1

Kev Nair
Impromptu Speech-flow Techniques

Prof. Kev Nair was born in Kerala, South India, in 1949.

He’s an eminent scholar of international repute. He’s a first class
LL.B. and a first class LL.M. And he was ranked first in university
in both the LL. B. and LL. M. exams.
• “Nair was the first person in the world to give shape to the
area of study now known as ‘English fluency development’
and to systematize it into a distinct teachable subject... So he
is better known as the father of fluency development.”
– General Knowledge Today.
• “He had been researching since 1971, and the results... led
him to new discoveries... ”
– THE HINDU.
• “Prof. Kev Nair is regarded the world over as the father
of fluency lexicography... Fluency lexicography came into
existence as a separate branch of dictionary writing with
the publication of Prof. Nair’s Dictionary of Active Fluency
Combinations in 1986.”
– Competition Success Review.
• “A renowned English language lexicographer”
– The New Sunday Express.
• “One of the world’s most respected English language
scholars...Perhaps more innovative in method than Roget and
more modern in approach than Fowler, Prof. Kev Nair is... one
of the foremost Indian scholars who wield great influence
on the thinking of the English-educated people around the
world.”
– General Knowledge Today.
• “A towering English language expert”
– Competition Success Review.
• “Prof. Kev Nair... has... reached out to thousands – judicial
2

officers, professionals, top executives, scholars – who need

that comfort and ease in speech with his specialised fluency
techniques.”
– The New Indian Express.
Prof. Nair is a lawyer by profession. He lives with his wife and
children in Kochi, Kerala, an enchanting place on the earth.
 3

Fluent English Dictionaries1 by Kev Nair

• A Dictionary of Active Fluency Combinations.
• A Dictionary of Fluency Word Clusters.
• The Complete Fluency Words.
• A Dictionary of Essential Fluency Phrases.
• Core Fluency Thesaurus.
• Comprehensive Adjectival Fluency Dictionary.
• Narrative Fluency Dictionary.
• Thesaurus of Phrasal Verbs.

1
Note: The Fluent English Dictionaries do not form part of Fluentzy: The
English Fluency Encyclopedia. They’re separate publications – meant for those
who want to specialize in fluency-oriented vocabulary. For details, visit www.
fluencybookz.com.
4

Books by Kev Nair making up

Fluentzy: The English Fluency Encyclopedia
• B1: Idea units & Fluency.
• B2: Speech Generation & Flow Production.
• B3: Teaching your Tongue & Speech Rhythm.
• B4: Key Speech-initiators & Speech-unit Patterns.
• S1/B13 & S2/B14: Fluency in Functional English (Vols. 1 & 2).
• S3/B15: Fluency in Telephone English & Sectoral English.
• B5: How to Deal with Hesitation.
• B6: Oral Training in Fluency Vocabulary (Vol.1).
• B7: Packing of Information.
• B8: Impromptu Speech-flow Techniques.
• S4/B16: Fluency Building & Mouth Gymnastics.
• S5/B17: Fluency in speaking about people.
• B9: Fluency in Asking Questions.
• B10: Oral Training in Fluency Vocabulary (Vol.2).
• B11: Fluency & Moment-to-Moment Speech-production.
• B12: Oral Training in Fluency Vocabulary (Vol.3).
• S6/B18 & S7/B19: Fluency in Topicwise English (Vols. 1 & 2).
• S8/B20: Fluency & Pronunciation.
 5

B8

Impromptu
Speech-flow
Techniques
“How to organize word clusters in
the most useful and effective way
and carry on a spontaneous speech.”
– The New Sunday Express.
Fifth Edition

Prof. Kev Nair

Adult Faculties Council

6

For Uma

Impromptu speech flow techniques.

Copyright © Prof. K. E. V. Nair @ KevNair 1982, 1989, 1994, 2000, 2007.
First published 1982.
4th edition 2000 (11 impressions).
5th edition 2007.
Prof. K. E. V. Nair @ KevNair has asserted his right to be identified
as the author of this book in accordance with the Copyright Act, 1957.
All rights reserved worldwide. No part of this book shall be copied or
reproduced or stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or
manner whatever, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission, in writing, of the
publisher, except in the case of brief quotations or as expressly permitted
by law.
All quotations from this book shall credit the author, Prof. KevNair.
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade
or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise circulated in any form
of binding or cover other than that in which it is published, and without a
similar condition, including this condition, being imposed on any acquirer
or the subsequent purchaser.
Any violation of these terms and conditions will invite civil and criminal
proceedings and will be prosecuted to the fullest extent of the law.
Published in India by Mrs. Uma V. Nair, Adult Faculties Council,
DP Lane, Elamakkara PO, Kochi-682 026, Kerala.
Printed in India by Ayodhya Printers Ltd., Elamakkara PO,
Kochi-682 026, Kerala.
Adult Faculties Council’s websites:
www.fluentzy.com; www.fluencybookz.com.
Phone: (91)(0484) 2538449, 2408361.
Fax: (91)(0484) 2408361.
E-mail: [email protected].
Price: Rs.175.00
 7

Contents
Chapter 1: Impromptu word group ordering, 9
Makeshift improvisations, 9

Special ways of word group ordering, 10

1. Topic–comment arrangement, 10
Groups 1 & 2, 11
2. Comment–topic arrangement, 12
Groups 1 to 3, 12
3. Repeated reference, 13
Groups 1 to 10, 14
4. Self-correction, 16
Groups 1 to 4, 16
5. Arrangement in parenthesis, 17
6. Fronting, 18
Groups 1 & 2, 18
7. Appended word groups, 19
Groups 1 & 2, 19
8. Fragmentary word groups, 20

Chapter 2: Struggle-free speech-composition, 22

Two types of self-imposed restrictions, 22
Inter-related restrictive actions, 23

Two techniques to smooth the way, 24

Chapter 3: Use of comment clauses, 26

Comment clauses in statements, 26
8 

Groups 1 to 10, 27
Three roles comment clauses play, 33
Comment clauses in questions, 34
Groups 1 to 5, 34
Comment clause combinations, 37

Chapter 4: Vagueness and Imprecision, 38

Non-occurrence and non-availability of lexical item, 39
Listing, 39
Talking about quantity, number, duration, etc., 39
Vagueness and uncertainty about what/who/where, 40
Quality, description, etc., 41
“sort of”, 42
Vagueness through intensification, 43
Generic use of ‘you’ and ‘they’, 43

Chapter 5: Starting trouble, 45

Discourse markers, 46
Discourse markers in combination, 52
Combination of comment clauses and discourse markers,
53
Topic shift, 53
Other topic shift markers, 54

Chapter 6: Steadying influence of the hesitation

pause, 56
Analyze the texts now, 61

Chapter 7: Nominal Expressions with ‘of’ – Part 1, 63

Chapter 8: Nominal Expressions with ‘of’ – Part 2, 74
Chapter 9: Nominal Expressions with ‘of’ – Part 3, 84
  9

Preface to the 5th edition

Here’s the latest edition of this book.

I have now added some new material covering the topic
“Nominal Expressions”.
Do you have any comments and suggestions? Please do write to
me care of the publishers.

KEV Nair,
Kochi, 2007.
10 

Abbreviations

fml formal
infml informal
sb somebody
sth something
sw somewhere
  11

Chapter 1

Impromptu word group ordering

Makeshift improvisations
We’ve already learnt that spontaneous speech is composed and
spoken at the same time. That is, spontaneous speech-making
is an impromptu action — one that you do without planning
or organizing it in advance. Therefore, if you look at a long
stretch of spontaneous speech, you can always notice one thing:
Spontaneous speech has a distinctive flavour — the flavour of
“makeshift improvisations”.
The reason is this: In spontaneous speech, you use a particular
word group only because nothing better occurs to you readily
— and not because you know that that particular word group
is the most appropriate one. You see, when you start speaking,
the information that you want to convey is not available in an
organized form or set in words. So the only option you have is to
speak on by using such word groups as occur to you as suitable
on the spur of the moment —whatever they may be. You’re not
definite that you’re using word groups that are absolutely right.
You want to try them out, feel them out, experiment with them.
You want to see what’ll happen. Then you refine and edit what
you’ve said — words, word groups, structures, everything. These
processes of ‘trying out’ and ‘editing’ go on — one after the
other.
In other words, when you speak spontaneously, you speak
exploratorily. You see, it’s like this: How will you move from one
end of a room to another in the dark? You feel the ground; you
feel the walls; you move your hands around or hold them in
front of you in order to feel your way; you move step by step —
pausing here and there. You retrace your steps. You change your
12 

direction, you stumble and regain balance. The more familiar the
room and the objects in it are to you, the less your difficulty. In
spontaneous speech also, you proceed almost in the same way.
The more familiar the subject-matter is to you, the less your
difficulty.
Thus everything that you say in spontaneous speech is
tentative —and subject to revision and refinement. True, you
may not revise or refine everything. But everything is subject
to revision and refinement. Many of the things, you revise and
refine. The remaining things, you leave in their crude forms.
Therefore, from the very nature of its production, spoken
language gets the flavour of “makeshift improvisations”. It’s this
flavour that gives an individuality of its own to spoken language
— and marks it out from written language. If you take away
the tentativeness, the vagueness and the lack of exactness from
spoken language, it would immediately cease to be spoken
language.

Special ways of word group ordering

The earlier Books in this series have taken you through a number
of spontaneous spoken English texts — texts containing speech-
composition features. An important point that would have struck
your mind is this: The way a sizeable proportion of word groups
is ordered (arranged) in spoken English — it’s different from the
way word groups are ordered (arranged) in written English.
The reason for this difference is this: If you order word
groups in certain special ways, it’ll be easier for you to plan and
execute your speech simultaneously. That is, these special ways
of word group-ordering will help you in the moment-to-moment
speech-production more than the written English style of word
group-ordering. In other words, these special ways of word group
ordering will help you make makeshift-improvisations and, thus,
help you compose your speech and speak at the same time.
 13

But here’s something you should remember: All this doesn’t

mean that you should only compose whatever you say in these
special ways. No, that’s not what I mean. What I mean is this:
There are special methods that you can use when you find
normal methods (of structuring clauses and groups of clauses
and phrases) inconvenient in certain contexts. These are certainly
supplements to the normal methods — and not substitutes for
them. When ordinary syntactic processes fail to help you to keep
up an acceptable level of fluency, you don’t have to falter and
the flow of your speech doesn’t have to stop. There are these
special ways of word group ordering in existence, and you can
(and must) take help from them. And I want you to understand
that every fluent speaker depends a lot on them.
Let’s now examine these special ways of word group-ordering
in spoken English.

1. Topic–comment arrangement
Take this word group:
When is the next train to Delhi?
This is a simple question, and it’s grammatically sound (even
according to written English rules). And you can use it in spoken
English also. But there’s a more natural and simpler way of
asking this question in spoken English:
The next train to Delhi – when is it?
Here what the speaker has done is this: He presented the
topic (theme) first: “The next train to Delhi”. Then he made a
comment on it — separately, by an independent structure: “When
is it?”
Here’s another example:
This habit of yours – it will get you into difficulties.
The normal style — acceptable in written English also — is
this: “This habit of yours will get you into difficulties”.
14

This type of Topic-Comment arrangement is very common

in spoken English. This type of word group ordering will liberate
you from the written English clutch to a great extent.
A few examples will help you master the knack. Here we
go:

Group 1
• That man + who is he? • The man who shouted at me
+ he’s in the next room. • Our new boss + have you met
him? • That man + I’ve seen him somewhere. • Your
friend + what’s his name? • The postman + his house is
somewhere there. • John’s sister + is she abroad? • My
wife + she’s from Calcutta. • His mother + have you seen
her? • The girl I told you about + I didn’t see her there
today. • The girl in red + is her father abroad? • Your
secretary + her computer needs repairing. • The cash book
+ where is it? • Your letter + I got it yesterday. • His book
+ what’s its name? • This shirt + I don’t like its colour.
• The thieves + were they wearing masks? • Father and
mother + they’re coming today. • Those people + do you
know them? • These men + you should be cautious about
them. • Your friends + what’s their interest in this? • The
manufacturers + it’s their fault. • The cake you gave + did
he eat all of it? • The oil in this bottle + I took a little of it.
• The things he said + none of them is true.

Group 2
• Crying like this + it wouldn’t help you at all. • Meeting
him there + it’s no use. • Shouting at her like this + what
good will it do? • Working with them + isn’t it a great
privilege? • Making all these arrangements + it isn’t easy. •
Threatening him + it’s not wise. • Moving to another place
+ it won’t solve the problem. • Getting a part-time job +
will it be difficult? • Attending evening classes + I find it
 15

inconvenient. • Travelling around + she finds it exciting. •

Doing the washing up + she finds it tedious.

2. Comment–topic arrangement
This arrangement is the reverse of the topic-comment
arrangement. That is, here we make a comment about the topic
(theme) first, and then emphasize the topic by presenting it as a
tag.
For example, take this word group:
Where has the gate-keeper gone?
The topic-comment arrangement of this question would be
like this:
The gate-keeper + where has he gone?
On the other hand, the comment-topic arrangement would
be like this:
Where has he gone + the gate-keeper?
In spoken English, the comment–topic arrangement is as
important as the topic-comment arrangement. The following
word groups will help you learn the arrangement:

Group 1
• Who’s he + that man? • He’s in the next room + the
man who shouted at me. • Have you met him + our new
boss? • I’ve seen him somewhere + that man. • What’s
his name + your friend’s? • His house is somewhere there
+ the postman’s. • Is she abroad + John’s sister? • Have
you seen her + his mother? • I didn’t see her there today
+ the girl I told you about. • Is her father abroad + that
girl’s + the girl in red. • Her computer needs repairing +
your secretary’s. • Where is it + the cash book? • I got it
yesterday + your letter. • What’s its name + his book’s?
• I don’t like its colour + this shirt’s. • Were they wearing
masks + the thieves? • They’re coming today + father
16 

and mother. • Do you know them + those people? • You

should be cautious about them + these men. • What’s
their interest in this + your friends? • It’s their fault + the
manufacturers’. • Did he eat all of it + the cake you gave?
• I took a little of it + the oil. • None of them is true + the
things he said.

Group 2
• It wouldn’t help you at all + crying like this. • It’s no use
+ meeting him there. • What good will it do + shouting
at her like this? • Isn’t it a great privilege + working with
them? • It isn’t easy + making all these arrangements.
• It’s not wise + threatening him. • It won’t solve the
problem + moving to another place. • Will it be difficult +
getting a part-time job? • I find it inconvenient + attending
evening classes. • She finds it exciting + travelling around.
• She finds it tedious + doing the washing up.

Group 3
• Does anyone know it + how you’re going to handle the
situation? • Will father do it + what mother has asked him
to do? • Can you predict it + which team will win? • Have
you settled it + where to go for the picnic? • Do the police
know it + the place the murderer is hiding in? • Does she
suspect it + that the cloth is quite cheap? • Do they believe
it + that he’s an educated man? • Have you found it + how
they broke open the door?

3. Repeated reference
In spoken English, everybody frequently repeats syllables, words
and word groups. Even fluent native speakers of English do this.
Often, they do this inadvertently, that is, without thinking and
without realizing it. Sometimes, they do this deliberately also —
in order to deal with hesitation.
  17

Repetition of syllables, words and word groups is a built-in

technique (of impromptu speech-production) for preventing the
loss of “balance of speech”. We’ve already examined this feature
of spontaneous speech thoroughly in Book 5. And the spoken
English texts you’ll find towards the end of this Book (Book 8)
are full of instances showing how this feature works in practice.
(See the word groups given later in this Book under the heading
“Steadying influence of the hesitation pause”). Remember this:
There’s no rule that only such and such words in a word group
can be repeated in this way. Any syllable, word or words in a
word group can be (or may happen to be) repeated in this way
— for maintaining the flow of speech.
Let’s now look at repetitions of another kind. Here the
speaker refers to the key elements in a word group more than
once — either using the same words or using different words.
He does this either for emphasizing those elements or for
refining those elements by adding additional information. This
is an effective way of improvising and gradually building up the
informational content of your speech — bit by bit. This kind
of repeated reference is also part of the process of moment-to-
moment speech-editing.
Let’s now look at the different types of repeated reference:

Group 1
• Jose came here yesterday + my brother-in-law. • My
brother-in-law came here yesterday + Jose. • Sharma
had called you + the stock broker. • The stock broker had
called you + Sharma.

Group 2
• I wanted to recommend it to Raju + our Purchase
Manager. • He collects antiques + old jars, figurines and
things. • She has everything a woman needs + beauty,
position in society, money. • I’m an engineer + a civil
18 

engineer. • We’re exporters + exporters of garments. • He

introduced me to Ahmed + their Regional Manager here. •
We visited several places + Srinagar, Simla, Darjeeling.

Group 3
• I won’t allow this to happen + never will. • I can’t stand
this foolishness + never could. • She was crying + crying
bitterly. • I was speaking + speaking aloud. • You must try
again + try harder. • Her sneering laugh made me angry +
bitterly angry.

Group 4
• She’s a rich woman + richer than Sita. • He’s an
intelligent worker + more intelligent than all the others.
• She’s a pretty girl + the prettiest in our village. • I’ve no
doubt about it + none whatever.

Group 5
• This was – much much – more difficult. • He speaks –
very very well. • She’s – very very much better now. • They
did it – far far more carefully this time. • They’re doing it
so – very very much more easily now. • This is – so so much
easier.

Group 6
• Every one of them was there + – every one. • I enjoyed
every minute of it + – every single minute. • None of them
was there + – none. • All the people think it’s true + – all
of them. • I waited for you all day yesterday + – all day. •
All their lives + they lived in poverty + – all their lives.

Group 7
• None of your tricks + none is going to work here. • Each
  19

member of this club + each has to make a contribution. •

None among us + none was hurt in the accident.

Group 8
• I don’t know what happened + – and I don’t know it +
because I was away. • He asked my opinion + – and when
he asked my opinion + I kept mum. • He called her + –
and he called her + because he wanted to give her their
address. • I wasn’t here + – and when I wasn’t here + she
came here. • He gave it to me + – and I think he gave it to
me + because he wants me to do something for him. • The
bell rang + – and as soon as the bell rang + they started
running.

Group 9
• I saw him + I saw him yesterday. • I missed the bus + I
just missed the bus. • She hasn’t got it + she hasn’t got it
yet. • I’m happy + I’m happy to hear that.

Group 10
• He wanted to stay + but she – she wanted to get away.
• She controlled her anger + but he – he couldn’t control
his. • They were angry with him + but we – we didn’t mind
it. • She has refused their invitation + but he – he may
not. • He’s an unpleasant sort of person + but she – she’s
different. • I know him a little + but she – she’s meeting
him for the first time.

4. Self-correction
We’ve seen that spontaneous speech is the product of make-shift
improvisations.
This means that speakers build their speech by uttering words
and word groups that strike them as suitable on the spur of the
20 

moment and by keeping on editing the words and word groups

and their structures. From this, it’s obvious that speakers will
have to correct themselves frequently – as part of the moment-to-
moment editing process. Let’s now look at how they do this:

Group 1: Giving more precise information

• He’s a clerk + a Head Clerk. • He’s our Chairman + vice
Chairman, that is (to say). • They elected him Secretary +
that is (to say) Honorary Secretary. • She sings very well +
classical songs, you know. • He speaks very well + English,
you know. • This is interesting + very interesting. • He has
a different opinion + an entirely different opinion. • He’s
better now + very much better.

Group 2: Using a more precise or more

appropriate expression
• He’s very efficient + or rather – hard-working. • He can
speak + or rather – write – very well. • She has a beautiful
+ or rather – sweet voice.

Group 3: Correcting patent mistakes

• She bought a kilo of potatoes + I mean tomatoes. • It
was quite pouring + I mean boring. • He was from Calcutta
+ I mean Bangalore. • I was thirty + I mean thirsty. • He
was born in 1948 + no, 1958.

Group 4: Modifying excessive claims

• Nobody likes these things + at least – I don’t. • He ate all
of it + well – most of it. • We’re all against it + well – most
of us. • They – – well – many of them + many of them
were college-students. • I won’t do it + well – I’ll do it +
but not now. • I don’t want it + not now – anyway.
 21

5. Arrangement in parenthesis
As spontaneous spoken English is something that is planned and
executed at the same time, it always exhibits a special feature:
Speakers build their speech by piecemeal additions of material:
Details, descriptions, explanations, reformulations, clarifications,
incidental remarks — everything.
That is, they don’t present all descriptions about anything at
once, in a well-knit, organized lot. No, they don’t. They present
the explanations bit by bit — one bit at a time. In this way,
they present the informational content piece-meal. They don’t
present any part of the informational content in a single lot —
in a continuous, organized, controlled, well-knit, single lot. No.
They present everything bit by bit, idea unit by idea unit —
gradually and at intervals. In fact, they present many of these
bits of material as afterthoughts — in parenthesis. That is, when
a topic occurs to them, they first utter a bit of information that
stands foremost in their mind. Then they interrupt themselves
and expand it by adding one or two details. And then they
continue with what they were saying before. These interruptions,
additions and continuations go on almost like a cyclical process
— one after another.
Remember this: “Addition in parenthesis” is a very important
tool for moment-to-moment speech-building. This tool
automatically prevents you from packing information tightly in
speech. And it gives you great freedom in giving shape to, and in
refining, your informational content — the way you wish, at your
will. Here are a few examples:
• His office + it’s fully air-conditioned you know + it’s on
the 3rd floor. • Their superior officer + the tall man who
came here last Sunday + he’s going to retire. • Jose +
he’s my best friend + he’ll be coming tomorrow. • Their
representative + Ashraf + he came here yesterday. • His
explanation + that there was an accident on the way +
22 

it didn’t satisfy them. • They + Sharon and her father +

they’re there. • They wanted Iqbal + he’s a very capable
man you know + they wanted him to organize the meeting.
• Rodriguez + at one time he was a wrestler + he’s her
body-guard. • Her father + he’s an expert in these things
+ he could repair it in no time. • He didn’t tell me + I
don’t know why + he didn’t tell me anything about it. • His
hobby + it’s collecting stamps + it has cost him a fortune.
• Yoga + he practises it regularly + it has done him a lot
of good. • This problem + whether to marry him or not +
it troubled her for a long time. • His story + the story he
told + about an old man going around with a young girl
+ it amused everyone. • Many of them + the best in our
company + They’re against it. • Two people + I don’t know
them + they came here asking for you. • That man + I
haven’t met him so far + he seems to be the boss. • Your
sister + where is she now? + she’s my class-mate. • I was
very happy + my results had come + and so I treated them
to ice cream. • I didn’t want him to know it + he’s a pest
+ and so I kept mum. • When the plane landed + don’t
you remember? + I was there. • There was a heavy rush +
today’s Sunday you know + a heavy rush at the market.

6. Fronting
In spontaneous spoken English, fluent people often speak by
arranging words in an order that’s opposite to the normal word-
order. The reason is this: Sometimes what is uppermost in the
mind of a speaker may not be what grammar requires him to
utter first. So he utters the thing that’s uppermost in his mind
first (without worrying about the grammatical word-order)
— and then adds the grammatically-connected words as an
afterthought. ( In the written English style of arrangement, these
grammatically-connected words should have been uttered first).
By bringing to the front some elements that are normally away
  23

from the front in this way, speakers frequently reverse the normal
word order. Yes, this happens frequently.
Remember this: This kind of fronting is an indispensable
technique of moment-to-moment speech-composition and
editing. If you want to speak fluent English, you can’t dispense
with this technique. Here are a few examples:

Group 1
• Ashok + his name is. • Ringing back + I don’t mind. •
Your opinion + you must tell them. • Horrible things +
people tell about her. • A mystery + it was, you know. •
Yours + these are. • That man + I’ve never seen. • Angry
+ he became. • Hundred + they made the total. • How
it happened + don’t ask me. • Tired + they’ll be by that
time. • Asleep + he seems to be. • A good offer + they
made him. • Calm + she remained. • Far away from
there + that office was. • A winning smile + she has got.
• Empty + I found it. • Ready + she must be by then. •
Meet him at once + you had better. • Blue + he painted
his car. • Out of breath + I was. • Green or yellow + it is
to be. • Something burning + I smelt. • Beyond him + this
certainly is. • His word + you can rely on. • A perfect fool
+ I thought him to be. • Enough time + we didn’t have. •
A true friend + he proved. • A few tall buildings + there
are in our village. • A horrid beast + he is. • Cooking + I
hate. • Crying + she was. • Somebody shouting + I heard.
• Twenty five rupees + it cost me. • A lot of trouble +
that’ll save you. • Ring them up + you must. • Shutters +
we call them. • A long screw + we want. • A good sari +
I bought her. • Very hard + this feels. • Who they are +
I don’t know. • A foot step + I heard outside. • The best
place to keep these things + I’m looking for. • Surprised +
she sounded. • At home + I felt. • Frightfully quick + they
are. • A lot of influence + that man has. • The smallest
24 

attention + they’ve never paid us. • Some money + I’ve

put by for her marriage. • A most awful jam + he’s in. • A
good laugh + we used to have now and then. • The nerve
to question him + she didn’t have. • This kind of treatment
from anyone + I can’t stand.

Group 2
• Nice place + Bombay. • Very good people + the Swiss.
• A tough person + his father. • Full of fun + that man. •
Very enjoyable + that film. • Quite an effort + teaching the
boy. • A dirty place + that. • Not bad + that joke.

7. Appended word groups

There’s one other way in which speakers present extra bits
of information. They do this by tagging on the extra bits of
information (as new idea units) to the ends of preceding idea
units.
A few examples will make this technique clear:

Group 1
• He’s a sensible chap + and very polite, too. • She kept
looking at me + and with hatred, too. • They were very
harsh with us + and without reason, too. • He continued
to speak + and very boldly, too. • He was awfully kind
to them + and generous, too. • She can be very stern +
if she wants to + and very harsh, too. • He comes here
often + and his sister, too. • She behaves very well + and
her brother, too. • They can defeat us + and indeed any
other team around here. • We eat fish + and sometimes
even meat. • They give him money + and sometimes
even clothes. • She speaks English + and sometimes even
French. • He’s very proud + and his father, too. • He gave
me a bag + and a key chain + and a diary. • He could
  25

speak better than Sharma + and indeed anyone else here.

• I’m not sure whether you’re right + or Ashok. • He isn’t
a sensible chap + or hard-working, either. • They weren’t
harsh with us + or rude, either. • He wasn’t kind to them
+ or generous, either. • She can’t write English + or speak,
either. • They can’t be tough with you + or strict, either. • I
have no official relations with them + or personal relations,
either. • I didn’t want Sharon to do it + or Asha, either. • I
don’t know whether Minu gave the ring + or Rupa.

Group 2
• He was reading the book + absorbed. • He talked along
+ pleasantly.
• He peeped out through the opening + listening. • They
sat in the front row + the most conspicuous figures there.
• She stood there looking out + distressed. • He wanted
to finish it before noon + somehow. • They sat there in
silence + thinking. • I missed the bus + just.
• He was happy + even excited. • You have to be assertive
with your friends + and even with your superiors. • She
likes you + perhaps love you. • He was angry + perhaps
furious. • She has read it + and even studied it. • You
must meet him + and even his father. • He didn’t admit it
+ perhaps denied it. • I saw him + for a moment. • She
hasn’t got it + yet. • They met me + outside. • I saw it +
last week. • He wants to stay here + perhaps permanently.

8. Fragmentary word groups

I’m sure you know one thing by now: A sizeable proportion of
spoken English is made up of fragmentary clauses and phrases.
You see, most of them are incomplete structures that are given
up part way through.
Let’s now look at another type of fragmentary items.
26 

You know, a clause generally contains two types of words:

It generally contains one or two primary words that carry a
new bit of information. And it also generally contains 2 or 3
secondary words that give a clausal structure (and a context)
to the new information. You see, these secondary words only
carry given information — that is, something already mentioned
or understood. So speakers sometimes omit all secondary words
from a clause, because they feel that the meaning that these
secondary words is clear from what has already been said or
from the situational context.
When the secondary words are omitted, only the key words
or phrases would remain. And so these key words or phrases
occur as fragmentary items. But remember that their context is
clear from the verbal and situational background — and so they
do the work of whole clauses. Yes, they’re substitutes for whole
clauses. And they focus the hearer’s attention on specific pieces
of information.
A few examples will make the technique clear to you:
• He’s on leave today + Fever. • He won’t be coming +
Sister’s marriage. • There won’t be any buses today +
Transport strike. • My sister’s children are here + Vacation,
you know. • He’s not happy with me + Sour face and all.
• He gets up early now + Examinations. • They’re fully
engaged now + Business. • It’s very difficult to beat that
team + All tough players. • She heard somebody knocking
on the door + Policemen. • I don’t like it + Too sweet.
• He had a nice-looking shirt on + Blue. • She won’t be
coming this year I think + No letters yet.
• He’s a big man + Tall + Broad-shouldered + Long hair
+ Beard. • I like him + Assertive + Confident. • You must
listen to him talking + A calm – level – voice + Remarkably
fluent. • Have you seen her? + Nice-looking + Shapely +
Good face + Big eyes. • I know him + Difficult to please +
Arrogant. • He was very busy + Annual meeting + Stock-
  27

taking.
Note: Go through the entire topic of impromptu word group ordering thor-
oughly. Pay attention to each method. Don’t overlook any feature. Go through
all the word groups given as examples attentively. Learn the principle behind
each method.

***
28 

ChapTer 2

Struggle-free speech-
composition

Two types of self-imposed restrictions

Here’s one reason why most non-native speakers of English –
even those who know English very well – aren’t fluent in spoken
English: They unconsciously try to speak in a controlled way.
They introduce a large number of restrictions into the way they
compose and deliver their utterances.
They introduce these restrictions in two ways: On the one
hand, they unconsciously make the structure of their text rigid,
and on the other, they prevent it from becoming loose. They do
these things mainly in the following ways:
• They try to speak only in full and complete sentences.
• They try to organize their speech into neat paragraph-
like parts.
• They try to make each part a well-knit one by logically
‘relating’ one sentence to another through connectors
like ‘In addition to’, ‘Consequently’ etc.
• They pack information tightly in their utterances.
• They try to avoid repetition (of syllables, words and
word groups), reformulations and other effects of
spontaneous speech production.
In short, they unconsciously adopt a formal written English
style, and avoid a relaxed spoken English style. And they avoid
all informality and casualness.
The result of these self-imposed restrictions is this: The
speaker is under constant pressure to speak along rigid and pre-
determined lines. This pressure diverts his attention from ‘what’
  29

to say to ‘how’ to say it — and robs him of the ‘freedom of speech-

composition’. And he becomes concerned and tense, and stops
feeling relaxed.
There are two things that you must understand here:
First, whatever planning time such a speaker gets during his
speech-turn is spent not on planning the content of the speech,
but on giving his speech a rigid form — a form dictated by these
self-imposed restrictive rules. That is, he spends the time he has
(in order to produce and deliver his speech) in actually preventing
the structure of his text from becoming loose and relaxed. Second,
because of the self-imposed restrictive rules, he does not feel free
to compose speech as it occurs to him. That is, he doesn’t feel free
to utter what stands foremost in his mind — without worrying
about word-order, structure and form — because the restrictions
cramp his freedom of speech composition.

Inter-related restrictive actions

So there’s only one sure-shot way of gaining fluency in spoken
English. It’s this: Get free of the pressure to speak along rigid and
predetermined lines. You see, there are two types of restrictive
actions that you do. These restrictive actions make your speech
non-fluent.
And what are these two types of restrictions?
On the one hand, there are certain ‘wrong’ things that you
do, and these wrong things prevent the structure of your speech
from becoming relaxed and loose. (These are things that fluent
speakers do not do). And on the other hand, there are certain
‘right’ things that you do not do, and the absence of these right
things makes your speech rigid. (These are things that fluent
speakers always do).
And you’ll only be able to get free of the pressure to speak
along rigid and predetermined lines if you get free of these two
types of restrictions. In other words, you must not allow the two
30 

types of restrictions to control the production and delivery of

your speech.
So remember two things:
• Avoid structural rigidity at all costs. Give up your
obstinacy to speak only in full and complete sentences.
Give up your obstinacy to organize your speech into
paragraph-like parts. Give up your obstinacy to make each
part a well-knit one by logically ‘relating’ one sentence
to another through the overuse of subordination and
through the overuse of logical relators like ‘In addition
to’, ‘Consequently’ etc. Give up your obstinacy to pack
information tightly in your utterances. Don’t try to
avoid repetition of syllables, words and word groups,
reformulations and other effects of spontaneous speech
production.
• Don’t adopt a formal written English style. Don’t
avoid informality and casualness — except when you’re
speaking in a formal situation. (How to do this? We’re
coming to that).
Now remember this: The two types of restrictive processes
are not water-tight. No. They’re inter-related — like the two
sides of the same coin. Thus when your text is rigidly organized,
it stops to sound relaxed, and the style of your speech tends to
be formal and stiff. And when your text is loosely organized, it
sounds relaxed, and the style of your speech remains non-formal
(= neutral or even informal and casual). Similarly, when you
make your text sound formal and stiff, its organization would be
rigid. But when you do not do this, your text sounds non-formal
and relaxed, and its organization would be non-rigid or loose.
You get maximum freedom of speech-composition when the
structure of your text is loose and the style of your speech is
informal. This is the ideal situation when your speech will be
least controlled and you’re most fluent.
Here let me make one thing clear: We’re talking about
  31

unnecessary restrictions — restrictions that are avoidable. The

things that I’ve said so far do not mean that spontaneous speech
is entirely uncontrolled. No. There are controls on spontaneous
speech. For example, some kind of a restriction would always be
imposed by the subject matter of your speech. Again, a speaker
would always be mentally monitoring his speech, because he
wants to make sure that his message is getting across to the
hearers the way he wants. He constantly keeps (mentally)
controlling the direction in which his speech turn moves.
But you know, these are controls that are essential — because
they, in fact, add to your fluency and don’t block it. They’re
controls that you can’t avoid.
On the contrary, the two types of restrictions that we’ve been
discussing (restrictions causing structural rigidity and restrictions
making the style of your speech formal and stiff) are harmful
controls — because they block your fluency. They’re avoidable,
too.
Once you stop imposing these two types of restrictions on
your speech production efforts, you’ll find that composing and
speaking at the same time is something that’s very easy to do.

Two techniques to smooth the way

In the earlier Books in this series, we’ve already seen several
techniques for making textual structure loose. We’re now going to
look at two other techniques that native speakers use whenever
they speak.
On the one hand, these two techniques prevent speech from
becoming rigid and tightly packed. And on the other hand, they
smooth out syntactic difficulties to a great extent and make it
possible for your speech to flow easily. These two techniques
are so essential as tools of the on-the spot speech composition
process that every fluent speaker uses them instinctively —
without thinking. These techniques are:
32

• Use of ‘comment clauses’

• Introduction of imprecision and vagueness into
utterances.
By now, of course, you’re familiar with comment clauses
as well as with the elements of imprecision and vagueness in
spontaneous speech. This Book will now tell you how you can
get these techniques to help you compose and deliver speech
fluently.
So let’s now take a close look at these two techniques.
***
 33

Chapter 3

Use of comment clauses

One major feature of spoken English is this: A speaker just doesn’t
go on stating ‘facts’. He also puts a lot of comments among these
facts — comments on the content as well as the style of his
utterances. Word groups by which he makes these comments are
called ‘comment clauses’.
Most often, comment clauses are attached to statements (that
is, to declarative structures). But sometimes certain comment
clauses are also tagged on to questions (that is, to interrogative
structures). First, we’ll look at comment clauses that occur along
with statements. Then, we’ll look at comment clauses that occur
along with questions.

Comment clauses in statements

There are mainly 10 types of comment clauses that occur along
with statements. They are:
Group 1: Comment clauses that indicate that the speaker
has some uncertainty about the truth of what he’s
saying.
Group 2: Comment clauses that indicate that the speaker
is certain about what he’s saying.
Group 3: Comment clauses that indicate the speaker’s
emotional attitude to what he’s saying.
Group 4: Comment clauses that draw the attention of the
hearers to what the speaker is saying.
Group 5: Comment clauses that help you clarify your
meaning.
Group 6: as-clauses that indirectly suggest that what the
speaker is saying is true.
34 

Group 7: what-clauses that express the speaker’s

evaluation of (or attitude towards) what he’s saying.
Group 8: Indirect conditional clauses that add
tentativeness (and often, politeness) to what the speaker
is saying.
Group 9: to-infinitive clauses that act as attitude-disclosing
adverbials.
Group 10: -ing participle clauses that act as attitude-
disclosing adverbials.
Let’s now take a close look at the comment clauses belonging
to each of these groups.
But first, here’s a point of general importance about the
position of comment clauses relative to the matrix clause (that is,
the clause to which they’re attached):
You can use all the comment clauses, except what-clauses
(Group 7), at the beginning or at the end of the matrix clause or
even in the middle (that is, between the beginning and the end of
the matrix clause). But you should use what-clauses only at the
beginning of the matrix clause, and not at any other position. As
far as as-clauses (Group 6) and conditional clauses (Group 8) are
concerned, you can use them at any of the 3 positions, but they’re
usual at the beginning or at the end, and not in the middle.

Group 1
Comment clauses belonging to this group indicate that the speaker
has some uncertainty about the truth of what he’s saying. These
comment clauses introduce a certain degree of tentativeness into
his speech.
Most useful among these comment clauses are:
I believe, I feel, I guess, I hear, I suppose, I think, it seems,
it appears, they say, I’ve heard, I’m told.
Here are some examples of these comment clauses in use:
  35

• I believe + he’s on the way to his office. • He intended to

return it + I believe. • She doesn’t want + I believe + to
part with it.
• I feel + she didn’t care to do it at all. • He’s hopeless + I
feel. • That one + I feel + is the most useful.
• I guess + the kettle is boiling over. • That’s your cousin
Bret + I guess. • Her answer + I guess + is wrong.
• I hear + no one ever goes to see her. • He declined the
offer + I hear. • You begged him + I hear + not to reject
the offer.
• I suppose + he has broken that vase. • The small key
doesn’t fit + I suppose. • They’re having eggs + I suppose
+ for breakfast.
• I think + they won’t take money. • There’s someone to
see you + I think. • He got it + I think + for a mere song.
• It seems + he was first. • She asked for fifty + it seems.
• That man + it seems + is the real murderer.
• It appears + nothing went all right. • She has come
about the loan + it appears. • Nobody + it appears + liked
it.
• They say + it’s bitterly cold there. • He hasn’t even
started + they say. • That seems + they say + a reasonable
request.
• I’ve heard + he’s very particular about it. • They don’t
mix with people + I’ve heard. • Some people + I’ve heard
+ believe in these things.
• I’m told + they can’t make head or tail of it. • It’s a very
ingenious plan + I’m told. • They had some difficulty + I’m
told + in sorting it out.

Group 2
Comment clauses belonging to this group indicate that the
36 

speaker is certain about what he’s saying.

Most useful among these comment clauses are:
I admit, I agree, I know, I remember, I tell you, it’s true,
I’m convinced, I’m sure, there’s no doubt, I’ve no doubt,
I don’t deny, I don’t doubt.
Here are some examples of these comment clauses in use:
• I admit + it’ll be hard to prove. • It’s terribly difficult + I
admit. • Your man + I admit + was not guilty.
• I agree + it’s quite an interesting idea. • It’s hopeless for
us to try + I agree. • The people who came last + I agree
+ had a tough time.
• I know + it’ll save us a lot of time. • They’ll be very
upset by that news + I know. • They told her + I know +
not to come.
• I remember + they wanted you to do it for nothing. •
None of them was any good + I remember. • We saw + I
remember + a beautiful piece there.
• I tell you + he’s an idiot. • They’re going to get rid of it +
I tell you. • Those people + I tell you + are very cunning.
• It’s true + talking to them wouldn’t have been any good.
• He won’t give it to you willingly + it’s true. • He didn’t
tell me + it’s true + what it’s all about.
• I’m sure + you didn’t take his remarks that way. • He’s
going to get it + I’m sure. • They listened + I’m sure + to
every word you said.
• There’s no doubt + something has got to be done about
it. • He’s quite determined to go + there’s no doubt. •
Everybody thinks + there’s no doubt + it’s magnificent.
• I’ve no doubt + it’s an outrage. • They won’t agree to
such a silly scheme + I’ve no doubt. • Only one of them +
I’ve no doubt + belongs to her.
  37

• I don’t deny + it’s quite legal. • I was too late + I don’t

deny. • He certainly has + I don’t deny + some chance of
getting selected.
• I don’t doubt + they’re to blame. • They’ve nowhere to
live + I don’t doubt. • They were delighted + I don’t doubt
+ that we were able to come.

Group 3
Comment clauses belonging to this group indicate the speaker’s
emotional attitude to what he’s saying.
Most useful among these comment clauses are:
I fear, I hope, I’m afraid.
Here are some examples of these comment clauses in use:
• I fear + he’s dishonest. • I’ve lost my purse + I fear. •
Your coffee + I fear + is getting cold. •
• I hope + he’ll remember it. • It’s true + I hope. • He
wouldn’t + I hope + dare to do it.
• I’m afraid + it’s unlikely. • It troubled you much + I’m
afraid. • Some of them + I’m afraid + are not trustworthy.
Note: Mind you, the phrase “I’m afraid” does not mean that you’re frightened.
It’s a phrase that is almost without any meaning. You can use it to disagree with
someone in a polite way or to apologize to someone.

Group 4
Comment clauses belonging to this group draw the attention of
the hearers to what the speaker is saying.
Most useful among these comment clauses are:
you know, you see, mind you.
Here are some examples of these comment clauses in use:
You know:
• You know + he doesn’t mean it. • It was after midnight
38 

+ you know. • He didn’t want me + you know + to tell all

these things to them.
Apart from this role of drawing hearers’ attention, ‘you know’
has another use: You can use it to explain more clearly what you
mean.
Eg: • I saw her + you know + the girl I used to tell you about. • Our
new boss is very strict + you know + he doesn’t like anybody
coming late or leaving early.
You see:
• You see + that isn’t what I meant. • He knew how to do
it + you see. • He was talking to me + you see + in a very
rough way.
Normally, when you use ‘you see’, you convey this impression:
You’re concerned that the hearers must understand what you’re
saying.
Mind you:
• I had to go by a taxi + mind you + the last bus had gone.
• She was angry with him + not with the others + mind
you. • The man who came with you + mind you + is a
crook.
‘Mind you’ helps you express several shades of meaning: It
helps you emphasize what you’re saying or to draw the hearers’
attention to it (First example, above). It helps you emphasize a
contrast (Second example, above). It helps you say something
which you know that the hearers may dispute (Third example,
above). In responses, it helps you express a different point of
view or even to contradict the previous speaker.
Eg: X: It’s all because he’s so soft-hearted. ~ Y: He’s not so soft-
hearted + mind you.
An important point about ‘mind you’ is this: It helps you
do all these things without causing offence. In fact, ‘mind you’
contains a built-in element of apology, even when you use it to
contradict someone.
  39

Group 5
There’s only one comment clause in general use under this group,
and it helps you clarify your meaning. This comment clause is ‘I
mean’.
Here are some examples of ‘I mean’ in use:
• I have no alternative + I mean + I’ve got to do it. • How
could she have known? + Nobody told her + I mean. •
That was no news to him + Those people + I mean + had
already phoned him.
You can use ‘I mean’ not only to explain something more
clearly, but also to correct or restate something that you’ve just
said. This kind of correction and restatement will be required
both when you find that you’ve used a wrong word or phrase and
when you find that you’ve initiated an awkward structure.
Eg: • He wanted everyone to... + I mean + he wanted me to be
ready. • Because he asked us to... + I mean + he asked us to wait
+ and so we had to wait. • This is Manuel + I mean + Samuel.
Here’s another important point about I mean. Unlike the
other comment clauses we’ve seen, I mean can introduce not only
statements, but also questions. Here are some examples:
Eg: • How can you make such an allegation? + I mean + do you
have any evidence to support it? • I find it hard to believe + I
mean + Is he really serious about it?

Group 6
Comment clauses belonging to this category begin with the word
as. These clauses imply that what the speaker is saying is true.
Here are some examples:
• The message arrived by special delivery + as it appears.
• He’s the person in charge + as it happens. • The death
penalty is going to be abolished + as you may have
heard. • The government’s decision is a moral victory for
environmentalists + as I interpret it. • He’s a very honest
40 

person + as everybody knows. • I don’t like staying indoors

+ as you know. • He’s an expert in computer programming
+ as is common knowledge.
• She’s a very intelligent girl + as you may remember. •
They enjoyed every minute of it + as I’ve said. • Honesty +
as they say + is the best policy. • He may create problems
+ as you said. • As I remember (it) + all this happened on
a Thursday. • They don’t care what happens to you + as I
can see. • He’s going to be our next chairman + as I see it.
• They’ve given up the plan + as it seems. • As (it) seems
likely + there’s going to be another election soon. • He’s an
able lawyer + as I’m told. • They used to be our next-door
neighbours + as it turned out. • As I understand (it) +
they’re delighted with what has just happened.

Group 7
Comment clauses belonging to this category begin with the word
what. These clauses express the speaker’s evaluation of what he’s
saying or his attitude towards it.
Here are some examples:
• What annoys me + they ignored my request completely.
• What’s even more certain + they’re not satisfied with his
work. • What’s even more obvious + there’s something
causing him a lot of distress. • What’s more to the point
+ there’s no reason for despair. • What’s more serious +
they’ve accused him of corruption. • What’s very strange
+ nobody protested about it. • What’s more surprising
+he couldn’t spell his own name. • What’s even more
interesting + she promised to marry them.

Group 8
Comment clauses belonging to this group are indirect conditional
clauses. They add tentativeness and (often, politeness) to what
  41

the speaker is saying. Sometimes, they can even add a touch of

sarcasm to what the speaker is saying.
Here are some examples:
• If you’ll allow me to say so + all of us are responsible. •
If you ask me + you can’t depend on him. • That’s a nice
kind of coffee + if we can believe the experts. • If I may
change the subject + whatever happened to Abraham? •
If you’re so clever + why don’t you handle the situation
yourself? • All that happened on a Tuesday + if I’m
correct. • He used to be very powerful + but now he’s
a spent fore+ if that’s the correct term. • You borrowed
some money from me last month + if you’ve not forgotten
already. • If I may be frank + I haven’t read any of those
books. • If I may be (quite) frank (with you) + I don’t like
his spendthrift ways. • If you’re going my way + I can give
you a lift. • If I may interrupt + we’re wasting our time.
• If you can keep a secret + they’re in love. • Who’s their
Managing Director now + if you know? • Can we discuss
this some other time + if you don’t mind? • I couldn’t
believe it + if you know what I mean. • Let’s try and avoid
confusion + if you know what I’m referring to. • You can
come + if you like. • If I may put the matter as simply as
possible + we can’t afford the money to do it. • If I may be
personal + what your factory does spoils the environment.
• We didn’t get a good deal + if I may phrase it loosely. • If
we can be practical for a moment + let’s give some thought
to this suggestion. • If I may put it bluntly + his ideas are
utterly absurd. • If I can put it frankly + I didn’t like the
show. • All this has been a waste of time + if I may put it
so. • This is your third or fourth driving accident + if you
remember. • If you don’t mind my saying so + she isn’t
good enough for the job. • She’s a flirt + if that’s the right
word. • If I may say so + you’ve missed the point of the
joke. • If you can be serious just this once + please listen.
42 

• This is too good an opportunity to miss + if you see what

I mean. • If I can speak frankly + there’s a simpler solution
to this problem. • He took advantage of the situation + if I
understand you correctly.
• I hate these things + if you understand me. • That
painting is a fake + if that’s the word for it. • In case she
ever asks you + I haven’t told you anything. • I told the
boss myself + in case you don’t know. • It’s ten years since
we got married + in case you don’t remember. • He doesn’t
like her at all + since you ask me. • Since you’re so clever
+ why don’t you do it yourself?

Group 9
Comment clauses belonging to this group are to-infinitive clauses
that act as attitude-disclosing adverbials. We’ve already seen
them under Segmentation Guideline 10 in Book 1.

Group 10
Comment clauses belonging to this group are -ing participle
clauses that act as attitude-disclosing adverbials. We’ve already
seen them under Segmentation Guideline 10 in Book 1.

Three roles comment clauses play

Comment clauses help a speaker in several ways. Let me stress
just three key roles they play in speech production:
First, comment clauses are empty or near-empty words and
word groups. And so while you’re mentally planning what to say
next, you can utter them and fill time with talk . In this way, they
act as ‘fillers’ in speech, and help you gain planning time — while
you’re speaking. ‘You know’, ‘you see’, ‘mind you’ and ‘I mean’ are
the most important fillers, and we’ve already seen them in use as
fillers in Book 5.
Second, comment clauses act as connectors connecting one
  43

clause (= clausal idea unit) to the next. The most frequently

occurring clause-connector in spoken English is and. And the most
frequently occurring clause-connector after and is you know.
Third, comment clauses make your speech sound relaxed
and loosely organized, rather than stiff, tightly organized and
written-English like.

Comment clauses in questions

There are certain comment clauses that help us ask questions.
Let’s have a look at them:

Group 1
Comment clauses belonging to this group are:
‘I wonder’, ‘I suppose’, ‘I believe’, ‘I hope’, ‘I mean’ and ‘I ask
myself’.
You can tag these comment clauses on to statements, and
give them an interrogative tone. Then the combination of a
statement and a comment clause becomes a question. Here are
some examples:
• You’re not married + I suppose? • She has some other
plans + I suppose ? • He’s known to you + I believe? •
They don’t want to take it away + I believe? • You don’t
mind me saying so + I hope? • I’m not disturbing you + I
hope? • She’ll understand + I hope?
• What more could I do + I wonder? • Is he going to come
+ I wonder?
• How can anybody be so cruel + I ask myself? • Why has
this happened to me + I ask myself?
If you take a close look at the examples, you can note one
thing: When you use ‘I suppose’, ‘I believe’ and ‘I hope’, both
the first part (= statement) and the second part (= comment
clause) of the question are in ‘the declarative form’ (and not in
44 

the interrogative form). But when you use ‘I wonder’ and ‘I ask
myself’, the first part would be in the interrogative form (and not
in the declarative form), and only the second part would be in
the declarative form.
Note: Several comment clauses belonging to Group 8 above also help us ask
questions:
Eg: • Who’s their Managing Director now + if you know? • Can we
discuss this some other time + if you don’t mind?

Group 2
Comment clauses belonging to this group are positive questions:
‘do you think?’, ‘would you say?’, ‘do you suppose?’, ‘do you
know?’ and ‘can you see?’
Here are a few examples showing these comment-clause-like
questions in use:
• Who’s going to pay for it + do you think? • Could I leave
a message for him + do you think? • Was it a good film
+ would you say? • Is it large enough + would you say?
• Am I to take that as final + do you suppose ? • Will he
come tomorrow + do you suppose? • When is he coming +
do you know? • Is she Hamid’s wife + do you know? • Was
he worried + do you remember? • How did she do it + do
you remember? • Is it still there + can you see? • Has he
started yet + can you see?
You can notice one thing from these examples: In each of
these questions, the first part is a question word group, and not
a statement.

Group 3
Comment clauses belonging to this group are negative
questions:
‘don’t you think?’, ‘wouldn’t you say?’, ‘don’t you agree?’,
‘don’t you know?’, and ‘can’t you see?’
  45

Here are a few examples showing these comment-clause-like

questions in use:
• He shouldn’t have told her + don’t you think ? • It was
so obvious + don’t you think? • He’s being unreasonable +
wouldn’t you say? • She’s at her wits’ end + wouldn’t you
say? • It’s very dangerous + don’t you agree? • There’ll
be about seventy + don’t you agree? • They’re coming
tomorrow + don’t you know? • That big one is his + don’t
you know? • It’s still there + can’t you see? • It’s absolutely
impossible + can’t you see? • He was a bit reluctant +
don’t you remember? • They phoned him about it + don’t
you remember?
As you can see, the first part of each of these questions is not
a question word group, but a statement.

Group 4
While we’re on the topic of ‘comment clauses’, there are a few
pre-fabricated question tags that we must look at.
Here they are:
(do you) get it?, (do you) get what I mean?, (do you )
follow me?, yes?, right?, okay?, (you) understand?, isn’t
that so?, am I right?, don’t you think?, wouldn’t you say?
You see, these are not actually comment clauses, but they all
act in the same way as comment clause questions.
The first seven tags help you check whether your hearers
understand what you’ve just said and whether they accept it. The
last tag (“isn’t that so?”) helps you call for their agreement to
what you’ve just said. Here are a few examples showing these
comment-clause-like question tags in use:
• That’s why they say winning isn’t everything + do you
get it? • You must turn the knob only after that + get it? •
They are jealous of your success + do you get what I mean?
• It was a nerve-racking journey + get what I mean? • So
46 

even a kilo won’t be enough + do you follow me? • But

he had some other plans + follow me? • He said it as if
he meant it + yes? • Nobody heard the slightest sound +
yes? • Make it as tight as you can + right? • We’ll do it
tomorrow + right? • Take it three times a day + okay? •
You must be there by five + okay? • You must never do this
again + you understand? • Do it exactly as I told you +
you understand? • It’s just the sort of thing he would do +
isn’t that so? • He’s worrying about something + isn’t that
so? • You wanted to test him + am I right? • They were
right + don’t you think? • We were a bit hasty + don’t you
think?

Group 5
There are two more question-tag comment clauses you must
have a look at now. They are ‘perhaps?’ and ‘by any chance?’. Here
are a few examples showing these comment clauses in use:
• Did he meet her on the way + perhaps? • Has he
forgotten it + perhaps? • Can I leave early today +
perhaps? • Can you do this for me + perhaps? • Can I
get you a glass of lemon juice + perhaps? • Are you his
Secretary + by any chance? • Is he likely to be back +
by any chance? • Did she ask him to go away + by any
chance? • Has he joined + by any chance?

Comment clause combinations

Comment clauses often combine among themselves.
Eg: You know – I believe, I mean – you see, mind you – I think, you
see – it seems, etc.
Here too, you must note two things: First, ‘mind you’ has
a tendency to appear in the first position in combinations. But,
occasionally, it does appear in the second position also. Second,
combinations of more than two comment clauses are rare.
  47

Here are some examples of comment clause combinations

in use:
• They’re experts + and you know + I believe + they’ll
be able to find a solution. • He was brought up in an
atmosphere of luxury ++ I mean + you see + he won’t be
able to understand the sufferings of these people.

***
48 

Chapter 4

Vagueness and Imprecision

As other Books have already told you, it’s only in written
English that native speakers of English use precise vocabulary
and give details in a precise way. In spoken English, they tend
to use vocabulary items that are not precise, and they tend to
give details in a way that is not precise or accurate. As far as
spoken English is concerned, its hallmarks are vagueness and
imprecision. So it’s very important that you always remember
two things: First, a sizeable percentage of the vocabulary used in
spontaneous speech would be vague, general and inexact — and
not precise. Second, most of the descriptions and details that a
speaker gives would be rough and would be expressed in vague
terms and approximations.
Now let me stress one thing: This kind of vagueness and
imprecision are not things that you must try to avoid, but things
that you must cultivate. A chief reason is this: This kind of
vagueness and imprecision make you feel relaxed when you’re
speaking. And they free you from the pressure to speak on along
rigid lines. And in this way, they help you compose and deliver
your speech with ease and flexibility. Remember this: Without
this kind of vagueness and imprecision, your speech will not
sound natural. No.
Very often, a speaker has no alternative but to settle for a
vague word or phrase. This happens because of one or more of
these reasons:
• The speaker knows the right word or phrase, but it
does not occur to him when he needs it.
• The speaker does not know the right word.
• What he wants to say is such that there’s no word or
phrase in the language to express it.
  49

These three are situations when the speaker has no option but
to be vague or imprecise. You must remember that he’s speaking
under pressure of time. And so he can’t stop speaking and start
thinking till the right word occurs to him. So he does the next
best thing. He uses an inexact (vague) word or phrase, or gets
round the problem by explaining the idea in other words.
But you see, even in other situations where the right word
or phrase does readily occur to the speaker, he often opts for
vagueness and imprecision. He does this because, in most
everyday situations, precise words and precision of details would
sound “out of place”, and the speaker who speaks in precise terms
would sound pedantic.
Let’s now look at the common types of vagueness and
imprecision:

Non-occurrence and non-availability of

lexical item
In these situations, the speaker often substitutes for the elusive
word or phrase items like ‘whatsit’, ‘whatsits’, ‘what-do-you-call-
it’, ‘whatsisname’ and ‘things’.
Eg: • They’ve sold their electric typewriter and they’re getting a new
– whatsit. • Take away these – whatsits + will you? • Will you
get me that – what-do-you-call-it (pronunciation: whajjucollit)?
• He wanted me to buy these – what-do-you-call-it. • I had been
there + and I met – whatsisname. • Did you give a copy to –
whatsisname? • I wanted to get a kilo of – things – you know +
pomegranates. • We were talking about – things – benefits + you
know + retirement benefits.

Listing
When they have to utter a list of things, actions, people etc.,
speakers don’t give an exhaustive or complete list. Very often,
an exhaustive or complete listing is unnecessary. And sometimes,
such an exhaustive or complete listing is not possible, either. So
50 

what fluent speakers usually do is to cut all lists short by using a

summarizing phrase like ‘and so on’, ‘and everything’ etc. Here
are some examples:
• They told me about the delay and so on. • You can use
it to cut paper, sharpen pencils and so on. • He spoke
about famine, politics and so on and so forth. • They build
houses, lend money and so on and so forth. • They bought
cutleries, vessels and so forth. • She looks after kids, cooks
and so forth. • He talked about honesty and everything. •
He was all angry and everything. • There were chairs and
everything. • He told us stories about gunmen, terrorists
and the like. • They sell TV’s, radios and the like. • He has
taken away all those tools and things. • I want to buy some
provisions, vegetables and things. • He came with a bundle
of shirts, vests and things like this. • They asked me about
balance sheets, profit and loss accounts and things like that.

Talking about quantity, number, duration

etc
Into all these notions, speakers introduce an element of vagueness
and approximation.
The following examples will show you how they do this. Pay
attention to the words in italics:
• There were about 20 + in the packet. • It happened
about 10 minutes back. • They got round about 50. • He
paid round about 5000 rupees. • There was a crowd of 100
odd + outside the gate. • It happened 25 odd years ago.
• It cost us 500 odd rupees. • There were getting on for
100 + in the hall. • He’s getting on for 35. (Note: Here the
speaker is referring to somebody’s age). • She has getting
on for 50 saris. • Fifty as near as makes no difference. •
They’re of the same age + or as near as makes no difference.
• He wanted a thousand rupees for it + or as near as makes
  51

no difference. • They charged her five hundred rupees + or

near enough. • There are 150 members + or near enough.
• There may have been 75 + give or take a couple. • He’s
75 years old give or take a few years. • They left a year
or so ago. • There were 50 or so + in the box. • He owns
something like 40% of it. • She bought it + for something
like 50,000. • She’s a shade under 5 feet tall. • He’s a shade
over 4 feet tall.
• It’s some 200 miles away from here. • It was some 40 ft
long. • They built it + in eighteen hundred and something.
(Note: Here the speaker is referring to the year when
something like a building was built). • It weighed 50 kg
something. • It’s thickness is 10 inches something. • There
were something between 20 and 30 thousand people
there. • They paid him something over 5000 rupees. •
They’re getting a profit + of something below 30%. •
She’s somewhere in her eighties. • He joined their party
+ somewhere around 1968. • They employ somewhere
between 4000 and 5000 people. • He died sometime last
year. • They started this business + sometime in 1960. • I
met her the other day. • He joined the other week. • We saw
it the other evening. • She has lots of money. • You have lots
of time. • Their house has got lots of doors + and windows.
• There were lots of people there.

Vagueness and uncertainty about what/

who/where
Native speakers of English often introduce an element of
vagueness and uncertainty into the concepts of things, people,
and places in certain contexts. The following examples will give
you a clear idea:
• Something like this happened there. • She told me
something like this. • He had typhoid or something. •
52 

He gave her a sari or something. • He was dismissed or

something. • They ran away or something. • He hadn’t
brought any tools or anything. • He wasn’t sorry or
anything. • They left early for some reason or other. • Some
meeting or other was going on. • I was thinking about
something or other. • He’ll always have something or other
to do. • Try loosening one or other nut. • Give me one or
other magazine. • He used one or other of these spanners.
• He gave me some tablet + and I took it. • He had some
ring-like thing with him.
• There was someone waiting there. • I saw someone
important there. • His name is James something. • Lyndon
B. something was their President then. • His name is James
something or other. • He gave it to some clerk or other. •
Why don’t you meet someone or other there + and sort it
out? • It belongs to someone or other there. • Send one
or other person to bring it. • I gave it to one or other clerk
there. • I can go to one or other of my friends there. • I
gave it to Azeez or someone. • Your brother or someone
had phoned me up before that. • Did Asha or anyone come
here? • I didn’t find Tom or anyone there. • Some stranger
came and talked to us. • I saw it with some person there.
• I saw it at some hotel or other. • I got it from somewhere
or other in Bombay. • He lives somewhere or other in
London. • He lives somewhere or other near Bangalore. •
He went to one or other Bank and tried for a loan. • Start
from one or other end. • He must be in one or other of these
places. • It was in New York or somewhere. • He belongs
to Hyderabad or somewhere. • It wasn’t in the cupboard or
anywhere. • Has he gone home or anywhere? • It was in
some bottle there. • I’ve seen it in some shop there.
Note: A connected usage is that of the expression “somehow or other”.
Eg: I completed the report somehow or other.
  53

Quality, description etc.

Native speakers of English have a particularly effective way to
speak about qualities (and to give descriptions) vaguely. They
just add the suffix ‘-ish’ to adjectives and nouns.
If you add ‘-ish’ to an adjective, you’ll be able to add a sense
of vagueness to it and to indicate that someone or something has
the qualities expressed by the adjective to a limited extent.
Here are a few examples:
• a fattish book. • a thinnish nose. • whitish green. •
reddish fruits. • a thirtyish look. • a biggish bucket. • a
shortish man. • a longish journey.
If you add ‘-ish’ to the end of a noun, you’ll be able to add a
sense of vagueness to what you say and to convey the meaning
that someone or something has the qualities of the person or
thing named by the noun.
Eg: • a devilish idea. • a lionish face. • a kittenish girl. • childish
manners. • a boyish prank. • girlish sweetness.
• (She has a) mannish appearance. • (He has a) womanish
voice.

“sort of”
The phrase sort of will also help you talk about qualities (and
make descriptions) vaguely. In fact, “sort of” will help you
describe a number of other concepts also vaguely — and not just
‘qualities’ alone. So we’ll look at this phrase in some detail.
Suppose that you want to give an impression that there’s
some vagueness about the idea conveyed by certain words or
phrases. You can do this by using “sort of” immediately before
those words. Thus, you can use “sort of” to say that something
can roughly be described in a particular way or that something
is partly the case or that something is partly true. The following
examples will give you a clear idea:
54 

• It was a sort of bag. • They were a sort of detectives. •

That was a sort of warning. • He had a sort of boyish look.
• He was carrying a sort of bundle. • He was behaving in a
sort of half-hearted way. • He was talking in a sort of harsh
tone.
• He told me a funny sort of story. • They gave him a cold
sort of treatment.
• It was sort of obvious. • They were sort of violent. • I
was sort of thinking about it. • He was sort of rearranging
everything. • I was feeling sort of ill. • He found it sort of
difficult.
• She sort of guessed it. • They sort of apologized to him. •
He sort of wanted to be there.
• There was a revolver sort of thing with him. • She
brought a tray sort of thing. • She’s a nurse sort of. • He’s
working as their Manager sort of.
• X: Have they decided yet? ~ Y: Well – sort of. • X: Did
you have a nice time? ~ Y: @m – sort of. • X: Was he feeling
tired? ~ Y: @:– sort of.
Note: In US English, ‘sort of’ is often replaced by ‘kind of’.

Vagueness through intensification

Here are some examples:
• I wouldn’t pass up this chance for anything. • I wouldn’t
be a teacher for anything. • They were shouting slogans
like anything. • He was running like anything to get way. •
They practised it like mad. • He argued with me like mad.
• It tasted like nothing on earth + and I started throwing
up. • She behaved like nothing on earth + and asked me to
get out. • I wouldn’t do it for the world. • I wouldn’t betray
them for the world.
Note: About the use of non-specific words, see Book 7 also.
  55

Generic use of ‘you’ and ‘they’

When you speak, you’ll often have to refer to ‘people in general’.
There are two words that help you do this in a vague way. These
words are ‘you’ and ‘they’. You can use ‘you’ to refer to ‘people
in general’, including yourself (the speaker) and the hearers. You
can use ‘they’ also to refer to people in general. But ‘they’ would
only refer to people other than yourself and the hearers.
Here are some examples of ‘you’ referring to people in
general:
• You feel embarrassed when people flatter you. • You can
never tell what she’ll do next. • You can’t find an honest
man nowadays. • Nowadays you can’t trust your own
relatives. • Of course, you can’t win all the time. • You
have to be careful with them.
Note: In written English, the word ‘one’ is used instead of ‘you’ to refer to
people in general.
Here are some examples of ‘They’ referring to people in
general:
• They say it’s going to be very difficult this time. • They
call this an ‘agenda’. • As they say + you can’t please
everyone.
Very often, the generic ‘they’ refers to a group of people
without stating their identity. But the identity will always be clear
from the context.
Eg: • They’re raising its price again. • They’re not repairing the roads
this year. • They’ll soon be prosecuting him. • Nowadays they’re
giving more importance to international news.

***
56 

Chapter 5

Starting trouble
Unrehearsed, spontaneous, English speech always exhibits
an interesting feature: Everybody fumbles at the beginning of
a major percentage of idea units. Even highly-educated native
speakers of English fumble there.
You see, everybody finds it difficult to get started. Everybody
has an uncomfortable feeling when they’re about to begin the first
idea unit in a series of connected idea units — and to begin other
key idea units. This uncomfortable feeling causes every speaker
to do something unconsciously when they start saying something:
It makes them unconsciously repeat the initial words or syllables
in a good percentage of the idea units that they utter.
Most often, the words that happen to be repeated in this
way are form words. Of course, content-words also happen to be
repeated-but not as often as form words.
Eg: I’ve - I’ve made myself a TV set. • He - he – he comes twice a
month. • It’s - it’s – it’s not the least trouble. • I gave him a – I
gave him a piece of my mind. • He won’t be – he won’t be back
till five. • How – how good are they? • Is that – is that all? • It’s
perfectly – it’s perfectly possible. • What – what’s wrong with it?
• Wha - what a – what a delightful surprise! • Br - br - bring him
round to see me. • It co - it costs over 500 dollars.
Native speakers of English don’t generally notice this sort
of starting trouble, because this is something that is a normal
part of their everyday speech. They face and deal with this sort
of starting trouble every day — every minute of the day. So the
starting trouble does not unnerve them at all. But it unnerves
non-fluent non-native speakers.
The thing for you to understand now is this: The urge to
repeat the initial words in an idea unit — this urge is a built-
in technique of the moment-to-moment speech composition
  57

process to shoot the starting trouble and to get you started. (This
is almost similar to the urge to repeat the later words in an idea
unit — words that come after the initial words. Only, the urge to
repeat the later words is a built-in technique to maintain the flow
of speech – after it gets started).
Therefore, don’t let the starting trouble unnerve you. Give in
to the starting trouble — yield yourself to it. And don’t ever try to
avoid repeating any of the words or their initial syllables. If you
find yourself unconsciously repeating any of the words, or if you
feel that consciously (deliberately) repeating them would help
you keep up the continuity of speech, don’t stop yourself from
doing the repetition.

Discourse markers
There’s one other technique that’ll help you break the
uncomfortable silence at the beginning of idea units and start
speaking. This is the use of certain fixed vocabulary units and
sounds at the beginning of those idea units. These vocabulary
units and sounds are:
• well, oh well, now, look, now look, right, all right, okay,
well then, well now, now then, right then, all right then,
okay then, yes, no.
• oh, ah, @:, @m, hm
These vocabulary units and sounds (and their combinations)
help you to get over the uncomfortable feeling that you may have
at the beginning of an utterance and to initiate your utterances.
They’re called ‘discourse markers’.
Remember one thing: As discourse markers, these words
are virtually empty words, and their lexical meanings have no
relevance or significance. You use them not for their lexical
meanings, but because these words have the capacity of absorbing
your hesitation to start an utterance. By the time you’ve uttered
these words, you’ll find yourself getting pushed automatically
58 

into your utterance stream.

Though the lexical meanings of the discourse markers have
no relevance or significance, one thing is generally seen: Certain
markers are more often found occurring in certain contexts
than in other contexts. Also, some of the markers can be used
in more contexts than one. So let’s look at each of the markers
separately:

(i) well
(a) To initiate responses by indicating that you’re about to
say something.
Eg: X: It’s no good apologizing now. ~ Y: Well – I told him that
myself. • X: I gave him a piece of my mind. ~ Y: Well – that won’t
get you very far.
(b) To express your acceptance of, or reservation or doubt
about, something.
In responses:
Eg: • X: Harry says he knows them. ~ Y: Well – that’s all right then. •
X: He’s very good at this kind of work. ~ Y: Well – is he really? •
X: He didn’t have any money on him then. ~ Y: Well – now I know
why he didn’t buy it. • X: Will he be back in time? ~Y: Well – I’m
not sure.

As part of your own text:

Eg: • He said it tasted very nice. Well – I don’t dispute that. • He
went and sat beside her. Well – I don’t know why he did that. •
They’ve promised to install it. Well – it’s all very well to make
promise. But …
(c) To indicate that you wish to get on with your narrative
(that is, to initiate mid-stream utterances).
Eg: • I didn’t ask the silly fool. Well – do you know what happened?
• He hasn’t definitely refused. Well – he only said he had some
difficulties.
(d) To initiate an utterance, explaining or justifying
something that you’ve just said.
  59

Eg: • He behaves in an uncontrolled way. Well – he throws things at

everyone and keeps shouting. • I don’t think he’ll be able to do it.
Well – he has never done it before + and he doesn’t have the basic
knowledge.
(e) To initiate an utterance, modifying or correcting
something that you’ve just said.
Eg:• It’s no good asking either of them. Well – you may ask them +
but don’t expect anything. • That clerk asked me for a loan. Well
– a bribe, really.
(f) To indicate that you wish to end the conversation.
Eg: • Well – that’s about all. • Well – thank you for all you’ve done. •
Well – I must leave now.
(g) To initiate a suggestion, criticism or correction in an
inoffensive way.
Eg: • Well – let’s go for a walk. • Well – you shouldn’t have shouted
at him like that. • Well – it was five metres, actually – not three
metres.
(h) So far we’ve seen the use of ‘well’ in the initial position
(that is, at the beginning of an idea unit). You can use ‘well’
medially also, that is, between the beginning and end of an idea
unit. There are three situations where ‘well’ is used medially:
First, when the speaker wants to deliberately make his speech
sound casual or leisurely. Second, when the speaker uses it as
a ‘filler-word’ (while he’s planning how to continue with his
utterance). Third, when the speaker wants to rephrase what he
has just said.
Eg: • If that’s so – well – he’ll miss the train. • She told me you’d be –
well – dropping in to see me. • I was happy – well – grateful that
they did it.
Remember this: ‘Well’ is not used finally (that is, at the end of
an idea unit). It’s only used initially and medially.
Note: See Book 5 for details about ‘well’ as a filler-word.

(ii) Oh well
60 

You can use this marker to initiate an utterance that would show
that you’re accepting an unpleasant situation.
In responses:
Eg: • X: He’s going to be your boss from now on. ~ Y: Oh well + it
isn’t as bad as all that.

As part of your own text:

Eg: • They’re going to raise the bus fares. Oh well + you can’t do
anything about it.

(iii) now
(a) To introduce an additional piece of information before
you can continue your narrative.
Eg: • Asha hadn’t told me about it till then. Now + that was a little
strange. • He says she broke it. Now + he has nothing against her
+ personally.
(b) To introduce a contrast.
Eg: • Raju has no interest in these things. Now + Pablo is a different
sort of person. • That’s only a temporary job. Now + why don’t
you try for this other one.

(iv) Look & Now look

You can use these markers to draw the attention of the hearers
to what you’re going to say. These are signals to the hearers that
you’re going to say something important.
Eg: • Look + Ahmed + you mustn’t raise any objections. • Look +
she was very keen on it. • This is a letter for him ++ Look + you
must give it to him personally. • I was a bit upset at that time ++
Look + you mustn’t take it seriously. • He hasn’t even glanced
at them ++ Now look + don’t these things interest him? • They
want it by tomorrow ++ Now look + I just can’t quite manage it.

(v) Right
You can use this marker to draw the attention of the onlookers/
  61

hearers to what you’re going to do/say.

Eg: • Right + let’s see what he has got in this bag. • Right + let’s
arrange the flowers first. • Right + what topic should we take up
today? • Right + bring it over here. • Right + let’s get on now.

(vi) All right & Okay

You can use these two markers to initiate an utterance, challenging
or threatening someone.
Eg: • All right + what do you mean by that? • All right + do it if you
can. • Okay + will you repeat that? • Okay + show it once again.
Note: You can use ‘well’ also in the same way.

(vii) Well then, Well now, Now then, Right

then, All right then, Okay then
You can use these markers to indicate that you’re going to
continue with your narrative. So they help you initiate midstream
utterances.
Eg: • There were three people in that room ++ Well then + one of
them was John’s brother. • You must mix these two together ++
Well now + don’t use any water yet. • He said he didn’t see her
++ Now then + if that’s true + where did she go? • I’m glad
he came ++ Right then + did he say anything particular? • You
didn’t do it? ++ All right then + what did you do? • There are
about twenty of us ++ Okay then + let’s decide who should do
what.

(viii) yes
(You see, in casual style, native speakers of English often use
‘yeah’ instead of ‘yes’, where ‘yes’ can be used as a discourse marker.
Note this: ‘yeah’ is pronounced ‘yeh’, and not ‘yee’):
(a) To introduce objections, statements, opinions or
remarks.
In these situations, speakers occasionally use ‘oh yes’ in place
of ‘yes’.
62 

Eg: • X: He’s a lousy fellow. ~ Y: Yes + but he’s very dependable. • X:

How do you feel about it? ~ Y: Yes + there’s something in what
they say. • X: I like this colour. ~ Y: Yes + but I like blue better.
• X: Lots of people don’t like it. ~ Y: Yes + but you should have
listened to her. • X: He’s an MA. ~ Y: Yes + but he doesn’t have
any teaching experience. • X: They’re worried about it. ~ Y: Yes +
they shouldn’t get worked up + about such a small matter.
Note: From these examples, you can note one thing: You can use ‘yes’ in front
of negative idea units as well as positive idea units.
(b) To initiate a replanned utterance.
Eg: • I want him to – yes + keep it away. • We needn’t have – yes +
there was no need to feel anxious about her. • I think you should
– yes + buy that one.
(c) To introduce something you forgot to say and have just
remembered. Here ‘ah yes’ and ‘oh yeah’ are also common.
Eg: • I wanted to tell you about – yes+ that book you borrowed. •
I don’t remember it now + ah yes + it was about group effort
or something. • He told me about something called oh yeah +
‘ikbana’.
(d) To initiate an utterance, emphasizing or confirming
something you’ve just said.
Eg: • It’s a fine place + yes + a very fine place. • It’s absolutely
monstrous + yes + there’s no doubt about it.

(ix) no
(a) You can use ‘no’ also in the same way as ‘yes’ is used at
‘(a)’ above. Just as ‘yes’, you can use ‘no’ also in front of negative
idea units as well as positive idea units.
Eg: • X: He can’t possibly have finished it. ~ Y: No + he’ll take it up
only tomorrow. • X: He may not have meant to say it. ~ Y: No +
it just slipped out of him.
Note 1: Here’s an interesting point. As a discourse marker, ‘no’ is used not to
contradict the previous speaker, but to agree with him. ‘No’ agrees with the
previous speaker’s negative interpretation, while ‘yes’ agrees with the previous
speaker’s positive interpretation.
Note 2: ‘yes’ and ‘no’ can also be used as filler-words (See Book 5).
  63

(x) ‘oh’
(a) To introduce a response or comment on something that
someone had just said.
Eg: • X: Look what I’ve brought for you. ~ Y: Oh – you shouldn’t have
bothered. • X: He’s going to give us a party. ~ Y: Oh – would you
believe it!
(b) To introduce a comment on something that you yourself
have just said.
Eg: • I went to his house yesterday. Oh – what a big place! • I don’t
like the man. Oh – the way he behaves!
(c) To express surprise, grief, pain, annoyance, joy etc.
Eg: • Oh + are you sure? • Oh + what a pity ! • Oh + I can’t bear it.
• Oh + the very idea of it! • Oh + that’s great! • Oh + is that so?
• Oh + there you are, John. • Oh + why doesn’t she make up her
mind? • Oh + that’s different. • Oh + no one listens to him. • Oh
+ hello, Anita. • Oh + I’m so tired.
Note: There’s one more important use to which fluent speakers often put ‘oh’.
They often use it as a hesitation-sound. Speakers usually utter ‘oh’ when they’re
not sure of the facts or when they’re searching (mentally) for the right word.
Eg: • There were only about – oh – 200 people there. • It happened
in – oh – 1950 or so. • They came here by about – oh – 6.15 or so.
• We saw the – oh – ‘sumo’ wrestling. • He’s working there as an
– oh – Account Executive. • He’s practising – oh – what’s it called
– ‘aikido’. • You must meet – oh – whatsisname – Dr. Katari.

(xi) ah
(a) To initiate an utterance showing agreement with, or
acceptance or understanding of, what the previous speaker has
said.
Eg: • X: It wasn’t a great deal of trouble. ~ Y: Ah – I ought to have a
shot at it, I think. • X: I’m awfully sorry. ~ Y: Ah – forget it. • X:
That’s Sita standing there. ~ Y: Ah – yes.
(b) To initiate a comment on, or an objection to, what the
previous speaker has said.
Eg: • X: It’s very important. ~ Y: Ah – but not as important as this. •
64 

X: From now on + I’ll be concentrating mainly on administration.

~ Y: Ah – it’s high time somebody did that here.
(c) To initiate a comment emphasizing what you yourself
have said or to add an additional piece of information that’ll
emphasize what you’ve just said.
Eg: • I said nothing of the kind. Ah – nothing at all. • He has again
refused. Ah – how terribly annoying for everyone. • He had to do
it. Ah – he had no other choice.
(d) To initiate expressions showing sympathy, pleasure, pain
and other feelings.
Eg: • Ah – he must have suffered a lot. • Ah – what a lovely day for
the picnic! • Ah – you’re hurting. • Ah – splendid ! • Ah – super!
• Ah – that’s the spirit!
(e) To initiate an expression that’ll show that you’ve just
noticed something.
Eg: • Ah – it has turned green. • Ah – it has become hot. • Ah – he’s
not there now. • Ah – it moved now.
(f) To address someone whom you’ve just noticed.
Eg: • Ah – Carlos, there you are! • Ah – Nadia – when did you come?
Note: Just as ‘oh’, ‘ah’ is also frequently used as a hesitation sound. Speakers
usually utter ‘ah’ when they’re trying to remember something or are trying to
decide what to say next.
Eg: • He comes from a place called – ah – Ruritania. • I think you
have to sign at – ah – four places. • That’s no reason for – ah –
not starting it. • They were very – ah – good at it.

(xii) @: & @m
As you know, ‘@:’ and ‘@m’ are the chief hesitation-sounds in
spoken English. (See Book 5). You can also use them as discourse
markers. And as discourse markers, they perform the following
roles:
(a) To attract the attention of the hearers before speaking.
Eg: @: + Mario + the meeting is at four. • @: + try the nearest hotel,
then. • @m + why not write and warn them? • @m + show me
  65

those papers.
(b) To initiate responses to direct questions and to introduce
your own contribution to a conversation. (Mostly, to introduce
a new topic). Here ‘@:’ and ‘@m’ will let the hearers know that
you’re trying to decide what to say, and will prepare the hearers
for your response.
Eg: X: Are you letting him get away with it? ~ Y: @: – you want me
to do something? • X: Does he mean it? ~ Y: @m – I don’t know.
• X: It was bitterly cold there. ~ Y: @:– I had a similar experience
sometime back. X: I thought she had given up. ~ Y: @m – do you
know what happened the other day? Well …

(xiii) hm
(a) To indicate that you’re puzzled by something.
Eg: • Hm – it beats me how he got this idea. • Hm – there must be
something funny going on. • What I can’t understand is – hm –
why did he leave that behind? • It’s quite strange – hm – the way
he rejected the offer.
(b) To initiate utterances that’ll show that you’re seriously
thinking about something.
Eg: • Hm – I’ll give you a reply later. • Hm – that seems to be a good
idea. • I don’t know – hm – what they’re going to say. • I think it
was in – hm – 1950 or so.

Discourse markers in combination

There’s no convention that only one discourse marker should be
used at a time. No. In fact, native speakers of English often use 2
(or 3) discourse markers in combination.
When you use them in combination, your speech would
sound more tentative, informal and casual than when you use a
single marker at a time. Also, the combinations would give you
more planning time than single items.
Eg: Well – @m, @m – now then, hm – all right, well now - @:, now
66 

– @m, yes – now, yes – well, @: - look, etc.

Here are some examples of discourse marker combinations
in use:
• Well – @m – the news has come as a shock to me. • @m –
now then – how did the meeting go? • hm – all right – let’s
get back to the point.
There are two things that you must note here: First, there’s
no convention that only such and such a discourse marker must
come in the first position in a combination. Any of them can
come first. Second, the number of markers that may combine is
not limited to two. But normally, there won’t be more than two.

Combination of comment clauses and

discourse markers
Discourse markers often combine with comment clauses,
particularly, with ‘you know’, ‘you see’, ‘I mean’ and ‘mind you’.
And these combinations make your speech sound more tentative,
informal and casual — than when you use a single marker alone
or a single comment clause alone at a time. Also, the combinations
give you more planning time than single items.
Eg: well – you know, @m – I mean, yes – you see, mind you – @:, you
know – @m, you see – ah, oh – I mean, well – mind you, etc.
Here are a few examples:
• They call her Bea ++ well – you know + her name is
Beatrice. • I didn’t like what he said + @m – I mean + it
sounded arrogant. • We trusted them ++ yes – you see +
we had no reason to suspect them.
There are two things that you must note here: First, ‘well’
has a tendency to appear in the first position in combinations.
But, occasionally, it does appear in later positions also. Second,
a normal combination would contain one discourse marker and
one comment clause. But this is not a rigid rule, either.
  67

Topic shift
When you speak, you’ll always have to move from one topic
to another. You know, everybody has an uncomfortable feeling
during this transition. They get the feeling that there’s a stone
wall in front of most topic-introducing idea units. They get the
feeling that this stone wall blocks their movement from one idea
unit to the next, and from one idea unit group to the next — that
is, from one topic to another. The result is that they’re not able to
move smoothly from one topic to another or from one sub-topic
to another or from one stage in a narrative to the next stage. And
they falter.
There’s a technique that all native speakers of English use to
climb over this stonewall: At the point of transition, they utter
one or more of the following discourse markers:
fine, good, okay, right, all right.
well, now, well then, well now, now then, right then.
okay then, all right then, now look, now, look.
These discourse markers would readily help you to get over
the uncomfortable feeling of transition — and to switch over
from one topic or sub-topic or stage to another.
The markers ‘right’, ‘all right’, ‘fine’, ‘good’ and ‘okay’ mark
the end of a topic or activity. At the same time, they also indicate
that the speaker wants to start speaking about something else.
People in control of conversations and discussions frequently use
these markers.
Eg: • I hope it’s clear now + Right + The next point is …• Send the
reply tomorrow + All right + Where’s the next letter? • Have you
said everything that you want to? + Fine + Let’s move on to the
next point. • I’ll let you know tomorrow + Okay + There’s one
other thing. • Have you finished it? + Good + Take a rest.
The remaining markers help you change the topic and to
take up a new topic or to go back to a previous topic.
Eg: • That isn’t as simple as it sounds + Well + what day is today?
68 

• I don’t like the look of them + Now + Arjun has two dogs,
and…• He wanted his shoes cleaned + Well then + You can’t
get buses to cantonment, and so …• Send me a line when you
get there + Well now + where are the bags? • She met him at
quarter past four + Now then + There was a shop opposite the
temple …• Something was worrying him + Right then + By
this time, they had reached the railway station, and … • He was
positive it wouldn’t work + Okay then + Sita had been away, and
…• He couldn’t find the keys anywhere + All right then + It was
Sunday, and …• He says he won’t pay + Now look + I’ve got to
get back by tomorrow morning, and …• The front wheel came off
+ Now + The nearest workshop was five miles away, and …• Not
a word from them yet + Look + Are you going to be out of town
next week?
Note: You must utter all the discourse markers with a falling tone (and not with
a rising tone).

Other topic shift markers

Discourse markers are not the only topic shift markers. There are
a few other vocabulary items that often perform this function.
Here they are:
(a) The words ‘anyway’ and ‘anyhow’ also help you change
your topic (Remember this: The lexical meanings of these words
have no relevance here).
Eg: • … and then she started staying there + Anyway + Let’s talk
about something else.• The train doesn’t leave until ten +
Anyhow + What do you think of her new dress?
(b) The expression ‘by the way’ would also help you introduce
new topics in speech. (Don’t say ‘by the by’. Don’t. Say ‘by the
way’. You know, ‘by the by’ is an old-fashioned expression).
Eg: • These sweets are delicious ++ By the way + I’m going to New
York next week.• He’s been one of their most loyal customers ++
By the way + I saw your uncle the other day?
(c) The discourse marker sounds ‘@:’ and ‘@m’ (and even ‘ah’,
‘oh’ and ‘hm’) also help you initiate new topics.
  69

***
70 

Chapter 6

Steadying influence of the

hesitation pause
You’ve learnt one thing from earlier Books: In spoken English,
a speaker speaks by composing his speech as he speaks
on. Therefore, his speech will clearly show various speech-
composition features.
One of the most important speech-composition features is
the hesitation pause. In spontaneous speech produced even by
fluent native speakers of English, after every few words, there
will always be hesitation pauses. Of course, many of these
pauses would be very brief ones. That’s why no one generally
notices them. You see, even a simple word group like “They’re
not on speaking terms” is likely to contain a hesitation pause –
sometimes, even more than one – especially, when it’s uttered as
part of a long text.
In fact, hesitation pause is a very important tool that would
help you produce a long sequence. This is a tool that would
help you a lot in the moment-to-moment mental planning and
speech-composition.
You’ve already had some training in dealing with hesitations
and in making hesitation pauses. You’re now going to get some
more training in handling hesitation pauses — and in putting
them to use in speech production. I’m now going to give you a
collection of specially selected word groups. The word groups
contain only two speech-composition features:
• Hesitation-pauses; and
• Repetition of words and syllables.
We’re now going to concentrate only on these two features
— particularly, on hesitation-pauses. Utter each word-group
  71

ALOUD—several times. Remember this: ‘+’ stands for a junction

pause, ‘-’ stands for a ‘brief pause’, and ‘–’ stands for a ‘standard
pause’. So make appropriate pauses wherever you find a ‘+’ or
a ‘-’ or a ‘–’.
Here we go:
• He was – turning a corner. • She is not used to - having
food in – restaurants. • They’re not on – speaking terms. • I
telephoned his office + but - but there’s no – answer. • I like –
living economically. • She - she doesn’t – wear any – make-up. •
He - he doesn’t know – what is good for him. • You’ll soon be a –
a doctor. • I’m - I’m getting used to – travelling by bus. • He was
in a - in a panic. • It’s no use my – reminding her. • They made
him – kneel down. • You must stop him – following her about. •
You are always –forgetting - things. • They are quite - quite rare.
• That’s my bag you’re – picking up. • He’s very bad – about -
about answering letters. • By next Monday + I will have – left
for - for Bombay. • That’s the - main drawback + of this - of
this system. • You should look for a – job. • Would you mind
keeping an – eye on these things? • This is the - the first time +
he has ever spoken to a – girl. • They get on – very well. • She
likes – looking after the children. • What a lot of - suffering – the
flood has been - causing! • I’ve got used to - to giving talks. •
That sounds a – great - a great idea! • I’m - I’m looking forward
to – meeting them. • The building was on - on fire. • Neither
of us - knew – how to open it. • I don’t remember their - their –
overcharging us. • She - she keeps talking - about – herself. •
They’re quite – common. • He – admitted – doing it. • I expect
+ they’ll - they’ll get in touch with you. • That’s the - the trouble
with – travelling alone.
• I don’t know + how long ago it - it happened. • I’ve never
- never stayed up so late – before. • They don’t see – much of –
each other. • I like working – working with - you. • I saw it +
from - across the street. • The kitchen is – next to her - next to
her bedroom. • I’m looking forward to – hearing it. • I don’t -
72 

like the idea of - of inviting them. • Would you mind – booking

a - a seat for me? • He is too – untidy. • You didn’t make them –
understand the - problem. • I can’t stop him – getting married. •
You - you shouldn’t have been – waiting for him. • You sound +
as if – you have no - no interest. • He denied - denied doing it. •
I - I - I doubt if he’ll – if he’ll bring it. • That’s one - one advantage
+ of being a – government servant. • Neither you + nor he +
neither will be able to - do it. • He makes a point of - a point of
contradicting them. • I can’t get to – sleep. • They often - meet.
• I - I wouldn’t like - sweeping – streets. • He was very – short
of - short of money - then. • You could have – done it yourself. •
I’m all - in favour of that. • I don’t mind him - using it. • They’re
too - noisy. • Both of us – have been to - Bangalore. • Let’s try –
oiling the - hinges. • You shouldn’t be – working so - hard. • She
seemed a bit - nervous. • They charged him with – with attacking
her. • They - They probably won’t – return it. • His - His letter
– encouraged me + to - to do it. • He wanted to - know + how
much - how much money he could – spend. • There’s no point
in – complaining. • I called him at – at home + not at the - office.
• If you are – short of money + ask me. • They spend a – lot
of time – together. • I wouldn’t care – delivering mails. • This
is – four times the price of - that. • I’m in – two minds + about -
about that. • I object to - her arguing with us. • He is too – fussy
+ about his - health. • Make them -do – enough work. • It means
+ that - that he doesn’t – know her. • The plants need – watering.
• I have a – pain + in my - back. • We suspected him + of - of
planning the – whole thing. • I was lying – stretched out + on
the - on the bench. • I didn’t hear the – clock striking. • You - You
needn’t have – brought it - yourself.
• You can - You can bring – anyone you like. • What is the
point + of – making a fuss? • We’ve just had a – baby. • You
sound as if – as if you’re bored. • The doors need – painting. •
Nobody knows – how much of it – he has - he has - taken. • He’s
not ill + he’s fine. • I would hate – digging drains. • This is – five
times as – as expensive as - that. • There’s no need to – whisper.
  73

• You must try to – try to avoid – rushing about. • I want to

have a - serious – talk with you. • They’ve – They’ve both been
to – Washington. • He was afraid of – afraid of upsetting his wife.
• That doesn’t – necessarily mean – that he will – that he’ll do it
again. • There’s – there’s someone – running – down the road. • I
heard him – whistling. • He will– he’ll certainly be there. • Fancy
– losing all your – all your savings! • You shouldn’t have – made
such a - such a scene – there. • I don’t mind – when - when you
return. • She - She looks – ill. • I hate – sharing the room with
them. • He has been – organizing + his – daughter’s – wedding.
• It sounds as if – they are – they are enthusiastic. • That is –
twice as – big as – this. • I feel a – a bit - sick. • Look what you
have – done to it. • I won’t have him – arriving late. • Certain
- Certain things that he does + annoy me. • They don’t let him –
go out. • He didn’t want to – risk – making things worsen. • That
may have been – because - because she didn’t like him. • I heard
her – telling them. • I’m - I’m having a bit of trouble – sleeping.
• Imagine – entertaining those – those wretched fellows! • We
were sitting – talking – politics. • She seems to be – to be waiting
for somebody. • If – If only she had – come a bit - a bit earlier!
• He’s worried about - about travelling – by bus. • He looks like
a - like a policeman. • I don’t mind – walking the dog. • He
wanted me to - to turn off the – electricity. • He seems to be –
disgusted.
• This - This is about – half the - size of that. • It’s not - quite
to - my- my – taste. • I don’t mind – her going home - early. •
You - You can meet – whoever you like. • You can – keep it + as
- as long as you - like. • I don’t - I don’t want to – risk - annoying
them. • They - they can’t have been – watching you. • My- My
stomach is – giving me a - bit of trouble. • Fancy – not shaving
at all! • There was somebody – sitting there + taking notes. •
She heard me – threatening them. • If only we could – reach
there in - in time! • I doubt if - if they’ll – enjoy it. • She looks as
if – she is - she is going to - faint. • I don’t care for – polishing the
car. • That shop has got a - a wider range of – goods. • I’m - I’m
74 

pretty sure – you’re - shocked. • This is - this is slightly – more

expensive than - that. • She has been – ill. • I saw people - people
staring at them. • I had an – appointment with him + but - but
I couldn’t keep it. • I object to him – behaving like this. • I don’t
mind – how late you - come. • I don’t mind – who you - who
you go out with. • I’m afraid of - afraid of causing a scandal. •
She must have – come here - before. • He seems to be – trying
to - please her. • I’ve - I’ve got a bit of a – headache. • Imagine +
not relaxing at all! • There isn’t – enough food for - all. • I didn’t
actually – see him throwing the stone. • You should have – told
him - earlier. • Look out + there’s a car - coming. • He looks as
though - as though he’s – worried. • She enjoys – looking after
the baby. • His car is more – economical to - run + than mine.
• Don’t talk too – loud. • She heard me – telling him to - to do
it. • This is much more – much more expensive than – that. •
Those people are very - noisy. • There’s no need to - shout. • I
won’t have her – hang washing + out of the windows. • Don’t
stay up so - so late. • You can go – anywhere you - like. • I’m not
interested in - in living in luxury. • It was several days – before
I - heard from him. • My throat’s a - bit - dry. • He will have you –
speaking French by the - by the year-end. • There aren’t - enough
– seats for everyone. • He wanted to - wanted + to prevent you
– going there. • I wish + he - wasn’t so – angry.
• There’s going to be - trouble. • He seems (to be ) – angry.
• His car is not as – expensive to - run as mine. • I saw them –
rushing out. • This isn’t - this isn’t nearly as – expensive as that.
• It’s - It’s – pouring with – rain. • He likes spending money
+ better than saving it. • My neck has been – hurting + since
- since yesterday. • I’m not sure - I’d - like that. • You can say –
whatever you - like. • I’m used to – working late. • I spent my
time – reading a- novel. • He doesn’t look very – well. • Don’t
keep everybody – awake. • Turn the music - down. • Mine is
the – the one with a - red cover. • He’ll have you – swimming
– by the weekend. • She wanted to – prevent you - prevent you
reading it. • I wish she - I wish she came – earlier. • I’ll have - I’ll
  75

have finished it – by this time tomorrow. • He seems to be a - a

carpenter. • You don’t eat – enough – fresh fruit. • She gets up
– much earlier than - than anyone else. • He prefers – working
during the night to - sleeping. • This is almost as - expensive as
that. • It looks like – like rain. • I saw a few of them – standing
there. • Can - Can I borrow your – scooter?
• It is very difficult to - prevent it. • He has - He’s worked
as a – driver. • You don’t - You don’t have to – do it. • I’ve got
used to – getting up early. • They finished it + by - by six o’clock.
• It’s not worth - worth spending - that much money on it. • I
couldn’t help – sneezing. • He has got a – shirt with - with four
pockets. • I wish I – I hadn’t started! • Next week + he will still
be - still be doing this. • He doesn’t - doesn’t seem to – go out
very often. • I like walking – better than - better than going by
bus. • She dances – more beautifully than - than anyone else. • I
heard a few of them – shouting at him. • He doesn’t – work as -
as efficiently as he – used to. • It’s raining – quite - quite heavily.
• I can’t - I can’t do without it. • It’s very difficult to – prevent
children - screaming. • They’ve never - never had any of their
things – stolen. • We have a typist who - who types – 50 pages a
day. • She got here in an – hour. • I don’t feel like – doing it. •
We’re really - really looking forward to it. • She - She couldn’t
help – yawning. • I wish he would – stop it. • I spent all last week
– reading books. • These changes will – cause a - lot of problems.
• He seems to - seems to have been to – London. • I can’t do
it – any more quickly than - that. • In September + it - it starts
to get – cool here. • What about – weeding the garden? • His
behaviour– astonished me. • I need it – back by - by tomorrow.
• It’s very difficult to – prevent these things. • She has studied
– medicine.
• You needn’t - do it now. • They punished him for – for
doing it. • The meeting didn’t - didn’t begin until ten. • She is
not – that - that worried about it. • I keep having – headaches. •
He wanted a stuff – that can - that can kill rats. • They spent all
yesterday – tidying up the house. • I wonder why - why he didn’t
76 

come – today. • He has spilt some - some food there. • She was
born in – 1960 or so. • He ran into me – and - and knocked my
things + to the floor. • What about – letting me drive? • She has
the – longest hair of all of them. • This wind is quite - annoying.
• I just happened to be - standing there. • What I like about her
– is the way she - she behaves. • I don’t remember - shouting
at them. • I’m quite used to - to situations like this. • You can
do the - the home work – later. • People who spread rumours –
annoy her. • I had a - lot of difficulty– explaining it. • It is a - a
tool you can – tighten nuts - with. • He keeps taking - time off.
• It’s already late + and we - we might as well wait + for some
more time. • This is a – gadget you use for catching - mice. • You
had been playing all - all evening. • I’d prefer to – eat it raw. •
He likes to be - to be independent. • He used to waste a – lot of
money + but - but not any more. • I just happened to be - going
that way. • That’s the – thing that - that impresses - me about
them. • (You had ) better not – ask him to – stay. • I saw you –
starting the fight. • She is not used to - food like this. • Neither
French – nor Russian – neither is easy to learn. • He - he had a
lot of difficulty – raising the money.
• I find some of these - some of these cartoons – offensive. •
There seems to be – something wrong with the - back wheel. •
I’m not used to – painting pictures. • It is a stuff you – you use for
- polishing things. • It’s no use - no use asking them. • She doesn’t
have - doesn’t have anything + in – common with her - brother.
• I heard you – singing - terrible songs. • I find train journeys
– exciting. • I just happened to – meet him. • She fell off the
– ladder. • I haven’t gone there + since - since I got – married.
• I’m in favour of – doing our own – typing. • (You had) better
not – drink it. • She’s not used to - not used to - travelling alone.
• I let him go a - little early. • He has difficulty – controlling the
staff. • I find most comics – amusing. • He shouldn’t have been
– driving so - fast . • It’ll take - It’ll take only a few minutes to –
put that right. • It’s a liquid – you use for - for cleaning floors. •
He’s not used to - not used to – getting up early. • It’s not worth
  77

- worth going that far. • She didn’t – recognize me – at first. • I

get bored + when - when people – talk about themselves. • She
is very – bad about - tidying up. • For long journeys + I prefer
– travelling by - by train. • I don’t like the - the look of those
clouds. • She just happened to – touch the wire. • I couldn’t help
- laughing. • You should tell him + to – stop arguing all the time.
• I’m not used to - being – criticized. • Both John and Harry –
are good at - mathematics. • It’s no use – warning her. • People
who are fluent – always - always impress me. • The bathroom
is – behind the - living room. • After his promotion + he - he’s
become a new – man.

Analyze the texts now

Go through all the spoken texts given above carefully. Examine
each text closely. Pay attention to how the speaker builds each
text from moment to moment. Look at the hesitations, pauses,
repetition of words, incomplete structures and the way word
groups are ordered. Analyze each text in this way. Yes, each text.
Spend as much time as possible doing this.
Remember this: The spoken English texts given above show
one thing: They show exactly how native speakers of English
speak English. They’re samples of unrehearsed and spontaneous
spoken English. This is how even the most highly educated native
speakers of English speak. And this is how you are going to speak
too – from now on. Understand this: A stretch of fluent speech is
one in which the speaker spends as much as 30% to 50% of the
speaking time on speech-composition features alone.
And bear this in mind: The aim of this series of books is to
help you speak continuously and without stumbling. To achieve
this aim, we have to do several things. Not just one or two, but
several things. And we’re doing just that, in a programmed way.

***
78 
  79

Chapter 7

Nominal Expressions with ‘of’ –

Part 1
There are many things, ideas and situations that can be named
by single words. For example, the single word chair can name a
particular thing. So can the single word table. So can the single
word love. But there are many other things, ideas and situations
that cannot be named by single words. To name them, you need
a group of words. Here are some examples: a coil of rope, a piece
of cheese, a sense of direction.
And one reason why many people can’t speak English fluently
has to do with this fact. Though they have a good command of
single words that can be used to name things, ideas and situations,
they don’t have such a command of groups of words that can do
this work.
So here’s an important part of your fluency development
training: Make deliberate effort to achieve a good command of
naming word groups, naming clusters. The books in this series
help you do this.
In this book, we’ll take up naming word groups belonging to
a particular category: Generally speaking, these are word groups
in which a noun – or sometimes, a pronoun – is connected to
another noun by the preposition of. They’re Nominal Expressions
– expressions that can be used as noun phrases. The examples of
naming word groups given above (a coil of rope, a piece of cheese,
a sense of direction) fall into this category.
I’m now going to give you an exhaustive collection of Nominal
Expressions in which the preposition of is a key grammatical
word. An exhaustive collection. You’ll find them categorized
into various Groups in this chapter and in the following two
chapters.
80 

Go through these word groups carefully. Then pick up each

and say it aloud several times. Soon your organs of speech will
stop shying away from handling these word groups.
Here we go:

Group 1
a bunch of flowers, a cause of dissatisfaction, a feeling of unease,
a lack of detail, a grain of truth, a lack of skill, a lack of confidence,
a rush of emotions, a member of a church, a risk of relapse, a
fit of pique, a glimmer of truth, a seal of approval, a sense of
mistrust, a climate of distrust, a look of innocence, a sense of
fairness, a member of a regime, a sense of fulfilment, a phase of
a project, a plan of attack, a flood of refugees, a piece of cheese,
a feeling of betrayal, a lack of awareness, a series of incidents,
a peal of bells, a form of contraception, a feeling of fatigue, a
master of the craft of writing, a period of change, a draught of air,
a series of events, a look of resignation, a prisoner of conscience,
a coil of rope, a board of governors, a feeling of sympathy, a seat
of learning, a member of the band, a look of dislike, a group of
companies, a sense of proportion, a roll of thunder, a period of
time, a sense of justice.
a look of disapproval, a gesture of solidarity, a piece of the
puzzle, a change of management, a series of difficulties, a babble
of conversation, a sense of helplessness, a risk of infection, a code
of ethics, a sense of harmony, a flurry of excitement, a look of
astonishment, a board of directors, a period of expansion, a sense
of direction, a sense of insecurity, a mode of thought, a burden
of guilt, a lot of bother, a change of address, a look of surprise, a
firm of solicitors, a point of resemblance, a sense of loneliness, a
lack of certainty, a rank of society, a screech of tyres, a school of
economics, a feeling of hatred, a range of backgrounds, a sense
of history, a mastery of skills, a series of measures, a member of
a sect, a feeling of sadness, a mountain of paperwork, a sense of
inferiority, a sense of perspective, a sense of (your own) worth,
  81

a matter of convention, a member of a government, a chorus

of indignations, a layer of mud, a panel of experts, a look of
elation, a chance of reply, a member of a profession, a counsel
of perfection, a place of worship, a point of view, a gust of air, a
roll of honour, a piece of chocolate, a feeling of happiness, a gust
of wind, a point of law, a feeling of nostalgia, a pack of cards, a
feeling of disgust, a matter of judgement, a network of rules, a
point of agreement, a feeling of detachment, a flash of inspiration,
a sense of pride, a bunch of flowers, a court of law, a revival of
morale, a breakdown of discipline, a bit of bother, a beam of
light, a screech of brakes, a change of government, a panel of
judges, a letter of complaint, a package of legislation, the hum of
approval, a feeling of release, a method of transport, a point of
disagreement, a mass of contradictions, a fit of panic, a feeling of
dread, a kind of religion, a flurry of publicity, a breach of privacy,
a lack of initiative, a period of prosperity, a piece of equipment,
a piece of writing, a level of performance, a court of appeal, a
good grasp of reality, a lack of publicity, a feeling of serenity, a
bag of nerves, a lack of energy, a fraction of an inch, a counsel
of despair, a line of argument, a campaign of misinformation, a
reign of terror, a lack of enthusiasm, a marriage of convenience,
a change of policy, a form of energy, a series of questions, a sense
of failure, a series of proposals, a nod of the head, a backlog of
paperwork, a murmur of approval, a position of trust, a ray of
hope, a means of transport, a member of a club, a feeling of relief,
a lack of leadership, a loss of morale, a method of recruitment,
a chorus of disapproval, a journey of self-discovery, a chance
of success, a series of activities, a history of failure, a process
of deduction, a scene of chaos, a lump of cheese, a murmur of
disapproval, a father of two/three, a firm of accountants, a cause
of catastrophe, a centre of pilgrimage, a gasp of excitement, a bit
of the puzzle, a sense of sadness, a sense of dignity, a climate of
mistrust, a scene of confusion, a letter of introduction, a moan
of pleasure/despair, a glimpse of the past, a rush of air, a bar of
chocolate, a matter of concern.
82 

a body of rules, a pane of glass, a form of racism, a piece of

work, a series of problems, a bite of supper, a loss of reputation,
a cloud of flies, a member of a force, a gesture of reconciliation, a
hail of bullets, a lack of self-confidence, a breath of wind, a basis
of comparison, a number of factors, a breach of rules, a clause of
a treaty, a member of a gang, a member of an institute, a sense
of humour, a sense of responsibility, a crime of passion, a frame
of reference, a cross-section of the public, a matter of seconds, a
bed of roses, a sense of individuality, a policy of reconciliation,
a mist of tears, a bundle of documents, a love of life, a lack of
refinement, a sense of irritation, a point of light, a position of
influence, a change of focus, a sea of faces, a sense of disgust, a
course of action, a brand of humour, a sense of despair, a sense
of release, a love of nature, a ball of string, a piece of sculpture, a
contract of employment, a breakdown of law, a number of times,
a patch of grass, a part of the world, a glow of pride, a glimmer
of hope, a man of honour, a branch of medicine, a rite of passage,
a method of calculation, a revival of/in sb’s fortunes, a cause
of discontent, a prick of conscience, a process of transition, a
sense of unity, a groan of agony, a life of indulgence, a level of
expertise, a renewal of a mandate, a pool of talent, a mood of
reconciliation, a clash of evidence, a point of difference, a feeling
of loneliness, a carpet of flowers, a position of responsibility, a
gasp of astonishment, a period of mourning, a blanket of fog, a
feeling of security, a sense of self, a breach of contract, a feeling
of intimacy, a failure of nerve, a cause of trouble, a change of
clothing, a clash of cymbals, a fat lot of good, a look of horror, a
family of five/four etc., a change of mood.
a member of the public, a sector of society, a lack of
appreciation, a game of skill, a moment of triumph, a peal of
laughter, a number of reasons, a motion of censure, a sentence
of imprisonment, a breach of the peace, a member of the chorus,
a list of priorities, a buzz of conversation, a maze of tunnels, a
feeling of despair, a curtain of mist, a roll of film, a degree of
expertise, a loss of jobs, a sense of shame, a margin of error, a
  83

matter of (personal) taste, a member of staff, a lack of structure,

a sector of the economy, a conflict of interests, a right of appeal,
a flicker of a smile, a great deal of effort, a note of derision,
a feat of engineering, a flicker of recognition, a meeting of the
assembly, a prisoner of war, a bead of perspiration, a point of
perfection, a fit of (the) giggles, a sense of the absurd, a range
of products, a growth of/in the economy, a kind of exercise, a
build-up of tension, a bit of a blow, a pillar of society, a roar of
approval, a level of seniority, a choice of alternatives, a matter of
principle, a gathering of the clan(s), a maze of passages, a range
of alternatives, a sense of unease, a bead of sweat, a load of (old)
rubbish, a hope of survival, a channel of distribution, a form
of reasoning, a feeling of resentment, a period of depression, a
crash of cymbals, a feeling of satisfaction, a mug of tea, a battle
of wills, a level of sophistication, a sense of purpose, a flight of
steps, a selection of cheese, a margin of safety, a place of work,
a crack of thunder, the head of State, a letter of application, a
course of bricks, a perception of reality, a chorus of voices, a basis
of disagreement, a place of business, a means of expression, a
member of a species, a journey of discovery, a cry of despair, a
sense of foreboding, a cut of meat, a mode of address, the period
of insurance, a place of entertainment, a scent of incense.
a bouquet of flowers, a façade of respectability, a note of
caution, a history of heart trouble, a range of prices, a sense
of shock, a mode of existence, a sense of superiority, a lack of
foresight, a plank of wood, a follower of a religion, a game of
chicken, a lack of coordination, a method of payment, a look of
disgust, a prophet of doom, a sense of loss, a grunt of exasperation,
a period of suspension, a contract of insurance, a piece of
evidence, a lack of stature, a code of behaviour, a bit of a pity, a
scream of agony, a bit of a gamble, a letter of recommendation, a
feeling of inevitability, a pattern of inequality, a crime of violence,
a declaration of war, a piece of meat, a buzz of excitement, a
range of merchandise, a lack of sympathy, a note of thanks, a
member of a group, a mood of pessimism, a section of society, a
84 

feat of endurance, a mass of nerves.

a layer of rock, a sense of panic, the department of psychiatry,
a member of a syndicate, a pile of documents, a reversal of
fortune(s), a lack of resources, a gasp of pain, a flicker of sb’s/
the eyes, a possibility of failure, a point of contact, a change of/
in practice, a leap of faith, a ray of light, a chance of escape, a
method of contraception, a measure of performance, a gesture
of friendship, a form of transport, a sector of industry, a patch
of colour, a fund of information, a Member of Parliament, a
bit of a shock, a division of the spoils, a lack of imagination, a
consensus of opinion, a clash of personalities, a programme of
reform, a sense of detachment, a member of a congregation, a lot
of nerve, a giant of a man, a point of similarity, a cloak of secrecy,
a member of the aristocracy, a lack of manners, a method of
collection, a point of order, a lick of paint, a selection of antiques,
a lack of comprehension, a mark of honour, a lack of interest, a
bit of a misnomer, a feat of strength, a flicker of hope, a place of
pilgrimage, a matter of urgency, a member of a team, a breed
of cattle, a sense of vocation, a scale of measurement, a bit of a
nuisance, a piece of legislation, a lack of precision, a mountain of
paper, a change of mind, a sense of resentment, a member of a
caste, a place of safety, a case of nerves, a base of support, a place
of learning, a campaign of terror, a difference of opinion, a risk of
complications, a captain of industry, the rate of progress, a circle
of admirers, a matter of timing, a blast of air, a period of respite,
a lot of nonsense, a method of composition, a form of carbon, a
fat lot of use, a lack of respect, a mine of information, a betrayal
of (sb’s) trust.

Group 2
a centre of excellence, a right of veto, a frown of disapproval, a
member of an elite group, a lack of cooperation, a combination of
circumstances, a culture of blame, a badge of courage, a package
of measures, a cry of pain, a record of achievement, a sense of
  85

continuity, a layer of dust, a gasp of admiration, a motion of no

confidence, a moment of weakness, a round of drinks, a piece
of cake, a sense of honour, a phase of/in (your) life, a sense of
curiosity, a roar of disapproval, a method of diagnosis, a sense
of betrayal, a flourish of trumpets, a pall of smoke, a bout of
drinking, a means of representation, a period of a lease, a
change of fortune, a body of law, a lack of supervision, a sense
of movement, a piece of music, a grimace of disgust, a code of
conduct, a loss of liberty, a feeling of guilt, a nod of approval, a
conflict of loyalties, a layer of cloud, a line of questioning, a point
of comparison, a flag of surrender, a flag of truce.
a moment of silence, a return of 5%, a feeling of remorse,
a range of topics, a mood of optimism, a period of upheaval,
a lack of communication, a point of principle, a branch of
science, a method of communication, a hint of scandal, a level
of competence, a man of means, a field of expertise, a lap of
honour, a feeling of foreboding, a range of problems, a network
of relationships, a look of disdain, a chain of events, a mug of
beer, a fracture of the skull, a sense of achievement, a sense
of destiny, a change of direction, a parody of justice, a look of
disbelief, a display of temper, a feeling of individuality, a clap
of thunder, a sense of distance, a hall of residence, a branch of
knowledge, a point of interest, a form of representation, a loss
of confidence, a process of revision, a mood of elation, a form of
religion, a loss of prestige, a hope of success, a badge of office, a
point of honour, a breach of regulations, a mass of flowers, a fit
of giggling, a matter of prestige, a round of interviews, a feeling
of dissatisfaction, a list of references, a period of uncertainty, a
matter of pride, a display of temperament, a condition of a lease,
a change of tack, a field of study, a part of sb’s nature, a bit of
a strain, a breath of scandal, a level of subsistence, a range of
variation, a gesture of defiance, a matter of (some) delicacy, a
lack of self-control, a bit of a squeeze, a mode of expression, a
college of (further/higher) education, a feeling of superiority, a
perpetrator of abuse, a change of socks, a cry of outrage.
86 

a matter of evidence, a flick of the wrist, a change of

underwear, a medium of instruction, a period of stability, a crack
of light, a breach of agreement, a choice of menu, a loss of self-
control, a breach of an injunction, a sense of urgency, a series of
documents, a rung of a ladder, a right of reply, a place of interest,
a line of symmetry, a school of thought, a period of imprisonment,
a period of detention, a period of inactivity, a means of escape,
a branch of mathematics, a sense of identity, a sense of doom,
a mark of blood, a network of contacts, a sense of outrage,
a feeling of doom, a lack of progress, a cup of tea, a rally of
supporters, a sense of inadequacy, a moment of panic, a finding
of negligence, a number of requests, the hum of conversation, a
pillar of the community, a breach of trust, a model of car, a range
of ability/abilities, a flow of funds, a bit of supper, a choice of
topics, a level of achievement, a lack of sensitivity, a breach of
warranty, a method of reproduction, a range of subjects, a degree
of uncertainty, a bark of laughter, a burden of debt, a range of
disciplines.
a friend of the family, a sense of confidence, a barrage of
abuse, a declaration of sovereignty, a matter of life and/or death,
a conspiracy of silence, a segment of society, a level of civilization,
a maze of corridors, a ball of fire, a sense of security, a round
of voting, a process of change, a point of contention, a feeling
of misery, a member of a dynasty, a rate of descent, a case of
mistaken identity, a breach of confidence, a risk of miscarriage,
a sense of fun, a certificate of authenticity, a sense of gratitude,
a hive of activity, a sense of decency, a fit of temper, a period of
calm, a load of nonsense, a man of few words, a mass of statistics,
a day of rest, a pile of work, a lack of correlation, a bit of an
exaggeration, the depth of tread, a flicker of interest, a display
of affection, a feeling of affection, a circle of friends, a necessity
of life, a member of the workforce, a gesture of disgust, a rate of
discount, a body of evidence, a matter of dispute, a high level of
corruption, a backlog of work, a body of water, a ball of wool, a
change of temperature, a feeling of uncertainty, a member of the
  87

board, a pack of lies, a sense of tension, a groan of exasperation,

a look of panic, a particle of dust, a scene of devastation, a roll
of the dice, a ball of flame, a flash of light, a bout of activities, a
level of ability, a medium of communication, a sense of mission,
a guild of writers, a degree of coherence, a leg of a journey, a
flow of immigrants, a degree of sophistication, a breed of cow, a
quirk of fate, a member of the community, a gesture of goodwill,
a pile of paperwork, a cause of infection, a display of emotion, a
feeling of outrage, a feeling of gratitude, a method of teaching, a
breach of duty, a code of practice, the hum of voices, a range of
styles, a lack of achievement, a letter of resignation, a feeling of
inferiority, a moment of drama, a choice of merchandise, a lack
of incentive, a means of funding, a curtain of secrecy, a lack of
discretion.
a proposal of marriage, a badge of honour, the head of (the)
household, a minimum of control, a circle of acquaintances, a
lack of sophistication, a line of inquiry, a batch of documents, a
frame of mind, a certificate of registration, a breach of copyright,
a sensation of nausea, a sense of grief, a look of distaste, a fit of
rage, a network of informers, a matter of conscience, a ripple
of laughter, a lack of vitality, a lapse of concentration, a piece
of fish, a bit of fun, a sense of balance, a form of assessment, a
lack of proof, a moment of light relief, a cross-section of people,
a cloud of smoke, a feat of memory, a person of principle, a bit
of luck, a sequence of disasters, a matter of routine, a margin of
victory, a chorus of criticisms, a form of rebellion, a feeling of
sickness, a disturbance of the peace, a lack of consensus, a battery
of questions, a figure of speech, a lack of appetite, a breach of
a convention, a crisis of conscience, a feeling of helplessness, a
cloud of dust, a sense of timing, a bit of an understatement, a
period of growth, a friend of mine, a position of authority, a lack
of concentration, a member of a family, a lack of stimulation, a
centre of population, a miscarriage of justice, a group of specialists,
a degree of perfection, a mode of communication, a degree of
comfort, a murmur of assent, a breach of security, a period of
88 

disuse, a centre of government/power, a line of reasoning, a sense

of obligation, a plot of land, a client of a firm, a range of types,
a sense of occasion, a collapse of morale, a chance of survival, a
change of name, a chorus of denials, a matter of indifference, a
bit of shame, a means of communication, a firm of consultants,
a series of tests, a mug of coffee, a change of clothes, a means
of livelihood, a breach of confidentiality, a cry of astonishment,
a combination of factors, a sense of fatigue, a mop of curls, a
period of unemployment, a letter of apology, a hell of a shock, a
lack of regard.
a combination of colours, a sense of community, a lack of
zeal, a barrel of laughs, a change of scenery, a hint of irony, a
kind of reasoning, a declaration of independence, a loaf of bread,
a patch of ground, a network of spies, a sense of inevitability, a
chorus of praise, a round of applause, a breakdown of marriage,
a process of integration, a matter of courtesy, a battery of tests,
a number of occasions, a layer of grime, a sense of solidarity, a
bit of a rebel, a game of chance, a means of protection, a lack
of sleep, a campaign of intimidation, a place of quiet, a man of
many talents, the holiday of a lifetime, a good grasp of a subject,
a breach of policy, a deck of cards, a popular make of car, a fit of
jealousy, a feeling of irritation, a model of perfection, a feeling of
shame, a range of opinions, a lack of trust, a lack of forethought, a
form of exercise, a barrage of criticism, a bead of moisture, a basis
of collaboration, a change of/in attitude, a blanket of secrecy, a
code of honour, a lack of oxygen, a crisis of confidence, a guard of
honour, a lack of familiarity, a sense of disappointment, a sector
of the population, a feeling of insecurity, a loss of sovereignty, a
flurry of interest, a form of taxation, a feeling of frustration, a
plan of action, a flurry of activities, a centre of culture, a feeling
of disappointment, a man of the people, a barrage of questions,
a paragon of virtue, a flicker of movement, a risk of failure, a
hoard of documents, a scream of surprise, a bit of a scare, a piece
of advice, a sense of triumph, a change of/in level, a range of
occupations, a glow of satisfaction.
  89

Group 3
a climate of change, a draft of a document, a code of rules, a
member of a movement, a sense of satisfaction, a possibility of
misunderstanding, a place of exile, a package of proposals, a fit
of anxiety, a member of an expedition, a piece of news, a sense
of revulsion, a pattern of behaviour, a group of writers, a pair
of shoes, a group of individuals, a member of a tribe, a cast of
characters, a breath of fresh air, a sense of dread, a bit of news,
a contract of sale, a crunch of tyres, a breed of sheep, a lack of
experience, a pillar of strength, a lack of commitment, a matter
of (great) urgency, a beast of prey, a kind of bluish-grey colour,
a feeling of nausea, a cross-section of the society, a bit of a bore,
a chain of coincidences, a mass of figures, a change of scene, a
period of history, a life of crime, a mode of transport, a breach of
faith, a matter of regret, a fact of life, a feeling of wonder, a love of
adventure, a possibility of escape, a plan of campaign, a battle of
nerves, a breed of bird, a network of tunnels, a look of reproach,
a pillar of the establishment, a piece of fruit, a level of funding,
a gesture of impatience, a pair of glasses, a sense of liberation,
a feeling of contentment, a member of a delegation, a flash of
brilliance, a board of trustees, a feeling of humiliation, a matter of
controversy, a range of temperature, a hoard of treasure, a range
of expertise, a range of factors, a cry of protest, a plague of flies,
a column of smoke, a pillar of support, a risk of injury, a blaze
of publicity, a class of shares, a round of golf, a fat lot of help, a
cry of horror, a game of cards, a blast of the trumpet, a method
of assessment, a mode of transmission, a day of action, a rate of
increase, a lack of motivation, a lack of independence, a high
standard of living, a man of taste, a sense of intimacy, a position
of power, a choice of subject(s), a sense of dissatisfaction.
a patch of sky, a ring of truth, a sad state of affairs, a well-
known make of machine, a list of ingredients, a process of
discovery, a piece of paper, a hiss of air, a matter of policy, a
blob of grease, a fear of heights, a ray of sunlight/sunshine, a
90 

feeling of lethargy, a point of reference, a means of identification,

a moment of inattention, a nuance of meaning, a piece of
information, a babble of voice, a chorus of approval, a low
standard of living, a man of his word, a feeling of panic, a feeling
of pity, a position of inferiority, a pocket of resistance, a founder
of an institute, a fraction of a second, a process of adaptation, a
period of stagnation, a cry of delight, a field of enquiry, a range of
facilities, a change of residence, a flash of insight, the distribution
of wealth, a cause of resentment, a sense of grievance, a feeling of
inadequacy, a period of study, a sense of pity, a lack of continuity,
a loss of dignity, a sense of anticipation, a cause of disagreement,
a bit of a freak, a lack of immediacy, a man of property, a part
of a country, a flicker of light, a range of contexts, a backlog
of repairs, a lack of understanding, a chain of offices, a roll of
drums, a loss of immediacy.
the hum of excitement, a crowd of supporters, a coat of paint,
a sense of the ridiculous, a gem of a place, a bottle of spirits, a
letter of credit, a feeling of comfort, a sense of nostalgia, a line
of descent, a bundle of nerves, a lack of subtlety, a fine figure of
a woman, a level of society, a list of questions, a clash of arms,
a question of fact, a level of consciousness, a change of career,
a product of sb’s imagination, a basis of argument, a period of
adjustment, a feeling of achievement, a gasp of surprise, a process
of negotiation, a lack of information, a change of/in routine, a
nice cup of tea, a loss of nerve, a sense of humiliation, a fine
figure of a man, a fanfare of trumpets, a feeling of dislike, a lack
of dignity, a sense of guilt, a lack of taste, a range of possibilities,
a mass of curls, a certificate of insurance, a flicker of emotion, a
battle of wits, a line of thought, a lack of judgement, a breach of
secrecy, a rite of initiation, a nod of assent, a change of heart, a
lack of funds, a member of the crew, a piece of land, a channel
of communication, a crash of thunder, a form of proxy, a lady
of leisure, a pledge of support, a loss of appetite, a feeling of
grief, a mark of respect, a semblance of order, a layer of bricks,
a member of a panel, a period of transition, a life of violence, a
  91

blaze of glory, a barrage of complaints, a patch of fog, a flight

of stairs, a murmur of voice, a fit of laughter, a sense of duty, a
sense of wonder, a figment of (your) imagination, a means of
subsistence, a lack of urgency, a round of talks, a sector of the
market, a letter of thanks, a sense of injustice.
a ripple of applause, a number of possibilities, a sense of
belonging, a clash of wills, a code of law, a bit of a laugh, a
feeling of anger, a life of adventure, a day of mourning, a form
of entertainment, a flash of lightning, a false sense of security, a
great deal of difference, a crust of bread, a change of emphasis,
a revival of interest, a bout of depression, a series of attacks, a
chain of shops, a rate of growth, a bit of a struggle, a pang of guilt,
a line of work, a firm of stockbrokers, a position of prominence,
a cry of terror, a frenzy of activity, a change of regime, a lack of
success, a degree of collaboration, a sense of realism, a collapse
of alliance, a display of bravado, a rate of interest, a feeling of
sorrow, a range of colours, a choice of phrase, a matter of opinion,
a form of therapy, a peal of thunder, a form of recreation, a field
of endeavour, a quality of performance, a matter of importance, a
gasp of delight, a feeling of belonging, the hum of bees, a body of
experts, a period of instability, a breach of a condition, a mass of
data, a release of tension, a change of plan, a member of a herd,
a sense of reality, a school of dance, a series of disasters, a lack of
discipline, a line of latitude, a matter of time, a hope of settlement,
a celebration of (sb’s) life, a breach of law, a fit of depression, a
pang of sorrow, a feeling of liberation, a board of management, a
lack of fit, a sense of rhythm, a house of cards, a night of passion,
a feeling of revulsion, a place of refreshment, a creature of habit,
a rate of return, a feeling of anticipation, a cry of rage, a lack of
funding, a sense of frustration, a body of knowledge, a lack of
concern, a sea of mud, a lack of tact, a sense of coherence, a lot of
fun, a moment of madness, a lack of sanitation, a perpetrator of
crimes, a matter of honour, a crop of freckles, a place of refuge, a
feeling of distaste, a pang of sympathy, a lack of insight, a breach
of discipline, a place of residence, a bone of contention, the hum
92 

of traffic, a risk of misunderstanding, a book of stamps, a sense

of rejection, a round of negotiations, a moment of hesitation, a
change of pace, a chorus of complaint, a sense of optimism.

***
  93

Chapter 8

Nominal Expressions with ‘of’ –

Part 2
Here’s the next instalment of Nominal Expressions you need to
have a lot of oral practice with – Nominal Expressions in which
the preposition of is a key grammatical word.
Carry on doing oral practice with these word groups in the
same way as with the word groups in chapter 7.

Group 1
a source of irritation, freedom of the press, the brink of a nervous
breakdown, a shortage of manpower, a sigh of pleasure, an area
of contention, an element of risk, a sphere of life, freedom of
choice, expansion of research, signs of fatigue, evidence of racism,
an act of will, a spot of blood, a sign of repentance, a succession
of events, tears of frustration, density of population, a wave of
admiration, a vote of confidence, sign of the Cross, chance(s)
of promotion, a step of a ladder, a yell of delight, a spirit of
friendship, the beginning of a (new) era, a triumph of modern
science, a spell of unemployment, failure of campaign, something
of a shock, powers of observation, proof of identification, an act
of charity, indictment of a policy, freedom of action, the bottom of
the pack, a state of inertia, conduct of war, a source of comment,
line of work, the availability of manpower, a squeal of delight,
purity of sound, a share of the blame, tears of self-pity, place of
birth, a vow of silence, an allegation of abuse, flowering of arts,
an act of bravery, contempt of court, a source of pride, a source
of reference, an upsurge of fighting.
a spirit of optimism, an act of indecency, a sign of nervousness,
a source of discontent, payment of a debt, an injection of money,
a sign of activity, a woman of her word, the burden of care,
94 

standards of behaviour, something of a puzzle, clash of styles, an

act of worship, a stage of/in (your) life, creation of the world, a
shout of laughter, a sign of reluctance, all sorts of people, freedom
of association, a word of thanks, the aim of a programme,
independence of mind, something of an understatement, an
Act of Parliament, a term of office, a veneer of sophistication, a
shortage of materials, a system of representation, the brunt of
an attack, a victim of your/its own success, that sort of thing,
an act of folly, an area of concern, groans of disbeliefs, an act of
intimidation, rise of unemployment, control of traffic, settlement
of a debt, a victim of injustice, date of birth, the bane of sb’s
life, the bottom of a garden, a source of information, a stroke
of inspiration, maintenance of law and order, the boundaries
of knowledge, an area of dispute, strength of character, an act
of love, a woman of many talents, a slice of the cake, a source
of trouble, lines of communication, a source of power, loss of
memory, both sides of the border, a state of suspense, signs of
decay, a stream of information, delusions of persecution, a token
of your appreciation, tears of disappointment, a violation of a
ceasefire, an infringement of rules, rate of exchange, a slip of the
pen, a slice of (good) luck, proper performance of your duties,
the architect of a reform, message of condolence, a supply of
oxygen, the basis of a policy, a wave of publicity, accusations of
racism, forms of worship, the arm of a chair, the cause of death,
run-down of service, an offer of help, freedom of movement,
contravention of an Act, a sheaf of documents, line of business,
an article of faith, scraps of information, a source of conflict, a
twist of fate, a state of disorder, shortcomings of/in the system,
a style of teaching, line of march, a target of repression, a wave
of terrorism, inequalities of power, a version of a document, all
sorts of reasons, the bottom end of the market, abuse of trust,
the back of the class, the bottom of a slope, an odour of decay,
a token of your gratitude, a source of nutrition, an outbreak of
violence, an act of defiance, a surge of elation.
the beauty of the surroundings, shouts of derision, freedom
  95

of navigation, a web of deception, affairs of state, a wink of sleep,

a spate of incidents, a strip of sky, the aim of the project, a trickle
of arms, the battle of the sexes, irony of circumstance, a source
of worry, a source of stress, the bottom of the heap, the bottom
of the range, part of a set, an admission of liability, breadth of
experience, a set of values, allegations of atrocities, a strand of
thought, a speck of dust, tears of sorrow, a string of coincidences, a
variety of activities, part of the mainstream, the art of persuasion,
a standard of performance, something of a mystery, onset of
recession, an association of writers, a surge of interest, a waste
of energy, notice of termination, a source of comfort (to sb), an
act of terror, the captain of a ship, a variety of types, a source of
revenue, one side of the border, a sign of recovery, something
of a celebrity, a rare species of plant, order of precedence, burst
of applause, a set of proposals, a share of the spoils, density
of traffic, dissolution of parliament, clarity of speech, part of a
chain, a variety of scenery, an air of nonchalance, a sheet of glass,
the cause of an accident, the bridge of the nose, the base of the
cliff, a smell of decay, a stroke of (good) fortune, the upkeep of
a building, a shift of focus, a shout of alarm, a twinge of guilt,
an intrusion of privacy, a state of cleanliness, scraps of news, a
spirit of adventure, an admission of defeat, an act of omission, a
sign of independence, the bottom of a river, a sigh of resignation,
pangs of hunger, a wave of persecution, a show of emotion,
the backbone of the society, patterns of employment, proof of
payment, tears of laughter, a voyage of discovery, folds of flesh,
breadth of knowledge, an infringement of the law, an aura of
sadness, a storm of controversy, signs of improvement, message
of support, an expression of surprise. a vote of censure, a sigh
of disappointment, an object of desire, a sign of weakness, lack
of facilities, patterns of interaction, an object of pilgrimage, a
spate of publicity, a wave of demonstrations, a standard of living,
accusations of favouritism.
breadth of understanding, a surge of activities, a slice of
meat, a smear of grease, a state of emergency, the brightness
96 

of a star, perception of the world, a woman of means, an air of

menace, a torrent of water, a triumph of democracy, a spate of
strikes, the bottom of the ocean, howls of outrage, a space of time,
a source of inspiration, part of sb’s make-up, howls of protest, an
air of innocence, a wide circle of friends, an exchange of shots,
the back of a queue, a sniff of disapproval, limits of endurance,
a variety of topics, a sob of despair, a state of relaxation, a web
of intrigue, a source of protein, scrutiny of evidence, passing of
civilization, a source of finance, powers of persuasion, a variety
of reasons, the centre of the city, a set of reasons, persecution of
religions, duties of the office, burst of speed, a spot of bother, a
streak of lightning, an outbreak of hostilities, a state of collapse,
the bulk of evidence, hopes of recovery, delusions of grandeur,
knowledge of the world, an outbreak of fighting, a stage of
life, the back of a crowd, a symbol of (sb’s) success, a system
of tunnels, powers of deduction, a token of respect, a victim of
abuse, pursuit of a policy, an exchange of views, a shortage of
funds, a snort of derision, shortcomings of the constitution, an
act of sabotage, a standard of cleanliness, a set of conditions,
arrears of rent, freedom of the individual, a target of derision.
the backbone of the economy, a victim of persecution,
a shout of rage, a woman of few words, freak of nature, the
agony of suspense, a wave of refugees, the beginning of the
end, lack of evidence, a session of the assembly, an area of the
economy, the centre of a circle, a torrent of abuse, a victim of
discrimination, the appointment of a successor, a token of your
thanks, termination of a contract, a spirit of enterprise, an act of
selfishness, a veneer of respectability, a woman of the people, an
attitude of indifference, pollution of the environment, the balance
of power, a stroke of genius, flood of contributions, a writer of
the period, an act of rebellion, independence of thoughts, the
bottom of the road, the back of your throat, clarity of thoughts, a
state of transition, resurgence of inflation, power(s) of invention,
a source of contention, the brink of war, a work of art, a shiver of
anticipation, an act of provocation, the balance of nature, a string
  97

of complaints, a source of unease, the back of the skull, tears of

rage, terms of reference, a symbol of independence, a wall of
silence, the beginning of the film, a shriek of laughter, conditions
of employment, fabric of the countryside, a species of bird, a
version of a story, a source of happiness, the bottom of a shaft,
an act of kindness, line of vision, crop of disasters, an economy
of scale, the balance of advantage, feelings of persecution, a
state of mourning, a yell of triumph, richness of details, a time of
strife, a squeak of surprise, the bottom of the table, a standard of
competence, a source of satisfaction, a set of prejudices, a state
of deadlock, a touch of irony, proof of purchase, a touch of class,
an object of pity, gales of laughter, message of congratulation, an
act of friendship.

Group 2
a show of compassion, the central plank of sb’s argument, the
booming of the sea, length of time, shaft of sunlight, a sign
of things to come, the smell of coffee, layers of meaning, lack
of supplies, a spasm of pain, a source of resentment, a set of
instructions, an act of revenge, a woman of property, standards
of morality, the burden of proof, a snatch of music, breadth of
interest, a voyage of self-discovery, a wealth of talent, fulfilment
of an ambition, the back of a chair, a snatch of song, a show of
strength, howls of rage, a team of experts, a set of negotiations, a
wisp of smoke, a writer of the time, a threat of violence, an air of
respectability, flood of questions, equality of opportunity, a word
of caution, scraps of conversation, dearth of information, the
breakdown of a relationship, a sweep of lawn, a vote of thanks,
an outbreak of trouble, proof of identity, an epidemic of crimes,
a sheet of paper, an outburst of violence, a source of infection,
the bottom of the sea, an exhibition of sb’s work, revival of the
economy, an article of a treaty, allegations of a cover-up, a turn
of pace, a spirit of reconciliation, a tide of history, termination of
employment, an error of judgement, a set of measures, structure
98 

of society.
an air of detachment, leg of a tour, a source of funding, a
source of fibre, standards of conduct, the burden of responsibility,
an accident of fate, a stroke of good fortune, something of
that/the kind, a state of innocence, a threat of famine, a shift
of emphasis, the basis of a theory, murmurs of discontent, an
expression of disdain, a turn of speed, an act of penance, a sign of
affection, break-up of a party, allegations of assault, intensity of
emotion, conditions of service, a show of affection, an instrument
of torture, the base of the stem, a threat of strike action, neglect
of duty, a smell of incense, flood of protests, an air of authority,
conditions of sale, a statement of a fact, the after-effects of an
illness, easing-up of a policy, patterns of usage, the back of a cart,
howls of laughter, a set of documents, a state of mind, emissions
of carbon dioxide, fever of excitement, something of a rebel, a
trickle of immigrants, a stab of pain.
a subject of speculation, an invasion of privacy, months of
negotiation, powers of endurance, a web of politics, an attack of
nerves, a type of bird, levels of excellence, a woman of taste, a
twist of the plot, a state of disrepair, a sign of hope, a stage of a
process, a shortage of staff, an atmosphere of mistrust, accounts of
atrocities, a wave of (violent) unrest, both sides of an argument,
the boundaries of taste, a surge of electricity, a sign of respect,
a spiral of violence, gasps of disbeliefs, a web of relationships, a
shortage of food, taste of power, the bottom of the cliff, an act of
vandalism, a trail of smoke, shades of opinion, the beginnings of
a cold, a string of lies, a sign of a struggle, a state of disarray, a
standard of cuisine, an injection of capital, the breakdown of an
alliance, an aura of mystery, an object of suspicion, the centre of
the village, a spark of originality, the bloom of health, a shower
of sparks, a side of the equation, grounds of incompatibility, hero
of the hour, expansion of culture, a victim of crime, improvement
of facilities, a thrill of anticipation, abuse of position, an act of
betrayal, the centre of attraction, signs of life, an upsurge of
  99

emotion, the art of self-defence, purity of form, the bottom of a/

the hill, termination of (a) pregnancy, a thread of books, oath of
allegiance, a web of contacts, dereliction of duty, a standard of
achievement, breadth of mind, the centre of attention, a streak
of red, bond(s) of friendship, the bottom of the page, an area of
life, an act of war, all sorts of things, a squeal of tyres, a variety of
ways, a spasm of coughing, a state of repair, a tide of nationalism,
signs of corrosion, a term of endearment, a slice of history, a
source of controversy.
the aroma of coffee, a word of praise, a sign of tension, an
indicator of quality, a time of the month, a shriek of surprise, the
centre of the table, a victim of accident, an act of self-defence, the
burden of taxation, a string of questions, suspension of disbelief,
a string of insults, a term of detention, a succession of disasters,
my idea of heaven, an act of disobedience, an infringement of
copyright, a work of literature, a shortage of supplies, supply
of information, a trail of devastation, burst of energy, abuse of
privilege, a wealth of details, the breach of a treaty, a dramatic
turn of events, the bottom of a ladder, an effort of memory, a
wave of violence, a string of concessions, a web of lies, signs of
strain, the bloom of youth, an act of faith, conservation of the
environment, a victim of cruelty, a stream of traffic, a spectrum
of opinion, easing of martial law, the sound of bells, part of a
strategy, a suite of furniture, an area of competence.
a source of fascination (to sb), something of a gamble, a
whole host of problems, a wave of arrests, a spark of inspiration,
an issue of principle, a veil of mist, a shrug of the shoulders, a
spate of arrests, message of sympathy, the beginning of a period,
standards of excellence, a trick of the light, rumble of thunder, an
area of activity, a term of imprisonment, different kinds of things,
part of a package, a shaft of light, places of interest, a spot of
lunch, flood(s) of tears, hardening of the arteries, the centre of
a scandal, an expression of distaste, that kind of thing, the base
of the spine, the base of the skull, a state of siege, the bottom
100 

of the staircase, symptoms of depression, a tiny fraction of the

population, a stream of complaints/insults, the bowl of a spoon,
level of unemployment, a wealth of wildlife, howls of derision,
sponsorship of the arts, an area of study, growth of facilities, an
outbreak of rain, the bottom of the pool, multiplicity of styles,
a wave of protest, a set of regulations, heightening of tension,
members of the (general) public, a stage of developments, the
brunt of unemployment, a train of thoughts, centuries of neglect,
a species of cat, crumbs of information, a spot of trouble, a supply
of food, a state of chaos, the bowl of a toilet, a show of bravado,
a shiver of shock, a source of data, a storm of applause, a toss of
your/the head, freedom of manoeuvre, a trickle of information,
a system of communication, a type of exercise, a slice of the
cheese, interpretation of rules, ease of use, the bottom of the
steps, a session of talks, a set of questions, a writer of fiction, an
admission of guilt, the back of the mouth, a sob of pain.

Group 3
freedom of expression, my idea of bliss, my idea of paradise,
terms of abuse, the arm of a settee, a storm of protest, a symbol of
supremacy, men of violence, an act of heroism, rules of conduct,
an injection of resources, an act of courtesy, decades of neglect,
breast of lamb, a war of liberation, a war of attrition, allegations
of corruption, an expression of disgust, the analysis of statistics,
abuse of power, feelings of rejection, an air of dignity, a term of
abuse, a string of articles, a style of music, a shift of policy, an
indicator of success, a victim of an attack, irony of fate, erosion of
confidence, a test of stamina, debt of honour, feelings of jealousy,
the beauty of the scenery, an area of expertise, part of a community,
a sphere of influence, the beginning of the universe, powers of
imagination, a set of guidelines/instructions, passage of years,
a style of dance, an object of devotion, an army of servants, the
centre of (the) town, the age of criminal responsibility.
an air of self-confidence, an act of generosity, practice
  101

of religions, an injection of cash, an item of news, a snort of

disgust, standards of hygiene, a world of difference, the bottom
of a mountain, first port of call, a tongue of fire, an outbreak of
terrorism, an act of cruelty, the bow of a ship, a volley of bullets,
a state of preservation, the back of a settee, the boom of the
sea, a turn of phrase, an area of improvement, regulation of
(an) industry, a show of force, a veneer of politeness, a source
of recruitment, an object of envy, a shout of anger, a torrent of
rain, an act of confession, progress of science, a symbol of hope,
an eruption of violence, oath of loyalty, a way of escape, a word
of reproach, signs of wear, clarity of purpose, part of a project,
an expression of disapproval, chances of success, a trickle of
refugees, a wave of bombs, an outbreak of disease, recruitment
of staff, a stage of a journey, a surge of relief, a waste of time,
flood of applications, the beginning of the month, a tour of
inspection, all sides of an argument, a violation of sovereignty,
accusations of corruption, the arm of a sofa, order of seniority,
breach of an Act, a wave of criticisms, a variety of uses, a sigh of
contentment, proliferation of weapons, rumble of protest, sheer
weight of numbers, an air of sadness, a wave of crimes, a test
of endurance, a site of infection, a spate of bombs, a source of
illumination, herd of cattle, the central plank of sb’s programme,
a source of distress, a veil of secrecy, every corner of the globe.
sign of goodwill, order of priority, a target of ridicule, a state of
depression, bonds of affection, a suit of clothes, the bottom of the
scale, a style of writing, the bowl of a pipe, date of manufacture,
a sign of the times, a world of fantasy, an act of violence, part of
the blame, an exhibition of sculpture(s), a sigh of impatience, an
area of research, order of merit, an influx of refugees, a suggestion
of scandal, intensity of traffic, opening of Parliament, a system of
rules, a threat of invasion, snippets of information, generosity of
spirit, the centre of a city, lack of materials, an offer of friendship,
peace of mind, a wave of destruction, part of the fascination, a
vote of (no) confidence, a victim of a disaster, a wisp of cloud, an
indicator of performance, an exchange of confidences, a state of
102 

readiness, part of your upbringing, scenes of rejoicing, a throw

of the dice, rules of evidence, a victim of circumstance, a shout
of pain, the beginnings of a company, a spark of hope, an air of
sophistication, a thing of the past, a source of wisdom, a sign of
inferiority, a sigh of exasperation, lease of building, mobilization
of economy, a surge of enthusiasm, a wave of applications, a
target of abuse, freedom of worship, an upsurge of rioting, a
state of war, the beginnings of civilization, inequalities of wealth,
an outbreak of crimes, the architect of a policy, rumblings of
discontent, a team of specialists, programme of improvements,
a standard of comfort, a state of mania, a victim of violence, a
writer of the day, the smell of food, a string of claims, a source
of amusement, the centre of the universe, cries of disbelief,
independence of spirit.
a spark of life, an act of terrorism, an expression of regret,
a slip of the tongue, pangs of conscience, a work of genius, a
word of warning, a suite of offices, a threat of sanctions, an
infringement of liberty, an area of specialization, a source of
disagreement, a shiver of excitement, the back of the neck, an
exclamation of disgust, the break-up of a marriage, cooling of
tempers, a wealth of data, repayment of a debt, a work of fiction,
a shriek of pain, a variety of factors, part of a team, feelings of
depression, signs of (a) revival, the bottom of the pile, items of
information, pursuit of science, the banks of a river, an attack of
sb/sth’s integrity, a slip of paper, groups of three/four/ten, an act
of desperation, a term of 5 years, an area of uncertainty, a victim
of harassment, freedom of thought, a set of components, a stamp
of approval, the best years of (my) life, an effort of imagination,
mismanagement of the economy, a source of tension, a shout of
victory, a smell of urine, an exchange of fire, a sob of relief, a
sphere of activity, a voice of dissent, last vestige of power, cooling
of relations, scarcity of food, a source of income, the centre of the
earth, an act of complicity, tears of joy, an expression of disbelief,
clarity of vision, a variety of seeds, progress of work, a session of
parliament, a swarm of flies, debt of gratitude, a state of affairs.
  103

a sigh of relief, cries of outrage, a show of reluctance, a

topic of discussion, grounds of appeal, the age of retirement, a
shriek of delight, a transfer of sovereignty, a sum of money, the
back of a motorbike, a state of alert, freedom of assembly, an act
of cowardice, a view of life, a veil of silence, a spell of hot/dry
weather, a set of principles, lack of exercise, a sign of tiredness, a
set of rules, a state of turmoil, powers of concentration, freedom
of conscience, a species of beetle, a tongue of flame, erosion of
authority, an article of clothing, state of exhaustion, a torrent of
criticisms, a smile of welcome, patches of fog, the ceiling of a
cave, an expression of goodwill, an aspect of your personality,
a stay of execution, folds of skin, a smile of approval, a speech
of welcome, a twist of fortune, a span of 5 years, a shake of the
head, sense of touch, depletion of the ozone layer, the fabric of
our society, the availability of contraception, a test of nerve, the
balance of forces, an influx of migrants, a wave of intimidation,
tears of remorse, proof of ownership, secrets of universe, a shadow
of your former self, snippets of news, effects of overcrowding.
a spirit of cooperation, standards of decency, taste of freedom,
purity of style, a stroke of brilliance, a trail of destruction, a touch
of style, a set of circumstances, an outburst of fury, a window of
opportunity, the centre of gravity, ownership of copyright, a web
of deceit, a shiver of horror, an object of scorn, legacy of goodwill,
a source of instability, fabric of life, inequalities of opportunity,
a trail of slime, a suit of armour, a vow of celibacy, reserves of
stamina, an influx of tourists, a suite of rooms, a trial of strength,
block of flats, sign of strength, flood of criticisms, a source of
light, people of different faiths, line of fire, a variety of contexts,
a sudden turn of fate, an outburst of rage, cooling of passions,
a wave of attacks, flood of emotions, an admission of failure,
an area of conflict, flood of complaints, a trace of irony, line of
enquiry, snatch(es) of conversation, neck of lamb, the aim of the
exercise, the bounds of belief, flood of enquiries, spurt of speed,
part of the cycle (of sth), the barrel of a gun, the bulk of sb’s work,
an act of retaliation, an outcrop of a rock, a sin of omission, the
104 

bottom of a list, rights of navigation, an exchange of gunfire, the

bottom of the stairs, a vision of the future, last vestige of hope, a
stream of consciousness, a war of nerves, association of ideas, a
spark of light, a source of energy, a spate of attacks, a source of
discord, months of drought, a time of sorrow, march of time, a
tale of woe, an act of treason, an air of mystery, membership of
community, a trail of blood, power(s) of interrogation.
a wave of enthusiasm, a wealth of experience(s), an area of
difficulty, a system of values, a symptom of stress, a variety of
backgrounds, a stroke of (good) luck, a stream of abuse, a topic
of conversation, a stench of urine, protection of the environment,
a waste of money, hope of escape, the beam of a torch, object of
derision, a variety of sources, something of a disappointment,
proof of guilt, a wealth of information, the age of steam, a
spate of accidents, pressure of work, a time of quiet, a state of
decay, a wave of strikes, channels of information, the back of an
envelope, defence of religion, a spate of criticisms, a violation of
the rules, an infringement of sovereignty, mobility of labour, a
war of independence, the birth of a nation, a shade of meaning,
strength of purpose, matters of state, burst of laughter, a share of
the market, a victim of prejudice, the stench of decay, a twinge
of conscience, an area of interest, a source of dissatisfaction, a
train of events, renewal of fighting, a tangle of regulations, a set
of attitudes, matter of urgency, an act of sexual intercourse, a
variety of shrub, the blade of a knife, a stretch of road, the age
of consent, an object of ridicule, breadth of vision, a source of
recreation, advance of science, an effort of will, leg of lamb, a
snort of laughter, pursuit of fame, an act of aggression, a shortage
of accommodation, powers of reasoning, a taste of things to come,
a standard of proof, signs of deterioration, a veil of ignorance, a
spate of demonstrations, a way of life, an area of disagreement,
a source of livelihood, a state of consciousness, a suggestion of
impropriety, the back of a cab, the central plank of sb’s policy,
a tenure of office, roots of conflict, signs of impatience, mark
of esteem, a set of problems, the bane of sb’s existence, part of
  105

the deal, scarcity of accommodation, a state of confusion, the

breakdown of a marriage, the transfer of power.
***
106 

Chapter 9

Nominal Expressions with ‘of’ -

Part 3
Here’s the third instalment of Nominal Expressions you need to
have a lot of oral practice with – Nominal Expressions in which
the preposition of is a key grammatical word.
Carry on doing oral practice with these word groups in the
same way as with the word groups in chapter 7.

Group 1
the end of a garden, the top of your voice, the quality of
service, the middle of the range, the middle of the ocean, the
hardening of a policy, the rising tide of crime, the side of a river,
the lure of fame, the verge of a nervous break down, the shock
of bereavement, the top of a list, the resolution of a crisis, the
pain of bereavement, the forces of evil, the rise of a dynasty, the
light of the moon, the strength of sb’s argument, the reversal of a
trend, the impact of tourism, the top of a mound, the overthrow
of tyranny.
the loss of his/her father, the worst of it, the point of impact,
the middle of the village, the pursuit of knowledge, years of
drought, the lid of a box, the toe of a shoe, words of wisdom,
the contents of a handbag, the flicker of an eyelid, the subject
of legend, the operation of discretion, the works of Kalidasa
etc., the spread of communism, the loss of independence, the
reign of an emperor, the roof of a cave, the risk of repetition,
the post of secretary, the sole of a/your shoe, the election of a
successor, the rank of sergeant, the flow of information, the seat
of honour, the point of a spear, the supremacy of law, upkeep of
a building etc., the scale of a problem, the peak of career, the
corridors of power, the chain of command, the source of a leak,
  107

the spread of cholera, the din of battle, the right of assembly, the
circulation of the blood, the extent of the damage, the risk of
recurrence, the foundations of a society, the dish of the day, the
dimensions of a conflict, the sound of (sb’s) footsteps, the pace
of life, the length of a lease, the speed of movement, the crack
of gunfire, traces of blood, the power of the monarch, the right
of succession, the frontiers of technology, the experience of the
world, the fall of a regime, the defence of the realm, the edge
of the forest, the provision of facilities, the surface of the moon,
the tone of voice, the lining of a pocket, the realms of possibility,
the rise of communism, the withdrawal of troops, the revival of
nationalism, the outbreak of war, the eye of the hurricane, the
picture of innocence, your hour of need, years of wear, the post
of clerk, the nations of the world, the gravity of the situation,
the focus of attention, the day of departure, the reins of power,
words of comfort, the reins of state, the threat of bankruptcy.
the deck of a ship, the height of controversy, the eye of the
storm, the edge of a nervous breakdown, the end of a civilization,
the history of mankind, the gist of an argument, the crackle of
flames, the realms of fantasy, the decline of inflation, the fruits of
science, the end of the month, the collapse of an empire, the top
of the road, the reversal of a policy, the threat of litigation, the
face of a clock, the risk of scandal, the decline of an empire, the
force of (your) personality, years of neglect, times of hardship,
the country of destination, the thunder of (the) surf, the tide
of immigrants, the clang of metal, the scale of the problem, the
voice of authority, the love of your life, the spread of an idea,
the course of events, the merits of an argument, the moment of
impact, the rest of the morning, the head of a queue, the facts
of life, the cost of the damage, the government of the day, the
rise and fall of an empire, the position of the lever, the flow of
supplies, the tide of refugees, the front of the class, the clearance
of slums, the outskirts of the village, the edge of the lake, the
handover of power, the star of the show, the spread of democracy,
the exchange of information, the provisions of a treaty, the death
108 

of your father, the wall of a cave, the story of my life, the taste
of food, the plight of refugees, the lady of the house, the glare of
publicity.
the power of suggestion, the scene of the accident, the side
of a crater, the wonders of modern science, the top of a shaft,
the letters of the alphabet, the terms of a treaty, the threat of
redundancy, the development of tourism, the end of a period,
ties of blood, the tempo of life, the line of command, the top of
the page, the outcome of a discussion, the quality of care, the
fear of crime, the flow of electricity, the value of your shares, the
roof of the mouth, the opportunity of a lifetime, the roar of (the)
surf, the middle of a crowd, the division of labour, the passage of
time, the process of manufacture, the plight of the unemployed,
the fear of reprisals, the needs of the individual, the keystone
of a policy, the gift of prophecy, the effects of the recession, the
signing of a treaty, the heart of a crisis, the history of science,
the middle of the pool, the winner of a contest, the outcome
of a battle, the onus of proof, the outcome of a case, the top of
the skull, the end of term, the first round of the World Cup, the
depths of depression, the head of the family, the rise of capitalism,
the highlight of the day, the symptoms of a disease. the scale
of disasters, the glare of headlights, the time of departure, the
top of a hill, the hum of machinery, the understatement of the
year, the voice of reason, the folly of your ways, the removal of
slums, the decline of a civilization, the force of law, the top of the
table, the place of honour, weapons of defence, the standard of
workmanship, the edge of the sea.
the provisions of a constitution, the use of resources, the
needle of a compass, the proliferation of cells, the substance of
a policy, the state of sb’s finances, the head of a department, the
sound of the wind, the surface of a river, the world of commerce,
the passing of time, the role of direction, the roar of the sea, the
outskirts of (the) town, the impact of (a) technology, the rate
of attrition, the culmination of a struggle, the edge of a sofa,
  109

the leader of a group, victims of torture, the wonders of modern

technology, the howl of the wind, the progression of a disease,
the higher echelons of society, the edge of a chair, the terms of an
article, the sound of a gunshot, travesty of the truth, the middle
of a river, the movement of labour, the other side of the street,
the reins of government, the return of refugees, the quality of
workmanship. weapons of mass destruction, the smell of a rose,
the head of the column, the hours of daylight, the fruits of your
labour, the volume of production, the hand of friendship, the
heart of the forest, the tread of feet, the field of vision, the merits
of a case, the top of the pass, the very fabric of society, the power
of your personality, the side of a mountain, the time of impact,
the frontiers of knowledge, the four corners of the earth, your
line of vision, the magnitude of change, the stern of a ship, the
science of politics, the direction of sb’s gaze, the crew of a ship,
the height of fashion, the tone of speech, the pain of childbirth,
the pursuit of perfection, the recommendations of a report, the
substance of a book, the results of a study, the howl of a wolf,
the ferocity of the attack, the side of the stream, the duration of
(your) stay, the effects of smoking.

Group 2
the spread of (a) disease, the pleasures of life, the truth of the
matter (is that...), the overthrow of a regime, a mound of papers,
the diameter of a circle, the end of the table, the end of a stage,
time of reflection, the loss of earnings, the direction of a river, the
main plank of sb’s policy, the essence of the argument, the fall of
capitalism, the exploitation of workers, the crook of your arm, the
result of a treatment, the tide of unemployment, the sweet smell
of success, the spread of an infection, the squeal of brakes, the
reins of office, the deployment of troops, the trappings of power,
the gist of a story, the field of science, the voice of experience,
the scruff of the neck, the noise of a gunshot, the loss of ozone,
the whine of an engine, the end of the road, the edge of the cliff,
110 

the moan of the wind, the pursuit of excellence, the edge of the
stream, the process of adjustment, the purpose of a meeting, the
germ of truth, the flicker of a candle, the height of the season,
the scent of victory, the foot of a hill, the height of prosperity,
the order of succession, the depths of despair, the method of
manufacture.
the findings of a report, the speed of sound, the distribution
of income, the leader of the orchestra, the onset of infection,
the spread of culture, the science of geology, the hiss of a snake,
the top of a ladder, the impact of the recession, the moment of
conception, travesty of democracy, the handling of data, the threat
of revolution, the point of no return, the means of production,
the direction of movement, token of friendship, the thrill of the
chase, the comfort of religion, the sense of taste, the top of a
mountain, the rattle of gunfire, the sense of smell, the price of
success, the fear of rejection, ties of marriage, the pit of your
stomach, the power of prayer, the moment of birth, the purpose
of a programme, the rejection of a theory, the forces of nature,
the path of least resistance, the rise of a movement, the front of
the skull, the march of progress, the role of the media, the flames
of hell, the first sign of madness, the flow of news, the tricks of
the trade, the four corners of the world, the sense of hearing, the
foot of the steps, the peak of fame, transference of sovereignty,
the fate of mankind, the middle of the table, the loss of power,
the upper end of the market, the volume of trade, the growth
of/in tourism, the fall of an empire, the subject of conversation,
the higher reaches of society, the depth of emotion, the time of
purchase, the rejection of a proposal, the time of publication,
ties of friendship, the use of force, the terms of a directive, the
murmur of the sea, the provision of resources.
the crux of the matter, the rule of law, the collapse of
communism, the top of the milk, the peak of your career, the
foot of a slope, the roar of the wind, the wheels of industry, the
custody of the children, the height of his/her powers, the risk of
  111

disease, the front of a crowd, the dial of a clock, years of toil, the
middle of a circle, the recesses of your mind, the state of affairs,
the objective of a programme, the crackle of electricity, the shores
of the lake, the toe of sb’s boot, the theory of evolution, the white
of an egg, the risk of litigation, the force of gravity, the spirits of
the dead, the onset of depression, the top of the pack, the corner
of the mouth, the youth of today, the soul of the city, the realm
of experience, the development of research, the secret of (sb’s)
success, the roar of the engine, the fires of hell, the findings of
a study, the threat of deportation, the middle of the road, the
fashion of the day, the standard of service, your field of vision,
the surface of the sea, the showing of a film.
the rank of constable, the payment of rent, the height of
impertinence, the patience of a saint, the choice of a successor,
the conclusions of a report, the dregs of society, the weight of
evidence, the movement of capital, the interior of the palace,
the contents of a bag, the security of tenure, the root of all
evil, the rest of your life, the collapse of a regime, the pace of
development, the sound of the engine, the force of habit, the
middle of the lake, the leader of the pack, the top of the street,
the top of the heap, the distribution of resources, the triumph of
good (over evil), the place of purchase, the value of the damage,
the set of your jaw, the pace of change, the ratification of a treaty,
the slope of a valley, the talk of the town, the tips of the toes, the
wheels of justice, the minutes of a meeting, the top of the scale,
years of struggle, the spitting image of his father, the cup of your
hand, the top of the cliff, the flow of arms, the hands of a clock,
the sense of sight, the nub of conflict, the holder of a licence, the
full horror of the situation, the right wing of the party, the start of
a period, the costs of manufacture, the substance of a speech, the
end of a queue, the close of the century, years of schooling, the
role of science, the glow of the sunset, the pleasures of the flesh,
the summit of your career, the will of the people, the remainder
of your life, the mood of the time, the price of freedom, the tide
of public opinion, the top of a slope, the hours of darkness, the
112 

leg of a chair, the cornerstone of a policy, the storage of data, the

villain of the piece.
the edge of the pavement, the heart of the matter, your date
of birth, the movement of goods, the head of a delegation, the side
effects of the drugs, the life of a nation, the lifting of sanctions, the
crash of the waves, the savagery of an attack, the rest of the society,
the subject of an investigation, the terms of the agreement, the
sole of your boot, the lining of the womb, the peak of (sb’s/sth’s)
popularity, the whine of a motor, the non-payment of rent, the
fear of violence, the rate of flow, the terms of a constitution, the
height of fame, the kiss of death, the top of the staircase/stairs,
the mists of time, the loss of revenue, the downfall of an empire,
the power of reasoning, the foot of the cliff, the heat of the day,
the seeds of conflict, the trappings of fame, the fall of a dynasty,
the lip of a crater, the height of ambition, years of stagnation,
the writer of a computer program, the rays of the sun, the rough
and tumble of politics, the object of the exercise, the likelihood
of a recurrence, the depth of crisis, the noise of the engine, the
production of textiles, the germ of an idea, the urgency of the
situation, the exercise of power, the withdrawal of their forces,
the consequences of a policy, the middle of a city, the sound of
gunfire, the gravity of a crisis, the stem of a pipe, the ways of the
world, the pursuit of wisdom, the flicker of a flame, the creak of a
door, the head of a government/state, the emergence of a nation,
the Leader of the Opposition, the squeak of rubber, the corner of
your mind, the term of a lease, the parts of the body, the front
of the queue, the dangers of smoking, the creak of a floorboard,
the foot of the bed, the result of the X-ray, the scene of a crime,
the thread of a story, the tide of opinion, the edge of the pool,
the facts of a case, the lusts of the flesh, the magnitude of an
earthquake, the eyes of the world, the outcome of a struggle,
the cost of litigation, the promotion of tourism, the left wing of
the party, the laws of science, the result of (the) negligence, the
inconsistencies of a policy, the edge of (the) town, the soles of
your feet, the future of mankind, the heel of a shoe, the moment
  113

of parting, the law(s) of gravity, trends of employment, the slope

of a hill, the outflow of funds, the wonders of nature, the rate of
movement, the side of the mouth, the flow of data, the line of
succession, the surface of the ocean, the foot of a mountain, the
wonders of the world, the growth of population, the standard of
craftsmanship, the rejection of an idea, the tips of the fingers,
the leader of a delegation, the eye of the cyclone, the course of a
river, the depths of the ocean, the pursuit of a goal, the result of a
referendum, the use of violence, the outcome of an election, the
terms of the settlement, the exercise of discretion, the prime of
life, the edge of the bed, the corner of your eye.

Group 3
the leader of a sect, the ranks of the unemployed, the weight
of numbers, the foot of a ladder, your line of sight, the colours
of the spectrum, the outcome of a meeting, the line of your
jaw, the middle of the forest, the subject of a study, violation of
law, the strength of your personality, the root of the problem,
the settlement of a dispute, the sequence of events, the fear of
invasion, the cost of purchase, the mood of the moment, the
spread of rioting, the end of the spectrum, the glow of a light
bulb, the mainstay of the economy, the guest of honour, the root
of the matter, the hand of fate, the founder of a dynasty, the
return of exiles, the spirit of the age, the spirit of the law, the
tool(s) of the trade, the execution of your duty, the main plank of
sb’s programme, the climate of opinion, the scent of a rose, the
terms of the lease, the scale of development, the restoration of
diplomatic relations, the finger of suspicion, the line of flight, the
foot of the staircase/the stairs, the level of service, the height of
sb’s career, the end of the film, the nub of problem.
the removal of subsidies, the crook of your elbow, the sins of
the flesh, the right of free speech, the division of wealth, the floor
of a cave, the four corners of the globe, the fear of failure, words
of welcome, the incidence of (a) disease, the rate of conviction,
114 

the horrors of war, the shape of things to come, victims of crime,

the sound of the sea, the slope of a mountain, the provisions of
a directive, the whine of a bullet, the victims of a massacre, the
end of an era, the power of veto, the resurgence of nationalism,
the male of the species, the head of (a) department, the edge of
a crater, the process of decay, the trip of a lifetime, the sound of
music, the result of a meeting, the gravity of an offence, the top
echelons of society, the results of a survey, the rate of change,
the small of your back, the heart of a city, the principles of a
constitution, the eye of a needle, the length of (your) stay, the
letter of the law, the head of the table, the state of grace, the
edge of the village, the sound of a heartbeat, the shock of your
life, the end of a dynasty, the edge of a city, the top of the steps,
the subject of debate, the fear of the unknown, the side of the
lake, the exercise of authority, the laws of physics, the end of
the world, the cost of living, the edge of the table, the world of
science, the direction of travel, the side of the bed, the fabric
of society, the handle of a knife, the loss of income, the fear of
intimacy, the outcome of a treatment, the rate of erosion, victims
of racism, the core of the matter, the terms of surrender, the onset
of symptoms, the circumstances of a case, the pursuit of truth,
the state of destination, the interests of a nation, the finger of
fate, the points of the compass, the middle of (the) town, the
object of sb’s affections, the injustice of it all, your share of the
proceeds.
the surface of the earth, the evidence of your senses, time of
arrival, the nape of the neck, the quality of life, the flip of a coin,
the laws of nature, the palm of your hand, the world of sport(s),
the height of folly, the object of sb’s passion, the standard of care,
the peak of sb’s career, the main plank of sb’s argument, the flow
of refugees, the scene of defeat, the date of purchase, the root
of the trouble, the screening of a film, the substance of a story,
the origin(s) of the universe, the power of arrest, the oceans of
the world, the rate of inflation, the spirit of the times, the terms
of a contract, the country of origin, the direction of flow, the
  115

head of the staircase/stairs, the type of person who…, the tide of

sentiment, years of negotiation, the surface of the lake, the seeds
of destruction, the sound of thunder, the turn of the century,
the fact of the matter, the leader of an expedition, the date of
completion, the loss of vision, the demolition of slums, the soul
of the community, the rest of the world, the soul of the university,
the outbreak of the revolution, the end of the line.
the findings of a survey, the substance of an argument,
the handling of a crisis, the line of least resistance, the point
of purchase, the voice of conscience, the direction of a policy,
the course of history, the gist of a speech, the lower end of the
market, the side of the skull, the suppression of individuality,
the soul of tact, the souls of the dead, the crackle of gunfire,
the middle of the row, the side of the pool, the nature of the
relationship, the consequences of overcrowding, the power of
speech, the seeds of crisis, the thread of an argument, the class
of 1960/1985, the trappings of success, the top of the range, the
speed of change, the pace of reform, the middle of the sea, the
end of your life, the scope of a book, the pattern of thoughts,
the leader of a movement, words of encouragement, the will of
God, the end of the scale, the turn of the tide, the exploitation
of resources, the habit(s) of a lifetime, the date of publication,
the growth of nationalism, the speed of light, the head of the
household, the tide of change, the onset of illness, your place of
birth, the point of departure, the head of the pass, the clash of
metal, the revival of (an) industry, the collapse of a civilization,
the peoples of the world, the prick of a needle, the end of the
row, the signs of the zodiac, the end of the street, the wheels of
government, the depth of the recession, the science of genetics,
the sentence of death, the head of the bed, the outskirts of a city,
the depth of feeling, the end of a passage, the loss of life, the
pursuit of pleasure, the neck of the womb, the role of a producer,
the pursuit of a strategy, the survival of the fittest, the pursuit
of happiness, the top of the pile, the fall of communism, the
restoration of the monarchy, the nature of the problem, the state
116 

of the economy, the top end of the market, the resolution of a

dispute, the smell of flesh, the villain of the story.
That’s it. Bye for now.

***