involved.
Aim of the Research
The aim of this research project is to highlight issues to consider when performing
works by Froberger with a particular emphasis on the way the instrument is tuned. It
examines selected works taking into account the context in which the notes that lie
beyond the normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone appear and suggest ways to
adjust the tuning to play his works.
As mentioned earlier, many scholars refer to Froberger as a composer who used
circular temperaments. In his article in the Grove Music Online on 'Temperaments',
Mark Lindley states that Froberger used equal temperament (Lindley 2001). Christopher
Stembridge, in his article 'Music for the Cimbalo Cromatico and Other Split-Keyed
Instruments in Seventeenth-Century Italy', also states that the 'liberal use of sharps in
Froberger's organ pieces from 1649 onwards would ... suggest tempered thirds'
(Stembridge 1992, 23). More specifically, Froberger uses notes such as D♭, D#, A♭, A#,
E# and B# in his earlier works, notes not normally available in the normal disposition of
quarter-comma meantone, and it would be easy to conclude that he intended some sort
of a circular temperament for his works. However, when each case is examined
separately, it is evident that Froberger was both careful and skilful, and uses these notes
effectively with minimum adjustments necessary to the way the instrument is tuned. It
4
is perhaps the necessity to tune the harpsichord in different ways for various works that
made him reluctant to make his works freely available.
A number of Froberger's works bear descriptive titles. Some of them are works
written to commemorate the lives of his patrons or friends, while others describe events
such as being robbed or someone falling into a river. As it will be revealed, he
sometimes uses notes beyond the normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone to
create tension and intensity. In these cases, it is perhaps appropriate to leave them as
their dissonant sounds would enhance the effect. One such example is in his Allemande
faite en passant le Rhin dans une barque en grand peril, FbWV 627, in which Froberger
portrays a detailed account of someone falling into the Rhine. The work is in E minor,
and he appears to use D#s at tense moments in the story. This will be discussed in more
detail in Chapter III.
At the same time, there is a fine balance between using wolf notes as an
expressive device and them becoming a distraction. For example, using a number of
wolf notes in close succession would result in disturbing the harmonic structure and
could result in weakening the overall shape of the passage. For the same reason, wolf
notes do not function well as bass notes either, as the stability of the chords are
disturbed. It is always important to examine the context on a case by case basis.
Additionally, performers today sometimes decide on the temperament to use in
their performance fairly late in the process of preparation. They are also often chosen
merely by examining the notes present, without giving careful thought to the context
surrounding them. There is scope for the characteristics of different tunings to stimulate
interpretation, and the study of such to be more integrated into the preparation. This can
potentially provide more insight into the works.

5
Current State of Research
Two theses which come close to the current research project are Joseph Victor Pollard’s
‘Tuning and Temperament in Southern Germany to the End of the Seventeenth Century’
(1985) and Edmundo Pacheco Hora's ‘As obras de Froberger no contexto do
temperamento mesotonico’ (Works of Froberger in the Context of Meantone Tuning)
(2004). Hora concludes that Froberger had a circular temperament in mind for at least
some of his works. Pollard looks at the primary sources and discusses various
temperaments from the period. He also looks at Froberger's music and analyses pitches
contained within, in a mathematical way. He concludes that various forms of meantone
temperament are the most appropriate for his music, provided that the performer is
allowed to apply the ‘sideways shift’.4 Although a vast amount of information has been
included, the discussion of the context in which these notes appear could be taken much
further. One particular area missed by the method employed by Pollard is the
dissonances created by notes that fall within the 12 notes available in quarter-comma
meantone but combined in such a way to create wolf intervals. For example, composers
sometimes use G# and C which are part of the 12 notes available, but combined
together, they make an interval of a diminished fourth which would sound like the wolf
even though it is in tune as a diminished fourth. Pollard's method does not pick up the
use of these intervals, which is one of the devices Froberger uses as part of his harmonic
language.
A vast amount of literature exists on the subject of temperament. One important
book, though now quite old, is J. Murray Barbour’s Tuning and Temperament: A
Historical Survey (1972). Charles A. Padgham’s The Well-Tempered Organ (1986) is
4
The ‘sideways shift’ is a term Pollard gave an exercise of moving the wolf fifth about, according to the
necessary pitches in each piece. For example, if D# is required but no E♭, the wolf could be placed
between the D# and the B♭; if E♭ is needed but not D#, the wolf can be placed between G# and E♭.
6
often used by harpsichord tuners today as it contains useful information about the main
historical temperaments. A more recent publication Unequal Temperaments: Theory,
History and Practice by Claudio Di Veroli provides a comprehensive guide to
performers and scholars alike and is one of the most important reference books on the
subject today.
Three articles written by Christopher Stembridge and Denzil Wraight in the
1990s, 'Music for Cimbalo Cromatico and Other Split-Keyed Instruments in
Seventeenth Century Italy' (1992), 'The Cimbalo Cromatico and Other Italian Keyboard
Instruments with Nineteen or More Divisions to the Octave (Surviving Specimens and
Documentary Evidence)' (1993), and 'Italian Split-Keyed Instruments with Fewer than
Nineteen Divisions to the Octave' (1994) give detailed information about instruments
and music for keyboards with more than 12 divisions to the octave. More recently, Ibo
Ortgies's article from 2003, 'Subsemitones in Organs Built Between 1468 and 1721' as
well as Eleanor Smith's dissertation, 'A Discussion of the Use of Divided-Accidental
Keys in Italian Strung-Keyboard Instruments pre-1700' completed in 2008 also deal
with the subject, and a comprehensive book by Patricio Barbieri, Enharmonic
Instruments and Music 1470-1900 was published also in 2008. Much of Barbieri's work
was originally in Italian, and he quotes from numerous sources of the period. A list of
instruments accompanies Ortgies's and Smith's documents, and an up-to-date list
compiled by Wraight is also available to download from his website. 5 In addition,
information about instruments with more than 12 notes to the octave can also be found
in important books about harpsichords in general. These include The Harpsichord and
Clavichord (1973) by Raymond Russell, Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord
5
The version currently available (most recently accessed on the 15th April 2015) is a version dated the
24th November 2010. (http://www.denzilwraight.com/download.htm)
7
1440-1840 (1995) by Donald H. Boalch and A History of the Harpsichord (2003) by
Edward L. Kottick.
Unfortunately, no theoretical work exists by Froberger himself. The literature on
Froberger is found in journal articles, a chapter in a book of collected essays, and theses.
Avo Somer's dissertation, 'The Keyboard Music of Johann Jakob Froberger' (1962) was
the first comprehensive survey of his works written in English, and though now more
than 50 years old, remains the most substantial work on Froberger's music to date. It
approaches the repertoire from a compositional and historical viewpoint. New sources
have been found which have led to the discovery of wrongly attributed works and
previously unknown works. Other theses include Howard Schott's dissertation 'A
Critical Edition of the Works of J.J. Froberger' (1977), which led to the publication of
the complete works of Froberger by Heugel; ‘The Toccatas of Johann Jakob Froberger:
A Study of Style and Aspects of Organ Performance’ by James Walter Kosnik (1979);
‘An Analytical Study of Selected Toccatas of Johann Jakob Froberger: Some Possible
Insights into Problems of Performance Practice’ (1976) by Edith Henry Kilbuck; '
Performance Practice of the Keyboard Music of Johann Jacob Froberger' (1992) by
Terence John Norman and a study of the sources for the toccatas by Akira Ishii in his
thesis ‘The Toccatas and Contrapuntal Keyboard Works of Johann Jacob Froberger: A
Study of the Principal Sources’ (1999).
Editions and Sources for Froberger's Works
There are numerous sources available for Froberger’s works. The most important and
authoritative of these are the three autograph volumes held at the Austrian National
Library (Österreichische Nationalbibliothek) in Vienna (Mus. Hs. 18706, 18707 and
16560). 'Libro Secondo' (II, 1649) and 'Libro Quarto' (IV, 1656) are dedicated to the
8
Emperor Ferdinand III, and 'Libro di capricci e ricercati' (c.1658) to his successor,
Leopold I.6 'Libro Secondo' and 'Libro Quarto' are considered to be 'among the most
handsome copies ever produced by a composer of his own works.' (Hill 1988, vi)
Unfortunately, 'Libro Primo' and 'Libro Terzo' have not survived.7
All the volumes have been marked with the Latin words ‘m pria’ (manu propria)
which indicates that it was written out by the composer. 8 Robert Hill examines the
authenticity of these volumes in the introduction to the facsimile edition published in
1988, and comes to the conclusion that they had been either written out by the composer
himself or by a copyist working closely under his supervision (Hill 1988, vi). Other
musicians have also recognised the importance of these three volumes. Richard Egarr,
in his notes to his recording, states: 'I have used the three autographs alone for those
pieces contained therein, as I consider them of absolute value.' (Egarr 1994, 9)
Froberger's works have also been passed down in many other copied sources
which vary in importance. Some 60 sources have been used in the preparation of the
New Froberger Edition edited by Siegbert Rampe. Several new sources have been
discovered in the last 20 years alone, and Volume I, which was originally published in
1993, already had two revisions by 2008.9
In 1999, a source that once belonged to the archives of Berlin Sing-Akademie,
known by its catalogue number SA 4450, was found in Kiev. It is not in the composer's
own hand, and contains toccatas and suites as well as two single-movement works with
programmatic titles. Many of the opening movements of the suites also bear descriptive
6
For a detailed description of the three volumes, see the Introduction to the facsimile edition by Robert
Hill (1988).
7
The title page of 'Libro di capricci e ricercati' has 'Libro Terzo' written on it. However, it has been
established that this is a late addition and the true 'Libro Terzo' appears to have been lost (Hill 1988, vi).
8
The 'manu propria' marking in itself is not enough to prove it being written out by the composer. In
some later collections of his music, for example in the Bauyn manuscript, the copyist did not seem to
realise the meaning of the 'manu propria' marking, and blindly copied it out. However, in the case of the
Viennese manuscripts, it has been established that these markings are genuine.
9
For detailed information on the sources used in each of the volumes for the New Froberger edition, see
the Preface to each volume.
9
titles. The discovery of this manuscript is significant because it contains some new
information which helps to enrich the understanding of his works. For example, the
work to which the title Allemande, faite en passante le Rhin, dans unde barque en grand
peril was given has been finally identified as the opening movement of the Suite in E
minor, FbWV 627. Scholars previously suspected that the title belonged to the Suite in
E♭ major, FbWV 631.10
SA 4450 also contains a different version of some previously known works. The
most notable is the Tombeau de Monsieur de Blancrocher, FbWV 632a, in which there
is an extended written-out trill towards the end of the work which is absent in the
previously-known version.
Peter Wollny, the editor of Barenreiter's facsimile edition of SA 4450, considers
this manuscript to be very important:
SA4450 advances to the top of the list of sources for all works not
found in Froberger’s four [sic] Viennese autographs, even
surpassing in accuracy such first-rate sources as the Bulyowsky
MS and Ms. XIV 743 from the Minoritenkonvent in Vienna.
(Wollny 2006, XIX)11
He also comments that 'its lavish leather binding, the superior quality of its paper, and
the meticulous handwriting of its otherwise unknown copyist set it apart from the
usually plain and utilitarian manuscripts from that time' (Wollny 2006, XVII). For these
reasons this study will focus mainly on works included in the three Viennese autographs
and manuscript SA 4450.
Another exciting source which has been discovered recently, is the manuscript
which was auctioned at Sotheby's in London in November 2006 but unfortunately
10
For example in Volume IV.1 of Rampe's edition of Froberger's works (Rampe 2003, 18).
11
For a detailed description of the volumes, see Wollny.
10
cannot be included in the present study. It contains 20 works in total, 15 of which have
been unknown until now.12 The works have been signed ‘m pria’ (manu propria) and
the source is believed to be an autograph, although it is not believed to be either of the
missing 'Libro Primo' or 'Libro Terzo' (Maguire 2006, 5). This source is significant
because 'none of the pieces in this manuscript exist in autograph elsewhere.' (Maguire
2006, 7). It is also believed that it dates from the last years of the composer's life, and
cannot have been compiled before 1662 as there is a Tombeau on the death of Leopold
Friderich of Württemberg, husband of Duchess Sibylla, who died in 1662.
The previously-known works are six fantasies, six caprices, a suite in F major, a
Meditation and a Tombeau and five other pieces. The current whereabouts of the
volume is not publicly known, and Sotheby's is unable to reveal the current or the
previous owner(s). In the auction catalogue, parts of the Meditation in D major, the end
of the Lamentation FbWV 633, the beginning of an unknown Meditation, and the end of
a piece written in open score which appears to end on an E major chord are included. If
the manuscript is made accessible, it is expected not only to increase Froberger's
publicly-known output by a significant number of pieces but also to provide more
reliable readings for the works that are already published.
In terms of modern publications, there are three main editions published over the
last 60 years. Guido Adler's Denkmäler der Tonkunst in Österreich (DTO) was the first
comprehensive edition of Froberger's works and was published in 1959. It contains all
of Froberger's works that were known at the time. Later research has revealed that some
works were misattributed, repeated, or omitted. The edition by Howard Schott was
published in 1977 by Heugel. This was divided into four volumes, Tomes 1 and 2, each
12
The catalogue claims to have 18 hitherto unknown works, but there appears to be just 15.
11
containing two volumes. Tome 1 contains the three Austrian autographs and Tome 2
contains the remaining pieces which are passed down only in the copied sources.
Barenreiter's New Froberger Edition edited by Siegbert Rampe, which is yet to
be completed, will have seven volumes in total. Volumes I and II contain works
included in the three Austrian autographs, and Volumes III, IV and V are divided into
two books each and contain works from various copied sources. Volume VI is also
divided into two books and contains a modern edition of the SA 4450, and Volume VII
will contain two vocal motets, the only non-keyboard works known to have been
written by the composer, and a thematic catalogue of all of his works. Rampe's edition
adopt a numbering system using FbWV (Froberger-Werke-Verzeichnis) numbers which
makes identification of the works clearer.
In addition, there is a facsimile edition of the SA 4450 accompanied by a
modern transcription edited by Peter Wollny. The publication of two modern
transcriptions of the same manuscript by two different editors from the same publisher
seems surprising, and they seem to follow different editorial policies.
While Wollny's edition provides invaluable information with the inclusion of the
facsimile of SA 4450, he has modernised the way accidentals are applied in his
transcription. Instead of the accidentals being applied to each note as it was the practice
at the time of Froberger, they stay effective for the whole bar. He has also added some
editorial accidentals without comment, some of which affect the present study. Barline
arrangements have also been modernised and so his transcriptions contain many more
barlines than the original.
On the other hand, although Rampe's edition is not free from minor errors, he
has preserved the old practice of adding accidentals to individual notes, which makes it
easier for readers to identify what was contained in the original source. He also
12
preserves the original barlines. Rampe claims that he had no access to SA 4450 when he
was preparing volumes III and IV, hence a separate volume needed to be issued to cover
information contained in this source (Rampe 2010, XV).
When references are made to various sources in this study, the same
abbreviations as those used in Rampe's New Froberger Edition have been employed. It
is beyond the scope of this study to include an examination of all the sources used for
the edition. However, the facsimile editions of the Viennese autographs as well as SA
4450 are invaluable.
Pitch Notation
The pitches referred to in this study are based on the Helmholz notation widely used
today. Figure 1 shows a musical representation of the pitches, and how they are referred
to in the body of the text. Non-specific pitches are in capital letters italicised.
Figure 1: Pitch notation
CC BB C B c b c1 b1 c2 b2 c3 b3
Summary
This study is divided into three chapters. Chapter I discusses the main historical
temperaments known in the Baroque period, including quarter-comma meantone, sixth-
comma meantone as well as selected circular temperaments such as Werckmeister III,
Kirnberger III, Vallotti and the French Tempérament Ordinaire. Although the main
13
focus of this study is on meantone temperaments, discussion about later temperaments
are also included so that a greater understanding of the subject of temperaments can
help to put earlier temperaments into perspective.
Chapter II discusses instruments from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
with particular emphasis on instruments with divided keys. When meantone
temperament was prevalent, musicians were restricted to having 12 notes to the octave.
They then experimented with providing enharmonic alternatives by dividing certain
accidentals. There were also many experiments made with different ways to divide the
octave.
Chapter III comprises case studies of Froberger's music, analysing in detail the
context in which notes which lie beyond the normal disposition of quarter-comma
meantone appear. It takes into account harmonic and rhythmic structures, note values
and pitch as well as considering whether extra-musical stimuli affect Froberger's use of
notes outside the normal boundaries of meantone tuning.
The objective of the present study is to produce an informative document that
performers can consult when preparing to play Froberger's music, especially in terms of
the ways to tune the harpsichord. It is hoped that this study will contribute to a deeper
understanding of Froberger’s musical language, and that present methods of research
can be applied to the music of other composers.

14
CHAPTER I
Temperament
This chapter provides an overview of historical temperaments. It explains why
temperaments are necessary and looks at the ways musicians divided the octave in the
past. It also discusses the historical background, as well as the physical characteristics
and the context in which each temperament was devised.
Until relatively recently when equal temperament became the norm,1 musicians
constantly experimented with different ways to divide the octave, since it is not possible
to divide it in such a way that allowed all intervals to be pure. In a circle of fifths
starting on C, the last note which completes the circle is B# and should be an
enharmonic of C for it to be useful: C-G-D-A-E-B-F#-C#-G#-D#-A#-E#-B#. However,
if all the fifths are tuned pure, there is a discrepancy between this B# and the C on
which the circle started. This is called the 'Pythagorean comma', and can be calculated
as follows:
Since a pure fifth (3/2) is 701.96 cents,2 it needs to be multiplied by 12
in order to calculate the pitch of the B# in cents (701.96 x 12 =
8423.52 cents). Seven octaves (8400 cents) would then need to be
taken away from this number in order to work out the discrepancy
(8423.52 – 8400 = 23.52 cents).
This shows that a scale cannot be produced by using only pure intervals. Additionally,
when all fifths are tuned pure, the resulting thirds are 21.53 cents wider than pure. If the
1
Although the use of equal temperament has been talked about since the sixteenth century, it was not
widely used until at least the nineteenth century and seems to have been limited for use on fretted
instruments including the lute and the instruments of the viol family (Cyr 1992, 66; Rowland 2001, 40;
Pollard 1985, 89). Equal temperament was also disapproved by many musicians in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries (Cyr 1992, 67).
2
Cents are used to measure the size of an interval. A.J. Ellis is credited with devising the idea of cents as
a unit for measuring intervals around 1880 (Lindley, Campbell and Greated, 2001). An equal-
temperament semitone is 100 cents and therefore an octave is 1200 cents.
15
circle begins on C and each fifth is tuned pure, the resulting third between C and E is
calculated as follows:
There are four fifths between the notes C and E (C-G-D-A-E).
Therefore, 701.96 needs to be multiplied by 4 which gives 2807.84
cents (701.96 x 4 = 2807.84 cents), from which two octaves are taken
away (2807.84 – 2400 = 407.84 cents). Since a pure third is 386.31
cents, this is 21.53 cents wider than pure (407.84-386.31 = 21.53
cents). This is called the 'syntonic comma'.
The following table gives pure intervals in cents.
Table 1. List of pure intervals in cents
Number of cents
Interval Ratio
when pure
Chromatic/Diatonic semitone 70.67 // 111.73 25/24 // 16/15
Major Tone 203.91 9/8
Minor Third 315.64 6/5
Major Third 386.31 5/4
Fourth 498.04 4/3
Augmented Fourth 590.22 45/32
Fifth 701.96 3/2
Minor Sixth 813.69 8/5
Major Sixth 884.36 5/3
Minor Seventh 996.09 16/9
Major Seventh 1088.27 15/8
Octave 1200 2/1
During the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, theorists wrote about
different ways to tune fixed-pitch keyboard instruments and to distribute the comma
around the circle. According to the musical style of each period, musicians had a
different set of priorities. During medieval times, music required pure fifths, but this
meant that the thirds were not pure, whereas by the Renaissance, they needed more
stable and harmonious thirds (Silbiger 2004, 374).
Temperaments can be divided into three categories: those consisting of as many

16
pure intervals as possible, such as the Pythagorean tuning;3 those in which all the fifths
are tempered equally, known as regular (non-circular) temperament; and those in which
the fifths are tempered to a varying degree throughout the circle of fifths known as
irregular (circular) temperaments.
Regular Temperaments
1. Meantone Temperaments
Meantone temperament is defined as a method of tuning in which a major third is
divided into two tones of the same size (Lindley 2001). There are a number of variants
including quarter, fifth and sixth-comma meantone. Many scholars credit the Italian
theorist Pietro Aaron as the first to describe the quarter-comma meantone in 1523.4 In
this temperament, all the fifths are tempered by a quarter of the syntonic comma, i.e.
5.38 cents, in order to achieve pure major thirds, which are 21.53 cents too wide when
fifths are tuned pure.5 As a result, this temperament has many pure major thirds, but the
tempering of a quarter of a comma throughout the circle results in over-compensating
the comma, leaving one fifth very wide and not useable. This is known as the 'wolf'. All
meantone temperaments are characterized by having the wolf making some of the
intervals unusable. 6 There are also two different sizes of the semitone in this
temperament, chromatic and diatonic. Track 1 on the accompanying CD demonstrates
the wolf interval E♭-G#, and Track 2 is a chromatic scale played in quarter-comma
3
Strictly speaking, these do not classify as ‘temperaments’, since nothing in them is tempered.
4
Writers claim Aaron’s description is rather vague. Some writers including Montague believe Zarlino’s
writing in 1571 to be the first accurate description of quarter-comma meantone. The most detailed
description is given by Michael Praetorius (1571-1621) in his Syntagma Musicum in 1619 (Cyr 1992, 66;
Pollard 1985, 57; Praetorius 1619).
5
If one were to achieve a pure third in this set-up, then one would need to distribute 21.53 cents among
the four fifths within it. Therefore, if each fifth is tuned 5.38 cents narrow (i.e. 21.53 ÷ 4) one can achieve
a pure third.
6
The wolf fifth is typically between the G# and E♭ and in quarter-comma meantone is calculated as 35.66
cents. It is also possible to shift the location of the wolf to accommodate the needs of a specific piece as
would be discussed later in this dissertation.
17
meantone.
In meantone temperaments, the purity of the intervals in the keys that are
usable is equal. Table 2 examines the purity of the triads by showing deviations from
the pure intervals in cents. For simplicity, the Pythagorean comma is rounded up to 24
cents and therefore a quarter of a comma is here 6 cents. Numbers along the ‘Tempering
of fiths’ row show how much the fifths are tempered for each of the fifths, and the
numbers on the lower two rows indicate the deviation from the pure major and minor
thirds. Negative numbers indicate that the interval is narrower than pure, and positive
numbers wider than pure.
Table 2. Quality of triads in quarter-comma meantone
¼ comma MT Eb Bb F C G D A E B F# C# G#
Tempering of 5ths -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 +36
(cents)
Tempering of 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 41 41 41 41
major 3rds (cents)
Tempering of -46 -46 -46 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5
minor 3rds (cents)
As the table indicates, triads in the major keys of C, G, D, A, E, F, B♭ and E♭ all
have a pure major third and the intonation is excellent. On the other hand, the remaining
triads on B, F#, C# and G# all have a third that is too wide and so are not satisfactory to
serve as harmonious major chords.
A milder version of the meantone tuning is the sixth-comma meantone in which
the fifths are tempered by a sixth of the comma. There seems to be disagreement among
writers on which comma this is, however. The problem may stem from theorists of the
past. Georg Andreas Sorge (1703-1778) did not distinguish between the syntonic and
Pythagorean commas in his writings and some writers today use the sixth of the
syntonic comma, while others use the sixth of the Pythagorean comma for this
18
temperament.7 From a practical point of view, the difference is hardly perceptible, and
this would not affect the results in the present study. In addition, as the sixth comma
meantone does not contain any pure intervals, it is not easy to tune accurately by ear.8
For the purpose of this study, therefore, the Pythagorean comma has been used, which
agrees with Padgham's publication (1986). Table 3 shows the calculations.
In sixth-comma meantone, the wolf is less pronounced. There are eight good
major triads and four unusable ones, although they are not as unpleasant as in quarter-
comma meantone. This temperament is sometimes known as Silbermann’s temperament
after Gottfried Silbermann (1683-1753) who was a German organ builder, and J. S.
Bach is known to have played on Silbermann’s organs most likely tuned in
Silbermann’s temperament (Padgham 1986, 58). Track 3 demonstrates the wolf interval
E♭-G# and Track 4 is a chromatic scale played in sixth-comma meantone.
Table 3. Quality of triads in sixth-comma meantone
1/6 comma MT Eb Bb F C G D A E B F# C# G#
Tempering of 5ths -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 +20
(cents)
Tempering of 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 29 29 29 29
major 3rds (cents)
Tempering of -33 -33 -33 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10 -10
minor 3rds (cents)
There are other variants of meantone tuning, including 1/3 comma meantone by
the Spanish theorist Francisco de Salinas (1513-1590), 2/7 comma meantone by the
Italian Gioseffo Zarlino (1517-1590), as well as the fifth comma meantone (Lindley
2001; Padgham 1986, 58; Pollard 1985, 66).
Although not many theorists comment on this, and the only known reference to
this practice from the period is mentioned by Giovanni Paolo Cima (1570-1622) in the
7
Padgham's description uses the Pythagorean comma (Padgham 1986, 60) while Di Veroli's use the
syntonic comma (Di Veroli 2009, 75).
8
The author is grateful to Dominic Eckersley for pointing this out.
19
appendix to his Ricercari & Canzoni alla francese published in 1606 (Lindley 2001;
Rayner 1969), it can probably be assumed that harpsichordists shifted the wolf as
necessary. Pollard also comments:
There can be little doubt that, because of the advantages it offered in
extending the note vocabulary flatwards or sharpwards, and the
consequences if it were not practised, retuning to accommodate a
sideways shift was an accepted expedient for the harpsichord. (Pollard
1985, 126)
As will be shown in Chapter II, this is supported further by the existence of more organs
than harpsichords with split keys. Since retuning is much harder on the organ, they
needed split keys more than harpsichords to accommodate a wider range of keys. It is
assumed that harpsichords were simply retuned as necessary.
2. Equal Temperament
Interestingly, equal temperament also belongs to the category of regular temperaments
as the tempering of the fifths around the circle of fifths in this temperament is
completely equal. Although the use of equal temperament has been talked about since
the sixteenth century, and fretted instruments including the lute and the instruments of
the viol family seemed to adopt it fairly early, it was not widely used until at least the
nineteenth century (Cyr 1992, 66; Pollard 1985, 89; Rowland 2001, 40). Equal
temperament was also disapproved by many musicians throughout history, including
Kirnberger and Francois Couperin, (Cyr 1992, 67; Lindley 2001; Kirnberger 1776-
1779), but Frescobaldi with whom Froberger spent a period of time studying, is often
considered to have been a supporter of equal temperament (Cyr 1992, 66), although
Frederick Hammond in his book Girolamo Frescobaldi claims that there is no evidence
to suggest that Frescobaldi was an advocate of equal temperament (Hammond 1983,

20
107).9
In equal temperament, an octave is divided into twelve equal semitones, and
each fifth is tempered by 1/12 of the Pythagorean comma. It is a versatile temperament,
and suits today’s musical environment since it allows complete freedom in modulation.
In this temperament, no interval is pure, but they are consistent, making all of the keys
similar. It is, however, not wise to tune harpsichords in equal temperament. Ann Bond
in A Guide to the Harpsichord explains:
Equal temperament … does not produce a good sonority on the
harpsichord. The rich harmonics of harpsichord sound derive much of
their strength from the sympathetic resonance of nearby strings with
which they share simple frequency-relationships; if there are no pure
intervals, this reinforcement cannot take place. (Bond 2001, 227)
Table 4. Quality of triads in equal temperament
Equal Temp E♭ B♭ F C G D A E B F# C# G#
Tempering of 5ths -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2
(cents)
Tempering of 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14
major 3rds (cents)
Tempering of -16 -16 -16 -16 -16 -16 -16 -16 -16 -16 -16 -16
minor 3rds (cents)
Table 4 shows the quality of triads in equal temperament. For the keys of up to
two sharps or two flats, equal temperament has, by far, furthest-from-pure intonation
out of all the temperaments discussed in this chapter. For major keys with many sharps
or flats, such as F#/G♭, C#/D♭ and G#/A♭, the intonation is much better, however.
Mersenne in 1636 compares equal and meantone temperaments and concludes that
‘meantone’s strength is the purity of its intervals, whereas equal temperament could
provide a much needed standard of pitch.’ (Pollard 1985, 141)
9
Doni is often cited as having claimed that Frescobaldi was an advocate.
21
Irregular Temperaments
Irregular temperaments include those suggested by Werckmeister, Kirnberger and
Vallotti, all of which are popular temperaments among performers of Baroque music
today. Unlike meantone temperaments, these have no unusable key, allowing more
freedom in modulation. Since tempering is not consistent throughout the circle, each
key has its distinctive characteristics. These temperaments started developing not only
because meantone temperaments has unusable keys, but also because there was no
distinction in usable triads. Blood comments:
For writers like Werckmeister (1645-1706), Johann George Neidhardt
(1685-1759), and Francesco Vallotti (1697-1780), a good
temperament was one whose circle of fifths was closed (wolf-free)
and thus playable through all the keys, and whose major and minor
intervals [thirds and sixths] varied in size systematically: in order to
favour the more common scales and triads, the most heavily tempered
of these intervals were placed in keys with the greatest number of
sharps or flats, and the purest in those with the least. The effect of this
irregular construction is quite striking; it enlivens the harmony and
emphasizes modulation by contrasting key qualities. (Blood 1979,
491)
The idea of key characteristics originate from the time when circular temperaments
became popular, and it was one of the most fascinating and discussed topics.
1. Werckmeister III
Andreas Werckmeister (1645-1706) was a German theorist and composer, as well as
organist and organ examiner. He is remembered particularly for his temperament dating
from 1691 which is today referred to as Werckmeister III (Padgham 1986, 62). In this
22
temperament, four of the fifths, namely C-G, G-D, D-A and B-F#, are tempered by a
quarter of the Pythagorean comma while the remaining fifths are tuned pure. As a result,
none of the thirds are pure in this temperament, but the best thirds lie between C-E and
F-A. Since it is a irregular temperament, the quality of intonation varies according to the
triad, and it has good intonation in the keys of C and F major, and Pythagorean thirds in
the keys of G#, C# and F# major. Table 5 shows the quality of the triads in
Werckmeister III.
Table 5. Quality of triads in Werckmeister III
Werckmeister III E♭ B♭ F C G D A E B F# C# G#
Tempering of 5ths 0 0 0 -6 -6 -6 0 0 -6 0 0 0
(cents)
Tempering of 16 10 4 4 10 10 16 16 16 22 22 22
major 3rds (cents)
Tempering of -22 -22 -22 -22 -16 -10 -4 -10 -16 -16 -16 -16
minor 3rds (cents)
According to Charles Padgham, a surprisingly large number of organs in the UK
were tuned in this temperament at the time of the publication of his book, The Well-
Tempered Organ (1986). In it, he provides a list of organs tuned in unequal
temperaments, and Werckmeister III features frequently on this list. Other
temperaments that appear on the list include various types of meantone temperaments,
with some organs tuned in quarter-comma meantone.
2. Kirnberger III
Johann Philipp Kirnberger (1721-1783) was a pupil of J.S. Bach. For this reason, some
considered it possible that one of his temperaments was favoured by Bach, but this idea
is no longer popular as J.S. Bach allegedly taught Kirnberger to tune all thirds wider
than pure, and none of the Kirnberger temperaments satisfy this criteria (Padgham 1986,
40).
Kirnberger proposed a few temperaments, the third of which was devised in

23
1779 and is the best-known. Interestingly, all his temperaments result in having the
interval C-E pure, and in Kirnberger III this results from tempering the fifths within it
exactly as in quarter-comma meantone. As a result, the sonorities in the keys with few
sharps and flats resemble that in meantone temperament. Kirnberger appears to have
had a strong preference for a pure major third which is reflected in his temperaments
and also in his disapproval of equal temperament (Cyr 1992, 67).
As a person, he was said to have been ‘emotional and ill-tempered, but dedicated
to the highest musical standards.’ He also needed others to present his ideas in a
coherent way since ‘although his musical knowledge was wide and profound, it was,
according to his contemporaries, disorganised. He found it so difficult to express his
ideas in writing that he had to call on others to edit or even rewrite his theoretical
works.’ (Serwer 2001)
In this temperament, the fifths C-G, G-D, D-A, A-E are tempered exactly as in
quarter-comma meantone, each narrowed by a quarter of the syntonic comma. It has
very good intonation in keys with few sharps and flats and has wide-ranging key
flavours from a pure major third on the C major triad to Pythagorean major thirds on C#
and G# major chords. The quality of the triads in Kirnberger III is shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Quality of triads in Kirnberger III
Kirnberger III E♭ B♭ F C G D A E B F# C# G#
Tempering of 5ths 0 0 0 -5 -5 -5 -5 0 0 -2 0 0
(cents)
Tempering of 16 11 5 0 5 11 14 20 20 20 22 22
major 3rds (cents)
Tempering of -20 -22 -22 -22 -22 -22 -11 0 0 -11 -20 -20
minor 3rds (cents)
3. Vallotti (c. 1730), Neidhardt I, and Barnes
Francesco Antonio Vallotti (1697-1780) was an Italian theorist and composer. This
temperament is probably the most popular and widely used of the historical
24
temperaments today. It is also the only temperament which has a completely
symmetrical structure in the quality of the thirds. Major thirds on F, C and G are equally
in tune, and D-F# is just as in tune as B♭-D, A-C# as E♭-G and so on. This neat design
probably also contributed to its becoming the most popular temperament in Baroque
performance today. In this temperament, six fifths, namely F-C, C-G, G-D, D-A, A-E
and E-B, are tempered by a sixth of the Pythagorean comma while the rest of the fifths
are left pure. Table 7 summarises the quality of the triads in Vallotti.
Table 7. Quality of triads in Vallotti
Vallotti E♭ B♭ F C G D A E B F# C# G#
Tempering of 5ths 0 0 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 0 0 0 0
(cents)
Tempering of 14 10 6 6 6 10 14 18 22 22 22 18
major 3rds (cents)
Tempering of -22 -22 -22 -18 -14 -10 -10 -10 -10 -14 -18 -22
minor 3rds (cents)
There are a number of variants to this temperament that theorists have suggested,
including a temperament suggested by Johann Georg Neidhardt (1685-1739). An exact
contemporary of J.S. Bach, Neidhardt’s temperament is a step closer to equal
temperament and the only temperament other than equal temperament itself to employ
the 1/12 comma tempering. This makes the keys with many sharps and flats, in
particular F# and C# major triads, better than any other temperaments discussed here
apart from equal temperament, although the purity of the keys with fewer sharps and
flats is not as good. Table 8 shows the quality of the triads in Neidhardt I.
Table 8. Quality of triads in Neidhardt I
Neidhardt I E♭ B♭ F C G D A E B F# C# G#
Tempering of 5ths -2 0 0 -4 -4 -4 -4 -2 -2 0 0 -2
(cents)
Tempering of 16 14 10 6 8 10 14 18 18 18 18 18
major 3rds (cents)
Tempering of -20 -18 -18 -20 -18 -14 -10 -10 -12 -14 -18 -20
minor 3rds (cents)
25
A temperament proposed by John Barnes (1979) is also worth a mention. In his
article, ‘Bach’s keyboard temperament: Internal evidence from the Well-Tempered
Clavier’, he examines Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier by assessing the occurrence of
major thirds and convincingly shows that Bach may have intended it to be played with a
temperament similar to Werckmeister III. He also suggests a temperament of his own,
which he claims better suits his data from the analysis of the ‘internal evidence’. The
new temperament looks very much like the one suggested by Vallotti.
The only difference between Barnes’s and Vallotti’s temperaments is that the
fifth A-E is tuned pure and instead the fifth B-F# is tempered by the sixth of the
Pythagorean comma. This is somewhat similar to the arrangement in Werckmeister III
and the resulting temperament is somewhat in between Werckmeister and Vallotti.
Table 9 shows the quality of the triads in Barnes's temperament.
Table 9. Quality of triads in Barnes
Barnes E♭ B♭ F C G D A E B F# C# G#
Tempering of 5ths 0 0 -4 -4 -4 -4 -4 0 -4 0 0 0
(cents)
Tempering of 14 10 6 6 10 10 14 18 18 22 22 18
major 3rds (cents)
Tempering of -22 -22 -22 -18 -14 -10 -10 -10 -14 -14 -18 -18
minor 3rds (cents)
4. French Tempérament Ordinaire
Tempérament ordinaire is a term used by theorists in France during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries to describe a temperament they considered the 'usual' temperament.
It is therefore not a term to describe a specific temperament. In the middle of the
seventeenth century, Jean Denis described a temperament in his Traité de l'accord de
l'espinette (1643) which can be interpreted as quarter-comma meantone, although, as
the tempering of the fifths is not specified, there are a few other temperaments which
also fit the description. Denis's treatise was significant as it was the first French
26
keyboard treatise to be written by a practitioner specifically on keyboard performance
practice. In 1691, Christiaan Huygens, in his 'Lettre touchant le cycle harmonique',
described quarter-comma meantone as the norm (Huygens 1691).
During the eighteenth-century, tempérament ordinaire referred to circulating
temperaments as described by Rameau (1726), d'Alembert (1752), Rousseau (1767) and
Mercadier (1776).
The tables on the next few pages have been prepared to show the sizes of each
interval in selected temperaments in more details. Each page consists of three tables: the
top table shows the size of the intervals in cents in each temperament, with the lower
note of the interval in question listed on the left hand side. Each interval is identified at
the top as semitone, tone, minor third and so on, and the number directly underneath
representing the number of cents in equal temperament of those intervals.
The next row directly beneath that with the C in the left column shows the basic
structure of the scale in the given temperament. The rest of the figures in the first table
are calculated by subtracting figures on the first row so that every interval can be
analysed.
The middle table compares the sizes of each interval against that when the
interval is pure and lists the difference in each case, i.e. the smaller the value, the closer
it is to the pure interval. If the value is 0, the interval is pure. Likewise, the third table
compares the sizes of each interval against those in equal temperament.
This chapter provided an overview of the historical temperaments. It looked at
meantone temperaments which had been prevalent until the end of the seventeenth
century, and discussed the modifications musicians made to them in the eighteenth-
century. Irregular temperaments became the norm in the eighteenth century and this is
when the idea of key characteristics started. The following chapter discusses how
27
musicians attempted to solve the problems associated with meantone temperaments
with the use of divided accidentals.

Table 10. Detailed analysis of intervals in quarter-comma meantone
Quarter-comma meantone
Lower Semitone Tone m3 M3 P4 aug 4/dim 5 P5 aug 5/ m6 M6 m7 M7 8ve
Note 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
C C# 76.06 D 193.16 Eb 310.32 E 386.32 F 503.48 F# 579.48 G 696.58 G# 772.64 A 889.74 Bb 1006.90 B 1082.90 C 1200
C# D 117.10 Eb 234.26 E 310.26 F 427.42 F# 503.42 G 620.52 G# 696.58 A 813.68 Bb 930.84 B 1006.84 C 1123.94 C# 1200
D Eb 117.16 E 193.16 F 310.32 F# 386.32 G 503.42 G# 579.48 A 696.58 Bb 813.74 B 889.74 C 1006.84 C# 1082.90 D 1200
Eb E 76.00 F 193.16 F# 269.16 G 386.26 G# 462.32 A 579.42 Bb 696.58 B 772.58 C 889.68 C# 965.74 D 1082.84 Eb 1200
E F 117.16 F# 193.16 G 310.26 G# 386.32 A 503.42 Bb 620.58 B 696.58 C 813.68 C# 889.74 D 1006.84 Eb 1124.00 E 1200
F F# 76.00 G 193.10 G# 269.16 A 386.26 Bb 503.42 B 579.42 C 696.52 C# 772.58 D 889.68 Eb 1006.84 E 1082.84 F 1200
F# G 117.10 G# 193.16 A 310.26 Bb 427.42 B 503.42 C 620.52 C# 696.58 D 813.68 Eb 930.84 E 1006.84 F 1124.00 F# 1200
G G# 76.06 A 193.16 Bb 310.32 B 386.32 C 503.42 C# 579.48 D 696.58 Eb 813.74 E 889.74 F 1006.90 F# 1082.90 G 1200
G# A 117.10 Bb 234.26 B 310.26 C 427.36 C# 503.42 D 620.52 Eb 737.68 E 813.68 F 930.84 F# 1006.84 G 1123.94 G# 1200
A Bb 117.16 B 193.16 C 310.26 C# 386.32 D 503.42 Eb 620.58 E 696.58 F 813.74 F# 889.74 G 1006.84 G# 1082.90 A 1200
Bb B 76.00 C 193.10 C# 269.16 D 386.26 Eb 503.42 E 579.42 F 696.58 F# 772.58 G 889.68 G# 965.74 A 1082.84 Bb 1200
B C 117.10 C# 193.16 D 310.26 Eb 427.42 E 503.42 F 620.58 F# 696.58 G 813.68 G# 889.74 A 1006.84 Bb 1124.00 B 1200
Deviation from the pure interval

C C# D Eb -5.32 E 0.01 F 5.44 F# G -5.38 G# A 5.38 Bb B C
C# D Eb E -5.38 F 41.11 F# 5.38 G G# -5.38 A Bb 46.48 B C C#
D Eb E F -5.32 F# 0.01 G 5.38 G# A -5.38 Bb B 5.38 C C# D
Eb E F F# -46.48 G -0.05 G# -35.72 A Bb -5.38 B C 5.32 C# D Eb
E F F# G -5.38 G# 0.01 A 5.38 Bb B -5.38 C C# 5.38 D Eb E
F F# G G# -46.48 A -0.05 Bb 5.38 B C -5.44 C# D 5.32 Eb E F
F# G G# A -5.38 Bb 41.11 B 5.38 C C# -5.38 D Eb 46.48 E F F#
G G# A Bb -5.32 B 0.01 C 5.38 C# D -5.38 Eb E 5.38 F F# G
G# A Bb B -5.38 C 41.05 C# 5.38 D Eb 35.72 E F 46.48 F# G G#
A Bb B C -5.38 C# 0.01 D 5.38 Eb E -5.38 F F# 5.38 G G# A
Bb B C C# -46.48 D -0.05 Eb 5.38 E F -5.38 F# G 5.32 G# A Bb
B C C# D -5.38 Eb 41.11 E 5.38 F F# -5.38 G G# 5.38 A Bb B
Deviation from Equal Temperament

C C# -23.94 D -6.84 Eb 10.32 E -13.68 F 3.48 F# -20.52 G -3.42 G# -27.36 A -10.26 Bb 6.9 B -17.1 C 0
C# D 17.1 Eb 34.26 E 10.26 F 27.42 F# 3.42 G 20.52 G# -3.42 A 13.68 Bb 30.84 B 6.84 C 23.94 C# 0
D Eb 17.16 E -6.84 F 10.32 F# -13.68 G 3.42 G# -20.52 A -3.42 Bb 13.74 B -10.26 C 6.84 C# -17.1 D 0
Eb E -24 F -6.84 F# -30.84 G -13.74 G# -37.68 A -20.58 Bb -3.42 B -27.42 C -10.32 C# -34.26 D -17.16 Eb 0
E F 17.16 F# -6.84 G 10.26 G# -13.68 A 3.42 Bb 20.58 B -3.42 C 13.68 C# -10.26 D 6.84 Eb 24 E 0
F F# -24 G -6.9 G# -30.84 A -13.74 Bb 3.42 B -20.58 C -3.48 C# -27.42 D -10.32 Eb 6.84 E -17.16 F 0
F# G 17.1 G# -6.84 A 10.26 Bb 27.42 B 3.42 C 20.52 C# -3.42 D 13.68 Eb 30.84 E 6.84 F 24 F# 0
G G# -23.94 A -6.84 Bb 10.32 B -13.68 C 3.42 C# -20.52 D -3.42 Eb 13.74 E -10.26 F 6.9 F# -17.1 G 0
A Bb 17.16 B -6.84 C 10.26 C# -13.68 D 3.42 Eb 20.58 E -3.42 F 13.74 F# -10.26 G 6.84 G# -17.1 A 0
Bb B -24 C -6.9 C# -30.84 D -13.74 Eb 3.42 E -20.58 F -3.42 F# -27.42 G -10.32 G# -34.26 A -17.16 Bb 0
B C 17.1 C# -6.84 D 10.26 Eb 27.42 E 3.42 F 20.58 F# -3.42 G 13.68 G# -10.26 A 6.84 Bb 24 B 0
28
Table 11. Detailed analysis of intervals in sixth-comma meantone
Sixth-comma Meantone
Note 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

C# D Eb E -9.79 F 29.35 F# 3.91 G G# -3.91 A Bb 33.25 B C C#
Eb E F F# -33.25 G 5.83 G# -19.55 A Bb -3.91 B C 9.73 C# D Eb
F F# G G# -33.25 A 5.83 Bb 3.91 B C -3.97 C# D 9.73 Eb E F
Bb B C C# -33.25 D 5.83 Eb 3.91 E F -3.91 F# G 9.73 G# A Bb

C C# -13.65 D -3.9 Eb 5.91 E -7.8 F 2.01 F# -11.7 G -1.95 G# -15.6 A -5.85 Bb 3.96 B -9.75 C 0
C# D 9.75 Eb 19.56 E 5.85 F 15.66 F# 1.95 G 11.7 G# -1.95 A 7.8 Bb 17.61 B 3.9 C 13.65 C# 0
D Eb 9.81 E -3.9 F 5.91 F# -7.8 G 1.95 G# -11.7 A -1.95 Bb 7.86 B -5.85 C 3.9 C# -9.75 D 0
Eb E -13.71 F -3.9 F# -17.61 G -7.86 G# -21.51 A -11.76 Bb -1.95 B -15.66 C -5.91 C# -19.56 D -9.81 Eb 0
E F 9.81 F# -3.9 G 5.85 G# -7.8 A 1.95 Bb 11.76 B -1.95 C 7.8 C# -5.85 D 3.9 Eb 13.71 E 0
F F# -13.71 G -3.96 G# -17.61 A -7.86 Bb 1.95 B -11.76 C -2.01 C# -15.66 D -5.91 Eb 3.9 E -9.81 F 0
F# G 9.75 G# -3.9 A 5.85 Bb 15.66 B 1.95 C 11.7 C# -1.95 D 7.8 Eb 17.61 E 3.9 F 13.71 F# 0
G G# -13.65 A -3.9 Bb 5.91 B -7.8 C 1.95 C# -11.7 D -1.95 Eb 7.86 E -5.85 F 3.96 F# -9.75 G 0
A Bb 9.81 B -3.9 C 5.85 C# -7.8 D 1.95 Eb 11.76 E -1.95 F 7.86 F# -5.85 G 3.9 G# -9.75 A 0
Bb B -13.71 C -3.96 C# -17.61 D -7.86 Eb 1.95 E -11.76 F -1.95 F# -15.66 G -5.91 G# -19.56 A -9.81 Bb 0
B C 9.75 C# -3.9 D 5.85 Eb 15.66 E 1.95 F 11.76 F# -1.95 G 7.8 G# -5.85 A 3.9 Bb 13.71 B 0
29
Table 12. Detailed analysis of intervals in Kirnberger
Kirnberger
Note 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

C# D Eb E -19.56 F 21.53 F# 1.96 G G# 0.00 A Bb 21.52 B C C#
Eb E F F# -19.56 G 16.11 G# 0.00 A Bb 0.00 B C 21.48 C# D Eb
E F F# G -5.38 G# 19.57 A 5.38 Bb B 0.00 C C# 19.56 D Eb E
Bb B C C# -21.52 D 10.73 Eb 0.00 E F 0.00 F# G 16.10 G# A Bb
B C C# D -10.76 Eb 19.57 E 0.00 F F# 0.00 G G# 19.56 A Bb B

C C# -9.76 D -6.84 Eb -5.84 E -13.68 F -1.92 F# -9.76 G -3.42 G# -7.8 A -10.26 Bb -3.88 B -11.72 C 0
C# D 2.92 Eb 3.92 E -3.92 F 7.84 F# 0 G 6.34 G# 1.96 A -0.5 Bb 5.88 B -1.96 C 9.76 C# 0
D Eb 1 E -6.84 F 4.92 F# -2.92 G 3.42 G# -0.96 A -3.42 Bb 2.96 B -4.88 C 6.84 C# -2.92 D 0
Eb E -7.84 F 3.92 F# -3.92 G 2.42 G# -1.96 A -4.42 Bb 1.96 B -5.88 C 5.84 C# -3.92 D -1 Eb 0
F F# -7.84 G -1.5 G# -5.88 A -8.34 Bb -1.96 B -9.8 C 1.92 C# -7.84 D -4.92 Eb -3.92 E -11.76 F 0
F# G 6.34 G# 1.96 A -0.5 Bb 5.88 B -1.96 C 9.76 C# 0 D 2.92 Eb 3.92 E -3.92 F 7.84 F# 0
G G# -4.38 A -6.84 Bb -0.46 B -8.3 C 3.42 C# -6.34 D -3.42 Eb -2.42 E -10.26 F 1.5 F# -6.34 G 0
G# A -2.46 Bb 3.92 B -3.92 C 7.8 C# -1.96 D 0.96 Eb 1.96 E -5.88 F 5.88 F# -1.96 G 4.38 G# 0
A Bb 6.38 B -1.46 C 10.26 C# 0.5 D 3.42 Eb 4.42 E -3.42 F 8.34 F# 0.5 G 6.84 G# 2.46 A 0
Bb B -7.84 C 3.88 C# -5.88 D -2.96 Eb -1.96 E -9.8 F 1.96 F# -5.88 G 0.46 G# -3.92 A -6.38 Bb 0
B C 11.72 C# 1.96 D 4.88 Eb 5.88 E -1.96 F 9.8 F# 1.96 G 8.3 G# 3.92 A 1.46 Bb 7.84 B 0
30
Table 13. Detailed analysis of intervals in Werckmeister III
Werckmeister III
Note 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

E F F# G -9.78 G# 15.66 A 0.00 Bb B 0.00 C C# 15.65 D Eb E
F# G G# A -15.65 Bb 21.53 B 5.87 C C# 0.00 D Eb 21.52 E F F#
A Bb B C -3.91 C# 15.66 D 5.87 Eb E 0.00 F F# 15.65 G G# A

C C# -9.76 D -7.82 Eb -5.84 E -9.77 F -1.92 F# -11.72 G -3.91 G# -7.8 A -11.73 Bb -3.88 B -7.81 C 0
C# D 1.94 Eb 3.92 E -0.01 F 7.84 F# -1.96 G 5.85 G# 1.96 A -1.97 Bb 5.88 B 1.95 C 9.76 C# 0
D Eb 1.98 E -1.95 F 5.9 F# -3.9 G 3.91 G# 0.02 A -3.91 Bb 3.94 B 0.01 C 7.82 C# -1.94 D 0
Eb E -3.93 F 3.92 F# -5.88 G 1.93 G# -1.96 A -5.89 Bb 1.96 B -1.97 C 5.84 C# -3.92 D -1.98 Eb 0
E F 7.85 F# -1.95 G 5.86 G# 1.97 A -1.96 Bb 5.89 B 1.96 C 9.77 C# 0.01 D 1.95 Eb 3.93 E 0
F F# -9.8 G -1.99 G# -5.88 A -9.81 Bb -1.96 B -5.89 C 1.92 C# -7.84 D -5.9 Eb -3.92 E -7.85 F 0
F# G 7.81 G# 3.92 A -0.01 Bb 7.84 B 3.91 C 11.72 C# 1.96 D 3.9 Eb 5.88 E 1.95 F 9.8 F# 0
G G# -3.89 A -7.82 Bb 0.03 B -3.9 C 3.91 C# -5.85 D -3.91 Eb -1.93 E -5.86 F 1.99 F# -7.81 G 0
G# A -3.93 Bb 3.92 B -0.01 C 7.8 C# -1.96 D -0.02 Eb 1.96 E -1.97 F 5.88 F# -3.92 G 3.89 G# 0
Bb B -3.93 C 3.88 C# -5.88 D -3.94 Eb -1.96 E -5.89 F 1.96 F# -7.84 G -0.03 G# -3.92 A -7.85 Bb 0
B C 7.81 C# -1.95 D -0.01 Eb 1.97 E -1.96 F 5.89 F# -3.91 G 3.9 G# 0.01 A -3.92 Bb 3.93 B 0
31
Table 14. Detailed analysis of intervals in Vallotti
Vallotti
Note 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

F# G G# A -13.70 Bb 21.53 B 0.00 C C# 0.00 D Eb 21.52 E F F#
B C C# D -9.79 Eb 21.53 E 3.91 F F# 0.00 G G# 21.52 A Bb B

C C# -5.83 D -3.9 Eb -1.91 E -7.8 F 2.01 F# -7.79 G -1.95 G# -3.87 A -5.85 Bb 0.05 B -9.75 C 0
C# D 1.93 Eb 3.92 E -1.97 F 7.84 F# -1.96 G 3.88 G# 1.96 A -0.02 Bb 5.88 B -3.92 C 5.83 C# 0
D Eb 1.99 E -3.9 F 5.91 F# -3.89 G 1.95 G# 0.03 A -1.95 Bb 3.95 B -5.85 C 3.9 C# -1.93 D 0
Eb E -5.89 F 3.92 F# -5.88 G -0.04 G# -1.96 A -3.94 Bb 1.96 B -7.84 C 1.91 C# -3.92 D -1.99 Eb 0
E F 9.81 F# 0.01 G 5.85 G# 3.93 A 1.95 Bb 7.85 B -1.95 C 7.8 C# 1.97 D 3.9 Eb 5.89 E 0
F F# -9.8 G -3.96 G# -5.88 A -7.86 Bb -1.96 B -11.76 C -2.01 C# -7.84 D -5.91 Eb -3.92 E -9.81 F 0
F# G 5.84 G# 3.92 A 1.94 Bb 7.84 B -1.96 C 7.79 C# 1.96 D 3.89 Eb 5.88 E -0.01 F 9.8 F# 0
G G# -1.92 A -3.9 Bb 2 B -7.8 C 1.95 C# -3.88 D -1.95 Eb 0.04 E -5.85 F 3.96 F# -5.84 G 0
G# A -1.98 Bb 3.92 B -5.88 C 3.87 C# -1.96 D -0.03 Eb 1.96 E -3.93 F 5.88 F# -3.92 G 1.92 G# 0
A Bb 5.9 B -3.9 C 5.85 C# 0.02 D 1.95 Eb 3.94 E -1.95 F 7.86 F# -1.94 G 3.9 G# 1.98 A 0
Bb B -9.8 C -0.05 C# -5.88 D -3.95 Eb -1.96 E -7.85 F 1.96 F# -7.84 G -2 G# -3.92 A -5.9 Bb 0
32
33
CHAPTER II
Keyboard Instruments in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries
This chapter focuses on keyboard instruments, particularly organs and harpsichords,
which were in use during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It focuses particularly
on instruments with more than 12 notes to the octave, and music that either requires
more than 12 notes to the octave, or notes that lie outside the normal disposition of
quarter-comma meantone, E♭ to G#. Later in the chapter, instruments which Froberger
may have known will be discussed. Froberger's works will also be examined for internal
evidence in order to identify features on the instruments he may have intended.
Instruments with More than 12 Notes to the Octave
As discussed in the previous chapter, tuning keyboard instruments in quarter-comma
meantone E♭-G# results in some enharmonic notes being omitted from the keyboard. To
reiterate, this is because enharmonic notes cannot co-exist in this temperament. For
example, the tuner will need to choose between the E♭ or D#, as the pitch chosen for E♭
cannot successfully serve as a D# and vice versa. One of the solutions which musicians
of the period came up with to make both pitches to be playable was to divide some of
the keys into two parts so that the instrument can provide different pitches for
enharmonic notes. This resulted in keyboards with more than 12 divisions to the octave.
The earliest known example of such an instrument is recorded in the year 1468
on the organ of Cesena cathedral (Barbieri 2008, 21; Wraight and Stembridge 1994,
169). 1 The provision of extra notes seems more common on the organ than on the
1
Stembridge points out that according to the way this information was presented, it is likely that the idea
of divided accidentals was not new then (Wraight and Stembridge 1994, 169). Ortgies states that split
keys were also used in the fifteenth century when Pythagorean tuning was prevalent (Ortgies 2003, 14).
Both Pythagorean and meantone tunings have one thing in common – they were both regular
temperaments in which there were wolf intervals. The difference between the Pythagorean and meantone
34
harpsichord since it is easier to make adjustments to the tuning of the harpsichord
(Ortgies 2003, 12; Stembridge 1992, 30). Instruments with split-keys were mostly made
during the period of 1610 to 1640 in Italy, and extra notes were subsequently removed
as circulating (i.e. irregular) temperaments became the norm. Some clavichords were
also made with divided accidentals (Stembridge 1992, 7; Russell 1973, 117; Pollard
1985, 95-96).
The most commonly divided keys on instruments with more than 12 notes to the
octave were the notes sitting at the edge of meantone temperament, i.e. E♭ and G#.
When both of them are divided, there are 14-notes to the octave. There were also
instruments which had all of the accidentals divided, providing 17 divisions to the
octave, although, according to Ortgies, no organs like this are known to have existed
(Ortgies 2003, 20). Instruments which also provided E# and B# in addition to all of the
divided accidentals resulted in 19 divisions to the octave and were specifically known as
the cimbalo cromatico, or clavicymbalum universale as Praetorius called them (Russell
1973, 96; Stembridge 1992, 8; Pollard 1985, 95; Hubbard 1967, 168; Praetorius 1619).2
Although there are a number of harpsichords that shows signs of having been a cimbalo
cromatcio, no instrument has survived in its original form (Stembridge 1992, 5). There
are four instruments on a list included in Eleanor Smith's dissertation (Smith 2008)
which show evidence of having been a cimbalo cromatico. In modern times, Wraight
has built one for Stembridge in 1987 who used it for his recording Consonanze
Stravaganti, Neopolitan Music for Organ, Harpsichord and Chromatic Harpsichord
(Stembridge 1997).
tunings, as discussed in the previous chapter, is the importance given to different intervals: Pythagorean
tuning gives priority to pure fifths while meantone aims for pure thirds.
2
According to Stembridge, Fabio Colonna refers to an instrument with 19 notes to the octave specifically
as the cimbalo cromatico (Stembridge 1992, 6). Praetorius, in his Syntagma Musicum, suggests providing
split keys for E♭ and G#. He also reports that he has seen a harpsichord in which all the enharmonic notes
are provided at Carl Luyton's in Prague made in Vienna around 1590 (Hubbard 1967, 169), and refers to
it as the clavicymbalum universale.
35
Scholars generally agree that the cimbalo cromatico was originally conceived as
an instrument used to accompany singers and other instrumentalists who may have
needed the keyboard player to transpose (Stembridge 1992, 6; Ortgies 2003, 12; Kottick
2003, 88; Smith 2008, 53). On instruments tuned in meantone temperament,
transposition may result in using notes that are not part of the 12-note octave, making
some of the intervals unusable. The cimbalo cromatico was able to provide enharmonic
alternatives for the keyboard player who needed to transpose into more remote keys.
Possibly the most extreme example of a keyboard instrument with many
divisions to the octave was a type of instrument called the archicembalo or arcicembalo.
Invented by Nicola Vicentino (1511-1576), the arcicembalo had 31 divisions to the
octave but 36 keys arranged on two keyboards.3 There was a renewed interest in the
ancient Greek theory of music in the sixteenth century, and Vicentino created the
archicembalo in order to create a keyboard instrument which could recreate ancient
Greek genera, diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic,4 to prove a point after he lost a
debate. The details of this instrument are described in his publication L'Antica musica
ridotta alla moderna pratica (1555).5
Having so many additional notes to the octave probably made it necessary for
players to train specifically to play this type of keyboard. Luzzasco Luzzaschi (c.1545-
1607), a composer and organist, was a player who was known to have excelled at
3
No archicembalo by Vicentino survives but a modern reconstruction was made by Marco Tiella in 1974
(Barbieri 2008, 310). There seems to be some misleading information and confusion with regards
Vicentino's instruments. Rudd and Davies comment on 31 divisions but do not mention 36 keys (Rudd
2004, 243; Davies), and Meeùs incorrectly states that there were '35 keys in the octave' (Meeùs). For Vito
de Trasuntinis's instrument, Russell (1973) and Meffen (1973) state that there were 32 keys to the octave,
perhaps including the note on which the octave started.
4
For more details on the ancient Greek theory, see Michopoulou (2006, 157-158).
5
For more information on Vicentino's archicembalo, see 'The Archicembalo of Nicola Vicentino' (Tiella
1975), 'The Archicembalo of Nicola Vicentino' (Brink 1966), 'Vicentino and the Greek Genera'
(Kaufmann 1963), 'More on the Tuning of the Archicembalo' (Kaufmann 1970) and Enharmonic
Instruments and Music 1470-1900 (Barbieri 2008, 308-324).
36
playing the archicembalo (Strainchamps). He was Girolamo Frescobaldi's teacher,6 who
was in turn Froberger's teacher. Frescobaldi himself was also 'reputed to be the only
player in Rome capable of manipulating a similar instrument' (Hammond 1983, 106).
Frescobaldi was also teacher of Francesco Nigetti (1603-1681) who later spent many
years designing instruments with more than 12 divisions to the octave, using designs
similar to Vicentino's instruments. Frescobaldi had taught Nigetti while he was in
Florence between 1628 and 1634, before he taught Froberger from 1637.
In 1606, Vito de Trasuntinis made an instrument called the clavemusicum
omnitonum which is considered to have been based on Vicentino's descriptions of the
archicembalo.7 It had 31 divisions to the octave and therefore was perhaps similar to
Vicentino's arciorgano (Descrizione dell’arciorgano, 1561) (Ripin). It is now kept in
Museo internazionale e biblioteca della musica di Bologna but is not in playing
condition. A modern, working copy of this instrument made in 1985 exists and is now at
the Germanisches Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg (Kaufmann and Kendrick, 57;
Stembridge 1993).
Many other musicians have also proposed instruments of different designs in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. These include designs by Francisco de Salinas
(1577), Fabio Colonna (1618), Marin Mersenne (1636-7), Giovanni Batistta Doni
(1635-40), Galeazzo Sabbatini (c.1650, quoted by Kircher), and Athanasius Kircher
(1650) (Meeùs). In particular, Athanasius Kircher's (1602-1680) Musurgia universalis
(1650) has information on instruments with 12, 16, 18, 26 and 31 divisions to the octave
with illustrations (Pollard 1985, 96).8
6
Frescobaldi mentions him in his publications of 1624 and 1630.
7
Trasuntinis's surname is sometimes spelt Trasuntini or Trasuntino (Wraight).
8
Kircher's Musurgia universalis also happens to include Froberger's Fantasia which is the only work by
him that was published during Froberger's lifetime. According to a letter cited by Rampe, Froberger
stayed with Kircher in Rome until mid-1649, the year before the publication of Kircher's important work.
37
As mentioned earlier, the most common notes to be divided on instruments with
split-keys are E♭/D# and G#/A♭ (Stembridge 1992, 6). It appears that on Italian
instruments, particularly organs, the A♭ was the first to be split. This enables all of the
notes of the hexachord to have a major and a minor third (Ortgies 2003, 20). 9 The
hexachord was used by many composers from the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries
as a basis for compositions (Hirshberg), and it would therefore be an obvious choice for
instruments to have this note split. Stembridge states: 'From the surviving instruments
and the documentary evidence it is clear that the most important pair of split keys was
g# and a♭. Every single Italian organ, harpsichord, or virginal for which there is
conclusive evidence of the existence of specific split keys had g#s and a♭s.' (Wraight
and Stembridge 1994, 169)
On the other hand, D# appears to have been important in the music of the Low
Countries. Pollard cites Praetorius, stating that it 'seems safe to assume from his
writings that the first raised note to be split was D#/E♭'. Praetorius's illustration shows a
keyboard with split D#/E♭ keys. (Pollard 1985, 94) Stembrige also comments that
Frescobaldi wrote some D#s 'after spending a year in the Low Countries, where
keyboard music of the period frequently used D#.' (Stembridge 1992, 21). Frescobaldi
made his only trip outside Italy in 1607. Ortgies comments that the 'practice varied...and
it became more and more common that the first added note was d#, followed by a♭.'
(Ortgies 2003, 20) Furthermore, Denzil Wraight comments on Praetorius's illustration
and states that 'this type of keyboard is not known among Italian instruments' since
Italian instruments usually had more than one note per octave divided.
The split-key was also used for another purpose. During the sixteenth and
seventeeth centuries, the most common compass for plucked keyboard instruments was
9
See also Barbieri (2008, 45) for a further discussions on why the A♭ was important for organists.
38
C/E-c3 (O'Brien 1990, 28; Kottick 2003, 155; Burnett 2004, 215). The lowest note
indicated with a forward slash signifies that an arrangement known as the short octave
was in use. In this arrangement, the lowest note which appears to be E is tuned to C, and
notes that appear to be F# and G# are tuned to D and E respectively, as shown in Figure
2. F# and G# were not often needed in this register in the music of this period, so
instrument makers made alternate use of these keys. However, as time went on, F# and
G# started appearing in the repertoire. The instruments needed to be modified. D and E
were each divided so that one half of the key served as D the other half F#, and the same
went for E and G# as shown in Figure 3. The keyboard is now equipped with all of the
chromatic notes down to C, but without makers having to increase the width of the
instrument. This was known as the split-key short octave, or the broken octave.
Figure 2. Short-octave keyboard
D E B♭ C# E♭ F# G# B♭
C F G A B C D E F G A B
Figure 3. Split-key short-octave keyboard and divided D#/E♭, G♯/A♭ keys
F# G# D# A♭
D E B♭ C# E♭ F# G# B♭
C F G A B C D E F G A B
39
The unique arrangement of the keys offered by this device has inspired some
composers to write music specific to this type of keyboard. For example, Peter Philip's
Pavana Dolorosa (LXXX from the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book) has alternating octaves
and 10ths at bars 81-83

81 (and elsewhere) as shown in Example 1.
1 On a short-octave
keyboard, the player merely needs to play what appears to be parallel octaves on the
keyboard to execute this passage.

passage
Example 1. Philips, Pavana Dolorosa, bars 81-83 from the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book
B
Since this work also requires the G# which does not exist on a normal short-
short
octave keyboard, Philips must have had an instrument with split-key

split short octave in
mind when he wrote this work. Interestingly, Wraight comments that when split keys
are provided at the low end of the keyboard to facilitate the split-key
split short octave, the
instrument
ument is more likely than not also to have split keys on the accidentals higher up
the register to cater for enharmonic notes (Wraight 2010, 6).
The Fitzwilliam Virginal Book also contains one of the earliest examples of
enharmonic modulation, in John Bull's Ut re mi fa sol la.. In this piece, Bull modulates
from the sharp side to the flat side by using d♭1 rather than c#1 for an A major chord in
bar 11 (marked with an * in Example 2),

2), travels through flat keys and through to C
major and gradually back through to the sharp

sh side. Works like this are rare in this
period,, and scholars suggest using some sort of equal temperament, or at least a circular
temperament for this work (Meeùs; Maitland and Squire 1899, 183;
183 Meffen 1973, 108).
This work uses 17 different pitches,, and can possibly be played on a cimbalo cromatico
40
or a clavicymbalum universale both of which has 19 notes to the octave, although
Meeùs states that it would 'sound

'sound awkward at the point where there is an enharmonic
modulation with a A major triad including a D♭ instead of a C#.'
Example 2. Bull, Ut re mi fa sol la,

la bars 10-12
Robert Hill has recently published a recording of this work online (April 20,
2015) in what he calls 'simulated 19-division

19 meantone tuning' (Hill
Hill 2015).
2015 Since Bull
does not mix his sharps and flats, Hill tuned his instrument so that all of the sharps are
pure,, and then retuned it so that all of the flats are pure.. He then spliced his recordings
together to create the 'simulated 19-division

19 meantone tuning'.10 The sound examples on
the CD include bars 10 to 12 of this work played firstly in normal disposition of quarter-
quarter
comma meantone (track 5), then 'simulated 19-division

division meantone tuning' (track 6),
Kirnberger III (track 7) and equal temperament (track 8).

). Using the normal disposition
of quarter-comma
comma meantone is obviously not successful; 19-division
division meantone tuning
brings a grammatically-correct
grammatically performance, but the passage is admittedly not entirely
convincing either. In Kirnberger III and equal temperament,

emperament, the enharmonic change is
more successful, although the resonance of Kirnberger III seems more appealing
appea than
rather dull-sounding
sounding equal temperament.
t
It appears that musicians at the time were interested in the issues associated with
using quarter-comma
comma mentone, and actively experimented with creating instruments
equipped with divided keys. Since many instruments, especially organs, had the
10
The current author is grateful to Robert Hill for sharing his method of creating the 'simulated 19-
19
division meantone tuning' (Personal correspondence).
41
mechanisms subsequently removed when the prevalent tuning system moved to circular
temperaments with no wolf intervals (Rowland 2001, 40), instruments have not
survived to speak for themselves. Wraight further comments that 'the data available
suggests that the manufacture of virginals and harpsichords with split sharps formed a
significant part of the instrument makers' output in the first half of the 17th century.'
(Wraight 2010, 7) The following section discusses other music which contains notes
beyond the 12 available in the normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone.
Music for Instruments with More than 12 Notes to the Octave
Around the time instruments with more than 12 notes to the octave were being made,
some composers wrote pieces specifically for them. In his article from 1992,
Stembridge discusses some of this music specifically written for the cimbalo cromatico.
These include works by Ascanio Mayone (c.1565-1627), Giovanni Maria Trabaci
(c.1575-1647) and Gioanpietro del Buono (d.1657).
His research reveals that, although composers sometimes specify the cimbalo
cromatico in the title, they also design their works in such a way as not to exclude those
who did not have access to such an instrument. Perhaps in an attempt not to restrict
circulation of their works, or even to maximise on profit,11 they carefully structure their
works so that they can still be played successfully on a standard keyboard.
Mayone's Toccata Quarta per il Cimbalo Cromatico from Secondo Libro
Diversi Capricci per Sonare published in Naples in 1609 is the earliest work to specify
the cimbalo cromatico. It makes use of A♭, d♭, a♭, d♭1, and a♭1 but does not make use of
G#s and C#s in the same register. This means that, although it appears to use notes that
are not normally available, there are ways to play this piece without the extra notes, by
11
Stembridge comments that all compositions that are known to have been written specifically for the
cimbalo cromatico are surprisingly from published sources (Stembridge 1992, 10).
42
retuning these notes in these specific registers. A further investigation reveals

re that if
three out of five of these pitches (A♭, d♭ and a♭) are retuned (see Figure 4), it would be
possible to give a successful performance on a normal keyboard.
Figure 4. Suggested retuning for Mayone's Toccata Quarta (1609)
Playing this on the harpsichord reveals that the impure enharmonic notes are
most noticeable as the root of the chords. For example, it is crucial that A♭ in bar 8 is in
tune, but a♭1 in bar 10 is acceptable as g#1 because of its passing nature,
nature the descending
line, and also because the progression moves towards the 7th chord on D (i.e. an
11 The low pitch of the A♭ which is tuned as G#

imperfect cadence) at the start of bar 11.
would only add to intensify this cadence.

cadence Bars 7-10 of this work are shown in Example
3.
Example 3. Mayone Toccata Quarta (1609), bars 7-10

Mayone,
ba 31 to 37, while it is crucial to have the d♭ in bar 35 and A♭ in

Similarly, in bars
the chords, the d♭1 in bar 33 tuned as c#1 would add more
bar 37 in tune as the root of these
tension to the passage and may even add a welcome 'spice' to the music. It is interesting
that both the a♭1 in bar 10 as well as d♭1 in bar 33 are part of a descending line, and the
lower pitch which would result from using g#1 and c#1 makes the passage
p perhaps a
little more quirky but not unpleasant.

unpleasant It is also interesting to note that notes that lie
43
outside the normal disposition of the meantone temperament appear in only 8 out of 46
bars, and in only 2 passages (bars 8-10 and bars 31-37). Example 4 shows bars 30-39.
30
Example 4. Mayone, Toccata Quarta (1609), bars 30-39
During the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries, the study of rhetoric was an
important topic for musicians as well as orators,

orators, and many theorists and writers,
writers
including Kircher (1650

1650), commented on the subject. Rhetoric iss the art of persuasion,
and was applied to composition as well as the delivery of a musical performance or a
speech. There were five components to rhetoric: inventio, dispositio,

dispositio elocutio, memoria
and pronunciatio,, of which the process of composition corresponds to dispositio.
Dispositio was broken down into exordium (introduction),, narratio (overview),
propositio (main presentation of the contents),

content confirmatio (confirmation of the
argument), confutatio (refutation) and peroratio (conclusion) (Bartel

( 1997, 68, 81).
Interestingly, as later analysis will also reveal, notes that fall outside the 12 notes of the
quarter-comma meantone often appear in a section that corresponds to confutatio.
In the case of Toccata Quarta, the concluding section starts in bar 39 with
figuration. This is shortly after the last appearance of A♭ in the bass in

completely new figuration.
bar 37 at the end of the section

sect quoted above, where several A♭s and D♭s appear in
succession. The concluding section stays entirely within the normal disposition of
quarter-comma
comma meantone,
meantone, following the effective rhetorical structure.
In Toccata Quinta per il Cimbalo Cromatico,, on the other hand, Mayone seems
to make more use of the notes available only on the cimbalo cromatico.
cromatico All of the
44
sharps including, E## and B#, are present, but no flats are to be found. D#s and A#s
regist as d#1 and a#1, so retuning of these notes can be carried out
appear only in one register
easily. This leaves e#1 and b#1, which again only appear in one register. Interestingly,
they always resolve upwards

upward as leading notes (bars 9, 12, 13 and 20),
20) and using notes
tuned as f1(natural) and c2 (natural) would be still be acceptable provided that all the
other sharps are in tune, since the function of the leading note is to 'lead' towards the
note on which it resolves and the high pitch of the leading note would only enhance this
function.
Example 5. Mayone, Toccata Quinta (1609), bars 8-23
Stembridge makes two suggestions for the performance of this piece. First,
First he
suggests using a harpsichord with two split keys for E♭ and G# and transposing the work
up a minor third. While this exercise reveals that the work is not as adventurous as it
first appears and would solve all the problems, this solution seems unlikely. If this is
45
what Mayone intended, he could have written the work in the transposed key,
particularly as it was published.
The other solution he suggests, when attempting to play this work on a standard
12-note keyboard, is to omit the section that involves these notes all together. The
section in which all of these pitches appear is confined to the passage from bars 8 to 23.
There is conveniently an E major chord at either end of this section, at bars 8 and 23,
and Stembridge makes a cut between these two places. He has recorded this piece with
the abridged section as well as the full work on his recording (Deutsche harmonia
mundi 05472 77247 2) (Stembridge 1992, 12).
The practice of omitting a section within a work is not unknown in this period,
as Frescobaldi and other composers of the period mentioned. Performers were allowed
to exercise more liberty to pick and choose the sections they want to include in a
performance. Frescobaldi stated in the preface to his 1616 book of toccatas that he
would be happy for performers to apply this more relaxed attitude, and that his toccatas
have been written in such a way to accommodate this.
Another work of importance for the cimbalo cromatico is by Trabaci. Published
in 1615, Toccata Terza, & Ricercar sopra il Cimbalo Cromatico specifies the use of
cimbalo cromatico in its title, but as Trabaci himself admits, goes beyond the notes
available on the instrument by using an f## which does not exist on a cimbalo
cromatico. Trabaci then suggests that the player plays f# instead when this note is not
available. Stembridge also comments that Praetorius is also in support of this practice
and suggests playing the nearest alternative, or to leave the note out, or to insert an
ornament to obscure the note (Stembridge 1992, 26; Praetorius 1619).
Stembridge then discovers that transposing the piece down by a whole tone
makes the work fit on the cimbalo cromatico and makes it much easier to play. He
46
suspects that this piece was conceived at this pitch, and later transposed, perhaps in
order to impress his audience. A further analysis reveals that, at this transposed pitch,
the only note outside the 12 notes of the normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone
that Trabaci uses freely is the D#. Again, these notes most frequently appear in the
middle of the piece, and in the last section the only note which goes beyond the normal
12-note meantone is a♭1 which is used as part of a descending chromatic scale. Again,
this works seems to respect the rhetorical structure.12
Although Frescobaldi, Froberger's teacher, does not specify the cimbalo
cromatico in any of his works, he wrote some pieces which overstep the limits of
meantone temperament. His association with instruments with split-keys may be
deduced from inventories of his patrons, as detailed in Frederick Hammond's book
Girolamo Frescobaldi (1983, 105-108). As mentioned earlier, Frescobaldi was a pupil
of Luzzaschi who was known to have been an accomplished player of the archicembalo.
Frescobaldi published Cento Partite sopra Passacagli in 1637, which had a section
containing notes that go beyond the normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone. It
might also be worth noting that 1637 was the year Froberger arrived in Rome to study
with Frescobaldi.
An investigation of this work reveals that Frescobaldi's Cento Partite sopra
Passacagli (1637) needs 15 pitches in total. In addition to the 12 pitches available in
meantone temperament, the work also uses D♭, A♭ and D#. For the first third of this
work, Frescobaldi's music remains conservative and does not venture outside the 12
notes available. In bar 110, the first A♭ appears, and next 20 bars contain several A♭s and
D♭s, in particular from bars 124 to 126 (as shown in Example 6). Except for a few
further appearances of the A♭s and D#s, Frescobaldi returns to being conservative in the
12
For further information on music that contains more than 12 notes to the octave and/or notes that lie
beyond the normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone, see Stembridge (1992).
47
last section. A♭s in bars 162 and 165 are either part of a chromatic line or its duration is
very brief, and several D#s towards the end all appear as the leading note to E. Because
of its leading nature, using the pitch of E♭ for these D#s sounds acceptable. For the A♭s,
retuning is not a feasible option, because 8 out of 13 A♭s are a♭1, which is the exact pitch
of the G# in the final chord of the work.
If this work to be played on a harpsichord with two split-keys

split for G#/A♭ and
E♭/D#, then this just leaves the D♭s in bars 125 and 126 to be accounted for. Provided
that A♭s in this section are in tune, the lower pitch of the D♭ would probably add
intensity to this cadence without disturbing the flow of the music,

music particularly as
Frescobaldi strictly stays within the simple tonality of F major for the following phrase.
Example 6. Frescobaldi, Cento Partite sopra Passacagli, bars

ars 124-126
124
Of course, as in the case discussed above, it is possible to omit this section altogether.
As the Cento is made up of many small sections, this is certainly a possible solution.
solution In
fact, the passage from bar 111 to 131 is marked 'Altro

' Tono'.'. If the Altro Tono section is
he work is still left with several A♭s and all of the D#ss towards the end,
omitted, the end but
they are less concentrated and the biggest of the problems, namely bars 124-126, can be
avoided. For today's performers,

performer it is possible to use a double-manual
manual instrument and
tune the upper manual differently to cater for this section. It is also interesting to note
that the 'Altro Tono' section is buried right in the middle of a very long work,
work and if it
were to be played
yed with some out-of-tune notes, then there is enough time for the
listeners to 'recover' aurally before the end of the work.

48
The music of another

another pupil of Frescobaldi, Michelangelo Rossi (1602-1656)
(1602 is
also worth a mention. John Butt states that Froberger's toccatas

occatas resemble Rossi's
toccatas
occatas even more than Frescobaldi's (Butt 2004, 184). Rossi liked using chromatic
passages,, but instead of using notes that go beyond the limit meantone temperament, he
created
reated chromaticisms with what was available to him. For example in
i Toccata Settima,
Rossi stays within the normal disposition of quarter-comma

quarter comma meantone but successfully
manages to create a passage that sounds as if he has overstepped the bounds of
meantone tempearment. He manages to do this by using a combination of diminished
fourths,
ths, augumented fifths and augumented sixth
th as well as a linear chromatic line
which is jagged in quarter-comma

quarter meantone. Bars 67 is quoted below to illustrate this.
Example 7. Rossi, Toccata Settima, bar 67
Composers at the time used chromaticisms and notes outside the quarter-comma
quarter
meantone in various ways in to enhance their compositions. Some of them specified the
cimbalo cromatico and yet wrote in such a way to allow the performance of their works
with minimum adjustments to the normal keyboard. Others used what was available to
make their works sound more dissonant without overstepping the limits of meantone
temperament.
The nextt section discusses some of the surviving instruments which Froberger
may have known.

49
Instruments Froberger may have known
Although no concrete information is available on the instruments Froberger played, it is
possible to identify instruments he may have come across in his employment and on his
travels.
Johann Mayer: 1619, Stuttgart
Froberger was born in Stuttgart in 1616, where his father Basilius worked as a tenor at
the court from 1599. Basilius later became the Kapellmeister there in 1621. Johann
Mayer (1576-1626) worked as a court organ builder and also made harpsichords as part
of his job until his death in 1626. It is not known if a harpsichord made by Mayer in
1619 was known to the young Froberger, but it is certainly a possibility.
Since not many German harpsichords survive from before 1700 (Pollard 1985,
100), perhaps because of the Thirty Years War (1618-1648), Mayer's harpsichord is one
of relatively few examples. Now kept in Salzburg, it has two 8' registers and 3 rows of
jacks. Its most interesting feature is a compass which apparently runs from BB♭ to c3,
although BB and C# are left out (Boalch 1995, 503). Curiously, the lowest note which
appears to be BB♭ is in fact slightly shorter than the other accidentals, and this could
perhaps have been some sort of a short octave.
A few of today's makers have copied this instrument. Nikolaus Damms is one of
them, and he said that he treated the BB♭ key as a short-octave device (personal
correspondence), and Martin Puehringer who has studied the instrument also considers
it can be a note that was 'probably tuned to whatever was necessary.' (personal
correspondence) This seems the most logical solution.13
In terms of Froberger's music, the BB♭ key on the Mayer harpsichord could
perhaps be tuned to AA. Although it is unlikely he composed works to fit the compass
13
The author is grateful to both Nikolaus Damms and Martin Puehringer for taking their time to answer
her enquiries.
50
of the harpsichord he knew in his formative years, most of Froberger's music does not
require C# or BB but does require E♭ and AA. This fits the Mayer instrument perfectly
if the shorter BB♭ was tuned to AA. The protruding BB♭ can be seen in the picture in
Figure 5 below.
Figure 5. Johann Mayer's harpsichord of 1619
14
There were other interesting arrangements of the short octave . Richard Maunder
in his book, Keyboard Instruments in Eighteenth-Century Vienna, discusses a keyboard
with a special short-octave he refers to as the Viennese short octave (1998, 35-36). In
this arrangement, the lowest note is made to look like the end-block and tuned to FF.
The next note is divided not in two but in three, and provides GG, AA and BB♭. The
note after that is where the normal C/E key is on a standard short-octave keyboard, but
is divided into two and provides BB and C. Mayer's BB♭ key could therefore be a
simplified or early version of this complicated short-octave arrangement.
14
Photograph kindly supplied by Nikolaus Damms.
51
Figure 6. Viennese short octave
BB♭ F# G#
AA BB D E B♭
FF GG C F G A B
Giovanni Celestini: 1587, Venice
Another instrument of interest is a virginal of 1587 by Giovanni Celestini (fl.1587-
1610). It is now kept at the Museum für Kunst und Gewerbe in Hamburg, and there is a
theory that this instrument belonged to the Habsburg court because of the double-
crested eagle on the instrument (Hora 2004, 177). Several instruments by Celestini
survive, of which two are virginals at the Hamburg Museum. 1587 is the earliest dated
and has the compass of C/E-f3.
Celestini was a celebrated maker of virginals and harpsichords, and particularly
famous for Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart being seated at one of his harpsichords in the
1770 painting by Saverio dalla Rosa (1745-1821). The painting has much detail and the
date of 1583 can be read on the inscriptions of the harpsichord. No surviving
harpsichord corresponds to this date, however, so the harpsichord seems to have been
lost. The painting once belonged to Alfred Cortot (Beurmann 2012, 39).
Rampe lists two organs in Volume I of his New Froberger edition as instruments
that Froberger may have known. One is an organ from Brescia dated 1581 which he
'may have played on his trip to Italy', and the other an organ by Hans Wökherl made in
1642 which he 'may have played during the instrument's official inauguration.'
52
(Froberger 2008, XL). The Wökherl organ, although not actually at the court, had the
compass of C/E-c3 and split keys for g#/a♭, e♭1/d#1, and g#1/a♭1. Rampe further states, 'In
view of Austria's close political ties with Italy and Spain, in addition to the Germanies
and the Low Countries, stringed keyboard instruments from these southerly regions
were probably known at the Habsburg court.' (Froberger 2008, XL)
The Compass and Other Features in Froberger's music
One way to find out more about his instruments is by examining Froberger's music,
which may provide internal evidence of the instruments for which it was intended.
Froberger's works can be classified into two groups, autograph scores and music that
has been handed down in copied sources. A comparison between the most important
sources for Froberger's music, namely 'Libro II' (1649), 'Libro IV' (1656), 'Libro di
capricci, e ricercate' (c. 1658) held in the Austrian National Library, as well as the
manuscript SA4450 in the Berlin Sing-Akademie, and the same works contained in
other copied sources reveal some interesting facts.
All of the works in 'Libro II' (1649) fit within the compass of C/E-a2 which was
a common compass for keyboard instruments in this period, along with C/E-c3 (O'Brien
1990, 28). In the first bar 15 of the fourth variation in Partita VI 'auff Die Maÿerin',
FbWV 606, Froberger stays within the C/E-a2 compass in 'Libro II', while the same
work in a copied source of Grimm 1698/99, goes up to b2. Grimm 1698/99 is a tablature
source. While it is easy to make a mistake in tablature which could result in notes being
displaced by an octave, this discrepancy may indicate that Froberger had an instrument
with fewer notes when preparing 'Libro II', but had wanted to go up to b2 if the
15
When there is a discrepancy in the numbering of bars between sources or editions, the bar number
corresponds with the autograph source, in this case 'Libro II' from 1649.
53
instrument allowed it. Example 8 shows a passage from Variation 4 of Partita VI 'auff
Die Maÿerin', FbWV 606 where a discrepancy between the sources can be found.
Example 8. Froberger, FbWV 606, Variation 4 (Libro II and Grimm 1698/99)
A number of his works indicate that they were written for an instrument with the
short-octave. For example, in Toccata FbWV 101 from 'Libro II',, there are chords with a
10th in the left hand which are much easier to play on a short-octave
octave keyboard. This
particular work happens to have both F# and G#,

G# which do not exist if the instrument is
equipped with the normal short-octave

short octave keyboard, and therefore it is possible that this
work was intended for an instrument

ins with the split-key short octave. Example 9 shows
the chord containing a 10th.
Example 9. Froberger, Toccata FbWV 101, Chord in bar 6

54
It is also possible, however, that Froberger simply had a rather large hand span and
could comfortably reach a 10th. In FbWV 613, he writes a 10th which would not be
made easier with the use of the short octave. (Example 10)
Example 10. Froberger, FbWV 613 Sarabande, Chord in bar 8
However, even if Froberger did have a large hand span,, he could hardly have expected
players to manage this passage below (Example 11):
Example 11. Froberger, FbWV 611, Courante, bar 6
This work seems to make use of F# and G# quite freely, and it is reasonable to think
that the instrument intended for this work must have had a split-key
split short octave.
Wraight interestingly states that when a split-key

key short octave is used, the instrument
was, more often than not, provided with split-key

split key enharmonic alternatives as well
(Wraight 2010, 6). This work also has a number of D#ss and A#s, and it would be
convenient if there were split-keys

split keys for enharmonic alternatives in the higher registers.
There is other evidence that Froberger's keyboard did not extend lower than C
with no E♭ or C# when he was preparing 'Libro II'. Inn Toccata FbWV 112, the passage
at barr 9 has an extended descending scale followed by a large leap just as it reaches the
E♭ (Example 12). On a short-octave

short keyboard, the E♭ does not exist and it would make
55
age to make a large leap up to the e♭. This work also makes use of the
sense for the passage
G#, again suggesting a split-key

split short octave.
Example 12. Froberger, FbWV 112, bar 9
Another example is also found at bar 46 in Ricercar FbWV 407,

407 this time apparently
avoiding C#:
Example 13. Froberger, FbWV 407, bar 46
In 'Libro IV' (1656) and 'Libro di capricci, e ricercate' (cc. 1658), he also stays
within the C-a2 compass,

compass except for the suites, where three out of six suites go beyond
a2 but not beyond c3. In the Lamento FbWV 612, it is crucial that the keyboard extends
to c3, as there is a C major scale that extends up to c3 right at the end of the work to
symbolise the soul of the deceased Ferdinand IV ascending to heaven (Example 14).
There is even a picture of what must be a depiction of heaven after the scale in the
autograph score of 'Libro

Libro IV'
IV (Figure 7).
56
Example 14. Froberger, FbWV 612, Lamento, bar 13
Figure 7. Depiction of heaven at the end of Lamento,, FbWV 612
At the lower end of the keyboard, the lowest note he ever wrote was AA, but BB
works. While he seems to write F# and G# quite freely, E♭ is

is never found among his works.
rare. It only appears in

i a few works including Partite FbWV 614,, 617,
617 618, and 619.
The onlyy AA he writes in the Austrian autograph sources (i.e. 'Libro II', 'Libro
IV', 'Libro
Libro di capricci, e ricercate')
ricercate is the AA in the Sarabande of Partite FbWV 608. In
it, AA is a reiteration of A and could easily be replaced by A if AA is absent from the
keyboard. In fact,, this is exactly how it is notated in SA4450,

SA4450, and one wonders if the
AA in 'Libro IV' is a slip of the pen;

pen perhaps Froberger forgot to transpose it up an
octave when preparing this volume. Curiously, the rest of that manuscript contains AA,
for example in Tombeau FbWV 632a, Meditation FbWV 620 and Lamentation FbWV
633. In addition, the role of AA is sometimes a little more than an octave reiteration as
57
in the Gigue of FbWV 620 where replacing it with A would not be an option (Example
15):
Example 15. Froberger, FbWV 620, Gigue, End of bar 5
In the Tombeau FbWV 632a, Froberger writes BB♭ which is not found anywhere
else in his works. Tombeau is known to have been written in Paris after the death of his
friend and colleague Monsieur Blanchrocher in the winter of 1652. The typical compass
GG/BB-c3. As on
of French harpsichords in the middle of the seventeenth century was GG/BB
Italian instruments, French harpsichords of this period were also often equipped with
key short octave (Kottick 2003, 167). As can be seen in the diagram below
the split-key
(Figure 8), BB♭ exists only if the keyboard chromatically extends down to GG without
octave, unless Froberger expected BB key to be tuned to BB♭ for this work as
the short-octave,
BB was not needed.
Figure 8. GG/BB Split-key

Split short octave
B
C# E♭
AA BB F# G# B♭
GG C D E F G A B
58
Conclusion
Many experiments with regard to accommodating the wolf were made to make
meantone temperament work on keyboard instruments during the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. Split-keys were invented and used to provide alternatives for
enharmonic notes, particularly E♭/D# and G#/A♭. Instruments equipped with 19
divisions to the octave providing all of the enharmonic options, and instruments with up
to 31 divisions to the octave were also invented and developed by various musicians.
Split-key devices were also used to accommodate the split-key short-octave
mechanisms. The compass of instruments from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
used the short octave in which the accidentals in the lowest register were replaced by
more useful pitches. This had some economical advantages particularly on the organ as
organ pipes in the low register were expensive to make. Later, these accidentals were
added again by the use of split-keys which enabled the instrument to have all of the
notes without having to increase the width of the instrument. This also made it possible
to play more sonorous chords without the hand stretching more than an octave.
Music of the period also made use of notes beyond the 12 notes available in
quarter-comma meantone. At the same time, composers also seem to make them
playable on standard keyboards by sometimes only using enharmonic notes in different
registers, or by using wolf notes only confined to a section, or used them in such a way
that added intensity to the passage. Works that clearly overstep the limits of meantone
temperament were also discovered to have been conceived at a pitch which perhaps
made the work simpler, and tranposed later to make it look more impressive.
Composers also seem to have been relaxed about performers omitting sections and/or
making small changes to their compositions.

59
A number of instruments which might have been known to Froberger were then
discussed. These included Johann Mayer's 1619 harpsichord, Giovanni Celestini's 1587
virginal, an organ from Brescia made in 1581 and an organ in Vienna by Hans Wökherl
made in 1642. The organ by Wökherl was equipped with some split keys for
enharmonic options.
Froberger's music was then discussed in terms of the compass used in his works.
Notes which overstep the limits of meantone temperament will be discussed along with
the discussion of context in which they appear in the next chapter. Froberger was a
pupil of Frescobaldi who was a pupil of Luzzasco Luzzaschi who was famous for being
an accomplished player of the archicembalo. Among other musicians who had
influence on Frescobaldi as a composer include Vicentino who invented the
archicembalo, and Mayone and Trabaci who wrote for the cimbalo cromatico (Jackson
1971). These musicians experimented with the limits of meantone temperament, and
through Frescobaldi's influence it must have passed down to Froberger.

60
CHAPTER III
Case studies: Intervals in Context Within the Keyboard Works of Froberger
It will be seen in some of the case studies below that Froberger's works were revised
throughout his lifetime. There are sometimes up to ten versions of the same work
available in different sources. This indicates that he was very creative and always
brimming with ideas. Rampe states:
Undoubtedly inspired by the composer's own performance of the
compositions, the changes always demonstrate improvisatory qualities
and involve not only details like ornamentation and part-writing, but
also the addition of voices and new cadential or closing sections. They
all provide impressive evidence of a phenomenon that is known to
have applied to many other keyboard works ranging through the
sixteenth to early twentieth centuries. They were never performed
twice in exactly the same way; changes were always made in the
course of performance in order to captivate audiences afresh. (Rampe
2003, 9)
To incorporate details about the changes in his works would be a study in itself.
However, any significant changes or those that affect the current study have been
commented on throughout this chapter.
Affligée et Tombeau faît à Paris sur la mort de Monsieur Blanchrocher, FbWV 632a
Suggested retuning: None
The Tombeau was inspired by the death of his friend and colleague, the French lutenist
Charles Fleury, Sieur de Blanchrocher who died after falling down the stairs while
Froberger was visiting Paris in 1652-3. It is known that Blanchrocher died in November
61
1652 (Rampe
Rampe 2003, XXXIX)
XXXIX and this piece was probably written in Paris between
November 1652 and March 1653. Blanchrocher’s

Bla s death also inspired other composers
to write similar works (Asperen 2001, 12),, most notably Louis Couperin (c.1626-1661).
(
The Tombeau survives in two sources, SA 4450 and WMin 743. It is in C
minor although only one flat appears in the key signature in SA 4450.1 In WMin 743,
there are two flats in the key signature, and this has a dramatic effect on the ominous
descending scale at the end, as the extra flat in the key signature makes it minor.
minor There
is another significant difference between the two sources at the end of this work, where
an extended written-out
out trill is found in SA 4450 but not in WMin 743. Example 16
shows the added extended trill and the scale in C major.
Example 16. Froberger, FbWV 632a, Extended Trill at bars

bar 18-19
19
The work uses no A♭, which belongs to the key of C minor,

minor but its enharmonic
G# is used three times.

times Interestingly, this fits the normal disposition of quarter-comma
meantone E♭-G#.
Outside the notes available in this disposition of quarter-comma

quarter meantone, a
D♭ (d♭2) is used. Its enharmonic, c#2 is used several times, so it would not be an option
1
Before the eighteenth century, works were often notated with fewer flats and sharps than in today’s
today
notation (Chew
Chew and Rastall 2001).
2001
62
to retune d♭2 pure. D♭ is not one of the notes commonly divided on harpsichords with
split accidentals.
The d♭2 appears against b♭1 in bar 5, a minor third away.. It sounds low because
it is tuned as c#2 and the interval b♭1-d♭2(c#2) is 46.48 cents narrower than a pure minor
third. The d♭2 is exposed in the top voice and its low pitch enhances
enhanc the sorrowful
performance the minor third containing d♭2 could be slightly delayed and the
subject. In performance,
following e♭ in the left hand delayed also, so that the poignant character of this interval
can be highlighted. Track 9 on the accompanying CD demonstrates bar 5, here recorded
with a spontaneous passing note

not to enhance the effect.
Example 17. Froberger, FbWV 632a, Tombeau, bar 5
The Tombeau also makes use of a few diminished fourths

ths using notes that are
within the normal disposition of quarter-comma

quarter meantone. In bar 3, c#1 appears against
f1, creating an interval of a diminished fourth. In equal temperament,

emperament, this interval is
enharmonically
ally equivalent
equival to a major third,, an already wide interval. In
I quarter-comma
meantone,, this interval is 41.11 cents wider than a pure major third which is also 27.42
cents wider than a major third in equal temperament. Since the limit of deviation from
the pure interval the ear can tolerate is around the maximum of 20 cents for a third, this
th
interval will sound especially dissonant.

dissonant Example 18 shows the passage at bar 3 with an
asterisk (*) over the diminished fourth.

63
Example 18. Froberger, FbWV 632a, Tombeau, bar 3
Froberger notates this interval in such a way that indicates that he wanted these
notes to be overlapped.
overlapped A harmonic diminished fourth is more striking than a melodic
diminished fourth where the two notes do not overlap. Perhaps in an attempt to express
the pain of losing a friend,

friend he chose to use this interval in this way, although he makes it
less conspicuous by making the notes of the outer voices hold over,
over which somewhat
disguises the effect (See Example 18 above). In performing this work, it is possible to
highlight the expressive nature of this interval to express Froberger’s

Froberger devastation at his
friend’ss death by perhaps applying a back-dotted

back version of notes inégale
in to these notes
in order to increase the time f1 and c#1 overlap, as heard on Track 10 of the
accompanying CD.
returns Here, Froberger harmonises both f1 and c#1:

In bar 6,, the same gesture returns.
f1 is now part of a D minor chord, and c#1 which follows is part of an A major chord.
The
he dissonant quality of the diminished fourth is no longer heard.. Instead, the climax of
this passage has now shifted to the seventh chord on B♭ which follows, resulting in a
strong interrupted cadence where Froberger lets the B♭ and a clash on the seventh
crotchet beat of the bar (Track 11, Example 19).. The passage in bar 3 was also followed
by B♭ in the bass, but the note that creates the seventh, namely the A, appeared in the
treble register, creating an interval of a fourteenth which sounds less dissonant than a
seventh.
64
Example 19. Froberger,

erger, FbWV 632a, Tombeau, bars 6-7
In the second half of this work, Froberger uses more diminished fourths, this
time between B-natural

natural and E♭ in two different registers. Two of them
the are harmonic, and
the other two are melodic intervals. These intervals again help to convey melancholy
and could be emphasised by lingering, placing or playing them deliberately.
Example 20. Froberger, FbWV 632a, End of bar 14
If sixth-comma
comma meantone were to be used to play this work,
work then all of the
above-mentioned
mentioned intervals would be less pronounced. The interval C#-F is 29.35 cents
wider than a pure major third and 15.66 cents wider than a major third in equal
temperament. The interval B♭-D♭, is 32.71

1 cents narrower than a pure minor third,
therefore these intervals would be less colourful. In bar 3, performers may choose to
give priority to maintaining the momentum of the rising bass line, focusing instead on
the 7th chord on B♭ that follows. It is possible

possible to hide the diminished fourth further by
65
playing the notated rhythm (instead of applying the back-dotted version of notes inégale
as suggested earlier), as heard in Track 12, or by applying notes inégale as heard in
Track 13.
It has been claimed that Froberger was one of the first composers to write
programmatic music for the keyboard based on specific events he personally
experienced (Asperen 2001, 6). His music is narrative, and the Tombeau seems to
contain a musical representation of the fall that caused Blancherocher’s death, with fast
runs and a sudden leap to a very low note at the start of the second half. The G pedal
towards the end is possibly a portrayal of the church bells from his funeral procession
(Rampe 2003, XXXIX), and the ominous descending scale at the end representing the
soul of the deceased giving up the body. A cross and the words ‘Requiescat in pace’
(Rest in peace) appear at the end in the score.
Given the extra-musical inspiration of this work, and the way in which
Froberger seems to have used the limits of meantone temperament for colour, it may be
concluded that playing this piece in quarter-comma meantone E♭-G# is effective. The
performer has Froberger’s consent to play with rhythmic freedom as Froberger indicates
this Tombeau 'to be played very slowly and freely', allowing the performers either to
highlight or smooth out dissonances which are made more or less intense by their
choice of temperament.2
2
It might be interesting to draw a quick comparison to Louis Couperin’s equivalent work. Couperin puts
his Tombeau in the key of F major and the general mood of the work is less somber than that of
Froberger’s. It has less rhythmic variety, and Couperin’s aim appears to be to express resignation and a
feeling of loss through the use of pure harmonies and longer rhythmic note-values. It is worthy of note,
however, that in bars 31 and 52 of this work, Couperin uses A♭s which would sound very low if the
harpsichord is tuned in quarter-comma meantone E♭-G#, and would create a similar effect to the D♭ in bar
5 of Froberger’s Tombeau as discussed here. Also in bar 46, Couperin uses a diminished fourth, which
also features in Froberger’s work.
66
Example 21. Froberger, FbWV 614, Lamentation, bars 1-5

67
Suite in G minor, Lamentation sur ce, que j’ay

j êté vole.. Et se joüe
jo à la discretion, et
encore mieux que les soldats m’ont traicté – Courant – Sarabande – Gigue,
FbWV 614
Suggested retuning:
The Lamentation in G minor FbWV 614 was also inspired by an extra-musical

extra event.
The French title translates as: 'Lamentation

Lamentation on me being robbed, to be played at pleasure
and better than the soldiers who mistreated me.'

me. The incident described in the French
title is believed to have happened on his travels between Brussels and Leuven (Rampe
2002, LXXX).
This work is in G minor although only one flat appears in the key signature. One
of the first aspects that draws attention when studying this work is its use of A♭s.
Froberger uses several A♭s throughout the work and they appear at harmonically crucial
moments when a well tuned chord is required. For example, a perfect cadence appears
in bar 3 in the key of A♭ (see Example 21), where A♭ needs to be stable as the root of the
‘tonic’ chord. In bar 4, a 7-6 suspension happens over the A♭ which is held for four
crotchet beats which then makes an effective chromatic shift to A-natural

A in the bass. In
order for this passage to be successful and for the A♭s to provide harmonic stability,
stability the
wolf A♭ is not acceptable.
Blandine Verlet chose to play this work in the normal disposition of quarter-
comma meantone on her recording from 1989. This is recreated by the present author on
Track 14 on the accompanying CD. As can be heard, using the normal disposition of
quarter-comma
comma meantone interrupts the flow of the music to the extent that harmonic
68
progression is no longer functional. As the music of the Baroque period is built upon
strong harmonic foundation, wolf notes in the bass do not work well. There are also
several A♭s scattered throughout two long bars in the first half of the work, as well as a
few more D♭s and A♭s in the second half, and together, they appear frequently enough to
disorientate the listeners.
Possibilities for practical adjustments include tuning both of the A♭s which
appear at two different pitches pure since their enharmonic notes are absent in this work.
Track 15 on the accompanying CD demonstrates the first half of this work recorded
with pure A♭s.
Some may argue that the incident of Froberger being robbed affected him so
much that he may have wanted the A♭s to sound 'out of tune'. Since Froberger is known
to use wolf notes for his extra-musical portrayals, this argument is at first plausible.
However, it is difficult to imagine a seventeenth-century composer making this a
priority over the overall structure of the work. Harmonic progressions provide the
foundation for music at this time and it seems unlikely that wolf notes would be used
for expressive colouring at the expense of the structure.
If a performer wishes to retain the effect of using some wolf notes without
disturbing the music, it is possible to retune just A♭ at that pitch as there is no G#, but
not a♭1 or either of the D♭s. This would help to retain some of the tension built by the
use of the wolf notes while still be able to maintain the harmonic structure. In bar 9 of
this movement, Froberger uses a number of a♭1s and d♭ in quick succession. The
instability of these notes within the temperament will momentarily disorientate the
listener. It is interestingly followed by a passage in F major which would sound serene
and pure, perhaps in an attempt to make the passage regain harmonic stability.
69
There is also d♭2 in the second half of bar 7. While the enharmonic of this note is
absent, it would be appropriate to leave this note tuned as c#2. Exactly in the way this
note provided a poignant moment in the Tombeau investigated earlier, this would
provide a suitably poignant sound.
It is also possible to play this work in sixth-comma meantone, which provides a
milder version of the wolf. The wolf interval still has a deviation of 19.55 cents, but
compared with 35.72 cents in quarter-comma meantone, it is significantly closer to pure.
This solution may also provide another reasonable compromise as it could be argued
that the A♭ tuned as G# is used for extra colour. Track 16 demonstrates this.
From an interpretative point of view, these options in tuning may provide
inspiration for completely different approaches. When the A♭s are tuned pure, the
performer may choose to confidently enjoy the bass notes e♭ – E♭ – A♭ in bar 3. Placing
and lingering on the A♭ allows time not only to register the pure sound of the A♭ but also
allows the listeners time to enjoy the A♭ major chord before the f1 is introduced to make
the chord a 6/5 chord (see Example 21). The A♭ appears in the bass again a bar later.
This can also be prepared by carefully placing the proceeding B♭ in such a way to make
the A♭ seem important over which there is a 7-6 suspension.
When using sixth-comma meantone, a performer may be inspired to do exactly
the opposite. The previous phrase can finish on the e♭ in the middle of bar 3, giving a
new impulse on the sixth crotchet beat (the low E♭), from which the A♭ can bounce off
as a note en route to B♭ on the downbeat of bar 4. The C minor chord on the third
crotchet beat of bar 4, which was a low point in the previously discussed interpretation
can now become more important, from which the bass notes can relax into the A♭ in the
middle of bar 4 so as not to draw the listeners' attention to these succession of unstable
A♭s.
70
Meditation faite sur ma mort future, la quelle se joüee lentement avec Discretion
(Meditation about my future death, to be played slowly and with discretion) -
Gigue - Courante - Sarabande,

Sarabande FbWV 620 - included in the recital
Suggested retuning:
The unusual subject of this piece is Froberger's own future death. Whereas the deaths of
others seem to inspire the composer to use flats and minor keys, he chooses to use a
major key for a work about his own.

own The work is in D major, and the notes beyond the
normal disposition of quarter-comma

quarter meantone include D#s, A#s
A and E#s. As with
other works which have programmatic titles for the first movement followed by dances,
he is most adventurous in the opening movement.

movement Notes
otes beyond the normal disposition
of quarter-comma
comma meantone are rarely used in the remaining movements. In fact, the
Gigue is entirely free of any of the notes listed above, and the Courante and Sarabande
have just one D# each.
Interestingly, Froberger uses a different sign for A#ss and E#s. They are marked
with a 'x' rather than a '#'. It is perhaps because the D#ss were likely to be split but A#s
and E#ss were not, or simply that he expected D#ss to be tuned pure, but A#s and E#s
were to be left as the pitches for their enharmonic notes. The E# near the end of the first
fi
half would certainly make more of an impact if the D#ss preceding it are pure. Example
22 shows this passage. Rhetorically, this is the perfect place to have these wolf notes as
discussed in the previous chapter.

chapter Froberger cleverly follows this passage with an F#
minor chord at the beginning of the second half. This immediately takes the edge off the
71
sound of the 'sour' F#

F major chord which concludes the first half of this work, and
enhances the mellowness of the F# minor chord, therefore perhaps portraying the
sorrow of his own mortality.

mortality
Example 22. Froberger, FbWV 620, Meditation, End of bar 3
ractical terms, d# and d#1 could quickly be tuned pure for the performance of
In practical
this work since there are no E♭s. d#2, which only appears once in the Courante,
Courante could be
left tuned as an E♭ as it appears at the top of the chord and it leads upwards. As this is
the leading note, the higher pitch of this note would be welcome as it would enhance its
leading-note
note character.
character. It is also known that Sotheby's manuscript includes
inc this work. In
fact, there are some sections of it reproduced in the auction catalogue, but the
photograph unfortunately falls short of the section with the A#s and E#s. More
discoveries may be made if this source eventually becomes accessible. Chapter 5 on the
accompanying DVD from the recital demonstrates the points made above.
Ricercar in F# minor, FbWV 412 - included in the recital

Ricercar in C# minor, FbWV 406
The Ricercar in F# minor FbWV 412 was included in 'Libro

Libro Quarto',
Quarto a volume
compiled for Emperor Ferdinand III of Habsburg in 1656. This work,

w together with the
Ricercar in C# minor FbWV 406 from 'Libro di capricci e ricercate'

ricercate presented to
Emperor Leopold I around 1658, are perhaps the most intriguing works
wor by Froberger.
72
The Ricercar in F# minor ends with a Tierce de Picardie, so the final chord of
the work is an F# major chord consisting of F#, A# and C#. In fact, each of the three
sections in this work ends on an F# major chord. When a harpsichord is tuned in
quarter-comma meantone, the major third between F# and A# (B♭) would be 41.11 cents
wider than pure and therefore unusable, particularly as the final chord of a work.
In an attempt to understand his compositional concept behind the Ricercar in F#
minor, it would be helpful to determine whether it requires a circular temperament or if
it is still rooted within the limits of meantone temperament but made to appear that it
requires a circular temperament by his choice of key as Trabaci appears to have done in
his work for the cimbalo cromatico as discussed in the previous chapter. For the
purpose of this investigation, it was temporarily transposed to D minor and the notes
were analysed.
In D minor, this work sits within the normal disposition of quarter-comma
meantone E♭-G# except for one A♭ which appears in the penultimate bar as part of a
passing chromatic gesture. Using one note outside a particular disposition of meantone
is not unusual for Froberger and can hardly be considered as overstepping the limits of
meantone temperament, particularly in its role as a passing note. This proves that, in
theory, this work can be performed in quarter-comma meantone if the wolf were placed
between the B# and G and the harpsichord tuned with the disposition of G-D-A-E-B-F#-
C#-G#-D#-A#-E#-B# with no flats at all, and not even a C-natural. However, it is highly
unlikely that Froberger expected the harpsichord to be tuned in such a way, and it is
indeed puzzling to see this work included in a volume presented to the Emperor.
My attention was then drawn by Richard Egarr to the dramatically wobbly
writing of the title 'Ricercar' in the autograph (see Example 23). Since no other Ricercar
has its title written in this bizarre manner (see Example 24 for titles belonging to the
73
other ricercars of the set), he considered that this work was intended to be played in the
normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone and the F# major chord was supposed
to sound 'harsh'.
Example 23: Froberger, FbWV 412, Ricercar, Wobbly title
Example 24: Froberger, Titles of Ricercars FbWV 407-411

74
Under further analysis, it was found that the notes that overstep the limits of
meantone temperament are mostly confined to the end of each of the three sections
where there is a cadence in F# major. The first two of these candences are both followed
by an F# minor chord, a technique seen in the Meditation analysed above where he
gives the listener the mellow sound of a minor chord on the same key note after the
'harsh' sound of the major chord containing the wolf major 3rd. At the end of the work,
Froberger uses the E# at the last possible moment to establish a perfect cadence in F#
major. A performance of this work in the normal disposition of quarter-comma
meantone E♭-G# is included as Chapter 6 on the accompanying DVD of the recital.
This ricercar is therefore not as adventurous as it first appears. It is perfectly
possible to perform this work in the normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone,
particularly if the audience is informed about the appearance of the title in the autograph.
For those performers who would not like an unstable chord for the end of the piece, it is
possible to tune the harpsichord in quarter-comma meantone from F to A#, with no flats,
F-C-G-D-A-E-B-F#-C#-G#-D#-A#. This still sounds quite extraordinary as this will still
leave E# and B# which are part of the dominant, and the dominant of dominant as wolf
notes, but makes the F# major chord stable. Both the E# and the B# only appear at
cadences as leading notes, and as such, they can be left high and still function as leading
notes, as has been seen in other examples above.
If sixth-comma meantone E♭-G# is used, then the interval between F# to A# is
still nearly 30 cents too wide but the effect is less shocking. If the wolf were shifted in
the manner described above, then similar solutions are possible and result in a
disposition with no flats.
It is of course possible to play this piece in a later temperament with no wolf.
After all, this work, and the Ricercar in C# minor discussed below, are probably works
75
which prompted writers to conclude that Froberger's music requires a circular
temperament, particularly because both were included in volumes presented to the
respective Emperors.
For this investigation, a selection of later historical temperaments was chosen.
Historical temperaments by Kirnberger, Werckmeister and Vallotti represent the
temperaments that were used after musicians moved away from meantone
temperaments before they considered equal temperament to be the norm. In this
investigation, intervals F# to A# and C# to E# were analysed.
Kirnberger III seems to have a slightly better F# major chord than the other two
temperaments. It is a useful temperament when meantone temperaments prove difficult.
As discussed in Chapter I, the first part of the circle of fifths is identical to quarter-
comma meantone. It resembles meantone in the keys with fewer flats or sharps, but has
the flexibility of a circular temperament with no wolf. In this temperament, F# to A# is
19.57 cents, and C# to E# is 21.53 cents wider than pure.
In both Werckmeister and Vallotti’s temperaments, F# to A# and C# to E# are
21.53 cents wider than pure and so fractionally worse than Kirnberger’s temperament.
Since the historical temperaments of the Baroque period were designed to maintain pure
intervals in keys with fewer sharps and flats, none of the historical temperaments has
very good intonation on F# to A# or C# to E#. The only solution that improves these
intervals is to use equal temperament. Both of these intervals are the same as all the
other major thirds, and are just 13.69 cents wider than pure. It still seems more
convincing to show the listeners Froberger's dramatically wobbly title and to enjoy the
effects of the wolf intervals.
Ricercar in C# minor is similar to the work in F# minor. Again, the notes which
overstep the limits of meantone temperament mostly appear at cadences. Transposing it

76
reveals the same result as the Ricercar in F# minor,3 and although there is no wobbly-
looking title for this work, none of the ricercars in this set has an ornate title at all.
Therefore, it could probably have the same solution as the Ricercar in F# minor.
In Chapter II, harpsichords with split keys were discussed. It is known that these
harpsichords existed in places that Froberger visited and so he may have come across
them on his travels (Rampe 1995, XXX). Playing these ricercars on instruments with
split keys, perhaps even a cimbalo cromatico, would solve many of the problems of
intonation with much more ease.
Other Ricercars in 'Libro IV' and 'Libro di capricci e ricercate'
There are ten other ricercars that were included in 'Libro IV' and 'Libro di capricci e
ricercate', FbWV 407-411 and FbWV 401-405. It is interesting to note that they are
mostly in keys with just one sharp or flat making them far easier to perform in the
normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone than the two discussed above. In 'Libro
Quarto', there are two in D minor, and one in each of G minor, E minor and G major,
and only the ricercar in E minor FbWV 409 makes use of a note outside the normal
disposition of quarter-comma meantone E♭-G#, namely the D# which is part of the
dominant chord in the key of E minor. All occurrence of the D# are in fact within the
context of the dominant chord, and since there is no E♭ in this work, it is perfectly
possible to tune the D#s pure.
In 'Libro di capricci e ricercate', there are two ricercars in C major, one in G
major, one in F major and one in G minor of which only the ricercar in F, FbWV 403,
contains a note which lies outside the normal disposition of meantone temperament, E♭-
3
Pollard (1985, 140) in his thesis states that if the Ricercar in C# minor was transposed up a semitone to
D minor it would fit the normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone. He also implies that if the F#
minor ricercar was transposed down a tone to E minor, this would fit the normal meantone disposition.
However, both are incorrect. C# minor ricercar would need to be transposed down a major third to A
minor to fit the normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone.
77
G#. However, this note, D♭, only appears briefly within the context of a perfect cadence
cade
to mark the end of a section. While it is possible to retune this D♭ in order for it to be
pure as there is no C#,

C# it iss hardly worth the trouble. Froberger could easily have written
a D-natural
natural in its place, and it would have made perfect musical sense. Instead,
Instead he chose
to flatten the D to D♭, and the low pitch of the D♭ (tuned as a C# in quarter-comma
meantone) may enhance the effect Froberger may have been seeking.
Pollard uses this very example and states that this D♭ is 'in
in a position
posi where it is
not easy to disguise; it is meant to be heard, savoured and perhaps even lingered over,
but in quarter comma meantone temperament the ‘tone’ E♭-C#

C# is distressingly wide
(234c).' However, this bar acts as the coda to the previous section and the main
m
cadential point of arrival has already occurred at the start of bar 59. Furthermore, the E♭
in the bass provides a more prominent harmonic surprise, and the D♭ which occurs right
at the
he end of the bar appears within this context, contributing merely to add
a extra 'spice'
to this already colourful passage.
Suite in E minor, Allemande faite en passant le Rhin dans une barque en grand peril,
üe lentement â la discretion (Allemande

la quelle se joüe lemande made crossing the Rhine
R in a
boat in great danger, played slowly with discretion) - Courante - Sarabande -
Gigue, FbWV 627 - included in the recital
Suggested
uggested Tuning for the Allemande:
78
Suggested Tuning for the other dances:
Before SA 4450 was discovered, this work was known in two sources,
sources Tappert (c. 1670)
and Bulyowsky (1675

1675).. However, the opening Allemande was only known as the
'Waterfall' and it was not until SA 4450 was discovered that the full title became known.
In fact,
t, the title had been reported by Mattheson (Wollny
Wollny 2006, XVIII),
XVIII and there had
been much speculation by scholars as to

to which work the title referred.
referred
This piece is also unique in that it includes a detailed description of the events
portrayed, which is written out in SA 4450. In fact, the descriptions are so detailed that
each passage is marked with a number which corresponds with the number indicated in
the descriptions (Nos. 1-26).

1 26). It is a musical representation of Monsieur Mitternacht's
ordeal of falling
ling into the Rhine at St. Goar. Monsieur Mitternacht, major-domo
major to Count
von Thurn, was travelling on the Rhine with his master, two other men and the
composer when the incident happened. They had gone out for the evening until the
small hours on the 24th

24th June. On their return, Monsieur Mitternacht fell into the Rhine,
Rhine
and the piece portrays a detailed account of his rescue (Wollny

Wollny 2006, XX-XXI).
XX
Froberger musically depicts each part of the incident in detail. For example, the passage
at events Nos. 21 to 23 are shown in Example 25. No.21 represents

esents the current that
Monsieur Mitternacht is drawn under, he is almost losing hope on the diminished chord
at No.22, then he is drawn deeper into the currents at No.23. Eventually, he is rescued
and all is well.

79
Example 25: Froberger, FbWV 627, Allemande Rhin bar 7

nde faite en passant le Rhin,
The opening Allemande makes use of a number of D#s,, but as there is no E♭
found in this movement, or in fact in any of the dances that follow, it is possible to tune
D#s pure. D#,, as mentioned in the previous chapter, is also one of the more common
notes to be split on harpsichords with split-keys,

split keys, so no retuning would be necessary if it
is played on such an instrument.
On closer examination, however, it is evident that whenever something more
dramatic happens,, Froberger uses

use D#s,, for example at no. 8 when Monsieur Mitternacht
'begins to sigh'. d#1 appears quite exposed at the top of the chord, and it might be quite
appropriate for it to remain a pure E♭. Similarly, there are several D#s
D in bar 5 (shown in
Example 26 below), when Mr Mitternacht gets caught in the water swirl and struggles
(Nos. 14-16).
16). It is then reported that he comes back up to the surface, which is what the
large upward leap at the end of the bar is probably portraying.. Again, these D#s could
be left tuned as E♭s in order to add intensity to this passage.. The appearance of the D#s
in bar 5 (i.e. Nos. 14--16) are concentrated: there is a D# on every crotchet beat, and they
disappear after the large upward leap. On the other hand, perhaps the
th d# in bar 2 still
needs to be tuned pure, as the bass notes need to be more stable. In performance, it
might be appropriate to linger on the D#ss that are not pure to enhance the intensity of
the events being portrayed.

80
Example 26: Froberger, FbWV 627, Allemande faite en passant le Rhin,

Rhin bar 5
It is also interesting to note that when Monsieur Mitternacht is 'momentarily
resting' at No.13, the D# from the B major chord is omitted.. In Bulyowsky 1675,
1675 which
does not include detailed descriptions, the chord was filled out with d#1 and f#1. This
also supports the view that it would be appropriate to leave d#1 tuned as e♭1 in this
movement.
he remaining movements contain some A#ss which were absent from the
The
opening movement.4 This is unusual, since as previously stated, Froberger tended to use
more 'remote' pitches in the opening movement, which also most frequently bears a
programmatic title.. Again, A#ss are marked with a 'x' rather than a '#', and perhaps imply
that pure D#ss were to be used but A#s could be left tuned as B♭s. All of the A#s appear
either in one of the inner voices disguising the high pitch of those notes, or so written
that they call for a trill, again disguising its pitch. If the harpsichord is equipped with
some split-sharps,
sharps, pure D#ss could easily be used in these movements. The availability
of pure D#s would be convenient as the A section in all three of these movements
conclude on the dominant chord,

chord B major, which contains the D#..
The B section opens with an interesting passage.. In SA 4450, the B sections

section of
the Courant and Sarabande have a B major chord with a D#.. This suggests that the D#s
do indeed need to be tuned pure. The end of the A section is often where notes outside
4
In sources Tappert c.. 1670 and Bulyowsky 1675, a#1 is used towards the end of the A section of the
opening movement.. In the modern transcription of SA 4450, Wollny seems to respect this and inserts
editorial g#1 and a#1 without commenting.
commenting These are absent from the facsimile of SA 4450.
81
the normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone are found. In the Meditation FbWV
620, discussed earlier, the chord found at the end of the A section contained an A#
marked with an 'x' (possibly tuned as a pure B♭). Froberger followed this with a minor
chord on the same bass note at the start of the B section, and it was commented that this
minor chord functioned to mellow the effect of the F# major chord containing a high A#.
In a similar manner, perhaps Froberger had a version for the dances of FbWV 627 in
which minor chord on B was to be played at the start of the B section, perhaps for when
harpsichords with split-sharps were unavailable. It is perhaps, then, advisable to play a
minor chord at the start of the B section in the dances, whenever pure D#s are not
available for this work.
Instruments with two registers could provide another solution. The opening
movement could be played on one set of 8' register tuned with pure e♭1 and pure d#, and
the rest of the movements on the other set of 8' register tuned with pure d# and d#1.
When this solution is applied, both the end of the A section as well as the beginning of
the B section in all of the remaining dances could be played with a B major chord
containing a pure D#. A performance from the recital (Chapter 4 of the accompanying
DVD) is played with the pure e♭1 and pure d# for the first movement, and d#1 retuned
for the remaining dances.

82
Suite in A minor, FbWV 630,630 Plaincte faite à Londres pour passer la Melancolie la
quelle se joüee lentement et à discretion - Courante - Sarabande - Gigue - included in
the recital
Suggested retuning
This work also has a brief description of the event portrayed.

portray . The descriptions are in
Latin in the source WMin 743,

743 and in German in SA 4450, but they convey the same
story. Froberger was robbed twice on his way to England, once between Paris and
Calais, and then again between Calais and Dover. He arrived in London with no money
and was reduced to operating organ bellows,

bellows but as he was preoccupied with
melancholy thoughts, he was not concentrating

conce on this menial task. He was eventually
thrown out on to the street, and he wrote this work.
The work contains a few D#ss in the middle of the movement, as well as a few
more in the Courante and Gigue that follow (there are no D#ss found in the Sarabande),
otherwise there are no other notes that lie outside the normal disposition of quarter-
quarter
comma meantone. There are no E♭s, so D#s, particularly d#1, could easily be tuned pure.
Froberger's use of diminished fourths is interesting in

n the opening movement.
Diminished fourths
ths are an enharmonic equivalent of a major third but they would be
wolf intervals in quarter-comma

quarter comma meantone and sound 'out of tune' even though they are
in tune as a diminished fourth. Froberger seems to use this interval effectively in order
to express his 'melancholy' without using notes that lie outside the normal disposition of
quarter-comma
comma meantone, just as Rossi did in the example cited in the previous chapter.
83
The first diminished fourth appears in bar 3 between c#2 and f2. This occurs at a
moment of repose after a long ascending scale and some demisemiquaver movement,
movement
and it is followed by descending scales in small note values, as shown in Example 27. It
would be appropriate,
appropriate perhaps, to pull up slightly into the diminished fourth to prepare
for the dissonance and linger on it for as long as the music permits in order to enhance
the effect.
Example 27. Froberger, FbWV 630,

630 Plaincte faite à Londres, bars
ars 2-3
2
At the end of bar 4, another diminished fourth

th is used where a pair of lombard
rhythms appear. Again, it would be appropriate to linger on the diminished fourth
between g#1 and c2 marked with an asterisk

ast (*) in Example 28 below. The d#1 which
appears at the
he start of bar 5 should probably sound pure so as not to take away the
listener's attention from the aforementioned expressive diminished fourth.
Example 28. Froberger, FbWV 630, Plaincte faite à Londres, End of bar 4
84
The diminished fourth

th at the end of bar 6 could also be lingered upon (marked
with an * in Example 29).

2 ). This time it could be used to build up tension leading into the
scale flourish which follows at the beginning of bar 7 as shown in Example 29. There
are a couple of d#2s towards the end of bar 7 but these could perhaps be left as pure e♭2s
as the higher pitch of these notes

note seem quite appropriate at this climactic moment, and
these are unlikely to cause any disruption to the general flow of the music. All of the
points made
de here are demonstrated in the performance in the recital (Chapter 3 of the
accompanying DVD).
Example 29. Froberger, FbWV 630, Plaincte faite à Londres, bar

ar 6-7
The two d#2s in the Courante are both in the inner voice, they both resolve to e2
and one of them exactly at the point where a cadential trill would be appropriate,
making the pitch of the d#2 less obvious. There are three d#1 in the Gigue, two of which
are very brief, and the other one as part of a 6#-4#-2

6# 2 chord on A. The pitch
p of the D# in
a 6-4-22 chord is not so noticeable because the clash between A and b is more of an
impact than the high pitch of d#1.

85
Lamentation faite sur la tres douloreuse mort de Sa Majeste Imperiale, Ferdinand le

Troisiesme, et se joüe lentement avec discretion (made
made on the very painful death of
His Imperial Majesty, Ferdinand III,, and is played slowly with discretion),
discretion FbWV
633 - included in the recital
Suggested retuning:
This work was inspired by the death on the 2nd April 1657 of Emperor Ferdinand III.
Until SA 4450 was discovered, WMin 743 was the only source for this work, the Suite
FbWV 630, and the Tombeau FbWV 632. It has been established that WMin 743 was
not written out with any great care (Rampe 2003, XXXVII),, and details such as ties and
accidentals are sometimes

sometim absent,, and barline arrangement seems to have been changed.
It had also been suspected that the key signatures had been modified;
modified this has now been
confirmed by the discovery of SA 4450 which is a more reliable source and in which
there is only one flat in the key signature for this work. In WMin 743, there are two.
The Lamentation opens with a broken-chord flourish on F followed by a parallel
figure on B♭. The third of the chord appears twice on each of the flourishes before the
reiteration of the chord in minor. Both sources (i.e. WMin 743 and SA 4450) have an A-
natural at the start. This had been changed to A♭ in Adler's DTO.

DTO Editions by Schott,
Rampe and Wollny all adopt an A-natural.

natural. This results in the broken-chord
broken on F to be
major on the ascent and minor for the descent.
Before the discovery of SA4450, the following chord on B♭ also had a switch of
major to minor within the flourish. Even Adler,

Adler who inserted an A♭ at the beginning for
the F chord, adopts a major-minor

major change for the chord on B♭, and writes D-natural for
86
the ascent and D♭ on the descent. In SA4450, however, the chord on B♭ is always minor
as shown in Example 30. These notes are significant, since both A♭ and D♭ are beyond
the normal disposition of quarter-comma

quarter meantone.
Example 30. Froberger, FbWV 633, Lamentation, bar 1
This work is listed as a Tombeau rather than a Lamentation in Sotheby's auction
catalogue. Maguire,, the author of the catalogue, comments that 'important A-flats
A and
D-flats
flats are missing in other sources' for the opening of this work (Maguire 2006, 7).
This implies that both of these chords are notated as minor in the Sotheby.
The catalogue contains pictures of some of the pieces.

pieces. Unfortunately, the
beginning of the Lamentation is not one of them, but the

he end bars are included on page
5. While no discrepancy is evident with regards to the pitches,, a couple of ties which
had previously
sly been absent but added by editors including Rampe are now confirmed to
be original.
On harpsichords tuned in the normal disposition of quarter-comma

quarter meantone, it
might be appropriate to start both chords as major,

major, just as in WMin 743,
743 to establish the
chords without wolf notes,

notes before introducing A♭ and D♭. It is even possible that the
87
scribe of the WMin 743 decided wolf notes at the outset of the work as inappropriate
and altered them.
The work contains several other A♭s and D♭s scattered throughout. In bar 9,
which is at the end of the second part of this three-part work, there is an A♭ major chord
which contains A♭, a♭ and a♭1. These A♭s all need to be useable. Since there are no G#s
used, it would be possible to retune all of the A♭s at these three pitches. A♭ is also one of
the two common keys to be split on harpsichords with split-keys, so if this work is
played on such a keyboard, pure A♭s would be available.
In addition, some D♭s appear as the bass note. Interestingly, while there are more
higher A♭s in the work than lower A♭s (15 a♭1s, nine a♭s, and five A♭s), D♭s follow the
opposite pattern and there are more lower D♭s found. In particular, there are eight d♭s
found as opposed to just four d♭2s. Given the fact that wolf notes do not function well as
the bass notes, it would be a good idea to retune d♭ pure as there is no c# found at this
pitch. Its more frequent use compared with the d♭2 also seems to support this idea.
The d♭1 is the only pitch for which its enharmonic note, c#1 is used, and the
passage in bar 8, for example, would not work with the D♭ tuned as a C#. On closer
examination, however, the passage from the upbeat to bar 7 to the A♭ major chord at the
start of bar 9 can be treated as a separate section, and if a double-manual instrument was
available, it would be possible to tune the upper manual so that all of the A♭s and D♭s
contained in this section can be played as pure intervals. Example 31 shows this passage,
and a performance in the recital (Chapter 7 of the accompanying DVD) demonstrates
this on a single-manual harpsichord with the help from an assistant.

88
Example 31. Froberger, FbWV 633, Lamentation, bars 7-9
If the suggested tuning is adopted, there remains just enough wolf notes to
colour the work without them becoming a distraction. The d♭1 near the beginning of bar
15 is particularly poignant as the arrival point after a rapid ascending scale as shown in
Example 32.. It is then resolved upwards onto a D-natural

natural before the work comes to a
conclusion on an arpeggiated
arpeg and pure-sounding F major chord (Example 32).
32)
Example 32. Froberger, FbWV 633, Lamentation, bar 15
Toccata FbWV 112 in A minor - included in the recital
This toccata is from 'Libro

' Quarto' and contains the sharpest note among the toccatas in
this volume,, namely E#. Hora analysed this work in his dissertation,
dissertation and considered it
one of the deciding factors for his conclusion that Froberger used a circular
89
temperament (Hora 2004, 143-145). On closer examination, however, it is evident that
this work can be played successfully in quarter-comma meantone.
The E# in question (e#1) appears in bar 16. Its enharmonic, f1, is used freely
throughout the work, so tuning the e#1 pure is not an option. However, a further
investigation reveals that the section from bars 14 to 19 (shown in Example 33) which
contains e#1 is completely free from its enharmonic f1. Considering the freedom with
which Froberger uses f1 in other parts of this toccata, this is intriguing. As there is a
break in the music at the start and end of this section, it is possible to play this section
on a different set of strings, if the instrument is equipped with more than one set of
strings, and tune e#1 pure.
If retuning is not an option, either because the performer wants to use both sets
of strings coupled together, as is often done for performances of the toccatas, or a
second set of strings is not available, there can be two different ways to play this
passage. It is possible to either highlight or hide e#1. If the performer chooses to
highlight it, then it is possible to linger on it, and it could be followed by a gradual rit.
into the 7th chord on c, which occurs on the third crotchet beat of bar 17. Track 17 on
the CD demonstrates this option.
If the performer chooses to hide e#1, then the rit. could happen slightly later at
the start of bar 17, and the pitch of the e#1 is hardly noticed, as demonstrated on Track
18 on the accompanying CD. The pitch of the e#1 on this track is further disguised by
the addition of a trill in the right hand.
Froberger also uses a few diminished fourths in this work. As discussed above,
these create wolf-sounds. In particular, the wolf-sounding diminished fourths in bars 2
and 13 are expressive and help to add colour. A performance from the recital included
on the accompanying DVD (Chapter 2) demonstrates this. As with some other works
90
analysed above, the last section of this work is also free from any notes which lie
beyond the normal disposition of quarter-comma

quarter comma meantone and the writing displays
dazzling virtuosity.
Example 33. Froberger, FbWV 112,

1 Toccata, bars 14-19
91
CONCLUSION
This study examined the works of Froberger, focusing on notes that fall outside of the
normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone, and passages which use wolf intervals.
It was found that Froberger's harmonic lauguage was still firmly rooted in quarter-
comma meantone and he overstepped its limits in a reserved way. When he did, he did
so with intention, often to portray extra-musical events.
Chapter I examined historical temperaments that were known in the sixteenth to
the eighteenth centuries. It discussed why temperaments are necessary, and how
musicians of the past found solutions. Historical temperaments are divided into three
groups, those consisting mostly of pure intervals with no tempering such as the
Pythagorean tuning, regular temperaments such as the various forms of meantone
temperament, and irregular temperaments which are sometimes called circular
temperaments because they had no unusable intervals. Sizes of intervals varied
according to where the notes lie in the circle, and the idea of key characteristics
developed. Historical background and characteristics of each temperament were
discussed.
Chapter II looked at instruments from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
and the ways musicians tried to make keyboard instruments work in terms of
enharmonic notes in meantone temperaments. It discussed firstly instruments with a
different number of notes per octave: some instruments had just a few extra notes per
octave; cimbalo cromatico had all of the enharmonic notes resulting in 19 notes to the
octave; and Vicentino's archicembalo which is believed to have had 31 divisions and 36
keys to the octave. It was found that the instruments with many split keys were
experimental in nature, and did not become common. Instruments with enharmonic
92
notes were probably made initially out of necessity as accompanists were asked to
transpose for singers and instrumentalists. It was also found that the most common
notes to be split on instruments with divided accidentals were E♭/D# and G#/A♭. Many
of these instruments had the mechanism removed later when the prevalent
temperaments changed to irregular (circular) temperaments, and few instruments from
the period survive with the mechanisms intact.
The chapter also looked at music written for such instruments. While composers
experimented with notes outside of the normal disposition of quarter-comma meantone,
it was found that they also tried to make their works playable on a standard keyboard.
These notes were sometimes used leading up to a cadence, or at the cadences
themselves to increase the intensity of the passage, sometimes only used in one section
of the work usually somewhere in the middle, and in other cases, buried in the middle
voice and so less conspicuous. It was also mentioned that Froberger's teacher,
Frescobaldi may have been a competent player of instruments with many divided keys.
His teacher, Luzzaschi was known to have been an accomplished player of the
archicembalo.
Instruments which may have been known to Froberger were then discussed,
although little firm evidence is available. Specifications of the instruments were
mentioned, and his music was surveyed to establish some of the features of them that
Froberger was acquainted with.
Chapter III covered case studies of Froberger's works. It was found that many of
the techniques discussed in Chapter II were used by Froberger. This included only
introducing wolf notes at rhetorically appropriate moments, or confined to one section,
or leading up to cadences. He wrote many works with descriptive titles, and it was
found that he used wolf notes to create tension in programmatic writing. At the same
93
time, it is clear that his compositional foundation was firmly rooted in meantone
temperament. Even for his most adventurous works that have survived, namely his two
ricercars in F# minor and C# minor, his use of the wolf notes were mostly confined to
cadential points perhaps with the exception of D#s which were found to be prevalent in
the music of the low countries, as discussed in Chapter II.
In addition, Froberger sometimes used wolf notes at the end of a section,
creating a striking effect, but then followed it with a minor version of the same chord.
He uses this technique several times in his works, balancing out the tension created by
the wolf notes in a section with pure, inoffensive harmonies.
Although there were cases in which Froberger used several wolf notes in
succession, interrupting the harmonic progression and general line of the music,
solutions were always found by modifying quarter-comma meantone. At least with
regard to his surviving works, there is no evidence to suggest that his preferred
temperament was a type of circular one.
This study highlighted issues for choosing the way to tune the harpsichord for
performance of the music of Froberger. The method presented in this study could also
be applied to other music of the period and beyond, and could provide more insight into
the works and how the chosen temperament could affect interpretation and performance.
94
Appendix I:
Recital Programme
Friday 25th September 2015
95
The Use of Meantone Temperament in the

Performance of Keyboard Music by Johann Jacob
Ja ob Froberger
11.30am, Friday 25th September, 2015
Recital Programme
1. Toccata in A minor,
minor FbWV 112
No notes retuned.
2. Suite in A minor, Plaincte faite à Londres pour passer la Melancolie la quelle se

joüe lentement et à discretion - Courante - Sarabande - Gigue,
Gigue FbWV 630
Note retuned:
3. Suite in E minor, Allemande faite en passant le Rhin dans une barque en grand
peril, la quelle se joüe lentement â la discretion - Courantee - Sarabande - Gigue,
FbWV 627
Note retuned for the Allemande:
Notes retuned for the other dances:
4. Suite in D major, Meditation faite sur ma mort future, la quelle se joüe

lentement avec Discretion - Gigue - Courante - Sarabande, FbWV 620
Notes retuned:
retuned
*** Tuning break (5-10 mins) ***

96
5. Ricercar in F# minor, FbWV 412
No notes retuned.
6. Lamentation faite sur la tres douloreuse mort de Sa Majeste Imperiale,

discretion FbWV 633
Ferdinand le Troisiesme, et se joüe lentement avec discretion,
Notes retuned:
retuned
Further two notes retuned on front 8' only:
7. Suite in C major, Lamentation faite sur la tres douloureuse Mort de sa Majeste,

Ferdinand le Quatriesme - Gigue - Courante - Sarabande,, FbWV 612
No notes retuned.
Depiction of heaven:
Harpsichord built by Andrew Wooderson (2011) modelled on a seventeenth-

seventeenth
century anonymous Italian instrument.
instrument
97
Appendix II:
DVD Track Listing from the Recital
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 2. Toccata FbWV 112
Chapter 3. Suite in A minor FbWV 630
Chapter 4. Suite in E minor FbWV 627
Chapter 5. Suite in D major FbWV 620
Chapter 6. Ricercar in F# minor FbWV 412
Chapter 7. Lamentation FbWV 633
Chapter 8. Suite in C major FbWV 612
DVD is also available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RJZMM7Z21mk
98
Appendix III:
Scores of works included in the recital

99
Toccata in A minor, FbWV 112

100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
Suite in A minor, FbWV 630

108
109
110
111
Suite in E minor, FbWV 627

112
113
114
115
Suite in D major, FbWV 620

116
117
118
119
Ricercar in F# minor, FbWV 412

120
121
122
123
124
125
126
Lamentation faite sur la tres douloreuse mort de Sa Majeste

Imperiale, Ferdinand le Troisiesme, FbWV 633
127
128
Suite in C major, FbWV 612

129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
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The Use of Meantone Temperament in the

Performance of Keyboard Music by Johann Jacob Froberger

selecting an appropriate tuning system. Froberger lived at a time when meantone

the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries understood the limitations of prevalent

the normal disposition of meantone, or by making use of the ‘harsh’-sounding intervals.

The dissertation is divided into three chapters. It contains information on historical

assistance to performers exploring the music of Froberger, by highlighting issues to

interpretation and performance.

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................. iii

LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... vi

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... vii

LIST OF EXAMPLES ................................................................................................. viii

SOUND EXAMPLES .................................................................................................. x

LIST OF SOURCES FOR FROBERGER'S MUSIC .................................................. xi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... xii

DECLARATION ......................................................................................................... xiii

Historical Background ............................................................................... 2

Aim of the Research .................................................................................. 3

Current State of Research .......................................................................... 5

Editions and Sources for Froberger's Works ............................................. 7

Pitch Notation ............................................................................................ 12

CHAPTER I: Temperament ......................................................................................... 14

Regular Temperaments ............................................................................. 16

1. Meantone Temperaments ................................................... 16

2. Equal Temperament ........................................................... 19

Irregular Temperaments ............................................................................ 21

1. Werckmeister III ................................................................ 21

3. Vallotti ca. 1730, Neidhardt I, and Barnes ......................... 23

4. French Tempérament Ordinaire ......................................... 25

Instruments with More than 12 Notes to the Octave ................................. 33

Instruments Froberger May Have Known ................................................. 49

Johann Mayer: 1619, Stuttgart ............................................... 49

Giovanni Celestini: 1587, Venice .......................................... 51

The Compass and Other Features in Froberger's Music ........................... 52

Affligée et Tombeau faît à Paris sur la mort de Monsieur Blanchrocher,

FbWV 632a ............................................................................................... 60

discretion, et encore mieux que les soldats m’ont traicté – Courant –

Sarabande – Gigue, FbWV614 .................................................................. 67

Meditation faite sur ma mort future, la quelle se joüe lentement avec

Discretion - Gigue - Courante - Sarabande, FbWV 620 .......................... 70

Ricercar in F# minor, FbWV 412 / C# minor, FbWV 406 ....................... 71

Other Ricercars in 'Libro IV' and 'Libro di capricci e ricercate' ................ 76

Suite in E minor, Allemande faite en passant le Rhin dans une barque en

grand peril, la quelle se joüe lentement â la discretion - Courante -

Sarabande - Gigue, FbWV 627 ................................................................. 77

Melancolie la quelle se joüe lentement et à discretion - Courante -

Sarabande - Gigue ..................................................................................... 82

Lamentation faite sur la tres douloreuse mort de Sa Majeste Imperiale,

Ferdinand le Troisiesme, et se joüe lentement avec discretion,

FbWV 633 ................................................................................................. 85

Toccata FbWV 112 in A minor ................................................................. 88

APPENDIX I: Recital Programme (25th September 2015).......................................... 94

APPENDIX II: DVD Track Listing from the Recital .................................................. 97

APPENDIX III: Scores of Works Included in the Recital ........................................... 98

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................ 136

1. Pitch notation ................................................................................................ 12

2. Short-octave keyboard ................................................................................... 38

3. Split-key short-octave keyboard and divided D#/E♭, G♯/A♭ keys ................. 38

4. Suggested retuning for Mayone's Toccata Quarta (1609) ............................. 42