Roblem Olving: Ended." The Former Means That The Problem Is Not Well Posed And/or Could
Roblem Olving: Ended." The Former Means That The Problem Is Not Well Posed And/or Could
Howe's Law: Every person has a scheme which will not work.
The 90/90 Law: The first 10% of the task takes 90% of the time. The
remaining 90% takes the remaining 10%.
Polya† recommends the use of four steps for solving problems and
puzzles: define, plan, carry out the plan, and look back. The key features
of this strategy are the interaction among the steps and the interplay
between critical and creative thinking. Fogler and LeBlanc* discuss a five
step program: (1) problem definition (problem identification and
exploration), (2) generate alternatives, (3) decide on a course of action, (4)
carry through, and (5) evaluate the outcome(s). The McMaster five step
strategy developed by Woods†† entails a similar set of steps: (1) define, (2)
explore, (3) plan, (4) act, and (5) reflect.
In the analysis phase, ask questions about the problem such as who,
what, where, when, why, and how. For each question also ask what is the
situation, what is not the situation, what is the difference between the two
situations, and what are possible causes of the difference. For example, for
the question "what," ask What is the problem, what is not the problem, what
is the distinction between the "is" and "is not," and what cause(s) might
arise as these questions are considered. For the question "where," ask what
part of the process is affected, what is not affected, what is the distinction,
and how do these questions lead to possible causes.
†G. Polya, How to Solve It, 2nd ed., Doubleday, New York, 1957.
*H. S. Fogler and S. E. LeBlanc, Strategies for Creative Problem Solving, Prentice-
Hall, Englewood, N.J., 1994.
2
††Woods, D. R., Problem-Based Learning: How to Gain the Most from PBL, D. R.
Woods, McMaster Univ., Hamilton, Ont., 1994.
** Kepner. H. and B. B. Tregoe, The New Rational Manager, Princeton Research
ress, Princeton, N.J., 1981.
The goal of the decision phase is to select the best solution from the
proposed alternatives, and possibly list the priority of alternatives. You can
form a matrix (list the goal(s) at the top) in which the heads of the columns
designate possible actions to ameliorate the problem or possible choices to
meet the stated goal in solving the problem. The rows of the matrix
represent, first, the hard constraints, those factors that must be satisfied.
Next would be listed the group of soft constraints, those that would be nice
(but not essential) to satisfy. In each column for each option list the relative
rating score (say on a range of 1 to 10) attributed to the degree of
satisfaction of a constraint. Addition of the scores in each column helps in
reaching a decision. Since many of the weights will be subjective, the final
decision is not necessarily based solely on the total of the scores.
3
Figure 3 outlines how your strategy for solving problems is influenced by
the information you develop.
For novel, and particularly for open ended problems, we can for
convenience classify the steps in problem solving into five phases (that do
not necessarily have to be carried out serially):
In Figures 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 we have listed for each of the five phases, a set
of suggested questions and/or activities to review while engaged in problem
solving along with short list of verbs to help stimulate your thought
processes.
4
can't see the problem. G. K. Chesterton, The Scandal of
Father Brown.
First, you must identify what results you are to achieve, that is, what the
problem is. Then you must define the system, perhaps with the aid of a
diagram. Various physical constraints will apply as well as the time
available for you to work on the solution. In almost all cases you will have
to look up data and make use of general laws. Finally, the results will have
to be presented properly so that you can communicate them to someone
else. You can work backward as well as forward in solving problems if the
forward sequence of steps to take is not initially clear, and cycle back at
will. Problems that are long and involved should be divided into parts and
5
attacked systematically piece by piece.
6
defeat the locking scheme and get into the car? This alternate viewpoint
might lead to keeping a duplicate key in your wallet, and so on. By going
down the concepts in Fig. 4 and letting your imagination fly free, you can
get a sound grasp of what the problem is.
7
8
"To have a good idea, you must have a lot of ideas"--Linas
Pauling.
All of us would agree that looking at things from more than one
perspective is valuable, outside as well as inside, the profession of
engineering. Alex Osborn popularized brainstorming and spread creativity
training from his advertising agency to business and engineering.
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Creativity is the process that produces new and valued responses to
problems and at the same time facilitates learning, change, and innovation.
Creativity means more than evolving bright ideas. It is more a way of
thinking that sheds new light on old problems. It involves developing an
ability to think in other than straight lines.
(1) Have an alarm signal if any door opens with the key in the
ignition
lock,
(2) Require that a car door be positively locked only from the outside
with the ignition key,
(3) Eliminate keys and use a key pad instead of a key,
Once you have understood the problem, formulated some options, and
ascertained the constraints, you need to select the problem solving
procedure and execute it. If the sequence of steps in the procedure is not
obvious, take time to set up a plan. If one plan fails, try another.
"You have furnished me with seven, but of course I must test them
before I can pronounce upon their value."
"What?"
10
Table 1 lists activities that an expert may use in problem solving. Table 2
contrasts the problem solving habits of an expert with those of a novice.
Table 3 is a checklist for self-assessment of your problem solving traits.
How many of the items in the table pertain to your problem-solving
techniques? Practice visual thinking, stress management, and awareness of
the process whereby you solve problems. Table 4 is a list of reasons why
you may not have been successful in problem solving.
Read the problem over several times but at different times. Be sure to understand
all facets of it. Emphasize the different features each time.
Draw a comprehensive diagram of the process and enter all known information on
the diagram. Enter symbols for unknown variables and parameters.
Formally write down what you are going to solve for: "I want to calculate . . ."
Choose a basis.
Relate the problem to similar problems you have encountered before, but note any
differences.
Write down all the equations and rules that might apply to the problem.
Formally write down everything you know about the problem and what you believe
is needed to execute a solution.
Ask yourself questions as you go along concerning the data, procedures, equations
involved, etc.
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Talk to other people about the problem.
______________________
D. R. Woods, Unit 1, Developing Awareness, the McMaster Problem Solving
Program, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ont., Canada, 1985.
Break off problem solving for a few minutes and carry out some other activity.
Break up the solution of the problem into more manageable parts, and start at a
familiar stage. Write down the objective for each subproblem (i.e., convert mole
fraction to mass fraction, find the pressure in tank 2, etc.).
Consider if the results you obtained are reasonable. Check both units and order of
magnitude of the calculations. Are the boundary conditions satisfied?
Maintain a positive attitude--you know the problem can be solved--just how is the
question.
If you can assimilate the procedures discussed above and make them a
part of yourself--so that you do not have to think about the process of
problem solving step by step--you will find that you will be able to
materially improve your speed, performance, and accuracy in problem
solving.
A novice: An expert:
Starts solving a problem before fully Reviews the entire plan outlined in
Fig.
understanding what is wanted 2.3, mentally explores alternative
and/or what a good route for strategies, and clearly
understands
solution will be what result is to be obtained
Focuses only on a known problem set Concentrates on similarities to and
that he or she has seen before and differences from known
problems;
tries to match the problem with one uses generic principles rather
than
in the set problem matching
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serially or
exploring alternatives in parallel
Gives up solving the problem because Knows what the difficulty is and is
he or she does not know enough willing to learn more that will
provide the information needed
Gives up solving the problem because Aware that a dead end may exist for
a
he or she does not have skills to strategy and has planned
alternative
branch away from a dead-end strategies if a dead end is
reached
strategy
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1. When I fail to solve a problem, I do not examine how I went wrong.
6. When confronted with a problem, I tend to do the first thing I can think of to
solve it.
7. Often I do not stop and take time to deal with a problem, but just muddle
ahead.
8. I do not try to predict the overall result of carrying out a particular course of
action.
10. When faced with a novel problem, I do not have the confidence that I can
resolve it.
11. When I work on a problem, I feel that I am grasping or wandering, and not
getting a good lead on what to do.
13. I do not think of ways to combine different ideas or rules into a whole.
16. I depend entirely on the worked-out sample problems to serve as models for
other problems.
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22. The stress of problem solving causes blocks and filters out good ideas.
23. Cultural blocks and lack of background information lead me down the
wrong path
Failure to draw a diagram and enter all data thereon and the symbols for the
unknowns
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Use of unsatisfactory computer code for the problem
(too much error, premature termination)
Unable to locate needed data, coefficients by not reading the problem thoroughly or
looking in the wrong data base
Unable to estimate what the answer should be to use in comparison with the
calculated answer
Only forward reasoning rather than both forward and backward reasoning is
employed
Emotional stress
(fear of making a mistake, looking foolish or stupid)
Lack of motivation
Inability to relax
Looking Back
In this section we briefly described several problem solving strategies
for novel and open ended problems.
Key Ideas
Self-Assessment Test
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Label each class with a different-type box (circle, square, diamond, etc.) and
let arrows connect the boxes to show the sequence of information flow for
your procedure.
3. What should you do if you experience the following difficulties in solving
problems?
(a) No interest in the material and no clear reason to remember
(b) Cannot understand after reading the material
(c) Read to learn "later"
(d) Rapidly forget what you have read
(e) Form of study is inappropriate
4. Apply the K-T method to solve the following problem.
Supplementary References
Web Site
http://www.engin.umich.edu/%7Ecre/probsolv/index.htm
Problems
17
2.1. I have always checked the condition of my battery by checking the specific
gravity with a hydrometer. I recently purchased an Exide battery. The
specific gravity of the battery stays about 1.225 whether the battery is fully
charged or completely discharged. How is this possible?
2.3. What do Catherine the Great, Attila the Hun, and Eric the Red have in
common?
2.4. Two problems that are posed alike can really be quite different, for
example:
1. It takes 1 man 5 days to dig a ditch. How long does it take 5 men to dig
the ditch?
2. It takes 1 ship 5 days to cross an ocean. How long does it take 5 ships to
cross the ocean?
These two problems are constructed exactly alike: Just substitute ship for
man and cross the ocean for dig a ditch. Why then do the answers differ?
2.5. You have 64 meters of fence. What shape of dog pen should you construct
for your dog?
2.6. Two photometers are used to measure the time it takes for a ball to roll
across the tables. See Figure P 2.6.
If the timers are inaccurate and the meter stick used to measure the height
of the table is inaccurate, how will the prediction of the location on the
floor where ball hits be changed from that made with accurate instruments
and ruler?
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Figure 2.6
2.7. One day in Chicago when the air temperature was in the high 90s, a truck
containing morpholine was in an accident and sprang a leak. The fire chief
of the Chicago suburb involved appeared on the 10:00 o'clock news and
explained that the air temperature that day was almost 100°F, and that
100°F is the flash point of morpholine. He then went on to explain that
when the flash point of morpholine is reached, the morpholoine will
explode. He further said that it was very irresponsible for materials with
such low flash points to be shipped on a hot day.
Is the chief correct?
Bursting through the double doors of the hotel kitchen, Kim Matthews
leveled her gun at Philip Jacobs. Whipping away from the industrial
stovetop to face Kim, Philip's apparent panic faded into a sinister smile.
"You'd like to arrest me, wouldn't you?" Philip looked around at his
surroundings and then back at Kim. "But, whatever for?"
"For . . ." Kim began, but was interrupted by Detective Barry Stone,
coming through doors behind Kim, "If he doesn't have the vase, you can't
arrest him."
"That's right," Jacobs said, sauntering past Kim and out of the kitchen.
"I just don't get it, Barry," Kim said, "I saw him steal the crystal vase
out of the Russian ambassador's exhibit in the lobby, and then I chased him
in here. The vase wasn't that large, but it couldn't have been hidden that
easily, that fast," Kim said, motioning to the kitchen which was cluttered
with the typical pots and utensils used in the hotel food industry. A
butcher's block covered with fresh vegetables spanned the length of the
right wall, blending into the stove top range with its large double doored
oven, seared grills top, and a large bucket of cooking oil at the foot of the
oven doors. Numerous deep sinks and counters used for washing dishes
covered the left side of the kitchen, and in the middle stood the typical
island cluttered with various knifes and other utensils.
"Kim, I'm glad you could come," Detective Stone said gesturing to the
condition of the laboratory. "Obviously there has been very high
temperature fire that melted steel and crumbled the concrete. >From what
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the fireman can tell me, it seems to have been caused by a gas leak in the
gas line to the hood. The gas line looks as though it got run into by a cart
too many times, and due to the age of the line, it most likely just cracked
easily. Anything could've caused the spark. During the fire, orange smoke
billowed out of the lab, and it was impossible to put the fire out by way of
the sprinkler system.
"It used to belong to a Professor Bob Koker, and from the reaction of
some passing students, he wasn't too popular. Here he comes now."
"All my work, gone," Koker began. "I can't believe my life's work has
been destroyed by an insignificant gas leak," Koker exclaimed. "Now I will
have to spend more of my time teaching those sniveling students!" Turning
on his heel, Professor Koker took off towards the door of the lab.
"In how own world, I guess. Poor guy," Stone said while reaching for
his notepad on the counter. "Ugh!, what is this?" Stone exclaimed noting
the white powdery dust that was picked up on his notebook from the white
dust covering the lab bench.
Turning, Kim scanned the floor by the bench which she now observed
was covered with the white powder.
With a sinister gleam in her eye, Kim said, "This explosion wasn't an
accident Stone, of that I'm sure. Let me have the dust analyzed" (The dusk
proved to be a mixture of aluminum oxide and ammonium nitrate).
2.10. Why does popcorn pop? Review the possibilities and carry out
experimental observations to test hypotheses.
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Answers to the Problems
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