> CcCHAPTER 1 THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS 4.1 Introduction. Mathematics ax 2 Language It has been said that Mathematics is as old as man’s existence. One finds Mathematics in the very first recorded history of man and in subsequent development of his surroundings. The origi word Mutlemutics comes from the Greek word Muthemata, meaning a lesson learned or things Jearned. This would imply that no area of human endeavor is beyond Mathematics’ reach. Mathe matics has time and again been described as a science, a tool, an art, one of the humanities, language, Orit seems t0 be all things to all men Let us look at Mathematics as @ language. As one can see, Mathematics appropriately fits as 2 medium wherein one articulates phases of experience that have to do with quantity, size, order, form, shane, and logical thinking. As such it becomes part of the language of the arts like music, painting, and sculpture, of business, of engineering, and of practically every facet of man’s endeavor. If we are to learn Mathematics as a language, then we must have mathematical objects to con- siger, the vocabularies and symbols to use for these objects, and the rules on how these vocabularies may ‘be put together to come up with a coherent, meaningful and logical set of statements. Even tually we arrive at organized mathematical knowledge known as mathematical systems, ‘There are four basic or primitive mathematical “objects” which need not be technically defi- ned. These are numbers, sets, statements, and forms. Forms are geometric in nature and shall be taken up in Chapter 5. Numbers, which are used to describe the magnitude of things, constitute cone of the important characteristic features of mathematics. With the use of numbers mathematical language becomes simple, concise and accurate. The idea of a set (e.g. set of numbers, set of ideas, etc.) is basic in learning the language of mathematics as it enables classification of objects according to the specific common properties possessed by such objects. Lastly, mathematical statements are essential in utilizing mathematical ideas ana theories in a logical way. Two activities that dominate mathematics more than any other discipline, are those of proving theorems and solving problems. Both are accomplished by means of valid arguments that are made up of mathematical statements. ith the four mathematical objects (namely: number, set, statement and form) are associated three basic concepts that are important in building up the standard vocabulary of mathematics. These are symbols, operations, and relations. It was the American Philosopher — logician, Charles Sanders Pierce (1839-1914) who once asserted that humans are symbol-using or sign-using organisms. This must indeed be true; for are ‘fot the words we find in ordinary dictionaries symbols for physical objects and ideas? Cartoons, caricatures, and funnies all provide fast and easy ways for expressing facts and sentiments. The following examples wil to describe otherwise, illustrate the use of symbols for ideas and objects that are difficult, Example 1. Briefly interpret the symbols that appear in wach of the following so that the intended message makes sense. & 1 QD mathematics . FS ¢ b. Pe for learning mathematics 4 eeWe shall try to answer the first two: a The © pictures a “heart” and heart is associated with love. So the wording now reads: “I love mathematics” or'l like mathematics”. ‘bo Fe is a symbol in the vocabulary of terms used in pharmacy and medicine. It mearss “prescription”. Herice the wording says: “Prescription for learning mathematics”. Example 2. When you came to class today you probably went through a system of vaffic signals with the ‘customary alternating flashes of green, then yellow, then red, and then yellow again and so on. We have here a system of communication with the colors indicating the direction of traffic flow. The “green” stands for the statement “Traffic flows in this direction”. The “red” gives the ‘opposite of the preceding statement. “Traffic does not flow in this direction”. The “yellow” stands for “Wait for the next signal”: The use of symbols indeed serves as a short hand system of communication. It was the British Phi sopher Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) who observed that symbolic notation is half of mathematics, ‘This probably makes Mathematics abstract if the symbols are not properly learned. On the other hand, the extensive use of symbols has made Mathematics a universal language. It is understood and utilized by people of all nationalities worldwide who are mathematically literate, Operation according to Webster's dictionary means “‘the production of an appropriate effect”. Examples are surgical operation, military operation, etc. In Mathematics we are familiar with the operations of addition and multiplication applied to numbers, or the operations of union and inter- section applied to sets. Just like Webster's ordinary meaning, these mathematical operations are [processes of deriving one expression from others according to certain rules. In mathematical language operations facilitate the creation of “new” phrases as in the expression “the sum of 2 and 3” when 2 is added to 3. While an operation connotes the ability to create or produce something out of existing objects, a relation is a means of comparing objects. So we speak of the number 2 /ess than the number 5 or set A:being @ subset of set B. Among human beings some examples of relajions are “a relative of", “is smarter than”, “is as fast as”, etc.” Both operations and relations have characteristic properties when applied to certain sets of objects. Details of these properties will be discussed later in the chapter. When a particular set of mathematical objects together with operations/relations are characterized by a set of properties we have what is called a mathematical system . Setting our goals then, at the end of this chapter we should be able to ‘a. recognize, use and interpret symbots for mathematical ideas and objects. b. perform operations on numbers, sets and statements, 6. recognize and use relations for numbers, sets, and statements, recognize and handle with facility situations that involve simple deductions, inductions and valid arguments. e. understand the basic components of a mathematical system. 1-212. Numbers Perhaps the earliest and foremost activity of man that gave rise to numbers was counting, Then ‘as man’s life became complicated, other types of numbers were developed. Different number systems shall be treated in detail in chapter 2. Meanwhile let us look into the ideas of symbols, operations and relations as these apply to numbers. 1.2.1 Symbols for Numbers The desire to record the numbers used by early man, specifically for counting, necessitated the invention of symbols for them. These symbols for numbers are called numerals. The idea is to have just a small collection of numerals, adopt a few basic principles that will utilize only these few numerals to enable one to form other numerals that he may need. In this way u system of nume- ration is developed. The decimal system which we shall take up in chapter 2 is one such system of ‘numeration, A few of the basic numerals fotlo 1. Arabie‘tor Hundu-Arabic) numerals: Digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8.9 2. Roman numerats: 1V.%,L,6,D,M 3. Egyptian Hieroglyphic numerals: [vertical start ae 77 pointing finger 11 handle of heel bone mn ~~ _9 «roll Eman in astonishment B lows flower 4, Greek numerals: 0.8,7.5.6, . Of the four cited here, the first two are still very much used today:“The Hindu-Arabic numerals. have become the standard symbols in practically all mathematics literature while the Roman nume. rals are still seen in epitaphs, topic"outlines, significant dates/years and the like. For example at the eng of a TV program one may find after-listings of acknowledgement the phrase “copyright MCM: LXXXVI". While there are still a few Greek letters used in Mathematics like « (pi) or E (sigma), these no longer stand for numbers under the “Greek numeral system“(see exercise 1 of Chapter 2). Note that numerals are part of a language; afid language is developed and continues to grow through usage. That is why the Greek numerals and Egyptian hieroglyphic numerals which have gone out of usage are no fonger known to us. *1.2.2 Number Operations Consider numbers which we shall denote by 2,0,c,d,... We shall list some of the usual opera- tions that we can apply to any pair of them in order to produce exactly one other number. Since the operation involves a pair, the operation is called binary. Note the “bi’ suggests “two although these may be the same number, like 2 + 2.1, Addition, symbolized by "+"; resulting in a sum; thus atb=s says that s is the number represen- ting the sum of the addends a and b. An illustration, -10 +3 = -7 2. Subtraction, symbolized by “— mmituend less subtrahend. \n fact we say a—b=4d if and only if (abbreviated by ‘Thus 7—6=2 because 6+2=7: 5—(=4)=9 because —449=5. thus 2 — b =d says d is the difference when we perform ff"), abt. 3. Multiplication, symbolized by “x"or simply a dot “."’; thus a-b=p says that p is the number representing the product of factors a and b. Often we just write ab=p. An illustration, 3.(—7} = -21; 30=0 4. Division, symbolized by “+", resulting in a quotient. Thus (a + b) = q is the quotient when dividend a is divided by divisor b, where b is not zero. If b is zero, the quotient a+b cannot bbe determined. We say that a +b ==q if bq =, with b not zero. Note the use of the fraction numeral". a \'to denote the quotient in the division of a by b, bro. 3) Variations of the foregoing are the following: 6 Ralsing to.a power, thus a stands for 2-8-8. The “3” is an exponent of the base a. Accordingly 25 = 2.22.22. = 32. 10 = 1,000 (Note that 1 is followed by three zeros)) 10 = 1,000,000 = 1M (Here 1 is followed by six zeros). The operation or process is called involution. 6. Extracting a root; thus, a square root of 16 is 4. In symbols, {16 = 4 since 4? = 16. The opera: tion or process is called evolution. Other examples are, {FB = -2, or “the cube root of 8 is -2", since (2)? = {TG = 2, or “the fourth root of 16 is 2”, since (2)* = 16 ‘There is no square root of —4 because the square of any number is non-negative. Both the operations of involution and evolution are unary because they involve exactly one oumber. ‘The binary operations (+,~,*, +) are each performed on two numbers at a time, Thus, when- ever more than one operation are performed on several numbers, signs of grouping or aggregation like the parenthesis {_ ), brackets |} or braces{ }may be used to indicate what pairs are to be operated on under each operation. As illustration, (24+3)- 2 stands for 6- 2 = 10 while 2+{3- 2) stands for 2+6=8. The fraction $255 stands for (442) = (142) oF 3 = 2. If there are aggregation symbols (sometimes known as delimeters) within other aggregation ‘symbols, we work from the innermost and proceed towards the outermost, thus;2[14~(—1)] =2[14+1] = 215 = 30 (6-3) - [(4~2)-3] =(6-3)'[2-3] = (1 Now suppose that in an expression involving more than one binary operation there are no indicated aggregation indicators. Then we follow certain established ‘conventions. We recall the rule suggested by “My Dear Aunt Sally”, namely “MDAS”. This stands for the rule “Perform multi plications ana divisions first as they appear from left to right; then do the additions and subtractions also as they appear from left to right.”” Thus, 10; 10-6 2074: 5+2:3 = 5:5+6 = 25+6 = 31; 20+(4 + 5) +263 = 2020423214627 1.2.3 Number Relations To compare two numbers we consider two basic relations. +, Equality, giving rise to equations. For example the relation “a is equal to b”, is written In symbols 2s “a = b”. 2. Order, giving rise to inequalities. For example the relation “a is not equal to symbols as “a $b”. Variants of the order relation for numbers a and b are: 1s greater than b" symbolized by “a> b” less than b” symbolized by “a b". is less than or equal to the same as “a is greater than or equal Example 3 2 sox~ B-S- 5 b. 24 4, more precisely 2<4 or 4>2 c, fx } 3 then x can be equal to 3 or less than 3, In symbols we write x <3. One value of x Is 3 itself; or x maybe 2. There are other values of x, can you give some? If ¥46; then y can be equal to 5 or greater than 6. In symbols we write y> 5. ‘The number y is called a variable because it may assume different values. A law on numbers which involves the above relations is called trichotomy Jaw. It states that given two numbars a and b, exactly one of the following holds: ab or a=b4 EXERCISE 1 Interpret and/or write out the underlined phrases in each of the following: ‘An ad column in a local daily reads: Rental: 37/m b. A newspaper of January 12, 1988 reports that Denmark is giving the Philippines a soft /oan of 12M, c. “The Great Nebuia in Anidromeda is approximately 5.292 x 10!* miles away. d. The class ends at 1400 hours. 2. e. Peso rate slips to 25.212 £00 dollar. Each of the following suggests quantity without the use of numbers. Complete the phrases: a Acutof b. Apinch of __ ©, a. . Ahead of Aslice of e. Adash of Write the underlined symbols or words in another form: ‘a, The building was constructed ia “MCMXIX, A light year is a measure of distance equal to 5.88 x 10° miles. ‘The mass of the earth is 5.97 107? grams. ‘The human body is,75% water. Ina class of 60 there are 2 boys for every 3 girls. saps Give the number represented in each of the following: a B-5-347 b. 442-0-5 © 448+2-2-7-7 6, 3[8— (7-2) + (2-5) e. 4) 0 ~3) +828 10% — 10° {fx = 2and y = —1 find the value of, each of the following. a xt ty? b. dy 7K +4 % ey —4xy dx -KtK KK +H, Find the relation between the pairs of numbers by inserting the appropriate symbols “"<", oF ">" between the numbers. =2and1 Oand—4 (-3)? and -3* (2 — 3) (2+ 3) and 2? — 20% of 60 and 22% of 50 (~1)80® and (—1)80 1-61a each of the following, find all possible whole numbers that can be assigned to x if: Be x>Oandx<4 2 saren) < < cx? aS Chale “4 e ¢>0 So £ &=ne2 7 & Write the fottowing number relations in symbols: & The age x of a UP freshman is at least 15 years. b.. My monthly electric bill y is at most P800. ©. Mario's load z this semester is not more than 18 units. d. The square of any number, is non-negative. @. A Math 1 student should allot not less than 6 study hours fh for mathematics in one week, 13 Sets Psychologists tell us that the human mind has a natural tendency to create collections. Instead of seeing, for instance, twelve different fruits as twelve separate objects, the mind tends to see them as one * group ‘of fruits forming what we call a dozen. When we consider the size of our population, we may think of one set of 60 million individuals or 60 sets, each with a million Filipinos, The German mathe- matician, George Cantor (1845-1918), is known as having made the first formal study of sets, He pub- lisned his main paper on sets in 1874, The term set is used to denote a well-defined collection oF group of objects of any kind. For exam- ple, one may talk of the set of degree’programs offered in U-P., the set of mathematics courses offered this semester, the set of families residing in Quezon City, the set of positive even integers less than 10, etc. However, there is no such set as “the set of pretty ladies in this class. The word “pretty” as a con: ition for membership i not very precise. What is “pretty” to one may not be so to another. _ A set may be finite or infinite. 1t is finite if it is possible to enumerate all its members, otherwise, it is infinite, For example, the set of subjects a student is enrolled in this semester, or the set of words in adictionary ate finite sets while the set of all even numbers is an infinite set. 1.3.1 Symbols for Sets In what follows are the more common symbols that are used in any discussion on sets. For naming a'set: Capital letters A, 8, €, are names for “set A”, “set B”, "set G’ and soon os (2. For describing a set: {a) ist all members of the set within braces, thus: A ={0,0,4) B = “{(0,1,-1,2,-2,..} C = {a,e,i,0,u} (b) write the property common to all members D = {* 1 *isavowel of the English alphabet) {ead “D is the set of all star where star is a vowel of the English alphabet” E = (x1 xisa letter in the word “maganda’ }4. 5, For membership in a set: The symbol “ € stands for “is an element of “or” is a member of “and “e” reads “is not a member of”. Thus, a ¢ C but g¢ C. For the empty or mull set: The set having no member is denoted # (read phi) or {J For the universal set: “Uc” denotes the set which includes all objects under discussion. It fs said that the idea of a universal set came from Augustus de Morgan. It was then developed further by the logician John Venn (1834-1923) who considered the universal set like our which contains what we look at and discard all that we cannot see. 13.2 Set Operations 1 Let A, B, C denote sets in UL We shall consider the following set operations: Union, The union of A and B is the set of all elements in Uthat’belong to either A, B, or both. In symbols, this is written, AUBH=(xeUIx eAorxe B} Intersection, The intersection of A and B is the set of all elements in U that belong to both A and B. In symbols, this is written ANB=(x ¢ Uixe Aandxe B} Difference. The difference between A and B is the set of all elements in Uthat belong tc A but not to B. In symbols, thi is written, A-B= {xe Ulx Aang x ¢8} Complement. The complement of A is the set of all elements in U that are not i In symbols, this is written At= {xix eUandx $A} Example 4. LetU= (a,b, ¢,d,e, f} AS (ced) B= {b,d,e] Then AU B= {a,b,c,d,e} Ans={d} A~B= {a,c} :B-A Av= {b,e, #] "= (a,c, F}The foregoing discussion on sets may be pictured by using Venn diagrams ented by John Venn} where the elements of the universal set U are represented by points within @ rectangular region and the members of the sets in U by points within “rough circles”. Note the shaded regions in Figures 1 to 4. Let us identify in symbols the set operation illustrated. Also, try answering the following additional questio ‘The shaded region in Figure 3 is A — 8. What are the shaded regions in Figures 1, 2, and 4? 'a) Is there another way to indicate A — B using set intersection and complementation? b) Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate B — A. 1.3.3 Set Relations Let A and & be sets in some universal set UL, A and B may be related according to the following: 1. Ais a subset of B, in symbols, “A SB", if every element of A is in B. It can be shown that the null set is a subset of every set. 2, Aequals B, in symbols, “A= B", if A and B have identical elements. 3. Aisa proper subset of B, in symbols, "ACB", if A is a subset of Band A+ B. 4, Aand Bare disjoint if ANB = 6. Thismeans Aand B have no common element. 8. Aand Bare complements AU B= Uand AN 8=¢ In symbols, we write A’= B and A= B’. 6. A and B are equivalent, in symbols, “A ~ B", if A and Bhave the same number of elements. We also say A and B have the same cardinal number. Example 5. Let UL = the set of letters in the English alphabet A. = theset of vowels in the English alphabet B_ = the set of consonants in the English alphabet C= (0,¢,2,i,u) 0 =(panst) 1-9The following relations hold: ASCand OSB. AzC Des ANB = ¢ thatis, A and B are disjoint. A’= Band B’ = A, that is, A and B are complements. C™D and their cardinal number is 6: PmaeNs ‘The Venn diagrams below illustrate some set relations. Indicate the set relation for each Figure, m Figure Figure 7 =B [oo] Figure 6 Figure 10 Example 6, In Figure 10, denote the cardinal numbers of A and B by n(A) and a(B), respectively. Find n(A UB). Solution: n(A) = 3, n(B) = 3 Therefore, n(A U B) = 6= (A) + n(8). ‘This illustrates the principle: If A and B are disjoint sets (AU B)= nla) + n(B) Example 7. Let the universal set Ube the set of days in a week. Let A= {Monday, Tuesday, Thursday} B= { Thursday, Saturday, Sunday} Construct a Venn-diagram and enter the elements of each set in the appropriate region; then fing: a) n(A—B) and n(B — A) b) (AUB) e) (AUB) Solution: We draw a Verin giagram in Figure 11 and note: ANB ={Thursday} (AU BY {Weanesday, Friday} a) n(A-B) = 2; a(B—Al=2 b) (AUB) = 5=3 +3 ~1 = (A) + (8) — n(ANB) ce) AUB = 2=7~5. = n(u) ~ n(AUB)4 b) ) d) The result in (b} illustrates the principle: If Aand B are not disjoint then n(AUB) = n(A} + n(B) — n(ANB) Exercise 2 Each of the following suggests sets of some objects. Fill the blanks properly. a) Aream of b) Apair of ¢} A bouquet of ——) 4) A school of _— e) Abevy of 1 Apack of 9) Aherdof bh) Abate of “~~ i) Aliter of ————— i) Abunch of — Indicate each of the sets in another form: 2) A= { Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao} b) Roster of Presidents of the Republic of the Philippines c) C={x 1x isa state university in Metro Manila} ) Set of typhoon signals in the Philippines Enumerate the elements of each set: a) {x 1x Isaprimary color} b) {yl y isa lady head of state) c) [21 zis leap year between 1975 and 1985} 4) (1 sis one of the senses of man} Oraw @ Venn diagram illustrating the relationship between set A and set B, where AY B. acs ANB = B AUB=B AnB=¢ If A GB; which of the following is true? a) AUB=A cvANB=A b) ANB=B dA = B Which of the following can be regerded as a set in mathematics? 4) all even numbers greater than 10 b) all lucky numbers ¢) all large aumbers 4) all Roman numerals2 10. Ww 14 Given: UW = (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.8,9,} A= (0,246.8) B= {3,4,5,6) c= (13.8,7,9) ‘What are the elements of the following sets? aYAUC 1A U By e) AU (Banc) DANS ‘ita a oF AUB A set with one element has two subset ‘set with two elements has four subsets; a set with three elements has eight subsets. How many subsets would a set with four elements have? n elements? Which of the following sets is not equivalent to the rest? a) f,¢,i,0,u} b) the set of Arabic numerals less than 5 €) the set of letters in the word “STATE” )} the set of vowels in the English alphabet A survey of 200 families showed that 55 used Brand A soup, 110 used Brand B soap and 40 used both brands. How many used, a) Brand A only? b) Brand B only? ¢) neither of the two brands? 4) at least one of the two brands? In @ Freshman class, 200 students were enrolied in Math, 180 in History, and 170 in English; 40 in Math and History; 45 in History and English; 50 in Math and English and 15 in all three courses. If 600 students were surveyed, how many were taking a) Math only? b) Math and English but not History? €) at least one of the three courses? 4) none of the three courses? Statements In ordinary language we enicounter sentences that are declarative, imperative, interrogative and exclamatory. In Mathematics we shall consider only the first type of sentonce: namely, 9 declarative sentence that has the property of being true or false but not both, We shall call this a muthemstico! statement or simply a statement, If the statement is true, we say that the fruth value of the statement 1s T: If the statement is false, we say that truth value is F. For instance, the truth value of the state ment “Fidel V. Ramos Is the 12th President of the Republic of the Philippines” Example 8. (a) Each of the following are statements: ‘The planet Uranus has 65 rings. 4t1=6 tls raining. BeNote that p is true (T},q is false (F} while r is either true or false depending on the weather at the time you make the statement. However, note that at any given time, statement r has only one truth value. (b) The following are not statements: (1) Open the gate. {2) What country hosted the 1992 World Olympics? {c)_ Which of the following are statements? (1) Notall trees have green leaves. (2) Two points determine one line, (3). Happy Easter! {4) How often are exams given? (6) Watch your step! 11 Operations on Statements A statement may be classified as simple or compound. A simple statement makes only one assertion while a compound statement makes more than one assertion, For example, “Gretchen is pretty.” is-a simple. statement, while “Marie is pretty and kind” is a compound statement. The latter really means ““Marle is pretty and Marie is kind” Suppose we have a set of statements. Are there operations that we can perform on this set in order to produce new statements? There are such operations and we call them /ogical connectives o simply connectives. For example, if p: “It is raining” and q: “I have no umbrella’ are simple state- siveuts, we Gan form the new statement. “It is raining and I have no umbrella”, which Is a compound statement. The connective used here is “and”. Let p and q be statements. We list the following operations or connectives: and symbotized by 4 , used to form the conjunction p Ag, read “p and q/ or symbolized by.v | used to form the disjunction p v , read “‘p or ” where “or” is taken in the sense of and/or. + +1. then. .., symbolized by —— , used to form the conditional p —» q , read if p then q”. if and only if, abbreviated “itt”, symbolized by 44, used to form the biconditional P<—4q, read “p if and only if q” which means (p —+q) a (q—4 P) 5. not, symbolized by ~ , used to form the negation ~ p read “not p of a statement p. is 2, ao The operation “* ~ "in number 5 above is called a unary operation because only one statement t ee ‘The first four operations are called binary operations because two statements are ope- on,Example 8. ‘Let us use the above operations on the statements p: “Two is positi umber” "and qi “Two is an even Symbol Compound Statement fa) Conjunction pag Two Is positive and two is an even number. or —Two'ls a positive even ‘umber. (b)Disiunction pvq ‘Two Is positive or two isan even number. {c)_ Conditional e—4 If two is positive, then ‘two ig an.even number. {d) Biconditionst pea Two is positive If and only if two fs an even umber. (e) Negation ~4 ‘Two Is not an even umber or Two isan odd number. If a statement is true (T) then its negation is false (F) and if a statement is false, then its nega- thon Is true. Thus, el ce Te FE Ff 7 ‘The table above Is called a truth table. We shall now construct the truth table for the other compound statements. epoa@ pag eva p94 ap Peg Tat T T 7 T T OF F T F T F eT F T T F F FOF F F T T T Note that we have exhausted all the possible combinations of the truth values of p and q, When 3 ‘compound statement involves 3 simple statements, say, p, , and r, there are 8 possible combinations of the truth values of p,q, and r namely: TTT, TTF, TET, TRF, FT, FTF, FFT and FFF. 1.14Example 10. Let p: 2+3=6 (true) a 6>8 (false) (a) p.aq will read "2 + 3 = § and6 > 8”. This ls false because “6 > 8” Is false. The conjunc- tlon “and” demands that both ‘statements must be true for the conjunction to be true. (b) p vq Is true because "2 + 3 = 5” Is True. The disjunction “or” needs at least one of the ‘simple statements p or q to be True for pv q to be true, {c) p—4q will read “If 2 4 3 = 5 then 6 > 8”. This Is false because T—F has truth value F. Example 11. ‘Suppose a mother says to her son Tonton “If your average this semester Is at least 85, then I will buy You a new pair of shoes.” That semester, Tonton’s average was 82, but his mother still gave him a new pair of shoes. Dis Tonton’s mother contradict her statement? Solution: In the mother’s statement, P. is “your average this semester is at least 85” 2 ts “Iwill buy you a new pair of shoes” This Illustrates the case where the premise p Is false and the conclusion q is true, hence the conditional is true. Therefore Tonton’s mother did not contradict her statement when st bought the pair of shoes. Note that she did not say what she would do If Tonton would get an average less than 85. Example 12. Determine the truth value of the statement t-p—ra) ap glven that p is true ang q is false, Let us make a diagram, RK F T a @) a) ‘The circled T is the final answer. The T on fine (2) is the result of F —#F and the final answer Is the result of T aT.‘The conditional p——vq has three variations, namely: 1) contrapositive: ~~ q—+~p 2) converse: a—p 3) tover ~p—45q Example 13, Let p: A person is a blgamist, @: A person viotates the law. Conditional: If a person is a bigamist then he violates the law. Contrapositive: If a person does not violate the law then he Is not a bigamist. Converse: If a person violates the law then he is a bigamist. Inverse: If-a person is not a bigamist then he does not violate the few. ‘Question: Which of the four statements above have the same meaning? Exercise 3 1. Decide whieh of the following are statements: 8) June 12, 1988 falls on a Sunday. b) 9+7= 15. cc) Notall numbers equal 1. @) On the average, women outlive men! e) 104 12=22 f)_ Smoking is harmful. a) 2+3<-10. fh) Our fatest Republic was born February 26, 1986. i) Bring your calculator for the exam. 2. Determine the truth value of the statements in number 1 above. 3. Find the simple components of each compound statement: a) The leader is Pete or Ray. b) It is neither desirable nor pleasant. ¢} “Jack and Jit! went up the hill.” d) She is pretty but selfish. #) If 5>2 then 6a > 2a, for any number a, 4, Determine the truth value of each of the following: “a7 There are over 7000 islands in the Phitippines or Baguio is in Mindanao. b) Central Luzon suffers from lahar and lahar is very destructive. c} If Erap is President, then Eddie Is Vice-President. d) if 1+2=3then2-4=6. e) = 7 Is a prime integer iff 6 + 5 = 13. 5. Determine all values of x that will make each statement true: a) x+3=9and2+4=8. b) x+3=90r24+4=8. ) f4+2=6thenx+3=8. d) Ifx+4=7 then 9=2. Sb x44= Qi 7=5 +2,6. Determine the truth value, given that p is T and q is F: aY (pag) (~p—4a) b) (p—aq) v [ (ep 4~q)—4p ] 7. Write the converse, contrapositive and inverse of each of thefollowing: sa} If you attend Math | classes regularly then you will enjoy the course, b) Iwill walk home if It does not rain. €}__ twill not vote for a candidate who Is dishonest. 4d)” All UP students passed the UPCAT. e} If itrains the ground will be wet. 1.4.2 Relations Among Statements In this section we shall discuss some relations defined on sets of statements. Sometimes we say ‘that two statements are equivalent. Does this mean that they have the sama meaning? Equivalence is fone example of a relation between statements. Let us eiumerate some important relations among statements: 1. p implies q_ symbolized p =m q, resulting in an implication, We say “p =mpq" when the conaitional p— q is always logically true. 2. pis equivalent to a, symbolized by pexp. This means p amp q and dan. Example 14, {a} Let p: Snoopy is a dog. q: Snoopy isan animal. ‘The conditional p —+ q reads “If Snoopy is a dog, then Snoopy is an animal”. This state- ment is always logically true since the only time that a conditional is false is when its premise fs true and the conclusion is false. But it is always true that a dog Is an animal, Therefore, we may write p=mp a. (b) Let p: You study hard.” q: You will graduate with honors. The conditional p —#q reacs “If you study hard, then you will graduate with honors.”* This statement is not always logically true. We know that many students study hard (@ is true) yet they do not graduate with honors (q is false). In this case we have T—? F which has @ uth value F. Hence this conditional is not an implication. Example 15, ‘Show (a) the conditidnal p—-»q and its converse q —pp are not equivalent . {b) the conditional p—s q and its contrapositive ~ q—P~ p are equivalent .Solution: We construct the truth table for each statement. pla pd a— ~a ~e ~q—4+~P TIT T T F FE T Tle F T T FE F FIT T F F it a Fir au 7 7 U a The corresponding entries in the columns of p —+ q and q—¥ p are not identical, hence these statements are not equivalent, Thus a statement and its converse are not equivalent. On the other hang, the entries in the columns of p—4q and ~ q —¥~ pare identical, hence we say that a statement ana its contrapositive are equivalent, and we write (p94) ¢—eeg (~a-—9~P). Example 16. Consider the statement (1) “Courses in the natural sciences are interesting.” This can be written in an equivalent “conditional form (2). “If a course is a natural science course then it is interesting.” ‘The contrapositive of (2) is If a course is not interesting then it is not a natural science course.” which is equivalent to statement (2). We now state the converse and inverse of (2): interesting then it is a natural science course.’ nce course then it is not interesting.”* (3) “Ifa course i (4) “If a course is not a natural Can you explain why (3) anc (4) are equivalent? We would like to mention at this point some practical applications of this concept of equivalent statements in our day to day living. Sometimes, friends or even relatives get into arguments or have. misunderstandings because some statements made are misinterpreted. For example, if Belen, says to Nina “You are lucky because your children are all studying in UP”. Betty, whose children are study: ing in other universities, should not feel slighted. What. Belen said in the if-then form is “If your children are studying in UP, then you are lucky". It is not equivalent to “if your children are not studying in UP then you are not lucky”, which is Betty's probable interpretation if she felt slighted bby Belen’s statement. 1.4.3. Negetion of Statements Statements can be loosely classified into three types when we consider the problem of negating them, These are: specific, general and compound statements, Let us give examples of each and their negations. Specific statements Negation course is interesting , 1, This course is not interesting.2. Mia is not pretty. 2 General statements 1. All students are diligent 1. Notall students are diligent. or ‘Some students are not diligent. 2. Some peopte are funny. 2. No person is funny. 3. Nobody cares about the 3. Some people care about lahar vietims. the lahsr victims. is a. common mistake to think that the negation of “Aone” is “all”, or the negation of “some Is II". For emphasis, let us tabulate below the negation of the key words in general statement Statement Negation 1. All AareB. Notall AareB. or Some Aarenot B. 2. Some Aare B. No Ais 8. or All Aare not B. ‘The statement “Sore A are B also means “There exists at least one A which is a B.”” We shall now consider the negation of compound statements that use the conjunction “and” and the disjunction “or”. Using a truth table, we can show that the negation of p aq is ~p v~ q Pya pag ~(paal ~P ~a ~pv~a TIT T F F F F Tle F a F T c eit F T T F T Fle F T T my T Notice that the columns for ~(paq) and ~p v ~q are identical. This shows that they are equiva- lent-statements, Similarly, it can be shown that the negation of pvq is ~p a~q, that is, ~(pvq) is equivalent to ~pan~q Example 17. Compound statement Negation 1. Rico is honest and hard-working. Rico is not honest of not hard-working.2. Math is interesting or easy. ‘Math is neither interesting nor easy. .e. Math is not interesting and not easy. 3. Lam not angry but hurt. Lam angry or not hurt. 1.4.4 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning People are prone to make conclusions from their observations or past experiences. For example, a student might say “My teacher will give a short quiz today” since in the past she gave short quizzes ‘on Thursdays. The student makes this conclusion based on past experience. This process of arriving at conclusions or generalizations from specific observations or experi- mentation is called inductive reasoning of induction, This type of reasoning isused by biologists, chemists, physicists, volcanologists and other scientists to generalize the results of experiments. It is also used by mathematicians as we shall mention later. Psychologists say there is evidence that the ability to recognize patterns is related to native Intelligence. This is why questions of the type requiring the next number in a list of numbers often appear in standard tests like those used for college admission. The reasoning used here to arrive at an answer Is inductive reasoning. Example 18, Find the next number in the list: 1, 8, 15, 22, 29, Most of us will probably say 36: Why? We recognize a pattern: 1 + 7= 8;8+ 7= 15; ete., hence we Conclude that the next number is 29 + 7 = 36. Is this the correct answer? Our logic is correct. But this is not the only correct answer. The next number may be 5 if the numbers given represent the ‘Tuesdays in July and what follows Tuesday July 29th would be Aug. 5 Example 19. Consider the sequence of sums 14122 14#2=3 2+3=5 . Recognizing a pattern and noticing that all answers are prime numbers, we may be led to conclude that this is @ sequence of sums that give prime number answers. However, the next sum disproves this since the next sum would be 3 + 5 = 8 and 8 is not a prime, ‘The above examples reveal a flaw In inductive reasoning, namely, that several correct conclu: slons may be artived at or the conclusion is not always correct. This means that generalizations derived from specific observations may sometimes be false. We are often guilty of making such generalizations. We say, “I am sure Jenny will be late for ‘our appointment today. She has always been late.” Our human relations could improve greatly if we realize that such Inductive conclusions are not always true. If we do have to make inductive Conclusions, we could try for more positive ones like: “Last week, Sheila helped a blind man cross the street. Today she gave a beggar a sandwich, Sheila really is a very kind girl.” 1-20Have you ever wondered how new mathematical theories are developed? A mathematician working on @ problem may notice a pattern. Using inductive reasoning, he forms an “educated guess” callea a conjecture. This is a generalization from the pattern, Notice that discovery in mathe- ‘matics may start with an Inductive process. However it does not end there. The process used in proving the conjecture is called deductive reasoning. This process is often described as reasoning from general to particular because generalizations or rules already established or accepted are needed, ‘together with the rules of logic, to deduce the desired particular property, i.e. the conjecture. When the conjecture is proven it is called a theorem. Conclusions arrived at by deductive reasoning are always valid. Example 20. Eric, a high school student in UPIS excitedly told his mother, “Mom, I just heard ‘over the radio that it is storm signal No. 2 in Metro Manila. Yehey! We don’t have classes today!” It Is @ DECS ruling that high school classes are suspended in regions where storm signal No, 2 is ‘raised. Eric knows this rule and has applied it to this particular case, He used deductive reasoning, Example 21. “Consider the following equations: 1434 14345-9 1434+6+7=16 14345+749™? This pattern suggests the following conclusion: 143454... +m=n? where mis the nth odd term jn the sum. i.e. “the sum of the first n odd integers Is the square of n’ Verify:this for n= 6;n= 7 The above conclusion, while derived by inductive reasoning, is in fact true because it can be proven by deductive reasoning. 14.5. Validity of Arguments In our day to day living we often make conclusions from given or known premises. The set of ‘Statements which include’ the premises and conclusion is called an argument. The’ argument may be valid or not; it is valid if, when we assume that all the premises aré true, the conclusion is forced to be true. We shail use the visual technique to test the validity of arguments. This technique was Intro- duced by Leonhard Euler (1707-1873) when he invented the “Euler circle” which antedated Venn diagrams. We shall assume that whenever a set is defined or mentioned in a statement, the set is non- empty. The Euler diagrams for the statements 1). Alllelements of set A are in set B 2) Some elements of set A are in set B 3) Noelement of set A is in set B 1-21are given by Fig. 1, Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, respectively. O CO) : Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Example 22. Test the validity of the argument: All college students love to rea Ima Is a college student. ‘Therefore Issa loves to read. Solution: The first two statements are the premises. These are assumed to be true. The third state- ment is. the conclusion, We shall see whether or not the conclusion is forced to be true. ‘There are two sets of people Involved in the first statement, namely, the set of all college students, A, and the set of all people who love to read, B. The first statement says that all elements Of set A are also in set B (or ASB), hence the Euler diagram is Fig. 4, The second statement says {ssa Is an element of set A. We use ! dot in Fig, § to represent Issa. Thus we see that Issa has to be an element of set B. The conclusion Is thtn forced to be true. ce ‘the conclusion is v Fig. 4 Example 23. Test the validity of the argument: (1) All cottege students love to reac. {2)_ Sharon loves to read. ‘Therefore Sharon is a college student. ‘Solution: As in example 22, the Euler diagram for (1) is Fig. 6 ‘Statement (2) says Sharon is an element of set 8. The Euler diagram for this statement is Fig. 7 or Fig 8 Fig. 6 Fig. 7 © 8 Figure 8 says Sharon Is not an element of set A; that is, Sharon is not a college student. Hence the conclusion is not forced to follow. Therefore the argument is not valid. 1-22Example 24. Test for validity: (1) Some flowers are beautiful. (2) All things beautiful are pleasing to the eyes. Therefore some flowers are pleasing to the eyes. Solution: Let F = the set of all flowers B= the set of all beautiful things P= the set of all things pleasing to the eyes Statement (1) is represented by Fig. 9 and (2) by Fig. 10 F 8 Pp 1 e \S Fig. 9 Fig. 10 Fig, 11 When we put Figures @ and 10 together, we get Fig. 11, which satisfies both premises. The shaded portion of Fig. 11 represents the flowers that are pleasing to the eyes. This is not empty, hence the argument is va Example 25. Test for validity: (1) No college student is dishonest. (2) Some dishonest people are in the government. ‘Therefore no college student is in the government. Solution: Let C= the set of college students D = the set of dishonest people G= the set of people in government ‘OO ‘CD OOO ‘Crp’ Fig. 12 Fig. 13 Fig. 14 Fig. 15 ‘Statement (1) is represented by Fig. 12, and (2) by Fig. 13. When we put Figures 12 and 13 to gether, we get Fig. 14 or Fig. 15, which says some college students are in the government. Hence the conclusion is not forced to follow. We say that the conclusion is nur valid. Exer {. Determine which statements are implications. a) {f Jose is an Hocano then he is a Filipino. b) He will become a successful entertainer if he is a good singer. 1-23©) Ifthe isa UP student then he is an “Iskolar ng Bayan”. Write the negation of each statement. a) Every student has a calculator. b) The old book is readable. ©) Allcollege students take Math. d) Some college students take Physics. e) Nocollege student takes Math. f) Hes both intelligent and hardworking . @) [will either give money to the Mt. Pinatubo victims or donate money to an orphanage. fh) He works hard but is beset with problems. i) Herman is either not athletic or is in poor health, Determine whether the reasoning is inductive or deductive. a) Books are always expensive. This it a book, Therefore it is expensive. b) I had 15 ballpens. | gave away 9. Therefore | have 6 left. ¢)_ The last eight presidents of our Republic have been men. Every president isa man. d) Today is Thursday. Tomorrow will be Friday. €) All calculators will display the number 1. | have a calculator. | can display the number 1. 4) All ruit trees have green leaves. That plant is a mango tree, That plant hes green leaves. Determine the validity of each argument by using Euler diagrams. a) Allresidents on campus are students. Ray lives on campus. Ray is a student. b) Medical students take mathematics. Myra does not have to take mathematics. Myra is not ¢ medical student. c) Some vegetarians are healthy. Bert is a vegetarian. Bert is healthy. Consider the premises marked A, B,C - A. _ All personé‘who drive contribute to air pollution. B. "All persons who contribute to air pollution make life span shorter. C. Some people living in the barrios make life span shorter. ‘Test the following conclusions for validit a) Some persons living in a barrio drive. b) Some persons who make life span shorter live in the barrio. ¢) All persons who drive shorten life span. 4) Non-barrio residents contribute to air pollution. Determine the validity of the following erguments by the use of Euler dlagrams. a) No fruit is poisonous. Some polsonous food taste bad. Therefore no fruit tastes bad. 1-24All books are educational. Some educational materials are expensive. Therefore some books are b) expensive. ¢) Some students five in dormitories. Some dormitory residents do not eat well. Therefore some ‘students do not eat well. 4} Some Filipinos are “doves”. No “doves” are “hawks”. Therefore no Filipinas are “hawks”, 15 Properties of Operations Given a set of objects, S, and a binary operation * defined in S, there are certain rules or proper- ties that govern the use of this operation. Some of these properties are regarded asvery basic so that these ate accepted without proof. Properties which are assumed to be true are called axioms, Some properties that apply to binary operations are: closure, commutativity, associativity, identity and inverse. We shall now explain each of these prope Qlosure, The set's is closed under «if for any a,b €S, a+b €S. ‘This means the result of operation « must belong to the set S. Example 26. (a) The set of natural numbers Nis closed under addition because the sum of two natural fumbers is also a natural number. However, N’ is not closed under subtraction because there is at least one difference, say, 1 — 2 = —1 whichis nor a natural number. (b) The set of odd numbers is not closed under addition but Is closed under multiplication. {c) The collection of sets Is closed under the operations of union and intersection. {d) The collection of mathematical statements Is closed under disjunction and conjunction. (o) The set {1, —1} fs closed under multiptication but not under addition. Commutativity. The operation * is commutative If for any a,b € S, aeb=bea. Thismeans the result is the same regardless of the order of the elements in performing the operation. Example 27. (a) Let S be the set of activities needed to get dressed for school. Let the operation a+b mean activity a is followed by. activity b. If a represents “putting on socks” and 6 represents “putting on shoes” Is » a commutative operation? Why? . {b) “v" and “a” are commutative operations on statements. (c) On the set of numbers, addition and multiplication are commutative but subtraction and division are not. {d) -GWven a set S = fx, y, 2}. The operations »-and 0 are defined by the accompanying tables x x z y Table 1. Table 2. ‘When an operation * Is defined by a table as shown above, there are quick ways of determining closure and commutativity. 1-28(1) Closure is satisfied if all the entries in the table are elements of the set S. Thus is closed under both the operations + and o. (2) Construct the main diagonal of the body of the table (from the top left corer) as shown in Table 1, Each entry on this diagonal is the result of the type n+ nwhile an entry not on this line is the result of the type n+ pip # n}.The result p «n lies opposite n« p with respect to the diagonal line. If the entries on opposite sides of the diagonal are images of each other (the diagonal reflects all entries on one side of the diagonal to the other side) then the operation is commutative. Is the operation o in Table 2 commutative? Associativity, The operation + is associative if for any a,b, ¢ € S {avb)+c = ae(buc). This means that results are the same regardless of grouping preferences. Example 28. fa) Addition and multiplication are associative operations on numbers. Give a counter-example to show that subtraction is not associative. {b)“V" isassoctative for statements as shown by the truth table below: Pog 5 ¢pvgyyr pv TOT OT T T TOT OF T T TOF OT T T TOF OF T T FOOT oT T T FOoT OF T T FoF oT T T FOF F F F Identity Property. The identity property holds if there exists a unique element e ¢ S such that ase = ee8 =a for all elementsa in the wt S, We say e is the identity element relative to the operation Example 29.~ (a) For numbers with the operation of addition, 0 is the additive identity because any number & added to O results in the same number a. (b) Can you give the multiplicative identity for the set of numbers? Explai (c) The operation # Is defined by Table 3: ‘The identity element is b. Note that the entries in row b is @ copy of the marginal row entries while the entries of column b is. copy of the marginal column entries. Apply this test to determine the Identity Table ‘element, if it extsts, for the set S, relative to the operation defined by Table 1; Table 2. {d) The identity property does not hold in the set of odd numbers under addition. Why? Does it hold under mu ttiptication? b a o eInverse Property, Consider a set S:with operation «. The inverse property holds if every element an Shas a unique inverse a” also in S, satisfying: a+ a*=a" + a = e where e is the identity in S relative to the operation + Example 30. fa) InN, the additive identity is 0. However, a natural number a # 0 doesnot nave an adci- tive inverse in iN. We need a set larger than IN so that the inverse property will hold. The inverse property for sets larger than QV will be discussed In Chapter 2. (b) If we consider the set of activities in the task of getting dressed or cooking then the Inverse of “putting on shoes” is “removing shoes”. Is there an inverse for “taking a bath’? “fry- ing an egg”? “measuring flour’? The inverse property fails in the set since some of the above activities have no inverse. To summarize the properties of operations let us consider the set S =(0, 1,2, 3, }and the operation 0 defined by Table 4 below: ‘The following properties are easily seen: oo 00 (a) Closure oo4 fb) Commytativity: all entries are o 2 symmetric with respect to the 0 3 enain diagonal. (c)_ Identity element is 1. Table 4. {d) Inverse property falls since 0 and 2 do not have inverses relative to the operation 0. Note that the identity 1 Is not en entry in the row of O and 2. The elements 1 and 3 have inverses. Identity them, Verification of the associative property is a more tedious process that involves many combinations of elements. Below, we give one example. { 203 }03 = 203 = 2 and 20 303 ) = 201 = 2 EXERCISE 5 1. Istheclosure property satistied for the given set and operation? (a) S=(0, 1,—1) under addition; under multiplies {b) “The set of even numbers under addition ; under multipli (ce) S= (a,b,c) with operation * defined by the table: c a c a (a) The set of numbers which are squares, under addition ; under multiplication. fe) The set (A, 6) under U; under 1)? 1-272. Which of the following operations are commutative? (a) * defined by the table eG {b) the operation —> on statements For (¢) to (e), the operations ‘are defined In. : (c) # where a#bmeans 2a + 2b (4) © where a Ob means the larger of aandb {e) © wherea o bmeans2a+b 3. ist col b )ec= ae( bec ) for the operation defined by the table in 1 (c}?; 2 (a)? 4. Is(a—sb )—+c equivalent to a—»( b—ac } where a, b, ¢ are statements? 5. Use the respective Euler diagrams as shown. A . (a) Verity associatin y of set intersection tor sets A, B and C. c {b) Check the commutativity of the operation “set difference” on sets A and B. GO 6. Complete the table on the right: nalue fa) Verlfy that an identity element ex!sts. u {b) Does WU have an Inverse? Does’ have an inverse? . 7. Considering the following table. b © {a) Is there an identity element? b If so, what is It? e (b) Does the inverse property hold? a {f yes, give the inverse of each element. Wf n0, explain why. oe ole oce 8. Do the identity and inverse properties hold for the set $ and the operation * defined in 1(c) 2a)? 9. Identify the property which justifies the following: (a) (8x4) x5=8x(4x5) (0) (12431) + 18= (314 12)+ 18 () tye x [= ye0 10. Each table below defines an operation, Check each set and corresponding operation for closure commutativity, identity and inverse properties. (a) feeigees *WoO haces ao 12 202 ola v 302 1 1-28te) 1.6 Properties of Relations Let S be a set of objects. If a,b € S, we shall denote by a rh, the statement “a is related to b’. The relation c is said to be reflexive if for any ae S, ara. symmetric if for any a,b €S,ar b= bra transitive if for any a,b, ceS,ar band brcmpare Example 31. (a) “equality for sets is reflexive, symmetric and transitive (b) “i greater than” for numbers is not reflexive because a>a is not true. Is the relation syime tric? transitive? Why? 7 {c) S$" for numbers is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric. Explain this. {d} “is not equal to” for numbers is not transitive because 2 #3 and 3 # 2 but 2 relation reflexive? symmetric? Arelation which satisfies all the three properties above is an equivalence relation. The following are examples of equivalence relations: (a) “equality” for sets or numbers. (b) congruence’ for triangles. (c)_“igas tall as” for people . Is this EXERCISE 6 1. Which of the following relations is reflexive? (a) “S" for sets {b) “isin the same row as” for students in a classroom (c)_ “isnot an enemy of” for persons 2. Check the following relations for reftex: fa) “S*for sets (b) “isa factor of for numbers (c), “"is in front of” for persons “isa brother/sister of” for people is perpendicular to” for lines |, symmetry and transitivit (e) The relation of equivalence between statements is also an equivalence relation. Explain. 4. Consider the relation “i ties are satisfied? a negation of” for statements. Is this an equivalence'relation? Which proper- 5. The relation equivalent between sets is also an equivalence relation. Why? 6. Is the relation “is parallel to" for lines an equivalence relation? Why? 1-29WwW Mathematical Systems The task of organizing knowledge in mathematics into an orderly collection is a tremendous responsibility. The mathematician’s method of organization is based on the fact that some truths are derived from others. This continuous sequence of truths giving rise to new ones must start from somewhere. The initial set of truths from which the rest can be derived logically is called the axiom. set. An axiom is a statement of truth concerning a set of Objects. Such a statement asserts some property of a relation between objects or an operation on one or two objects. The objects, operations, ‘oF relations described in an axiom are considered primitive terms in the sense that their meanings are either understood without formal definitions or that they are characterized mainly by the axioms, ‘These objects, operations and relations are called undefined elements, The axioms make precise the properties of the undefined objects relative to the undefined operation or relation. An axiom-set, together with its undefined elements, forms the basis of an axiomatic system, also known as a mathe- matical system. As the system develops, new terms are defined and new properties called theorems are proved. tn mathematics, there are many mathematical systems and each has its own axiom-set, We may therefore look at these axiom-sets as the building blocks of mathematics. In the precedingsections, we discussed examples of undefined elements for various mathem systems. We shall tabulate these below: Object Relations Operations Sets subset, & union, U equality = intersection, 11 equivalence, ~ complementation, difference, ~ 2. Statements disjunction, Vv equivalence, may conjunction, A conditional, > ‘negation, ~ 3. Numbers equality, addition, + inequality, < or > multiplication, x More undefined elements on numbers will be discussed in Chapter 2. ‘In later chapters, other mathematical objects such as points, lines, and functions will be intro- duced. Axioms that may apply to the undefined elements above, were also discussed in Sections 1.5 and 1.6. We shall now define a special type of mathematical system called a group. A group consists of a non-empty set of objects, S, and a binary operation, o, defined in the set, satisfying the follow- ing axioms: Closure Associative Identity Inverse PeNeWe use the symbol <§, 0 > to denote the group. In addition, if the property of commutativity holds, then the group is called a commutative or abelian group Example 32. Let S be the collection of sets and U the operation of union in $ Closure and associativity hold for U The set d is the identity element since 6 UA=AU6 =A, for any setAins, ‘The inverse property fails in S, relative to union. Why? Hence, is not a group. Example 33. a) Let A={1,0,—1 }and the operation is muttiptication, x . Is agroup? Why? b) What group properties hold for B= (1,0,—1} uncer addition? C= {1-1} under addition? under multiplication? Example 34. Each of the following tables defines a binary operation on the set § = (a, b, c], Which table shows <5, 0 > isa group? Table 5 Table 6 If is nota group, explain why. If <8, 0 >is.a group, is it commutative? 1-31we Example 35. Refer to Table 4 (Section 1.5) defining the operation o on the set $ = {0, 1,2, 3] What group properties hold for S? More examples of mathematical systems will be discussed In connection with number systems In Chapter 2, algebraic structures in Chapter 3, and geometric structures in Chapter 5 The investigation of mathematical systems such as groups, rings, and fields by a mathemati: clan is analogous to an artist's preoccupation with art-forms or a musician's immersion in musical- forms. From this point of view, mathematics may be considered an art. Exercise 7 Let 1 be the operation of intersection defined on the set S of all subsets of e’tiniversal set U. What group properties hold for S relative to 1? Consider the operations defined by each table below, on some set S. Determine which are groups. @* (ob) ©] 0 () *feE oO aoa ajaoa ojos Which of the groups above is abelian? Consider the set A= {'a, b} Define an operation of “multiplication”, *, as follows: geasbeb=a, ab=b, bea=b Determine whether A, with this “multiplication, forms a group. Consider a set $={ 0, 1, 2, 3} where ‘0" indicates the hour "1" stands for one quarter after the hour "2" stands for two quarters after the hour "3" stands for three quarters after the hour. Let q denote the operation of “taking quarters after the hour”. (8) Construct the table of operation for the system (b) Does <5, q> illustrate @ group? If yes, Is it abettan? 1-32Reading What do Mathematicians Do? Mathematicians frequently are lone researchers into the most abstruse matters, but frequently they work with other scientists. They help guide spaceships through the heavens, inquire into the nature of commu: ication, unlock the secrets of genetics. As individuals, mathematicians seem to share certain characteristics. ‘They are usually very young in their mast productive years, sometimes in their teens. Some use mathematics whimsically to compose 12-tone melodies that sound the same played forward or backward, or set computers to writing avant-garde blank verse. Others are fascinated by gadgets. Claude Shannon invented a startling black box which, when its engine starts up, opens to let a green hand snake out and turn itself off. “Pure” Mathematicians: | in 1976 there were approximately 98,000 mathematicians in the United States, Practitioners of an including 13,200 with Ph.D. degrees. “Among these highly trained professionals, Elegant Art working in different fields of application, there is a small minority of perhaps 1,800 creative “pure” mathematicians, many of whom received at least some part of their education in Europe. ‘The only thing that interests these men is extending the borders of mathematical knowledge. They pay 10 attention to the practical application of their research. They see their work as an art and judge its value by the brilliance and beauty of its logic, the elegance of its reasoning. Mathematical elegance, as one of these men thas put it, is “directly proportional to the number of ideas you can see in them and inversely proportional to the “effort it takes to see them." Thus the pure mathematicians have developed geometries of both infinite dimen- sion and no particular dimension ~- and they have proved that in certain respects mathematics is not subject, to proof at all. ‘Specialists in ‘Applied mathematicians bring the abstractions of pure mathematics back down to earth. putting the Starting real physical problems in mathematical terms, they frequently turn yesterday's Abstract to work | pure equations into today's industrial schedules, actuarial tables or voting forecasts. Sometimes the mathematical solution to 2 seemingly unmathematical problem has more than a single appli- cation: One equation can describe both the diffusion of blood in the kidneys and the diffusion of atoms in a reactor. ‘A number of pure mathematicians profess to look down upon their more practical colleagues; reflecting this, relatively few universities support departments of applied mathematics. Nevertheless, many graduates in pure mathematics have put their skills to practical use: About half of all U.S. mathematicians work in industry. Their handiwork ranges from designing automobiles to probing the vagaries of human nature. Using ‘new branches of mathematics such es game and information theory, these experts are bringing major changes in business and military tactics, communications and medicine, sociology and linguistics. Their work suggests that no area of human endeavor is beyond mathematics’ reach. For example a mathematical geneticist studies chromosome aberrations in cells of humans. From statis- tical analysis of such material he is able to determine facts about fuman populations that cannot be found through experiment. Another may specialize in theoretical mechanics of solids where he studies the strength of materials subjected to stress or tension. Others work in industry such as aircraft, electronics and space where they do the spade work for voyages into space, computing hundreds of trajectories and choosing the best ones. They can specialize in dynamic programming where they use computers to monitor minute-to- minute guidance of a satellite or day-to-day analysis of the stock market. Sour Life Science Library ‘Mathematics by David Bergamini and the Editors of Time-Life Books, 2nd ed. 1-33Readings 1.2 ‘The Mathematical Experience By Philip J. Davis and Reuben Hersh “Statesmen despise publicists, painters despise art critics, and physiologists, physicists, or mathematic have usually similar feelings; there is no scom more profound, or on the whole more justifiable, than that men who make for the men who explain. Exposition, criticism, appreciation, is work for second-rate ming ‘So wrote G.H. Hardy at the beginning of A Mathematician’s Apology, one of the most beautiful books in ‘Out of mathematics, and a book in which a first-rate mind turned his attention to exposition, criticism, ¢ appreciation of mathematics. Since that time, fortunately, other first-rate minds have been drawn in the sa direction, exposing many different views of the nature of mathematics. The latest effort along these lines,| Philip J. Davis and Reuben Hersh — though not offering a view that Hardy would admire — is perhaps ¢ most ambitious and best of ‘all in describing what mathematicians really do. Leét this essay, in focusing it must on a small part of The Mathematical Experience, mislead, let me state plainly at the outset that ev student of mathematics will find this book valuable, and that Davis and Hersh, who write as one, doub deserve our gratitude, What is mathematics, and what manner of spirit animates its-study? That, of course, is a philosophi question. One of many favors done us by Davis and Hersh is to clear the sir a bit by pointing out that ‘so-called philosophies of logicism, and intuitionism are not and never have been philosophies of an ‘Their focus, of course, has always been on the foundations of mathematics, and they became known as “phi ‘sophies"’ only because there was @ period in the early part of this century when almost all work in the ‘sophy of mathematics was work in foundations. Despite its great importance, the study of foundations ‘only one of a multitude of interesting aspects of mathematics. In fect, the diversity of interesting aspects is bewildering, as we find ourselves saying that mathemati is like X, like Y, and like Z, when X,Y, and Z themselves are quite dissimilar. Davis and Hersh give us a num! of arguments, each well done, from the totality of which we must conclude that mathematics is like an id logy., @ religion, or an art form, and is thus a humanistic study, “one of the humanities”; and yet mathemati hhas @ science — like quality in that” its conclusions are compelling, like the conclusions of natural science’ Is it inconsistent to say that one entity, mathematics, can resemble each of 30 diverse a collection bedfellows? Perhaps not. Davis and Hersh remind us that sometimes the only way to know @ compli object (for example, mathematics) is to describe. it by making (necessarily incomplete) analogies with object that are already familiar. It is, after all, a standard procedure to study planar sections of a complicated metric object, or to study representations of a complicated algebraic object. The inéonsistent appearance different sections or representations is more to be expected than not. Therefore, when we attempt to descr mathematics by making analogies, we should not be surprised to come up with analogies that appear to bt inconsistent, It is possible that each many incomplete anslogies may be realized, provided we do not lock selves into a regid point of view. It is possible that the logicists, formalists, intuitionists, platonists, const tivists, etc., are all talking about the same thing when they speak of mathematics. Perhaps there is a val ‘conception of mathematics that is large enough to be, as mathematics sometimes seems to be, all things to men, ‘The conception of mathematics offered by Davis and Hersh is contained in the following statement. ‘Tine study of mental objects with reproducible properties Is called mathematics. ‘This concise statement is an appealing definition of mathematics, although it can hardly reconcile camps. The adjective “reproducible” allows mathematics to be like a science, and the adj C forces mathematics to be a human activity — one of the humanities ~ with the possibility of conti enriching human culture. By a ‘mental object” is meant, for exampte, an idea, but Davis and Hersh apy wish to avoid the word “idea” because of its Platonic connotations of eternal existence independent of hut 1-34jousness. While they are not willing to go that far, they do take a step in Plato's direction by insisting ‘our interests lie in properties reproducible (by others), arid therefore mathematical objects are indeed jadependent of individual human consciousness. Davis and Hersh conclude that mathematical objects exist the collective consciousness of (the mathematically literate segment of) society. While the conciusion is ‘girely sot new (one suspects that sociologists have for years catalogued mathematics as belonging to something the conscience collective of Emile Durkheim) it is interesting that we here have a definition that implies iis conclusion. “Mathematics, being a human activity,” they say,"". . . profits greatly from individual genius, but thrives only with the tacit approval of the wider community. As a great art forms, it is humanistic; it is scientific: inological in its applications.”” Mathematics is thus caught in the struggle between the individual and society gs well as the struggle between the arts and sciences. In the arts-science tension there is nothing which would surprise us. Mathematics draws vitality from being stretched on one side toward beauty, form, and vision; bathe other toward utility, function, and rationality ‘The surprise comes when Davis and Hersh discuss how the individual mathematician contributes to society's fowth of knowledge. Isn't it done by giving, for example, a full and infallible proof of a significant new fon? Not at al, say Davis and Hersh, following Imre Lakatos in condemning the rigid formalist approach mathematics “which tends to identify mathematics with its formal axiomatic abstraction.” Indeed, one to a fulltproof of any significant mathematical assertion, if “full’” demands the exclusive use of bols of first-order predicate logic. Thus, virtually all real proofs of mathematics are informal to some , and Davis and Hersh argue that if they are informal to ahy degree, then they are fallible. To abandon easily the notion of absolute rigor in “real” mathematics is disquieting, to say the least, but it is true that the ‘Be of 2 non-formal language can lead to unforeseen misunderstandings. | remember an algebra text that began brisky reviewing properties of the integers and the reals. On the same page it was asserted that every non. Gmpty set of positive integers has a feast element, and that every bounded nonempty set of real numbers has 4 greatest lower bound. In context, the first “has” means “contains”; but the second does not. To miss the distinction is to confuse the discrete with the continuous. | wanted to write the author about this small obfus- ‘ation, but a colleague convinced me that if a reader did not understand what the author meant, then the ‘eacer was unqualified to open the book in the first place, Davis and Hersh would probably agree. The actual situation is this. /In real mathematics/ proofs . . are established by “consensus of the qualified."’ A real proof is not checkable by a machine, or even by any mathematician not privy to the gestalt, the mode of thought of the particular field of mathematics in which the proof is located. Even to the “qualified reader,” there are normally differences of opinion as to whether a real proof {ie., one that js actually spoken or written down) is complete or correct. These doubts are resolved by communication and explanation, never by transcribing the proof into first-o¥er predicate calculus. Once a proof is “accepted,” the results of the proof are regarded as true (with veePhigh probability)... This passage implies not only that absolute rigor is unattainable in real mathematics, but also that the formulation of a proof and its acceptance by the mathematical community is of necessity a social process. Formalism, which assumes absolute rigor, is therefore not a valid model of what real mathematicians do. {Formalism is sil, of course, of great interest in ise, and perhaps might be regarded as # model of what the “ideal"’ mathematician does.) Whether one sides with Davis, Hersh, and Lakatos or not, one must admit that the implications of accept: ing formalism as an honest philosophy of mathematics are hard to take, both in terms of the validity of the formalist description and the values implicit in it. Often a theorem of mathematics can be described Order logic no better than a newborn baby can be described in terms of protons and electrons, All significance having been lost, one would never guess that mathematics has something to do with solving problems. More- Over, the axiomatic method casts undue emphasis upon the individual steps of a derivation, thereby deempha- ‘izing the value of general methods of proof and virtually ignoring the construction of examples and counter 1-85‘examples to appreciate the tract taken by its proof? And with the possible exception of a devotee of parlor games, what human being is interested in insignificant mathematics? Indeed, the question “What is significant mathematics?” is at least as important as the question “What is mathematics?"" — and one may spend some time wondering in which order these questions should be at ‘tacked. It may seem fool-hardly to attack the former question before the latter (although one can, for example, intelligently discuss “significant figures” without discussing “figures”, but the reverse order may be just a: foolhardly. Both questions could be settled at once by a definition of mathematics that haswithin it an (perhap, necessarily vague) implication of value, to guide us in judging the significance of a proffered piece of mathe matical literature. The simultaneous settling of these notorious questions, however, appears to be nearly a far off as the settling of the seemingly parallel questions of aesthetics, viz., “What is art?” and “What is signi ficant art? These questions may not, in fact, be parallel, for art and mathematics intersect in severai places. The mos and most mysterious is in the realm of creativity. Davis and Hersh agree with others sbout the creation of new mathematics in saying that it does not come from the mind alone. Without the body and it senses, many of the elements of creative mathematical thought ~ visual, tactile, kinesthetic, even muscular, according to Hadamard’s well-known survey — would not exist. The mind alone, even.Descarte’s mind, which tried to separate itself from the body that made i, is too small to encompass the mathematical experience. Davis and Hersh discuss the nature-of the creative act of the individual, but they appear to prefer to emphasize the role played by mathematicians collectively. This emphasis is probably justified in view of the relative lack of attention given, until lately, to the collective or social role. The Mathematical Experience come, toa close by leaving us in the cultural heights of the conscience collective. It is exhilarating to think of the spirit of mathematics dwelling here in the high reaches, promoting that dispassionate, rational outlook without which the shared understanding of our discipline would not be possible. And it may well be that future generations will increasingly accept mathematics as being animated by @ cultural force acting on a global level. But such a spirit can be acknowledged only in the abstract manner of a philo- sopher who rectifies the “Zeitgeist” of an era during which no one dreamed of a Geist in hi Zeit. We should not forget that there is in mathematics a spirit that is the direct opposite of an abstraction. is s0 real, in fact, that it even cries out and is heard, though only on auspicious occasions. It isthe spirit that was never so much at home as when it resided within the body of Archimedes and raised the roofs of Syracuse with its colossal shouts of surprise and delight. Writing about Archimedes, Plutarch described this spirit in a phase that has been rendered into English both as @ “raging Siren” and as a “familiar demon.” The first is an apt description of the overfiow of exu berance in the moment of light; but such moments come only to those who can stand the dark. The second seems more descriptive of that spirit of compelling total engagement whose charm kept Archimedes through the long nights and made him forget his food and neglect his person, to that degree that when he was occ sionally carried by absolute violence to bathe or have his body anointed, he used to trace geometrical figures in the ashes of the fire, and diagrams in the oil on his body, being in @ state of entire preoccupation, and, in the truest sense, divine possession .. . One suspects that all mathematicians have known all manner of approximations to this kind of spirit, and that litle nontrivial mathematics has been done without its aid. Isn't this, then, what we should meat when we speak of the spirit of mathematics? If so, how does it enter into the neneral picture of things? The picture of mathematics given us by Davis and Hersh is of something that beings with an individual Journeys to the collective conciousness, undergoing metamorphoses along the way. Others, Including myself necessarily in disagreement, but with symmetry as a dominant sense) would prefer to say that the journey ‘ends with an individual — the reader. 1-36What happens to # proof when it is believed? The most imr-e: a:e process is probably an internalization of the result. That is, the mathematician who reads and believes ¢ -7:of will attempt to paraphrase it, to put iz in bis own terms, to fit it into his own personal view of mathe~2cal knowledge. No two mathematicians ae likely to internalize a mathematical concept in exactly the 5: way, so this process leads usually to mu tiple versions of the same theorem, each reinforcing belief, eacr 2:2.ng to the feeling of the mathematical community that the original statement is likely to be true. —De Milo, Lipton, z-« Perlis, Social processes anc rcofs of theorems and proge~s Comm. Aem, 22(1979) 27; £2. If we see mathematics as going from individuals to individu: rather than from individuals to society, and if we see creative mathematics as coming from the body (nc: .- from the mind, but from all the senses as well), then there is a suggestion of a physiological ~ rather ther scciological — basis for the mathematical activity of human beings. Such a basis for creative activity in gewru, and shaw in an intriguing book called ‘The Seamless Web (Braziller, 1970). However speculative or impia.ciole a physiological basis for mathematics may at first appear, it might help to explain why mathematics sxmetimes appears to be not willed by the mind, but quite the opposite — ideas popping up unexpectedly ov: =f nowhere. APSich times we are inclined to say that mathematics is something done to a mathematician -aner than something done by a mathema- sician. These disparate'teelings might be harmonized by adopting =e view that mathematics is a fesult of the interaction of an organism, a human being, with its environment. Ir sch an interaction it is natural to find that neither side will totally predominate. It is also natural (rather tr" metaphysically impossible) to find that mathematics bears a close relationship to our environment. And ox most vivid mathematical experience has been that, since the time of Pythagoras, problems without have sorenow become problems within, burdening us with such stirrings that we sometimes physically feel their preser ‘The Greeks, perhaps in response to this viotence within, coine: “he phrase en theos, now familiar to us as. enthusiasm, which means “a good inside.” This, it seems to me a: nest, is about the best we can do when we are asked what is the spirit of mathematics. This is what tells us tre tis of the nature of a human being to do mathematics, just.as it is of the nature of an organism to strive t= eximilate a compelling presence. What else can explain, following assimiltion, our primal ery? William M, Priestley Department of Mathematics, University of the South, Sewanee, TN 7275 ‘The Mathematical Experience. By Philip J. Davis and Reuben tr. Boston: Birkhauser, 1981. xix + 440 Pp. $24.00 137Characteristic Features of Modern Mathematics What are the most general characteristics of modern mathematics as a whole, distinguishing it from the arlier development of geometry, algebra and analysis? First of all is the immense extension of the subject: matter of mathematics and of its applications. Such 1 extension of subject matter and range of application represents an énormous quantitative and qualitative rowth, brought about by the appearance of powerful new theories and methods which allow us to solve roblems completely inaccessible up to now. This extension of the subject matter of mathematics is charac- srized by the fact that contemporary mathematics conscientiously sets itself the task of studying all possible ses of quantitative relationships and spatial forms. A second characteristic feature of modern mathematics is the formation of general concepts on a new and igher level of abstraction. It is precisely this feature which guarantees preservation of the unity of mathemat spite of its immense growth in widely differing branches. Even in parts of mathematics which are extremely + from one another similarities of structure are brought to light by the general concepts and theories of the

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