2.

0 Engineering Formulas
Recommended Unit Exponent Prefix Symbol
Prefixes 1012 Tetra T
109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 Kilo k
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro µ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico P
10-15 femto F
10-18 atto a

2.1 Tuned Circuits

Reactance 1 1
XC = = X L = ωL = 2πfL
ωC 2πfC
at resonance XC = X L

Series RLC Z = R + j(X L − X C )

j
R L C XL

|Z|

θ
R
XC
-j
2 2 X−1
Z = R +X θ = tan
R
ω ωo
Z = R 1 + y 2Q 2 y= −
ωo ω
VL
Q=
VR resonance
1 ω L 1 1 L fo
ωo = Q= o = = B3dB =
LC R ω o RC R C Q

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Parallel RLC 1 1
Y= = + jωC
R L Z R + jωL
L Q
Zo = =
C RC ω o C

1 R2 1
ωo = − 2 ≈
LC L LC

Transformers V1 V2 V3
= = = I1n1 + I2 n2 + I 3n3 + =0
2
n1 n2 n3
1
Z1 Z 2 Z3
3 = = =
n12 n22 n32

2.2 Active Circuits

2.2.1 Differential Pairs

Schematic +V CC

IC RC

vo
IB1 IB2
V
E IE

IT RE

-VEE

Tail Current VEE − VBE V − 0.7

IT = ≈ EE
RB RT
RE +
2(β dc + 1)

Collector Current IT
IC =
2

RC
AC Output Voltage vo = (v1 − v 2 )
2 re ′

Differential Gain RC 25 mV
A= re′ =
2re′ IE

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Common Mode Gain RC R

ACM = ≈ C
re′ + 2 RE 2 RE

Input Impedance zin = 2βre′

Offset Voltage vin offset = ∆V BE + I B1 RB1 − IB 2 R B2 vo offset = A vin offset

Input Offset Currents I B1 − I B 2

Iin (off ) = I B1 − I B2 Iin ( bias ) =
2

Common Mode Rejection A A

Ratio CMRR = CMRRdB = 20 log
ACM ACM

2.2.2 Basic Op Amps

R2

R1

General Circuit
V1
-
R4 R
Vo
Vout = V2 − V1 2 + Vref
V2
R3
+ R3 R1

R4

Vref

R2

R1

Differential Amplifier
V1
-
R2
Vo
Vout = (V2 − V1 )
V2
R1
+ R1

R2

R2

Noninverting Amplifier R1
R2
- Vout = V1 1 +
R1
Vo

V1
+

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R2

R1
Inverting Amplifier
V1
- R2
Vout = −V1
Vo R1
+

Power Bandwidth SR
fmax =
2πVp

Corner Frequency funity Amid

fc =
Amid 0.707 Amid

20 dB/decade

0 dB
fc f unity

Feedback Fraction R1
B=
R1 + R2

Slew Rate IT
SR =
CC

Vp
Initial Slope of a Sine
Wave ∆v
SS = 2πfVp
∆t

Feedback
v out A 1 A
= ≈ 1 + AB =
v in 1 + AB B ACL

R2 RF

R1
- -
Vo Vo
+ I in +
Vin RL RL

Non-Inverting Voltage Feedback Inverting Voltage Feedback

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RL R1

RF
RL
- -
Vo
+ I in +
Vin R2

Non-Inverting Current Feedback Inverting Current Feedback

OpAmp Feedback Formulas

Quantity Noninverting Inverting Voltage Noninverting Inverting Current
Voltage Feedback Feedback Current Feedback Feedback
Voltage Gain A 1
≈
1 + AB B
Transresistance A
R ≈ RF
A +1 F
Transconductance 1
≈
RF
Current Gain 1
≈
B
Input Impedance (1 + AB )zin RF (1 + AB )zin R1
1+A 1 + AB
Output Impedance zout zout (1 + A)RF (1 + A)R2
1 + AB 1+A
Distortion v dist v dist v dist v dist
1 + AB 1+A 1 + AB 1 + AB
Output Offset voo voo voo voo
1 + AB 1+A 1 + AB 1 + AB
Upper Critical (1 + AB ) fc (1 + A) fc (1 + AB ) fc (1 + A) fc
Frequency

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 Engineering

2.3 Transmission Line Formulas

i(x, t) i(x + ∆x, t)

R∆x L∆x

v(x, t) G∆x C∆x v(x + ∆x, t)

∆x

Distributed Element Model of a Transmission Line

Transmission Line ∂2 v ∂v ∂2 v
Equation
= RGv + (RC + LG ) + LC
∂x 2 ∂t ∂t 2

−αx − (ωt −βx )j

v (t ) = e
jωt −γx
A Solution to the e =e e
Transmission Line
Equation

Propagation Coefficient γ = γ ∠ϕ = α + jβ = (R + jωL )(G + jωC)

Attenuation Coefficient α = Re { (R + jωL)(G + jωC)}

Attenuation = αx Nepers = 20 log e ( αx )≈ 8.686αx dB

Phase Shift Coefficient β = Im { (R + jωL)(G + jωC)}

180 βx
Phase Shift = βx radians = degrees
π

Characteristic Impedance R + jωL µ

Zo = Ro + jXo = =
G + jωC ε

R + jωL R + jωL
Ro = Re Xo = Im
G + jωC G + jωC

Approximations R L
Z o(low freq ) ≈ Z o(high freq ) ≈
G C

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Impedance Along a Z L + jZ o tanh γx

Transmission Line Z = Zo
Z o + jZ L tanh γx

Impedance Along a Z L + jZ o tanβx

Lossless Transmission Z = Zo
Z o + jZ L tanβx
Line

Phase Velocity 1 1
Vp = = = λf meters/sec
µε LC

Lossless Transmission R= G = 0
Line

Distortionless RC = LG
Transmission Line

Skin Depth 1
δ= meters where µ = permeability
π f µσ
σ = conductivity

Permittivity 1 −9
ε = ε rε o εo ≈ ×10 farads per meter
36π
−7
Permeability µ = µr µo µo = 4π ×10 henries per meter
for most transmission line dielectrics: µ ≈ µo

Intrinsic Impedance µo µ µo 377

ηo = ≈ 377Ω η= = ≈
εo ε εr εo εr

For tables of permeability, permittivity, and conductivity, please see the section on Constants.

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2.3.1 Practical Cables

Twin Lead
Cable

E Field

d
H Field

2
Design Equations D µ 2D πε
>>1 L≈ ln h/m C≈ f/m
d π d 2D
ln
d

Coaxial Cable D
H Field

E Field

2
Design Equations D µ D 2 πε
>>1 L≈ ln h/m C≈ f/m
d 2π d D
ln
d

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2.4 Noise
-23 o
Definitions k = 1.38 × 10 joules per K [Boltzmann' s Constant]
q = 1.6 × 10−19 coulombs [electron charge]
o o
T = temperature in K [room temp = 290 K]
B = bandwidth in Hz G = amplifier gain
Pno = noise power out Pni = noise power in

Johnson Noise P = kTB [watts]

RMS Noise Voltage e n = 4kTBR

Equivalent noise Teq = To (F − 1) To = 290o K

temperature

Tuned circuit noise π

B= B
bandwidth 2 3 dB

S
Noise Ratio N in Pno
NR = F = = [unit less]
S GPni
N out

Noise Figure (dB) Sin Sout

FdB = 10 log F = −
Nin dB
Nout dB

Friiss’ Formula F2 −1 F3 − 1
Ft = F1 + + +
G1 G1 G2

Shot Noise in = 2qI dc B

2.5 Modulation

Definitions ∆f = δ = carrier deviation

fc = carrier frequency fm = modulation frequency
m am = AM modulation index m fm = FM modulation index

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2.5.1 AM
[ ]
e am = 1+ m am sin (ωm t) sin (ω c t)
Defining Equation m m
= sin (ω ct) + am sin(ωc − ω m )t − am sin(ωc + ω m )t
2 2

Bandwidth B = 2 × fm

Modulation Index Em( max) 2 2 2

m am = meff = m1 + m2 + m3 + ...
Ec( max)

2
Total Power m2am meff
PT = Pc 1 + PT = Pc 1 +
2 2

2.5.2 FM
Defining Equation {
e fm = sin ω c t − m fm cos(ω mt ) }
Modulation Index ∆f
m fm =
fm

Bandwidth [Carson’s ( )
B ≈ 2 m fm +1 fm = 2(∆f + fm )
Rule[

2k + p
Bessel’s functions of the x
∞ (−1)
k
1st kind and order p
J p (x ) = 2
k=0 k!(k + p)!

Side Frequency J p (x ) = magnitude of the side frequency

Magnitude p = side frequency number
x = modulation index

Jo + 2(J1 + J 2 + J3 + ...) = 1
2 2 2 2
FM Power Distribution

Noise −1 N S 3Pcδ 2
δ = ϕfm ϕ = tan =
S N fm 2 kT(BW )3

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2.6 Electromagnetic Radiation

Designation Frequency Wavelength

EHF 30 - 300 GHz 1 cm - 1 mm
SHF 3 - 30 GHZ 10 cm - 1 cm
UHF 300 - 3000 MHz 1 m - 10 cm
VHF 30 - 300 MHZ 10 m - 1 m
HF 3 - 30 MHZ 100 m - 10 m
MF 300 - 3000 KHz 1 km - 100 m
LF 30 - 300 KHz 10 km - 1 km
VLF 3 - 30 KHz 100 km - 10 km
ULF 300 - 3000 Hz 1000 km - 100 km
SLF 30 - 300 Hz 10 Mm - 1 Mm
ELF 3 - 30 Hz 100 Mm - 10 Mm

Definitions c
λ= = wavelength [meters]
f
8
c = the speed of light ≈ 3 ×10 m / s f = frequency in Hz

2.6.1 Antennas
Definitions Pr = received power [dBw] Pt = transmitted power [dBw]
Gt = transmitting antenna gain [dBi] Gr = receiving antenna gain [dBi]
32.45 = a constant generated by the units used
r = distance from antennas
f = frequency ω = angular velocity
I = current element dl = current element differential length
β = phase constant ω/v ε o = permitivity of free space

Electric field radiated

from an antenna Idlβ 2 e − jβr j 1 j
E=
βr + − sin (θ) [v/m]
ω4 πε o (βr
 )2 (βr
 )3
radiated field induction field electrostatic field

Isotropic Radiator Wave Pt 2

PDi = w m
Front Density 4πr 2

Non-Isotropic Radiator Pt Gt 2
PD = w m
Wave Front Density 4 πr 2

Effective Area λ2 Gt 2
Aeff = m
4π

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 Engineering

2
PtGt Aeff λ
Pr = 2 = Pt GtGr [watts] r = distance in KM
Received Power 4πr 4πr
= Pt + Gt + Gr − (32.45dB + 20log r + 20log f ) [dB] f = frequency in MHz

Elementary Dipole 60πLe I

E= sin (θ)
λr

2.6.2 Arrays
Definitions n = number of elements
ϕ = apparent phase lead of adjacent elements wrt angle
s = element spacing
s cosφ = distance between sucessive wavefronts
α = current phase shift between adjacent elements
φ = angle between array axis & direction of interest

Wave front
direction of wave front
Elements Driven In-
1 2 3 n
Phase
ϕ Array axis

Wa
ve
fro
direction of wave front nt
Phase Shift Between 1 2 3 n
Elements ϕ
Array axis

nϕ
sin
Array Factor [General 2 2π
AF = ϕ= s cos φ + α
Form] ϕ λ
n sin
2

λ
α=0 s= ϕ = π cos φ
2
Broadside Array nπ cos φ
sin
2
AF =
π cosφ
n sin
2

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2 4 Elements

3 Elements
Broadside Array
2 Elements
Radiation Pattern
1 1 Element
λ

Array Factor
s=
2
n = 1, 2, 3, 4

Array Axis

π λ π
α=
2
s=
4
ϕ=
2
[cos φ − 1]
nπ
End Fire Array sin
4
[cos φ − 1]
AF =
π
n sin [cosφ −1]
4

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 Engineering

1 Element

2 Elements
3 Elements
4 Elements
End Fire Array

Radiation
Patterns
Array Factor 1 2

λ
s=
2

1 Element

2 Elements
3 Elements
4 Elements

Array Factor 1 2 Array Axis

λ
s=
4

ψ = flare angle [degrees]

Definitions θ 1 2 = half power angle [degrees] θo = first null beam width [degrees]
G = maximum directivity gain D = helical diameter [cm]
s = turns spacing [cm] n = number of turns

15ns(πD )
2
52 115
θ 12 = θo = G=
Helical Antenna πD ns πD ns λ3
λ λ λ λ

Flared Horn (single o o wh wh

40 < ψ < 60 θ 1 2 = 7.5 G = 4.5 (in dB)
plane) λ2 λ2

2.6.3 Tropospheric Propagation

Electric field intensity for A 30Pt Gt
vertically polarized E= v/m [A = attenuation factor]
r
surface waves:

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Field Strength at Unit Eo = 30PtGt

Distance

Receiving
antenna height
ve hr
Wa
Transmitting Direct
ve
antenna height
d Wa
ht cte
fle
Geometry for the Flat Re
Earth Approximation
α α Ground

Image Antenna Positions

ht
D

The received signal, is modified by the 4πht hr

presence of the ground reflected wave, and η = 2 1 − cos +π
λD
the increase (and decrease) in signal voltage
is given by: 2πhthr
η2 = 4sin 2
λD

Received Field Strength 2Eo 2 πhT hR 4πhT hR

ER = sin ≈ Eo
r λr λr 2

15

10
Received Field Strength

-5

-10

-15
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Normalized Distance

Radio Horizon Distance rmax (miles ) = 2hT ( feet ) + 2hR( feet )

rmax (km ) = 17hT ( meters ) + 17hR( meters )

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 Engineering

2.6.4 Ionospheric Propagation

Definitions Nmax = electron density per m3
i = angle of incidence [normal to the atmosphere]

Critical Frequency fo = 9 Nmax

Maximum Usable MUF = fo sec(i)

Frequency

2.9.5 Waveguides
Definitions a = wide dimension of waveguide b = wide dimension of waveguide
λ = free space wavelength
λ c = cutoff wavelength λ g = guide wavelength
Vp = phase velocity Vg = group velocity
2
Emax = maximum voltage gradient [volts cm]

TE10 Mode E Field H Field

Direction of a
Propagation

Wavelength Relationship 1 1 1
2 = 2 − 2
λg λ λc

Cutoff Wavelength λ c = 2a

Phase Velocity λg c
Vp = c =
λ sin α

Group Velocity λ
Vg = c
λg

λg 120π
Zo = 120π =
TE Wave Impedance λ 2
λ
1−
λc

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2
λ
TM Wave Impedance Zo = 120π 1−
λc

Maximum Power −4 2 λ
P = 6.63 ×10 Emax ab
[Rectangular guide, air λg
dielectric, TE mode]

Lossy Dielectric jωµ

η=
Characteristic Impedance σ + jωε

Loss-Less Dielectric 120π

η=
Characteristic Impedance εr
{most]

2.7 Satellites

Band Uplink [GHz] Downlink [GHz] Comments

L .821 - .825 .866 - .870 MSAT
C 5.9 – 6.4 3.7 – 4.2 Fixed ground stations
X 7.9 – 8.6 7.25 – 7.75 Military mobile radio
Ku 14 – 14.5 11.7 – 12.2 Broadcast and fixed point
Ka 27 – 30 17 – 20
30 – 31 20 – 21
V/Q 50 – 51 40 – 41 Broadcast and fixed point
41 – 43
V 54 – 58 54 – 58 Inter-satellite
59 – 64 59 – 64

re = 6378.388 Km [equatorial radius of the earth]

Definitions rs = radius of satellite position
2
g = 9.80665 m/Sec [gravitational constant]
Ts = time for 1 orbit [24 hrs for geostationary orbit]
ω = angular velocity in radians/sec

2
Acceleration due to re
Gravity ac = g
rs

2
Centrifugal Acceleration 2 2π
ac = rsω = rs
Ts

Satellite Velocity g
v = re
[circular Orbit] rs

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 Engineering

Cu P ηP G G λ 2 ηPt G t λG r
= ru = t t 2 r =
Uplink C/N N ou kTe (4πr ) kTe 4πr 2 4πkTe
flux density

Cu 4πru G ru
= 10 log Pt G t − 20log + 20log + 10log η − 10log k + 10log Lu
N ou dB
λu Te
earth station antenna a physical additional
EIRP free space satellite efficencie s constant uplink losses
uplink loss figure of merit

Cd 4πrd Grd
Downlink C/N = 10 logPt Gt − 20log + 20log + 10logη −10log k + 10log
N od dB
λd Te
satellite antenna a physical additional
EIRP free space groundstation efficencies constant downlink
downlinkloss figureof merit

2.8 Video

World Television Formats1

System Code
Parameter M (N) B C G (H) I DK L
(K’)
Lines per picture 525 (625) 625 625 625 625 625 625
Field Frequency [Hz] 60 (50) 50 50 50 50 50 50
Line Frequency [HZ] 15734 15625 15625 15625 15625 15625 15625
(15625)
Video Bandwidth [MHz] 4.2 5 5 5 5.5 6 6
Channel Bandwidth [MHz] 6 7 7 8 8 8 8
Audio above Video [MHz] 4.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 6 6.5 6.5
Vestigial Sideband Width .75 .75 .75 .75 1.25 .75 1.25
[MHz] (1.25) (1.25)
Video Modulation Polarity - - + - - - +
Audio Modulation fm±25 fm±50 am fm±50 fm±50 fm±50 am
KHz KHz KHz KHz KHz
FM Preemphasis [µSec] 75 50 50 50 50

1 Video Techniques, Gordon White

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Bandwidth Comparisons Chroma

Sound
Y I Q
M (NTSC)
MHz
1 2 3 4 5 6
Chroma
Sound
I (PAL) Y U±V
MHz
1 2 3 4 5 6
Chroma
Sound
G, H Y
U±V
(PAL) MHz
1 2 3 4 5 6
Chroma
DB Sound
Y
L (III) DR
SECAM MHz
1 2 3 4 5 6

Selected Country List

Country Color Code
Australia PAL B
Brazil PAL M
Canada NTSC M
China PAL D
France SECAM L
Germany [West] PAL BG
Germany [East] SECAM BG
Hong Kong PAL I
Japan NTSC M
Switzerland PAL BG
United Kingdom PAL I
USA NTSC M
USSR [former] SECAM DK

Luminance EY = 0.30 ER + 0.59EG + 0.11EB

NTSC Chroma I = −0.27(B − Y ) + 0.74(R − Y ) = 0.596ER − 0.274EG − 0.322E B

Q = 0.41(B − Y ) + 0.48(R − Y ) = 0.211ER − 0.522EG + 0.311E B
( ) (
C NTSC = EQ sin ω t + 33o + EI cos ω t + 33o )
PAL Chroma U = 0.493(B − Y ) = −0.148E R − 0.291EG + 0.493EB
V = 0.877( R − Y ) = 0.614E R − 0.519 EG − 0.097 EB
C PAL = EU sin (ω t) + EV cos (ω t )

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 Engineering

Chromance Signal Vector V or R - Y

I
Diagram

1
Q
0 .6
Red
4
0.4

Blue
Chroma U or B - Y
Reference Burst 9 15
- 0.2 -0. -0.1

5 2
-0.

Green

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CIE 1931 Chromaticity Diagram2

2 Television Engineering Handbook, K. Blair Benson, ed., FIG. 2-10

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 Engineering

2.9 Fiber Optics

Cladding η 2 Refraction 3
2
Air ηo Core η 1 θc

Critical Angle Total Internal Reflection

Acceptance Fiber Axis
Angle 1
θa Refraction
1 Ray 2 follows the critical path
2
3

Definitions f = frequency
c = velocity of light in a vacuum λ o = wavelength in a vacuum
v = velocity of light in a medium λ = wavelength in a medium
η = index of refraction Θ1 = angle from the normal
η1 = refractive index of core Θ a = acceptance angle
η2 = refractive index of cladding Θ c = critical angle

Wavelength v
λ=
f

Velocity c
v=
η

Index of Refraction λo c
η= =
λ v

Snell’s Law η1 sin Θ 1 = η2 sin Θ 2

Critical Angle −1 η2
Θ c = sin
η1

Acceptance Angle η1 2 − η2 2
−1 −1
Θ a = sin = sin ( NA)
η0

Numerical Aperture η12 − η2 2

NA =
η0

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Normalized Frequency d
V =π η12 − η2 2
λ

Number of Modes nm ≈ 12 V 2

Dispersion η1 − η2
∆= L = length in meters
η1

Modal Dispersion η1 ∆
tm = L
[Multimode Fiber] c 1 −∆

Modal Dispersion [GRIN η1 2

tm = L ∆
Fiber] 8c

Chromatic Dispersion λo d 2η
tc = L λ 3 db = Dc λ 3 db L
c dλ2

Wavegioude Dispersion tw = 6.6 λ 3 db L

Total Dispersion ttotal = t 2m + tc2 + tw2

Maximum Bit Rate 1

Bmax ≈
5 ttotal

2.10 Information Theory

Definitions I = a measure of information H = entropy

b = information numbering base
N = number of states P = probability of occurance
C = channel capacity in bps B = bandwidth in Hz

N
Information and Entropy 1
I = log b N H = I average = Pi logb
i=1
Pi

Shannon-Hartley S S
C = B log2 +1 lim C = 1.44
Theorem N B→ ∞ kT

2.10.1 Packet Theory

Stop and Wait ARQ 1 t propagation
U= where a=
1 + 2a t frame

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 Engineering

Go Back N ARQ 1−P

U= for N > 2a+1
1 + 2 aP
N (1 − P)
U= for N < 2a+1
(2 a + 1)(1 − P + NP)

Selective Repeat ARQ U =1 − P for N > 2a+1

N(1 − P)
U= for N < 2a+1
2a + 1

Pure ALOHA
ALOHA
0.2 Throughput vs Load

0.16
Normalized Throughput [s]

(1 + K )τ G (1 + K )τ
TAD = τ + Nτ + −
2 S 2
0.12

0.08

0.04

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Normalized Load [g]

Slotted ALOHA
Slotted ALOHA
0.4 Throughput vs Load
K +1
(g )
TAD = τ e − 1 1+ 2N +
2
+ 1.5(N + 1) 0.35
Normalized Throughput [s]

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Normalized Load [g]

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ALOHA Thoughput Pure ALOHA s = ge −2g

slotted ALOHA s = ge −g

ag − g( 1+ 2a )
g 1 + g + ag 1 + g + e
2
unslotted 1 - persistant CSMA s=
( )
g(1+ 2a) − 1 − e − ag + (1 + ag)e −g (1+a )

slotted 1 - persistant CSMA s=

[ ]
g 1 + a − e −ag e − g(1+ a )
(1 + a )(1 − e − ag
)+ ae −g(1+a)
−ag
ge
unslotted nonpersistant CSMA s=
g(1+ 2a) + e −ag

age −ag
slotted nonpersistant CSMA s=
1 − e −ag + a

2.11 Codecs
fs = sampling frequency k = sampling coefficient
Definitions fm = baseband frequency n = number poles or bits
x = input signal x = absolute value (magnitude) of x
sgn(x ) = sign of input (+ or -)
µ = 255 (defined by AT & T) A = 87.6 (defined by CCITT)

1 1 1
naliasing = 2 n −1 −
Aliasing Noise −2 n +1 (2 k ) (2k − 1)2 n −1
fs = 2kfm

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 Engineering

40 n=4
Aliasing Noise
35 as a function of
k and n
n=3

Signal to Noise Ratio (dB)

30

25
Aliasing S/N n=2
20

15
n=1
10

0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
k

100

Quantization Noise
Quantizing Noise vs
Number of Bits
Quantization Noise

10-2
in Volts RMS

1
qnrms =
(
12 2 n −1 )
10-4

10-6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Number of Bits

1 + log(A x ) 1
F(x ) = sgn(x ) ≤ x ≤1
A-Law 1 + log A A

Ax 1
= sgn(x ) 0≤ x ≤
1 + log A A

µ-Law ln(1+ µ x )
F(x ) = sgn(x ) 0 ≤ x ≤1
ln(1+ µ)

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Progression A-Law andµ-Law Segments

80 8
4 A Law
2
1 A-Law Progression
64

µ Law

32

16
1 2 4
µ-Law Progression

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Analog Voltage [Arbitrary Units]

Digitization Digital Code Digital Code

1000 0001
1111 1110
1000 0000
1111 1111 Analog Input Analog Input
0111 1111
0000 0000

0111 1110
0000 0001

µ Law A Law
(folded binary) (sign magnetude)

December 14, 2004 Mathematical & Engineering Handbook 2 - 27

 Engineering

2.12 Partial Correlation

Class Channel Response H(ω) Channel Impulse Radix

Name Notation f[δ]
1 1 Ideal LPF 1 2
1 πω Cosine 1,1 3
2 cos
2B
2 2 πω Raised 1,2,1 5
4 cos Cosine
2B
3 πω 2πω 2,1,-1 5
2 + cos − cos
B B
πω 2 πω
+ j sin − sin
B B
4 πω Sine 1,0,-1 3
2sin
B
5 2 πω 1,0,-2,0,1 5
4 sin
B

2.12.1 Ideal LPF

1
Frequency Response

H(ω) = 1 0≤ω ≤B B
ω
2πf c

1.0
0.8

Impulse Response 0.6

0.4
sin(2πfct) 1 1 3 2
h(t) = 0.2 2 fc fc 2 fc fc
2π t

-0.2 π 2π 3π 4π
B B B B

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 Engineering

2.12.2 Cosine Channel

Cosine Filter
Frequency Response 2

πω
1.5 H (ω ) = 2 cos
2B
πω
H(ω) = cos H (ω ) 1
2B
0≤ω ≤B
0.5

0 ω
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Impulse Response 1.0

h(t) =
[( )2π]+ sin[(t + )2π]
sin t − 1
4
1
4

(t − 14 )2π (t + 14 )2π
1 1 3 2
2 fc fc 2 fc fc
.5 1 1.5
t
-0.2 π 2π 3π 4π
B B B B

2.12.3 Raised Cosine Channel

( )
Hω
4
Frequency Response

πω
H(ω) = 4 cos2
2B
0≤ ω ≤B ω
B

2.0

Impulse Response

h(t) =
1
[( ) ] 1
sin(2π t ) sin 2 − t 2π sin 2 + t 2π
+ +
[( ) ]
πt 1
(
2 − t 2π ) 1
2 + t 2π ( ) 1.0

1 1 3 2
2fc fc 2fc fc
t
0 0.5 1.0 1.5

π 2π 3π 4π
B B B B

December 14, 2004 Mathematical & Engineering Handbook 2 - 29

 Engineering

2.12.4 Sine Channel

2

Frequency Response

πω
H(ω) = 2sin
B ω
0 ≤ω≤ B B

1.0

Impulse Response

sin[(1− 2t)π ] sin[(1+ 2t )π ] 1 1 3 2

h(t) = −
(1− 2t )π (1 + 2t )π 2 fc fc 2fc fc
1.0 1.5 2.0
t
0.5

π 2π 3π 4π
B B B B

-1.0

2.13 Digital Filters

m
Transfer Function
ajz−j
Y (z) j=0 a0 + a1 z −1 + a2 z −2 +  am z− m
H(z ) = = =
X (z ) n
−j 1 + b1 z −1 + b2 z −2 +  bn z −n
1+ bj z
j =1

Im S = ω or f

z = e sT
Repeat
fs/2
unstable region
stable region
Nyquest Interval Re S fs/2 0, fs
Impulse Invariant
Mapping
-fs/2
Repeat

stable region unstable region

S Plane Z Plane

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Im S = ω or f
z −1
s=
z +1
unstable region
stable region
Re S
Bilinear Mapping

stable region unstable region

S Plane Z Plane

2.14 Electro-Mechanics

Definitions T = torque J = inertia

F = force M = mass
r = radius α = angular acceleration
∆v = steps per second ∆t = acceleration time

Torque T = F× r= J ×α

Angular Acceleration ∆v 2π
α= ×
∆t steps/rev

Shaft Geometry
R
R2 R1

Inertial [Disc or Solid M r2

J=
Shaft] 2

M 2
Inertial [Hollow Shaft] J= [
r + r2
2 1
2
]
Mass M = VD

Gear Ratio motor speed mrpm

GR = =
load speed Lrpm

December 14, 2004 Mathematical & Engineering Handbook 2 - 31

 Engineering

Motor Torque load torque TL

Tm = =
gear ratio GR

Total Required Torque TT = JT α + TF

2
Load Inertia Jload = M r

Reflected Load Inertia load inertia J

J rm = = L2
gear ratio GR

Power P= T ω

2 - 32 Mathematical & Engineering Handbook December 14, 2004