Some properties as well as theorems and riders on parallel lines, angles, triangles (including

congruency and similarity of triangles), quadrilaterals, circles and polygons.

ANGELS AND LINES

An angle of is a right angle; an angle less than is acute angle; an angle between and is an obtuse angle;
and angle between and is a reflex angle.

The sum of all angles made on one side of a straight line AB at a point O by any number of lines joining the line AB at
O is . In Fig. 1.01 below, the sum of the angles u, v, x, y and z is equal to .

When any number of straight lines join at a point, the sum of all the angles around that point is . In Fig 1.02 below,
the sum of the angles u, v, w, x, y, and z is equal .

Two angles whose sum is are said to be complementary angles and two angles whose sum is are said to be
supplementary angles.

When two straight lines intersect, vertically opposite angles are equal. In Fig.1.03 given below, and are
vertically opposite angles and and are vertically opposite angles. So, we have and

Two lines which make an angle of with each other are said to be PERPENDICULAR to each other.
If a line passes through the mid-point of another line then the line is said to be the BISECTOR of the line i.e., the
line is divided into two equal parts.

If a line is drawn at the vertex of an angle dividing the angle two equal parts, then the line is said to be the
ANGULAR BISECTOR of the angle. Any point on the angular bisector of an angle is EQUIDISTANT from the two
arms of the angle.

If a line is perpendicular to line as well as passes through the mid-point of line , then the line is said to be the
PERPENDICULAR BISECTOR of the line .

Any point on the perpendicular bisector of a line is EQUIDISTANT from both ends of the line.

In Fig 1.04, line PQ is the perpendicular bisector of line AB. A point P on the perpendicular bisector of AB will be
equidistant from A and B, i.e., PA = PB Similarity. For any point R on the perpendicular bisector PQ, RA = RB.

PARALLEL LINES

When a straight line cuts two or more parallel lines, then the cutting line are called the TRANSVERSAL. When a
straight line XY cuts two parallel lines PQ and RS [as shown Fig. 1.05], the following are the relationships between
various angles that are formed. [M and N are the points of intersection of XY with PQ and RS respectively]
(a) Alternate angles are equal, i.e.

and

(b) Corresponding angles are equal, i.e.

(c) Sum of interior angles on the same side of the cutting line is equal to , i.e

and

(d) Sum of exterior angles on the same side of the transversal is equal to , i.e

and

If three or more parallel lines make intercepts on a transversal in a certain proportion, then they make intercepts in the
same proportion on any other transversal as well. In Fig, 1.06, the lines AB, CD and EF are parallel and the transversal
XY cuts them at the points P, Q and R. If we now take a second transversal, UV, cutting the three parallel lines at the
points J, K and L, then we have PQ/QR = JK/KL.

If three or more parallel lines make equal intercepts on one transversal, they make equal intercepts on any other
transversal as well.

TRIANGLES
 Sum of the three angles of a triangle is

 The exterior angle or triangle (at each vertex) is equal to the sum of the two opposite interior angles. (Exterior
angle is the angle formed at any vertex, by one side and the extended portion of the second side at that vertex).

 A line perpendicular to a side and passing through the midpoint of the side is said to be the perpendicular
bisector of the side. It is not necessary that the perpendicular bisector of a side should pass through the opposite
vertex in a triangle in general.

 The perpendicular drawn to a side from the opposite vertex is called the altitude to that side.

 The line joining the midpoint of a side with the opposite vertex is called the median drawn to that side. A
median divides the triangle into two equal halves as far as the area is concerned.

 An equilateral triangle is one in which all the sides are equal (and hence, all angles are equal, i.e., each of the
angles is equal to ). An isosceles triangle is one in which two sides are equal (and hence, the angles opposite
to them are equal). A scalene triangle is one in which no two sides are equal.

 In an isosceles triangle, the unequal side is called the BASE. The angle where the two equal sides meet is called
the VERTICAL ANGLE. In an isosceles triangle, the perpendicular drawn to the base from the vertex opposite
the base (i.e., the altitude drawn to the base) bisects the base as well as the vertical angle. That is, the altitude
drawn to the base will also be the perpendicular bisector of the base as well as the angular bisector of the
vertical angle. It will also be the median drawn to the base.

 In an equilateral triangle, the perpendicular bisector, the medium and the altitude drawn to a particular side
coincide and that will also be the angular bisector of the opposite vertex. If a is the side of an equilateral
triangle, then its altitude is equal to

 Sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side; difference of any two sides of a triangle is less
than the third side.

 If the sides are arranged in the ascending order of their measurement, then the angles opposite the sides (in the
same order) will also be in ascending order (i.e. greater angle has greater side opposite to it); if the sides are
arranged in descending order of their measurement, the angles opposite the sides in the same order will also be
in descending order (i.e., smaller angle has smaller side opposite to it).
  There can be only one right angle or only one obtuse angle in any triangle. There can also not be one right angle
and an obtuse angle both present at the same time in a triangle. Hypotenuse is the side opposite the right angle
in a right-angled triangle. In a right-angled triangle, hypotenuse is the largest side. In an obtuse angled triangle,
the side opposite the obtuse angle is the largest side.

In a right-angled triangle, the square on the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the
squares on the other two sides. In Fig. 1.08,

In an acute angled triangle, the square of the side opposite the acute angle is less than the sum of the squares of the
other two sides by a quantity equal to twice the product of one of these two sides and the projection of the second side
on the first side. In Fig. 1.09,

In an obtuse angled triangle, the square of the side opposite the obtuse angle is greater than the sum of the squares of
the other two sides by a quantity equal to twice the product of one of the sides containing the obtuse angle and the
projection of the second side on the first side. In Fig. 1.10,
In triangle, the internal bisector of an angle bisects the opposite side in the ratio of the other two sides. In triangle ABC,
if AD is the angular bisector of angle A, then

BD/DC = AB/AC. This is called the angular Bisector Theorem (refer to Fig. 1.11)

In if AD is the median from A to side BC (meeting BC at its mid point D), then
. This is called the Apollonius Theorem. This will be helpful in calculating the
lengths of the three medians given the lengths of the three sides of the triangle (refer to Fig. 1.12).

GEOMETRIC CENTRES OF A TRIANGLE

CIRCUMCENTRE
The three perpendicular bisectors of a triangle meet at a point called circumcentre of the triangle and it is represented
by S. The circumcentre of a triangle is equidistant from its vertices is called circumradius (represented by R) of the
triangle. The circle drawn with the circumcentre as centre and circumradius as radius is called the circumcircle of the
triangle and passes through all there vertices of the triangle.(refer to Fig. 1.13).

INCENTRE AND EXCENTRES

The internal bisectors of the three angles of a triangle meet at a point called incentre of the triangle and it is represented
by I. incentre is equidistant from the three sides of the triangle i.e., the perpendicular's drawn from the in centre to the
three sides are equal in length and this length is called the inradius (represented by r) of the triangle. The circle drawn
with incentre as centre and inradius as radius is called the incircle of the triangle and it touches all three sides on the

inside. In Fig.1.14 Where Iis the incentre and

If the internal bisector of one angle and the external bisectors of the other two angles are drawn, they meet at a point
called excentre. Three will be totally three excentres for the triangle-one corresponding to the internal bisector of each
angle.

ORTHOCENTRE

The three altitudes meet at a point called Orthocenter and it is represented by O (refer to Fig. 1.15)

CENTROID
The three medians of a triangle meet at a point called the centroid and it is represented by G (Refer to Fig. 1.16).

Important points about geometric centers of a triangle

 Please note the following important points pertaining to the geometric centers of a triangle ABC. In an acute
angled triangle, the circumcenter lies inside the triangle. In a right-angled triangle, the circumcenter lies on the
hypotenuse of the triangle (it is the midpoint of the hypotenuse). In an obtuse angled triangle, the circumcenter
lies outside the triangle.
 In an acute angled triangle, the orthocenter lies inside the triangle. In a right-angled triangle, the vertex where
the right angle is formed (i.e., the vertex opposite the hypotenuse) is the orthocenter. In an obtuse angled
triangle, the orthocenter lies outside the triangle.

 In a right-angled triangle the length of the median drawn to the hypotenuse is equal to half the hypotenuse. This
median is also the circumradius of the right-angled triangle.

 Centroid divides each of the medians in the ratio 2:1, the part of the median towards the vertex being twice in
length to the part towards the side.

 Inradius is less than half of any of the three altitudes of the triangle.

 In an isosceles triangle, the centroid, the orthocenter, the circumcentre and incentre, all lie on the median to the
base.

 In an equilateral triangle, the centroid, the orthocenter, the circumcentre and the incentre, all coincide.

Hence, in equilateral triangle ABC shown in Fig.1.17 AD is the median, altitude, angular bisector and perpendicular
bisector. G is the centroid which divides the median in the ratio of 2:1. Hence, AG =2/3 and GD = 1/3 AD.

But since AD is also the perpendicular bisector and angular bisector and since G is the circumcentre as well as the
incentre, AG will b the circumradius and GD will be the inradius of the equilateral triangle ABC Since AD is also the
side of the equilateral triangle ABC. Since AD is also the altitude, its length is equal to where a is the side of the

equilateral triangle. Hence, the circum radius of the equilateral and the inradious

Since the radii of the circumcircle and the incircle of an equilateral triangle are in the ratio 2 : 1, the areas of the
circumcircle and the incircle of an equilateral triangle will be in the ratio of 4:1.

When the three medians of a triangle (i.e., the medians to the three sides of a triangle from the corresponding opposite
vertices) are drawn, the resulting six triangles are equal in area and the area of each of these triangles in turn is equal to
one-sixth of the area of the original triangle.

In Fig 1.18, AD, BE and CF are the medians drawn to the three sides. The three medians meet at the centroid G. The six

resulting triangles AGF, BGF, BGD, CGD, CGE and AGE are equal in area and each of them is equal to of the area
of triangle ABC.

SIMILARITY OF TRIANGLES

Two triangles are said to be similar if the three angles of one triangle are equal to the three angles of the second
triangle. Similar triangles are alike in shape only. The corresponding angles of two similar triangles are equal but the
corresponding sides are only proportional and not equal.

For example, in Fig 1.19, if is similar to where then we have

Two triangles are similar if,

 the three angles of one triangle are respectively equal to the three angles of the second triangle, or

 two sides of one triangle are proportional to two sides of the other and the included angles are equal, or

 if the three sides are of one are proportional to the three sides of another triangle.

In two similar triangles,

(a) Ratio of corresponding sides = Ratio of heights (altitudes) = Ratio of the lengths of the medians = Ratio of the
lengths of the angular bisectors = Ratio of inradii = Ratio of circumradii = Ratio of perimeters.

(b) Ratio of areas = Ratio of squares of corresponding sides.

In a right-angled triangle, the altitude drawn to the hypotenuse divides the given triangle into two similar triangles, each
of which is in turn similar to the original triangle. In triangle ABC in Fig. 1.20, ABC is a right- angled triangle where
is a right angle. AD is triangle the perpendicular drawn to the hypotenuse BC. The triangles ABD, CAD and CBA are
similar because of the equal angles given below.

In triangle ABC,

if , then in triangle ABD , we already know that , hence

Triangle ABD, we already know that Hence

We can write down the relationship between the sides in these three triangles. The important relationships that emerge
out of this exercise are:

1
2