Introduction to

Mechatronics
By: Dr. Pawan Sharma
Assistant Professor
SVNIT, Surat

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Mechatronic system components
Mechanical System
System model Dynamic response

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Basic elements of a mechatronic system

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Elements of a mechatronic system

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 Elements of Mechatronics—Mechanical
 Mechanical elements refer to mechanical structure, mechanism,
thermofluid, and hydraulic aspects of a mechatronics system.
 Mechanical elements may include static / dynamic characteristics.
 Mechanical elements require physical power to produce motion,
force, heat, etc.

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Elements of Mechatronics—Mechanical

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 Elements of Mechatronics -Electromechanical
 Electromechanical elements refer to:
 Sensors: A variety of physical variables can be measured using
sensors, e.g.,
– light using photo-resistor,
– level and displacement using potentiometer,
– direction/tilt using magnetic sensor,
– sound using microphone,
– stress and pressure using strain gauge,
– touch using micro-switch,
– temperature using thermistor, and
– humidity using conductivity sensor 7
 Elements of Mechatronics -Electromechanical
 Electromechanical elements refer to:
 Actuators
 DC servomotor,
 stepper motor,
 relay,
 solenoid,
 speaker,
 light emitting diode (LED),
 shape memory alloy,
 electromagnet, and
 pump 8
 Elements of Mechatronics - Electrical/Electronic
 Electrical elements refer to:
 Electrical components (e.g., resistor (R), capacitor (C),
inductor (L), transformer, etc.), circuits, and analog signals
 Electronic elements refer to: analog/digital electronics,
transistors, thyristors, opto-isolators, operational amplifiers,
power electronics, and signal conditioning.
 The electrical/electronic elements are used to interface
electromechanical sensors and actuators to the control
interface/computing hardware elements.

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 Elements of Mechatronics - Control
Interface/Computing Hardware
 Control interface/computing hardware elements refer to:
 Analog-to-digital (A2D) converter, digital-to analog (D2A)
converter, digital input/output (I/O), counters, timers,
microprocessor, microcontroller, data acquisition and control
(DAC) board, and digital signal processing (DSP) board.

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 Example of Mechatronic system: Photocopy machine
 An office copy machine is a good example of a contemporary mechatronic
system.
 It includes analog and digital circuits, sensors, actuators, and
microprocessors. The copying process works as follows: The user places an
original in a loading bin and pushes a button to start the process; the original is
transported to the platen glass; and a high-intensity light source scans the original
and transfers the corresponding image as a charge distribution to a drum. Next, a
blank piece of paper is retrieved from a loading cartridge, and the image is
transferred onto the paper with an electrostatic deposition of ink toner powder that
is heated to bond to the paper. A sorting mechanism then optionally delivers the
copy to an appropriate bin.
 Analog circuits control the lamp, heater, and other power circuits in the machine.
 Digital circuits control the digital displays, indicator lights, buttons, and switches
forming the user interface. Other digital circuits include logic circuits and
microprocessors that coordinate all of the functions in the machine. Optical
sensors and microswitches detect the presence or absence of paper, its proper
positioning, and whether or not doors and latches are in their correct positions.
 Other sensors include encoders used to track motor rotation.
 Actuators include servo and stepper motors that load and transport the paper,
turn the drum, and index the sorter. 11
Example of Mechatronic system: Inkjet Printer

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 System
 In designing mechatronic systems, one of the steps involved is the creation of a
model of the system so that predictions can be made regarding its behaviour
when inputs occur.
 Such models involve drawing block diagrams to represent systems.
 A system can be thought of as a box or block diagram which has an input and
an output and where we are concerned not with what goes on inside the box but
with only the relationship between the output and the input.
 The term modelling is used when we represent the behaviour of a real system
by mathematical equations, such equations representing the relationship
between the inputs and outputs from the system.

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 System
 For example, a spring can be considered as a system to have an input of a force
𝐹 and an output of an extension 𝑥 (Figure 1).
 The equation used to model the relationship between the input and output
might be 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥, where 𝑘 is a constant.

Figure 1: Example of a spring system

 As another example, a motor may be thought of as a system which has as its

input electric power and as output the rotation of a shaft (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Example of a motor system

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 Modelling Systems
 The response of any system to an input is not instantaneous.
 For example, for the spring system described by Figure 1, though the
relationship between the input, force F, and output, extension x, was given as
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥, this only describes the relationship when steady-state conditions occur.
 When the force is applied it is likely that oscillations will occur before the
spring settles down to its steady-state extension value (Figure below). The
responses of systems are functions of time.

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 Modelling Systems
 As another example, if you switch on a kettle it takes some time for the water
in the kettle to reach boiling point (Figure below).

 Likewise, when a microprocessor controller gives a signal to, say, move the
lens for focusing in an automatic camera then it takes time before the lens
reaches its position for correct focusing.

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 Connected Systems
 In other than the simplest system, it is generally useful to consider it as a series
of interconnected blocks, each such block having a specific function. We then
have the output from one block becoming the input to the next block in the
system.
 In drawing a system in this way, it is necessary to recognise that lines drawn to
connect boxes indicate a flow of information in the direction indicated by an
arrow and not necessarily physical connections.
 An example of such a connected system is a CD player.

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 Measurement Systems
 A fundamental part of many mechatronic systems is a measurement system
composed of the three basic parts illustrated in Figure below.
 The transducer is a sensing element that converts a physical input into an
output, usually a voltage.
 The signal processor performs filtering, amplification, or other signal
conditioning on the transducer output.
 The term sensor is often used to refer to the transducer or to the
combination of transducer and signal processor.
 Finally, the recorder is an instrument, a computer, or an output device that
stores or displays the sensor data for monitoring or subsequent processing.

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Example of Measurement Systems Digital Thermometer-
 The following figure shows an example of a measurement system.
 The thermocouple is a transducer that converts temperature to a small voltage;
 The amplifier increases the magnitude of the voltage; the A/D (analog-to-
digital) converter is a device that changes the analog signal to a coded digital
signal; and
 The LEDs (light-emitting diodes) display the value of the temperature.

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 Control Systems
 A control system can be thought of as a system which can be used to:
1) Control some variable to some particular value
E.g. a central heating system where the temperature is controlled to a particular
value;
2) Control the sequence of events
E.g. a washing machine where when the dials are set to, say, ‘white’ and the
machine is then controlled to a particular washing cycle, i.e. sequence of events,
appropriate to that type of clothing;
3) Control whether an event occurs or not
E.g. a safety lock on a machine where it cannot be operated until a guard is in
position.

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 Feedback Control Systems
 Consider an example of a control system with which we are all individually
involved.
 Your body temperature, unless you are ill, remains almost constant regardless
of whether you are in a cold or hot environment. To maintain this constancy
your body has a temperature control system.
 If your temperature begins to increase above the normal you sweat, if it
decreases you shiver. Both these are mechanisms which are used to restore the
body temperature back to its normal value.
 The control system is maintaining constancy of temperature.
 The system has an input from sensors which tell it what the temperature is and
then compare this data with what the temperature should be and provide the
appropriate response in order to obtain the required temperature.

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 Feedback Control Systems
 This is an example of feedback control: signals are fed back from the output,
i.e. the actual temperature, in order to modify the reaction of the body to enable
it to restore the temperature to the ‘normal’ value.
 Feedback control is exercised by the control system comparing the fed-back
actual output of the system with what is required and adjusting its output
accordingly. Figure below illustrates this feedback control system.

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 Feedback Control Systems

Figure: Feedback control: Room Temperature with Central heating

Figure: Feedback control: Picking up a pencil 23

 Open- and closed-loop systems
 There are two basic forms of control system, one being called
open loop and the other closed loop.
 The difference between these can be illustrated by a simple
example shown in Figure below.

Figure: Heating a room: an open-loop system

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Figure: Heating a room: a closed-loop system
 Open- and closed-loop systems
 An example of an everyday open-loop control system is the
domestic toaster.
 Control is exercised by setting a timer which determines the
length of time for which the bread is toasted.
 The brownness of the resulting toast is determined solely by this
preset time.
 There is no feedback to control the degree of browning to a
required brownness.

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 Open- and closed-loop systems
 Open-loop systems have the advantage of being relatively simple
and consequently low cost with generally good reliability.
 However, they are often inaccurate since there is no correction for
error.
 Closed-loop systems have the advantage of being relatively
accurate in matching the actual to the required values.
 They are, however, more complex and so more costly with a
greater chance of breakdown as a consequence of the greater
number of components.

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 Basic elements of a closed-loop system
Comparison
Element Controlled
Variable
Control Correction
Process
Error Unit Unit
Reference Signal
Value

Measured Value Measuring

Device

Figure 1: The elements of a closed-loop control system.

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 Basic elements of a closed-loop system
1. Comparison element
 This compares the required or reference value of the variable
condition being controlled with the measured value of what is being
achieved and produces an error signal.
 It can be regarded as adding the reference signal, which is positive,
to the measured value signal, which is negative in this case:

𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 = 𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 − 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍

 The symbol used, in general, for an element at which signals are

summed is a segmented circle, inputs going into segments.
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 Basic elements of a closed-loop system
 The inputs are all added, hence the feedback input is marked as
negative and the reference signal as positive, so that the sum gives
the difference between the signals.
 A feedback loop is a means whereby a signal related to the actual
condition being achieved is fed back to modify the input signal to a
process.
 The feedback is said to be negative feedback when the signal which
is fed back subtracts from the input value. It is negative feedback
that is required to control a system.
 Positive feedback occurs when the signal fed back adds to the input
signal.
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 Basic elements of a closed-loop system
2. Control element
 This decides what action to take when it receives an error signal. It
may be, for example, a signal to operate a switch or open a valve.
 The control plan being used by the element may be just to supply a
signal which switches on or off when there is an error, as in a room
thermostat, or perhaps a signal which proportionally opens or closes
a valve according to the size of the error.
 Control plans may be hard-wired systems in which the control plan
is permanently fixed by the way the elements are connected
together, or programmable systems where the control plan is stored
within a memory unit and may be altered by reprogramming it.
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 Basic elements of a closed-loop system
3. Correction element
 The correction element produces a change in the process to correct
or change the controlled condition.
 Thus it might be a switch which switches on a heater and so
increases the temperature of the process or a valve which opens and
allows more liquid to enter the process.
 The term actuator is used for the element of a correction unit
that provides the power to carry out the control action.

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 Basic elements of a closed-loop system
4. Process element
 The process is what is being controlled. It could be a room in a
house with its temperature being controlled or a tank of water with
its level being controlled.

5. Measurement element
 The measurement element produces a signal related to the variable
condition of the process that is being controlled. It might be, for
example, a switch which is switched on when a particular position
is reached or a thermocouple which gives an e.m.f. related to the
temperature.

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 Basic elements of a closed-loop system

Figure: The elements of a closed-loop control system.

With the closed-loop system illustrated in Figure above, for a person

controlling the temperature of a room, the various elements are:
 Controlled variable – the room temperature;
 Reference value – the required room temperature;
 Comparison element – the person comparing the measured value
with the required value of temperature;
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 Basic elements of a closed-loop system

Figure: The elements of a closed-loop control system.

 Error signal – the difference between the measured and required

temperatures;
 Control unit – the person;
 Correction unit – the switch;
 Process – the heating by the fire;
 Measuring device – a thermometer.
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Basic elements of a closed-loop system

Figure: The automatic control of water level.

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 Basic elements of a closed-loop system
 Controlled variable – water level in tank;
 Reference value – initial setting of the float and lever position;
 Comparison element – the lever;
 Error signal – the difference between the actual and initial
settings of the lever positions;
 Control unit – the pivoted lever;
 Correction unit – the flap opening or closing the water supply;
 Process – the water level in the tank;
 Measuring device – the floating ball and lever.

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 Analogue and digital control systems
 Analogue systems are ones where all the signals are continuous
functions of time and it is the size of the signal which is a measure
of the variable (Figure (a) below).

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 Analogue and digital control systems
 Digital signals can be considered to be a sequence of on/off signals,
the value of the variable being represented by the sequence of on/off
pulses (Figure (b) below).

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 Analogue and digital control systems
 Where a digital signal is used to represent a continuous analogue
signal, the analogue signal is sampled at particular instants of time
and the sample values each then converted into effectively a digital
number, i.e. a particular sequence of digital signals.
 For example, we might have for a three-digit signal the digital
sequence of:
 no pulse, no pulse, no pulse representing an analogue signal of 0 V;
 no pulse, no pulse, a pulse representing 1 V;
 no pulse, pulse, no pulse representing 2 V;
 no pulse, pulse, pulse representing 3 V;
 pulse, no pulse, no pulse representing 4 V;
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 Analogue and digital control systems
 Since, most of the situations being controlled are analogue in nature
and it is these that are the inputs and outputs of control systems, e.g.
an input of temperature and an output from a heater,
 Hence, a necessary feature of a digital control system is that the
real-world analogue inputs have to be converted to digital forms and
the digital outputs back to real-world analogue forms.
 This involves the uses of analogue-to-digital converters (ADC) for
inputs and digital-to-analogue converters (DAC) for the outputs.

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 Analogue and digital control systems

Comparison
Element Controlled
Variable
Digital Correction
DAC Process
Controller Unit
Reference Error
Value Signal

Measured Value Measuring

ADC
Device

Figure 2: The basic elements of a digital closed-loop control system.

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 Analogue and digital control systems
 Figure 2(a) shows the basic elements of a digital closed-loop control
system; compare it with the analogue closed-loop system in Figure
1.
 The reference value, or set point, might be an input from a
keyboard.
 Analogue-to-digital (ADC) and digital-to-analogue (DAC) elements
are included in the loop in order that the digital controller can be
supplied with digital signals

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 Analogue and digital control systems
 It might seem to be adding a degree of complexity to the control
system to have this ADC and DAC, but there are some very
important advantages:
 Digital operations can be controlled by a program, i.e. a set of stored
instructions; information storage is easier, accuracy can be greater;
 Digital circuits are less affected by noise and also are generally
easier to design.

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 Digital controller
 The digital controller could be a digital computer which is running a
program, i.e. a piece of software, to implement the required actions.
 The term control algorithm is used to describe the sequence of steps
needed to solve the control problem.
 The control algorithm that might be used for digital control could be
described by the following steps:
 Read the reference value, i.e. the desired value.
 Read the actual plant output from the ADC.
 Calculate the error signal.
 Calculate the required controller output.
 Send the controller output to the DAC.
 Wait for the next sampling interval. 44
 Example of Analogue and Digital Control Systems
Output:
Constant Speed
Process,
Micro-
− ADC
processor DAC Amplifier Motor Rotating
+ shaft
Reference
Value

Measured Value Measuring

Device,
Tachogenerator

Figure: Digital control system for Shaft speed control.

Figure: Analogous control system for Shaft speed control.

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 Microcontroller system

Microcontroller

Comparison
Element Controlled
Variable
Digital Correction
DAC Process
Controller Unit
Reference Error
Value Signal

Measured Value Measuring

ADC
Device

Figure 3: The basic elements of a digital closed-loop control system.

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 Microcontroller system
Controlled
Reference Variable
Value Correction
Microcontroller Process
Unit

Measured
Value
Measuring
Device
Figure 4: A microcontroller control system.

 A microcontroller is a microprocessor with added integrated

elements such as memory and ADC and DAC converters; these can
be connected directly to the plant being as shown in Figure 4.

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 Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
 Programmable Logic Devices (PLD) are programmable systems and
are generally used in manufacturing automation to perform different
control functions, according to the programs written in its memory,
using low level languages of commands.
 There are following three types of PLDs are being employed in
mechatronics systems.
 Microprocessor: It is a digital integrated circuit which carries out
necessary digital functions to process the information obtained
from measurement system.

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 Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
 Microcomputer: It uses microprocessor as its central processing
unit and contains all functions of a computer.
 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC): It is used to control the
operations of electro-mechanical devices especially in tough and
hazardous industrial environments.

Figure: Components of a programmable logic device 49

 Microprocessor
 It is a multi-purpose, programmable device that reads binary
instructions from a storage device called memory, processes the
data according to the instructions, and then provides results as
output.
 Applications of microprocessors are classified primarily in two
categories:
1. Reprogrammable Systems : Micro computers
2. Embedded Systems : photocopying machine, Digital camera
 Microprocessor works or operates in binary digits i.e. 0 and 1, bits.
These bits are nothing but electrical voltages in the machine,
generally 0 - low voltage level, and 1 - high voltage level. 50
 Basic Blocks of Microprocessor

Figure: Schematic of configuration of a micro processor

 ALU: ALU stands for Arithmetical Logical Unit. As name

indicates it has two parts:
1. Arithmetical unit which is responsible for mathematical
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division,
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 Basic Blocks of Microprocessor
2. Logical unit which is dedicated to take logical decisions like
greater than, less than, equal to, not equal to etc. (Basically
AND/OR/NOT Operations)
 Register Array: Registers are small storage devices that are
available to CPU or processors. They act as temporary storage for
processing of intermediate data by mathematical or logical
operations.
 Control: To coordinate data flow and signal flow through various
types of buses i.e. Data Bus, Control Bus, and Address Bus etc. It
directs data flow between CPU and storage and I/O devices.

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 Basic Blocks of Microprocessor
 Memory: There are two different types of memory segments
being used by the CPU. First is the ROM which stands for Read
Only Memory while other is R/W which stands for Read and Write
Memory or Random Access Memory (RAM).
 Input Devices: Input devices are used to enter input data to
microprocessor from Keyboard or from ADC which receives data
from sensors/signal conditioning systems.
 Output Devices: These devices display the results/conclusions
coming out from ALUs either in soft copy (Monitor) or in Hard
Copy (Printer).
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 Functions of Microprocessor
Various functions of microprocessor are as follows:
 Microprocessor performs a variety of logical and mathematical
operations using its ALU.
 It controls data flow in a system and hence can transfer data from
one location to another based on the instructions given to it.
 A microprocessor can take necessary decisions and jump to a new
set of instructions based on those decisions.

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Elements of Microprocessor

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 Elements of Microprocessor
A simple microprocessor consists of following basic elements (see
Figure):
 Data Bus: Through data bus, the data flow between
 Various storage units
 ALU and memory units
 Address Bus: It controls the flow of memory addresses between
ALU and memory unit.
 RD (read) and WR (write) lines: Set or obtain the addressed
locations in the memory.
 Clock line: Transfers the clock pulse sequence to the processor.

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 Elements of Microprocessor
 Reset Line : is used to restart execution and reset the processor to
zero.
 Address Latch: Register which stores the addresses in the memory.
 Program Counter: It is a register which can increment its value by
1 and keeps the record of number of instructions executed. It can be
set to zero when instructed.
 Test Register: It is a register which stores intermediate or in-
process data of ALU operations. For example it is required to hold
the ‘carry’ while ALU is performing ‘addition’ operation. It also
stores the data which can be accessed by Instruction decoder to
make any decision.
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 Elements of Microprocessor
 3-State Buffers: These are tri-state buffers. A tri-state buffer can go
to a third state in addition to the states of 1 and 0.
 The instruction register and instruction decoder are responsible
for controlling the operations of all other components of a
microprocessor.

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 Microcontroller
 The microcontroller is the integration of a microprocessor with
memory and input/output interfaces, and other peripherals such as
timers, on a single chip.

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Figure: Block diagram of a microcontroller.
 Sequential controllers
 In many situations control is exercised by items being switched on
or off at particular preset times or values in order to control
processes and give a step sequence of operations.
 For example, after step 1 is complete then step 2 starts. When step 2
is complete then step 3 starts, etc.
 The term sequential control is used when control is such that actions
are strictly ordered in a time- or event-driven sequence.
 Such control could be obtained by an electric circuit with sets of
relays or cam-operated switches which are wired up in such a way
as to give the required sequence. However, currently such systems
are being replaced by a microprocessor-controlled system.
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 Example of Sequential controllers: Automatic
Washing Machine
 A number of operations have to be carried out in the correct sequence. These may
involve a pre-wash cycle when the clothes in the drum are given a wash in cold
water, followed by a main wash cycle when they are washed in hot water, then a
rinse cycle when they are rinsed with cold water a number of times, followed by
spinning to remove water from the clothes. Each of these operations involves a
number of steps.
 For example, a prewash cycle involves opening a valve to fill the machine drum to
the required level, closing the valve, switching on the drum motor to rotate the
drum for a specific time and operating the pump to empty the water from the
drum.
 The operating sequence is called a program, the sequence of instructions in each
program being predefined and ‘built’ into the controller used.
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Example of Sequential controllers: Automatic
Washing Machine

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 Example of Sequential controllers: Automatic
Washing Machine
 The system that used to be used for the washing machine controller
was a mechanical system which involved a set of cam-operated
switches, i.e. mechanical switches, a system which is readily
adjustable to give a greater variety of programs.

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 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
 The programmable logic controller is defined as a digital electronic
device that uses a programmable memory to store instructions and to
implement functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and
arithmetic words to control machines and processes.
 The term logic is used because the programming is primarily
concerned with implementing logic and switching operations.
 Input devices, e.g. switches, and output devices, e.g. motors, being
controlled are connected to the PLC and then the controller monitors
the inputs and outputs according to the program stored in the PLC
by the operator and so controls the machine or process.

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Block diagram of a PLC

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 Examples of mechatronic systems
The digital camera and autofocus

Figure: A basic system used with less expensive cameras is an open-loop system

 When the photographer presses the shutter button, a transducer on the front of the
camera sends pulses of infrared (IR) light towards the subject of the photograph.
 The infrared pulses bounce off the subject and are reflected back to the camera
where the same transducer picks them up.
 For each metre the subject is distant from the camera, the round-trip is about 6 ms.
 The time difference between the output and return pulses is detected and fed to a
microprocessor.
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 Examples of mechatronic systems
The digital camera and autofocus

 This has a set of values stored in its memory and so gives an output which rotates
the lens housing and moves the lens to a position where the object is in focus.
 This type of autofocus can only be used for distances up to about 10 m as the
returning infrared pulses are too weak at greater distances.
 Thus for greater distances the microprocessor gives an output which moves the
lens to an infinity setting.

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 Examples of mechatronic systems
The digital camera and autofocus

Figure: An advanced system for autofocus in digital camera

 Pulses of infrared radiation are sent out and the reflected pulses are detected, not
by the same transducer that was responsible for the transmission, but by another
transducer.
 However, initially this transducer has a mask across it.
 The microprocessor thus gives an output which causes the lens to move and
simultaneously the mask to move across the transducer.

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 Examples of mechatronic systems
The digital camera and autofocus

 The mask contains a slot which is moved across the face of the transducer.
 The movement of the lens and the slot continues until the returning pulses are able
to pass through the slot and impact on the transducer.
 There is then an output from the transducer which leads the microprocessor to
stop the movement of the lens, and so give the in-focus position

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 Examples of mechatronic systems
The engine management system

 The power and speed of the engine are controlled by varying the ignition timing
and the air–fuel mixture.
 With modern automobile engines this is done by a microprocessor.
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The engine management system

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 Examples of mechatronic systems
MEMS and the automobile airbag
 Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are mechanical devices that are built
onto semiconductor chips, generally ranging in size from about 20 micrometres to
a millimetre and made up of components 0.001 to 0.1 mm in size.
 They usually consist of a microprocessor and components such as microsensors
and microactuators.
 MEMS can sense, control and activate mechanical processes on the micro scale.
 Such MEMS chips are becoming increasingly widely used, and the following is
an illustration.

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Thank You

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