Three Dimensions

THREE DIMENSIONS
MATHEMATICS EDUCATION LIBRARY
Managing Editor
A. J. Bishop, Cambridge, U.K.
Editorial Board
H. Bauersfeld, Bielefeld, Germany
B. Christiansen, Copenhagen, Denmark
H. Freudenthal, Utrecht, Holland
J. Kilpatrick, Athens, U.S.A.
T. Varga, Budapest, Hungary
G. Vergnaud, Paris, France
ADRIAN TREFFERS
Mathematics Education Research Group (OW &OC),
State University of Utrecht, The Netherlands
THREE
DIMENSIONS
A Model of Goal and Theory Description in
Mathematics Instruction - The Wiskobas Project
D. REIDEL PUBLISHING COMPANY

A MEMBER OF THE KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS GROUP
DORDRECHT/BOSTON/LANCASTER/TOKYO
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Treffers, Adrian, 1935-

Three dimensions.
(Mathematics education library)

Enl. and rev. translation of: Wiskobas doelgericht.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Mathematics-Study and teaching (Elementary)-
Netherlands. 2. Wiskobas Project. I. Title. ll. Series.
QA135.5.T69913 1986 373.7 86~20273
ISBN-13: 978-94-010-8160-3 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-3707-9
DOl: 10.1007/978-94-009-3707-9
Published by D. Reidel Publishing Company,

P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, Holland.
Sold and distributed in the U.S.A. and Canada

by Kluwer Academic Publishers
101 Philip Drive, Assinippi Park, Norwell, MA 02061, U.SA.
In all other countries, sold and distributed

by Kluwer Academic Publishers Group,
P.O. Box 322, 3300 AH Dordrecht, Holland.
Enlarged and revised edition of: Wiskobas doelgericht: Een metode van
doelbeschrijving van het wiskundeonderwijs volgens Wiskobas, Instituut voor Ontwikkeling
van het Wiskunde Onderwijs, Utrecht 1978.
Translated by H. Vonk et al.
All Rights Reserved

Dutch edition © 1978 Instituut voor Ontwikkeling van het Wiskunde
Onderwijs, Utrecht; IOWO now Vakgroep OW & OC, University of Utrecht
English edition © 1987 by D. Reidel Publishing Company.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1987
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or

utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.
Dedicated to Hannie
Hanneke
Ine
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE xiii
GUIDE TO THE MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL xv
MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER I: "GULLIVER" 1
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 8
1. From "New Math" to Wiskobas 9
1.1 Three trends 9
1.2 Wiskobas 10
2. The history of Wiskobas 11
2.1 The exploratory phase 11
2.2 The integration phase 12
2.3 Spin-off, further development and research 12
2.4 Summary 13
3. Wiskobas between four trends 14
3.1 Wiskobas and the empirical trend 14
3.2 Wiskobas and the structural trend 15
3.3 Wiskobas and the arithmetical trend 16
3.4 Wiskobas and the current arithmetic edu-
cation 17
3.5 Conclusion 18
4. Innovation according to Wiskobas 19
4.1 The innovation strategy 19
4.2 The innovation theme 21
4.3 The innovation 22
5. The problem 23
5.1 The problem of goal description 24
5.2 The question at issue 24
5.3 What is not dealt with? 26
6. Overview of what follows 26
6.1 Chapters 26
6.2 What is the function of the mathematical
material? 27
6.3 Short summary 28
7. Conclusion 29
viii T ABLE OF CONTENTS
MATHEMA TICAL MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER II: "COUNTING

PROBLEMS" 31
CHAPTER II STARTING POINTS 37

1. Mathematical activity 37
1.1 Flowers 38
1.2 Routes 38
1.3 Apples 39
1.4 To and fro 40
1.5 To and fro again 41
1.6 Didactical digression 42
1.7 Cards for the cube crawler 45
1.8 Routes on a highway network 47
1.9 Score progression 49
1.10 Families 50
1.11 Mathematising 51
2. Acting didactically 53
2.1 A mathematics lesson 53
2.2 Didactising 57
3. Starting points for mathematics education 59
3.1 Activity 60
3.2 Differentiation 61
3.3 Vertical planning 62
3.4 Structural character 63
3.5 Language aspect 64
3.6 Applicability 66
3.7 Dynamics 68
3.8 The specifically mathematical approach 70
4. Conclusion 71
MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER III: "GRAINS ON

THE CHESSBOARD" 75
CHAPTER III ONE-DIMENSIONAL GOAL DESCRIPTION 83

1. Goal descriptions 84
1.1 General, intermediate and concrete goal
descriptions 84
1.2 One-, two-, and three-dimensional goal
descriptions 86
1.3 Summary 90
2. Integral one-dimensional goals 90
2.1 Personal development 91
2.2 Socialisation 95
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
2.3 Preparation for further education 96

2.4 Social relevance 99
2.5 Summary 100
3. Mathematical one-dimensional goals 101
3.1 Arithmetical aspect 101
3.2 Language aspect 102
3.3 Applicability 103
3.4 Practical use 104
3.5 Structural aspect 105
3.6 Methodological aspect 105
3.7 Dynamic aspect 107
3.8 Attitude aspect 107
4. Relationships between integral and mathemati-
cal goals 108
5. Conclusion 109
MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER IV: "THE LAND

OF EIGHT" 113
CHAPTER IV TWO-DIMENSIONAL GOAL DESCRIPTION 119

1. Popham and Eisner: Two views on goal descrip-
tion 119
1.1 Popham's views on "instructional objec-
tives" 120
1.2 Eisner's views on "expressive objectives" 121
1.3 Summary 124
2. Variants of instructional objectives 124
2.1 Concrete product goals 125
2.2 Operationalised product goals 126
2.3 The goals approach 127
2.4 Concluding remarks 128
3. Variants of expressive objectives 129
3.1 PISA goals l30
3.2 Process goals l32
3.3 All-embracing process goals 133
3.4 Concluding remarks 133
4. Product and process goals in "The Land of
Eight" l34
4.1 Ptoduct goals in "The Land of Eight" l35
4.2 Process goals in "The Land of Eight" 139
4.3 Summary 144
5. The possibilities and limitations of two-dimen-
sional goal descriptions 146
x TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.1 Possibilities and limitations of two-dimen-

sional product goal descriptions 147
5.2 Possibilities and limitations of two-dimen-
sional process goal descriptions 152
5.3 Summary 155
6. Conclusion 156
MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER V:

"FRECKLEHAM" 159
CHAPTER V THREE-DIMENSIONAL GOAL DESCRIPTION 167

1. The history of "Freckleham" and the significance
of its goals 167
1.1 Development as a process of making goals
concrete 168
1.2 Development as a progressive structuring
of activities 169
1.3 The objectives and history of "Freckle-
ham" in Wiskobas 170
1.4 Conclusions 173
2. "Freckleham" in three dimensions 173
2.1 The people of "Freckleham" 174
2.2 Map of "Freckleham" 175
2.3 Greetings 176
2.4 Confusion 178
2.5 Thieves 179
2.6 The town meeting 180
2.7 New greeting suggestions 181
2.8 The Freckleham song in code 182
2.9 "Freckleham" in a 'wider' connection 183
2.10 Basis of "Freckleham" in a 'deeper' con-
nection 184
3. Holistic three-dimensional goal description 185
. 3.1 Different kinds of three-dimensional goal
description 185
3.2 Characteristics of the holistic three-
dimensional goal description 187
3.3 Rough empirical basis of the holistic
three-dimensional goal description 189
3.4 Functions of holistic three-dimensional
goal description 191
4. Conclusion 194
TABLE OF CONTENTS xi
MATHEMA TICAL MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER VI:

"ALGORITHMS" 197
CHAPTER VI SURVEY AND JUSTIFICATION 211

1. History 211
2. Overview 213
3. Justification 214
4. Conclusions 218
MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER VII

(APPENDIX): "THE WISKOBAS CURRICULUM" 221
CHAPTER VII FRAMEWORK FOR INSTRUCTION THEORY 239

1. Preamble 239
1.1 Starting points of a realistic instruction
theory 240
2. One-dimensional description of the framework
for instruction theory 242
2.1 Van Hiele's levels 242
2.2. Freudenthal's didactical phenomenology 246
2.3. Progressive mathematising guided by the
five instruction principles 247
2.4. Schematic comparison of the four trends
in arithmetic/mathematics instruction 250
3. Two-dimensional description of a framework
3.1 Progressive mathematisation in the Wis-
kobas programme 252
3.2. The five tenets of the framework for
instruction theory revisited 255
3.3. Comparison of the four trends 263
4. Three-dimensional description of a framework
4.1 Progressive mathematising of long division 265
4.2. Two more examples: Number systems and
fractions 268
4.3. The most conspicuous elements of the
framework for instruction theory seen
from the viewpoint of implementation of
instructional ideas 270
5. The broader framework for instruction theory 271
5.1 Gagne, Dienes, Piaget, and Bruner 272
5.2 Recent investigations of subject matter in
instruction theory 279
xii T ABLE OF CONTENTS
5.3 The almost complete absence of instruc-

tion theory ideas in general cognitive
psychological research 289
5.4 Overview 294
5.5 Closure 295
NOTES 297
BIBLIOGRAPHY 331
INDEX 347
PREFACE
In Dutch "WISKOBAS" stands for a particular kind of mathematics in the

elementary school (ages 6-12). In tum Wiskobas was one of the depart-
ments in the IOWO, the Institute for the Development of Mathematics
Education. This institute was concerned with the development of material
for mathematics education as well as the related research on the possibility
of change from the then existing arithmetic instruction to the future
mathematics education. The present publication Three Dimensions has
three aims: to give a picture of the goals Wiskobas set for future
mathematics education, at the same time to show how such goals can
be described, and to show the theoretical framework of the Wiskobas
curriculum.
The problem at hand is not at all simple. What is more, Wiskobas' ideas
about mathematics education cannot literally be translated into strings of
words. So how can we face the accusation that our objectives are unattain-
able and the goal itself irrational? In order to avoid this vagueness as
much as possible and for the sake of clarity, this book makes continuous
use of illustrations of mathematics education. In these examples both the
subject-matter and the methods of description of the goals are illustrated
as explicitly as possible, while at the same time creating the opportunity to
read between the lines. The reader is urged to follow carefully the mathe-
matical material at the start of each chapter. This advice applies both to
the more general education oriented, and to the more mathematical!
didactical reader.
In the completion of this task I received assistance from Jelle Sixma,
Hans Freudenthal and the former Wiskobas team of the IOWO (now the
OW & OC at the State University of Utrecht). A special word of thanks is
due to Rob de Jong, Sylvia Pieters, Betty Dekker and Els Feijs, and to
Hetty and Guus Vonk, Hans Freudenthal, Alan Bishop and the late
Arthur Morley for their help in translating the Dutch version into English.
Chapters I-V are translated from the original version. Chapter VI is
new and was written in 1983. It contains an example of the goal descrip-
tion of a course, as opposed to the examples of goal descriptions in the
other chapters which have a bearing on themes. Chapter VII was
appended in 1986 with the idea that the three-dimensional" goal descrip-
tion propagated here only becomes transparent when a clear view is
provided for the framework of instruction theory. In our case, this
concerns mathematics education as realised by the Wiskobas project. This
theoretical framework is also described in three dimensions, which
xiii
xiv PREFACE
explains the title of this study, "A model of goal and theory description
... ". The goal description is the principal part of this study - in this case
the primary school - and the theory description is dealt with extensively
in the Appendix (Chapter VII) in order, as mentioned above, to clarify the
goal description.
GUIDE TO THE MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL
In order to deal with the contents and methods describing the goals of
mathematics education, each chapter of the present book starts with a
piece of mathematical material for primary school use.
The function of the mathematical material is varied. Generally speaking,
however, the reader is given the opportunity to acquaint himself with the
kinds of experience of mathematics education in the elementary school
that were propagated by Wiskobas. The reader may use it by reading and
working out the problems presented; and at the same time a concrete
foundation for considering the problem of goal description will be laid.
On the other hand the examples of mathematical material enable the
author to support his views concerning goal descriptions, in respect to
both form and content. Besides the general aims of providing acquaint-
ance, explanation and support, each particular piece of mathematical
material in each chapter has its own specific function, which is indicated
immediately preceding the material.
xv
Mathematical Material for Chapter I
Gulliver
2 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL I
The topic "Gulliver" was designed for the sixth grade. Here it precedes the
introductory chapter, and is meant to give a first impression of the kind of
mathematics education Wiskobas supports. This first impression is brought
out in full in the basic text of Chapter I by setting Wiskobas' ideas in the
context of four trends in arithmetic/mathematics education. "Gulliver" also
serves as a means of explaining the central problem.
The reader is asked to read the following text, to consider the mathe-
matical problems it contains, and to focus on the background ideas of
mathematics education that lie behind it, before reading Chapter I.
Designed by L. Streefland and A. Treffers

GULLIVER
The "Gulliver" theme considers how linear enlargement influences circum-

ference, area and volume. The activities include
- drawing a ground plan;
- comparing objects from Lilliput with similar ones in our own world;
- scrutinizing the credibility of certain quantitative data in "Gulliver's
Travels";
- analysing the concept of population density;
- viewing the possibility of Lilliputians biologically;
- examining a series of practical applications.
1. Story
In the first lesson the teacher reads from 'Gulliver's Travels' by Jonathan
Swift.
Could this story have really happened?
There is disagreement among the children. The arguments for yes and
no are markedly different. Some of the children come forward with "hard"
facts like a TV series about the Cyclops and excavations that confirm the
existence of giants. Others give their personal opinions. The first lesson is
a good starting point for scrutinizing a large amount of quantitative data in
the story. It is also possible to dwell on the social background of the story
and the intentions of the author.
2. Ground Plan
The assignment in the following lesson consists of drawing a ground plan

of Mildendo, the capital of Lilliput, by using the information from the
following data.
The City is an exact Square, each side of the Wall being five hundred foot long. The two
great Streets, which run across and divide it into four Quarters, are five foot wide. The
Lanes and Alleys, which I could not enter, but only view them as I passed, are from twelve
to eighteen Inches. The Town is capable of holding five hundred thousand Souls. The
Houses are from three to five Stories. The Shops and Markets are well provided.
The Emperor's Palace is in the Center of the City, where the two great Streets meet. It
is enclosed by a Wall two foot high, and twenty foot distant from the Buildings. I had his
Majesty's Permission to step over this Wall: and the Space being so wide between that and
3
the Palace, I could easily view it on every side. The outward Court is a Square of forty foot,
and includes two other Courts: In the inmost are the Royal Apartments, which I was very
desirous to see, but found it extremely difficult; for the great Gates, from one Square into
another, were but eighteen Inches high and seven Inches wide. (p. 72-3 Swift, 1890)
Though this fragment gives some hints, there are a few other things which
we need to know in order to make a detailed sketch. The main streets can
be drawn in various ways:
The palace square is not unambiguous and various ideas about the scale
are possible. All sorts of matters can lead to discussion.
3. Population Density
Now Mildendo is compared to a city from our world. The story has told
us that the reduction factor is 12. All sorts of questions arise:
- Are the main streets comparatively wide?
- Aren't the smaller streets rather narrow?
- What about the wall?
- Can it be compared with the great wall of China?
- How wide are our own streets and lanes?
In order to keep the comparison simple we must translate all measures
either to the Lilliputian or to our own world.
- Which shall we choose?
After some discussion it seems to be easier to choose our own measures.
In terms of our measures "Mildendo" is only 1.8. by 1.8. or about 2 by 2
kilometres. But it has 500,000 inhabitants.
- How is that possible?
Some of the children look for a 2 by 2 km city in order to compare its
population to that of Mildendo. They do not find any, so others suggest
The Hague, which has about 500,000 inhabitants. They suggest comparing
the area of The Hague which is referred to as a square of about 8 by
GULLIVER 5
8 km. The children calculated it from the map. Who can explain the
meaning of saying the population in Mildendo is very "dense"?
Mildendo The Hague
The pupils come forward with all sorts of arguments, but it is hard for
them to explain something their intuition tells them is true, namely that
500,000 is a lot of people in such a small area. We give them a hint.
Suppose that The Hague was as densely populated.
- How many inhabitants would it have?
Now it is clear: more than half of the Dutch population live in The Hague.
But be careful! We should more properly have focused on a situation
around 1750 (also for the width of the streets). At that time a city like
Utrecht had a density of about 30,000 people per square kilometre. Swift
did not exaggerate as much as the children had thought in the first instance.
4. Gulliver's Clothes
- Suppose we were Lilliputians, how big would Gulliver be?
- How big would his shoe, comb and handkerchief be?
The question about the handkerchief is especially important for the sequel.
- How many Lilliputian handkerchieves make one for Gulliver?
This question introduces the influence of linear enlargement on area. The
pupils have no difficulty with the problem. Now we tum to the part of the
story that deals with Gulliver's clothes:
Two hundred Sempstresses were employed to make me Shirts, and Linnen for my Bed and
Table, all of the strongest and coarsest kind they could get, which, however, they were
forced to qUilt together in several Folds, for the thickest was some degrees finer than
Lawn. Their Linnen is usually three Inches wide, and three foot make a Piece. The
Sempstresses took my Measure as I lay on the ground, one standing at my Neck, and
another at my Mid-Leg, with a strong Cord extended, that each held by the end, while the
third 'measured the length of the Cord with a Rule of an Inch long. Then they measured my
right Thumb, and desired no more; for by a mathematical Computation, that twice round
the Thumb is once round the Wrist, and so on to the Neck and the Waist, and by the help
of myoid Shirt, which I displayed on the Ground before them for a Pattern, they fitted me
exactly. (Swift, 1890, p. 90-91)
First of all we decide whether the 1 to 2 ratio between thumb and wrist,
wrist and neck, neck and waist are correct. We start by estimating, which
does not work, and so we measure. Then, we have children calculate how
much material is needed and ask them how many Lilliputian clothes can
be made from Gulliver's clothes. This problem tests whether or not the
pupils see the connection with the handkerchief problem. But even more
important is the link with the solution of the food problem.
5. The Food Problem

Intuitively one would assume that there is a linear relation between food
and weight. How many Lilliputian portions does Gulliver eat? This leads
us to the question of his weight. How many "Lilliputians" does Gulliver
weigh? The question can be solved empirically in the first instance. We
take a piece of clay or wood and compare its weight to a similar piece that
is linearly three times as large. Then we prove that the weight of the large
piece is 27 times that of the small piece. Gulliver weighs 12 X 12 X 12
Lilliputians. We take it that he eats about 1728 Lilliputian portions per
day. We read further in the book:
The Reader may please to observe, that in the last Article for the Recovery of my Liberty,
the Emperor stipUlates to allow me a Quantity of Meat and Drink sufficient for the
Support of 1724 Lilliputians. Some time after, asking a Friend at Court how they came to
fix on that determinate Number, he told me, that his Majesty's Mathematicians, having
taken the Height of my Body by the help of a Quadrant, and finding it to exceed theirs in
the Proportion of Twelve to One, they concluded from the Similarity of their Bodies, that
mine must contain at least 1724 of theirs, and consequently would require as much Food
as was necessary to support that number of Lilliputians. By which, the Reader may
conceive an Idea of the Ingenuity of that People, as well as the prudent and exact
Oeconomy of so great a Prince. (Swift, 1890, p. 71)
Without bothering about the error (1724 should be 1728) the calcula-
tion is found to be correct by our own mathematical wizards. Yet it is not
correct!
Without further explanation, we supply the information that the amount
of food is not proportional to the volume (weight) but to the surface area
of the body. For the time being the biological explanation is omitted.
The consequences, however, must be faced. We can lead the train of
thought as follows: One Gulliver balances with 1728 Lilliputians. In order
to stay in balance and alive they must eat. One portion for Gulliver is one
portion for each Lilliputian, as long as we assume that they eat the same
amount in proportion. Now it has appeared that the amount of food
depends on the surface area (remember the city, handkerchief, clothes).
GULLIVER 7
That means that Gulliver's portion only feeds 144 (12 x 12) Lilliputians.
That is 12 times as small. Therefore, proportionately, the Lilliputians must
eat 12 times as much as a human. If they ever existed, they would need to
eat all day. (See Note 16 for Chapter 1).
The mystery of Lilliput is unravelled without taking away any of the
story's fascination. The effect of linear enlargement on higher dimensions
can be experienced as a miracle of equal magnitude.
The theme is concluded by a number of test questions that relate to the
heart of the problem.
One example: When Gulliver gets up out of the bath tub a thin layer of
water covers his body. If it could be collected, it would fill a tall glass, the
weight of which is about 1% of Gulliver's weight (1% of 70 kg.). Gulliver
hardly notices the water.
But the Lilliputian who is 12 times smaller is bothered by the weight of
the water on his skin. Try to explain this.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This introductory chapter presents the central question at issue for this
study. The problem concerns the description of the goals of mathematics
education in the elementary school, as seen in the context of innovation.
The leading question is:
How should mathematics education goals be described to someone

who is not, or is insufficiently, acquainted with this type of education?
We wish to give a scientific account of the way in which Wiskobas' goal

description was achieved. There is one complication however. Educa-
tionalists can possibly be as inexperienced with regard to mathematics
education in the elementary school as the teachers and other participants,
to whom the goal descriptions of certain pieces of innovative mathematics
instruction are addressed.
How can this problem be solved?
First of all we will place the reader in the position of the mathematics
learner. He is asked to complete all sorts. of assignments and to read some
mathematics instruction texts. Of course this does not make the digestion
of the present publication any easier, and while for some the mathematical
problems will be the meat in the pie, for others they will be the hard
pie-crust. At least this is true as far as non-mathematicians are concerned.
Conversely, those who are used to moving from one mathematical
problem to the next will find it more difficult to be guided by comments on
the text. However, it is necessary to face this difficulty since it is our
intention that the reader should test his ideas on the content and form of
goal description by both mathematical experience and didactical reflection.
In the first chapters the 'emphasis will lie on the content. aspect of goal
description. The way in which this happens strongly resembles the
approach taken in practice to acquaint teachers with innovation. Further
on, the accent is shifted to the methods of description and the scientific
justification.
The introductory chapter serves to formulate the problem of goal
description as it functions in innovation. Before sketching the innovative
frame in which Wiskobas operates, a short history of the origins of
Wiskobas will be given. The Wiskobas project will be briefly characterised
by placing it against the background of the various trends in mathematics
education as their influence was felt in the Netherlands around 1970. Next
the intended innovative· strategy and the innovation theme will be charac-
8
INTRODUCTION 9
terised and the central question at issue will be formulated. The present
chapter concludes with a summary of the contents of the present publica-
tion and a short summary of the essentials of this introduction.
1. FROM "NEW MATH" TO WISKOBAS
At the end of the nineteen fifties, and at the beginning of the nineteen
sixties, curriculum projects mushroomed in many countries of the western
world in both university and secondary education. In some cases elemen-
tary education was also included.
The initiators were scientists from the universities as well as represen-
tatives of the educational system - an informal 'panel' that provided
general directives for development teams and author groups. Within a few
years teaching packages :were produced, tested, revised, and disseminated.
The basic texts were designed in a matter of weeks, while other groups
spent long, hot summers on such chores. Within a few years these texts
were thought to be ready for schoolroom use. After the total package was
marketed the authors and developers went home. The publishers took the
package of texts, work sheets and work books in hand and proceeded with
further revisions.
This picture of a curriculum development explosion emerged in quite a
few countries. Sometimes teachers' organisations backed the effort, some-
times schools were the promoters, and in isolated instances the stimulus
came from a prominent mathematics didactician. 1
1.1 Three Trends

Globally speaking innovation in mathematics education for elementary
education occurred along three different lines which we shall call the
arithmetical, the structural and the empirical trends. 2
The arithmetical trend was characterized by an early introduction of the

language of sets, by the treatment of a number of new topics, and by an
approach to arithmetic instruction that deviated even. further from reality
than in the past. This trend - also referred to as "New Math" - has
brought about little effective change: new topics such as geometry, prob-
ability, statistics, relations and functions received much less attention in
educational practice than one might imagine on the basis of the contents
of textbooks and materials. Its didactical approach differs little from the
drill and practice arithmetical instruction in the past.3
The structural trend places the emphasis on mathematical structures,

showing traditional areas in a· different light or overshadowing them with
new topics such as logic, transformations, number systems, probability and
10 CHAPTER I
relations. How this reliance on mathematical science can backfire, appears

from the following:
We are totally agreed that the road to follow begins with the investigatiqn of a situation,
which, however, means a real life situation that will teach us to see, analyze and process the
mathematical (and therefore also the arithmetical) aspects, rather than situations which are
purely "mathematical". We do not agree with mathematics for math's sake. Question of
values? Indeed. And we do not hesitate to choose for the real values: living beings in their
society and environment.4
The empirical trend does choose as its starting point for mathematical
activities the neighbourhood of the child's every day_ experience. It injects
arithmetic with activities in the areas of measurement, geometry, functions
and statistics. This innovation is characterised by its didactical approach
rather than by strict methodological structure or a mathematical source of
inspiration. In practice this leads to an enrichment of arithmetical instruc-
tion but sometimes also to a badly organized collection of activities
originating in 'environmental situations'.
Edith Biggs, one of the most outspoken representatives of the empirical
trend offers the following in her "reflections after a decade of discovery
mathematics":
During the experimentation which has taken place in primary classrooms throughout the
past ten years many teachers have come to abandon their schemes and today they are
working without written guidance of any kind. This makes it very difficult to ensure that
children are not repeating the same experience at different stages of their school life unless
teachers frequently meet to discuss programmes.s
The arithmetical trend finds its origin in the United States, the struc-
tural approach was followed mainly in French speaking areas, while the
empirical trend was manifested mairlJy in Britain.
1.2. Wiskobas
In the Netherlands there was interest in each of the three trends: at the
end of the sixties measures were taken to translate into Dutch textbooks
written in the 'arithmetical trend', to adopt contributions in the 'structural
trend', to sell material in the empirical trend'.6 Speaking to a conference
of Dutch educationalists in 1968 about the meaning of new math for
elementary school, Boomsma is quoted as saying:
The separate directions in New Math, as we have observed them abroad, should serve as a
warning and at the same time as a stimulus to attack the problems around New Math in a
common effort, so that the Dutch school world is spared from a chaotic situation in
arithmetic education.7
In that same year the Commission for Modernization of the Mathematics

INTRODUCTION 11
Curriculum started the new project named Wiskobas - meaning: mathe-

matics in the elementary school. Its purposes: the innovation of mathe-
matics education on a national level through instruction at teacher training
colleges.
At the outset this innovation had little effect: training at these institu-
tions was so tightly bound to the prevailing arithmetic instruction that
there were few possibilities left for innovation in training and retraining.
The idea of developing a new curriculum for elementary education on a
volunteer basis did not prove feasible. The only escape for Wiskobas was
to try to convince all those concerned that for many reasons it would be
unwarranted to introduce modem math textbooks. This resulted in the
apparent paradox that the group that had propagated the idea of mathe-
matics for elementary education was now opposing its introduction. Yet
the warning was effective in that the various new textbooks that had been
put on the market did not. sell well.8 The call for a more professional
approach was heard; from 1971 onwards the Wiskobas project within the
new institute for the development of mathematics education (IOWO) was
onitsway.9
2. THE HISTORY OF WISKOBAS
The Wiskobas project was executed in three phases:

- an exploratory phase;
- an integration phase;
-' spin-off, further development and research.
In the following section each of these three phases will be briefly described.
2.1 The Exploratory Phase

Many important areas of mathematics education were examined in the
exploratory phase (1971-1973). IOWO-;staff studied mathematics text
books, designed packages for mathematics instruction and tried these out
in a so-called 'design school'.10 The resulting drafts of a series of lessons
on a certain subject - graphs, for example - were used as practice texts
on the retraining courses for elementary school teachers. These lessons
were tried out by the same teachers while they participated in the courses.
The instructional expeciences with this 'new material, and the associated
new ideas, were collected and described in a periodical - the Wiskobas
Bulletin.
In this manner retraining helped to serve the development of various
aspects of mathematics education for the elementary school. At the
teacher training colleges, the retraining of instructors was directed towards
developing ideas for mathematics education in the elementary school,
12 CHAPTER I
while student teachers were confronted with more and more aspects of
mathematics education as it was being created by Wiskobas. The network
of activities was enriched during four-day conferences for teachers,
teacher trainers, counsellors and designers. Here curriculum content,
suggestions and views about mathematics education as well as strategies of
educational development were discussed. At the end of this period the
acquired insights were collected in the guide· book for teachers, Mathe-
matica, containing an overview of mathematical activities for the various
elementary school grades, mathematical reflections on a number of
relevant subjects, and a description of a series of educational topics. II
2.2 The Integration Phase

In the integration phase (1973-1975) the Wiskobas team concentrated
mainly on the construction of an 'example-curriculum' for mathematics in
the elementary schoo1. 12 It was developed at the design school mentioned
earlier, in a cycle of design, try-out and revision. During the development
of this curriculum, parts of it were published in Wiskobas Bulletin, where
the response to experiences with various topics could also be found.
At the end of this phase an overview of the developed example-
curriculum was published. 13 The most important objective of this overview
was, and still is, to steer the innovation of mathematics education in the
Netherlands. The heterogeneity of modem mathematics education and the
diversity in direction, necessitated - as we have already seen - one focal
point, which the overview of the example-curriculum claimed to be. It
aimed at defining the area of innovation, at forming a basis for the
retraining, training, guidance of teachers and workshops for teacher
trainees, and of serving as a source of inspiration for author teams and
designers of educational material. The overview was, however, not meant
as a directive for everyday education. It was a discussion document, a
source of inspiration, a foundation for training, rather than a syllabus. As a
matter of fact for this aim it was too brief, too exemplary, and the
curriculum design was too closely knitted to one particular school to be
used as an example for all to follow. However, the spirit of this example-
curriculum can be grasped from this publication. In this senSe it was
generally useful.
2.3 Spin-off, Further Development and Research

While the 'Overview of mathematics education in the elementary school'
marked the end of the integration phase, it also formed the starting point
of a phase of spin-off and further development (1975-1977). At this time
parts of the Wiskobas curriculum were further elaborated in new pUblica-
tions. Other developments with regard to kindergarten training pro-
INTRODUCTION 13
grammes, teacher training colleges, retraining courses for teachers and

workshops for teacher trainers were continued. 14 A number of new
activities were started in this same phase:
- research in certain areas of mathematics education, characterised by
specific problems of learning and teaching or by subject matter that
had been insufficiently considered, such as fractions, geometry and
calculators;
- a more intensive co-operation between Wiskobas and Wiskivon (the
IOWO department responsible for mathematics education for the 12
to 16 year old group);
- an extensive analysis of arithmetic text books and mathematical
methods used in Dutch elementary schools;
- support to author teams working on mathematical textbook series;
- support to school teams which, after a two-year retraining course,
had proceeded to compile a curriculum for mathematics education.
Many of the activities started in 1971 were continued. These included
work for school radio and television programmes, information and study
activities for regional Wiskobas working groups, as well as sessions and
conferences with counsellors, teachers, instructors and policy makers.IS
From 1977 onwards we also entered the phase of formal research and
local theory-building at courses in early number concepts, column arith-
metic, fractions and ratio (especially that done by OW & OC since the
abolition of IOWO).
2.4 Summary
We now summarise the most important facts from the previous sections.
In the pre-institutional stage of the Wiskobas project (1968 -1971) the
possibilities for mathematics education in the elementary school were
examined.
Study of foreign developments showed that three main trends could be
distinguished in mathematics education at the elementary school level: an
arithmetical, a structural, and an empirical trend. During the exploratory
phase (1971-1973) new areas for mathematics education were explored
and experiences were exchanged. An attempt was made to make explicit
the viewpoints which form the basis for construction purposes. The
integration phase (1973-1975) ended with an overview of an example
curriculum that had been developed during this period. This overview
aimed at giving direction to innovations in mathematics education which
started around 1970. During the spin-off and further development phase
(1975-77) certain parts of the overview were published in a more
extensive form, fresh developments for the benefit of training colleges
were elaborated and specific areas of mathematics education were further
14 CHAPTER I
examined. From 1977 onwards the formal research and local and gloQal
theory building increased.
3. WISKOBAS BETWEEN FOUR TRENDS
After this summary of the Wiskobas history, a short impression is now

given of Wiskobas' views on change in the content of arithmetic/mathe-
matics education, which is seen against the background of the four 'trends'
that influenced Dutch mathematics education around 1970, namely:
- the empirical,
- the structural,
- the arithmetical,
- and of course the current education in arithmetic study.
In the course of this present publication mathematics as it is seen by
Wiskobas will be explained in great detail, but at the present moment we
are satisfied with a global characterisation. The 'Gulliver' theme is used as
a concrete orientation base. 16
3.1 Wiskobas and The Empirical Trend

Subjects for mathematics study within the empirical trend are almost
exclusively taken from the biological, physical or social reality.
Wiskobas, however, admits also mathematical activities derived from
topics that owe their existence to a story, cartoon or any other creation of
an "imagined" reality, as is the case in 'Gulliver'. Arthur Morley refers to
these differences, when he compares Wiskobas and the empirical trend:
The projects are based on themes, the criterion for selection being the mathematical
possibilities and whether they capture the imagination of the children. This avoids the
straight-jacket we have got ourselves into in England in insisting that the only "real"
mathematics is "everyday" mathematics, thereby distorting the nature of mathematics and
restricting the range of situations on which to draw for teaching mathematics in primary
schools. This is not to say that the Wiskobas team is uninterested in the relation of
mathematics to the physical and social world; "Time, Distance and Speed on our Earth" is
another title. But they do also. give equal weight both to the "inner" reality of mathematics
and that of the child's imagination in providing sources for developing children's power of
mathematical thought.17
Although differences are apparent between the empirical and the

Wiskobas approaches, the similarities are worth mentioning. In 'Gulliver'
they are generally expressed by the emphasis on investigation directed
education, the integration wi~ other reality domains, the possibilities of
applying what has been learned and the measure of the appeal of the subject.
In a more particular sense, Wiskobas and the empirical trend agree with
regard to:
INTRODUCTION 15
- the attention paid to the measuring aspect of number in early

mathematics education;
- the development of units for various magnitudes;
- the approach to spatial orientation;
- the use of charts, graphs, materials;
- the connection with actuality.
3.2. Wiskobas and The Structural Trend

The structural trend, unlike the empirical, does use "imagined" reality as
the basis for mathematical analysis and investigation.
Frederique Papy for example, has compdsed stories in which dots
speak, lines sing, number-pairs dance, arrows show relatioI).ships, and
symbols execute operations. 1S Yet there is a basic difference between the
structural approach in such stories and the working method of Wiskobas.
In Wiskobas the excursion to "the small world" is most often followed up
by examination of the "big world". The contexts of the imaginary world
are re-examined. In other words: after an exploration in a "mathema-
tically-coloured" reality, the result is fed back into everyday reality. In the
case of 'Gulliver' this leads the pupils to matters of a biological and
physical nature.
In the structural approach, on the contrary, the constructed world lies
so far from everyday reality that it is almost impossible to return to the
natural reality. The mathematical activity is mainly directed towards the
construction of formal mathematical structures and aims less at the
relationships with the reality of everyday experience. The structural
approach is best expressed by the work of Dienes. In his "artificial
surroundings" mathematical structures are explored through games \ and
the common properties of games. In these game situations reality is
completely distorted, according to Josette Adda. In comparing the
Wiskobas approach to "small worlds" with the structural approach, she
comments:
"D'ailleurs c'est son abstraction meme qui rend ce "petit monde" simple; il ne s'agit pas la,
comme dans les situations pseudo-concretes, d'une distorsion du concret (encore plus
compliquee que Ie reel meme)."20
She illustrates the pseudo-concrete character of the structural games and

assignments with a piece of instruction where logic-blocks are assigned
certain meanings, for example being houses or vehicles, in order to
become "des etres concrets auxquels adViennent des aventures inimagin-
ables"21
The meaning of the mathematical activity in this type of education is
therefore derived from mathematical didactical considerations that pre-
suppose a higher. mathematical point. of view.
16 CHAPTER I
This illustrates an important distinction between Wiskobas and the

structural approach. However, in spite of the differences, it must be said
that there are clear influences of the structural approach on the work of
Wiskobas. For example:
- the attention paid to structuring aids such as number line, charts,
grids, diagrams and graphs;
- the approach to problems of reasoning via arrow diagrams;
- the approach by functions;
- the use of arrows and "machines" in the basic operations;
- the introduction of subjects like grid geometry and logic.
3.3 Wiskobas and the Arithmetical Trend
As seen from 'Gulliver' the arithmetical trend can only be viewed in a

negative sense: problems of a broad thematic character are absent. "New
Math" is almost exclusively concerned with introducing the child into well-
defined subject ~reas. The main objective is the transfer of knowledge and
the teaching of certain arithmetic routines, notations and rules.22
O'Brien gives the following picture:
In far too many classrooms in the U.S. (and perhaps elsewhere) children are called upon to
stop the successful spontaneous organizing they have had underway since birth and rather
than elaborate the cognitive actions (comparing, contrasting, generalizing, thinking up
explanations, challenging explanations, ... ) they've begun to construct thus far, they are
called upon merely to store and retrieve. Despite public claims to the contrary, it is too
often the case in classroom practice that children are treated as empty, passive urns into
which pre-organized (and adult-organized) schemes are deposited. In mathematics educa-
tion, to be specific, this often amounts precisely to the transmission by teachers to children
of the facts, rules, procedures, nomenclature and notation of elementary school arithmetic
with a great emphasis on accurary and speed in arithmetic computation.23
As far as innovation in mathematics education is concerned, he comes to

the conclusion:
The issue is one which cannot be resolved by mere attendance to surface structures, i.e.
discussions of this or that bit of content or this or thatteaching approach.24
And that is exactly what has happened. The innovation in mathematics

education as far as "New Math" is concerned, was primarily an innovation
in subject matter and when compared with arithmetic teaching involves no
essentially new approach to the learning of mathematics.
Themes like 'Gulliver' are therefore nowhere· to be found in this
approach even though· such problem situations as subjects would actually
fit into the arithmetical trend.
INTRODUCTION 17
This does not mean that Wiskobas has not been influenced by the
arithmetical point of view. On the contrary, the following subjects in the
example-curriculum reflect a "New Math" heritage:
- many puzzles;
- many practice games;
- ideas about learning the basic operations;
- the use of ''frames'' in arithmetic assignments;
- charts and diagrams for the setting of arithmetic assignments.
3.4 Wiskobas and the Current Arithmetic Education
Between the two world wars Dutch arithmetic instruction was almost
monopolised by Bouman en Van Zelm, a standard textbook, and their
endless rows of problems, long arithmetic calculations, and countless
so-called thinking problems. After the second world war arithmetic
instruction changed, with vast alterations of the most elementary part,
sophistication of the practice, simplification of the subject matter, and a
slow but definite withdrawal of the long arithmetic problems. Diels and
Nauta were the first to reflect these changes in print.
Later on - at the end of the nineteen fifties - psychologically oriented
arithmetic instruction gained in influence and emphasis was placed on
insight in arithmetic, methods of solution, and the use of structural means
such as the number line, the hundred-square chart and the ratio strip.
More often than had previously been the case, attempts were made to
start from real life situations. The method of "Functional Arithmetic" by
Reynders and Snijders can be seen as an example of this development.
From the middle sixties these tendencies were supplemented by a more
flexible use of the arithmetic reader in all sorts of classroom organisation,
for example: the classroom or group activities, and individualised instruc-
tion.
However, the changes mentioned were not able to remove the over-
ruling mechanistic element in arithmetic education from the third grade
on, notwithstanding certain attempts, such as in "Functional Arithmetic".
Freudenthal sees the distinction between the existing pluriform arith-
metic education and Wiskobas like this:
When a child leaves the primary school, he has completed from ten to twenty thousand
arithmetic problems. The measure of success with which he has done so, determines his
type of secondary school and his future life. To an even higher degree the fact of having
learned arithmetic (and the measure of success) also determines the mathematical (or more
often the antimathematical) attitude of the pupil - and what is even worse - that of the
teacher who is instructing hlm: a view of the individual as a programmable computer, who,
however, will never approach the performances typical of the computer.
18 CHAPTER I
The education we are developing is determined by a different view of fellow man and
by a different view of mathematics - not as subject matter, but as a human activity. At an
earlier time I have characterised it as
- allied to reality;
- close to the child;
- socially relevant.
Bringing these characteristics together as one worthy of a human being: worthy of the
human as a learner, teacher, guide to and creater of, education. 25
'Gulliver', which adequately represents the kind of mathematics education

Wis"kobas has in mind, embodies this characteristic in llumerous activities,
such as contriving strategies in order to compare information from the
Lilliputian world with our own reality, critical reasoning with quantitative
information from a story, experimenting, using models, and applying
theory to many practical situations. None of these activities were to be
found in the existing arithmetic education.
Current arithmetic education undoubtedly had its influences on the
work of Wiskobas. To name a few:
- the approach to early arithmetic; use of all sorts of materials, models,
and practice games;
- use of models, as happens in psychologically-oriented arithmetic
instruction: grids, the hundred-square chart, magic squares, the
number line, ratio strips, and the percentage meter;
- certain elements from texts on area and ratio;
- the start from everyday experiences, such as (in certain arithmetic
methods) the newspaper, the railway time-table etc.;
- methodological elements· in teaching children to tell time, arithme-
tical tricks, measuring and calculation.
3.5 Conclusion
The dissatisfaction with current arithmetic education and the tempting

changes of the new mathematics education were the reasons why at the
end of the 1960s the didacticians at the Teacher Training Institutions were
unanimously convinced of the need to change arithmetic instruction. The
direction in which these changes were to lead was not clear at the outset.26
The same was initially true for Wiskobas. However, after extensive
orientation in arithmetic education and in the various trends in mathe-
matics education and after a thorough exploration of new subject areas
and intensive experience of teaching practice, it became ever more
apparent in which direction the changes should go.
. A global indication of this direction has been given amongst others, by
considering 'Gulliver' against the background of the four trends in (Dutch)
INTRODUCTION 19
education around 1970, when arithmetic education formed the main-

stream.
4. INNOVATION ACCORDING TO WISKOBAS
Dalin describes innovation as "a deliberate attempt to improve practice in

relation to certain desired objectives.'>27
If emphasis is placed on the first part of the definition, the strategy of
innovation is the issue. If the latter part is emphasized the innovative
theme becomes more important.
In the previous discussion both innovative aspects have been men-
tioned: the innovation strategy in the section dealing with the history of the
Wiskobas project and the innovative theme in the last section.
In so far as they are important for a good understanding of goal
description, the main issues of both innovative strategy and theme will be
reviewed briefly. We start from previously given information.
4.1 The Innovation Strategy

Dalin adds the following to the first part of his definition - "a deliberate
attempt"~
When we say a deliberate attempt we usually mean a planned attempt. Planned

innovations, however, usually imply a specific and often technocratic planning proce-
dure which is not always necessary for innovations to occur. We do not therefore,
imply that innovations always originate in a "planning-research-development-diffusion"
process. 28
In the case of the Wiskobas project the so-called (p)-r-d-d-strategy to

which Dalin refers was not followed. There is no separation between
research-development- and diffusion-activities and hence no ordering of
these three activities in time. 29 The three elements can however be
recognized in the various innovation activities of the Wiskobas project,
even though the connection between the elements is made in a different
way from that used in the strict r-d-d strategy. One can actually find more
evidence of a cyclic connection than of a linear order between the three
activities. This is neither the time nor the place to give a complete descrip-
tion of the innovative, strategy followed by Wiskobas. Here we only give a
summary of innovation traits that are relevant to the problem of goal
description. 30
In this connection we mention:
- The specific manner of development of ideas, material and instruc-
tion packages, which will be dealt with in greater detail at the end of
this publication. For the moment it can be best described as a
20 CHAPTER I
creative constructive process that takes place very close to the real
teaching situation and in which concrete objectives play no dominat-
ing part at the outset.
- The simultaneous development of ideas, material and instruction
packages, and curriculum for:
• primary education;
• retraining courses for teachers;
• teacher training institutions;
• instructors and counsellors.
Thus a large group involved with education could playa constructive

part in the design, development, revision, and evaluation of mathe-
matics material for the primary school.
- An early dissemination of ideas, material, instruction packages, and

experiences, so that those involved who were not members of a
design group, design school or follow-up school, were kept informed
from the start of the innovative process onwards, and could com-
municate about the developed ideas and material via Wiskobas
working groups, conferences, courses, and Wiskobas bulletin. (In
under four years the sales per issue exceeded twelve thousand.)
- Stimulation for gradually developing mathematics instruction by
adding problems, themes, and packages to the existing arithmetic
programme.
- The continued support (if desired) given to author teams composing
arithmetic/mathematics methods, to school teams and guiding bodies
for the purpose of constructing curricula for mathematics, as well as
to the producers of radio and television mathematics programmes.
The last paragraph lists a number of characteristics that illustrate the

"deliberate attempt to improve practice" on the part of Wiskobas. The
most remarkable aspect of the innovative strategy is one of openness:
openness with respect to each of the main issues - development, partici-
pation, response, dissemination, and change. This openness demands
actual participation in the constructive effort, in giving responses in the
gradual introduction of mathematics education and in the construction of
curricula for mathematics, where during the course of innovation the
emphasis shifts ever more steadily towards the last of the aspects men-
tioned in the previous paragraph - namely from the national Wiskobas
plan to a local development situation in the school. This is possible
because the supply of ideas, packages, and material increased as the
Wiskobas project progressed, which made it easier for school teams to lay
bricks for their own mathematics curriculum.
INTRODUCTION 21
Yet even supposing such bricks are found, what is to be done with
them? Are the newly developed ideas and material supplied by Wiskobas
''finished'', "teacher-proof" and ready for use?
4.2 The Innovation Theme

These questions bring us to the theme of innovation: ... to improve
practice in relation to certain desired objectives." To the second part of his
definition Dalin adds:
Most studies of educational innovations, however, are concerned with relatively small
adjustments of old practices, replacing them by new methods, organizational arrangements
or personal policies. The innovations are not concerned with a re-definition of the
operationalization of old objectives.31
In fact, the kind of mathematics education Wiskobas has in mind did

include new goals when compared with the existing arithmetic instruction.
Not only the content but also the permanent objectives were partly new.32
In 'Gulliver' this is expressed by the emphasis placed on the applicability
of what has been learned and on the search-directed learning activities
(the general mathematical objectives involved will receive more specific
attention further on in this publication). In short: the new objectives
concerned mathematising, e.g. generalising, proving, schematising, sym-
bolising, using models.
It goes without saying that the distinctive nature of the Wiskobas
learning activities led to drastic; changes in the educational activities as far
as "attitudes" of teachers were concerned.
First, let us consider the teacher as a student.
In arithmetic education where the effort is mainly directed at the
teaching of skills, the teacher's role is mainly one of instructor, organiser,
and schoolmaster. Wiskobas' kind of education calls for an attitude as
described by Stenhouse in the case of social science but which un-
doubtedly in a fashion applies to mathematics as well:
Either the teacher must be an expert or he must be a learner along with his students. In
most cases, the teacher cannot in the nature of the case be an expert. It follows that he
must cast himself in the role of the learner.33
What is required of him to make him a senior learner capable of offering something of
worth to the junior learners with whom he works? Skills in finding things out, of course.
But more than that: some hold on, and a continual refinement of, a philosophical
understanding of the subject he is teaching and learning, of its deep structures and their
rationale. The teacher needs to take on his agenda a desire to understand the nature of
social science, the value problems it raises and its relation to the questions at the centre of
the course. Only when he has gone some way towards structuring his own understanding of
these issues can be adopt the pedagogy of the course.34
In the case of 'Gulliver' this understanding attitude means that the teacher
22 CHAPTER I
(by which we mean, throughout this book, he or she!) must analyse the
material both mathematically and didactically. He first solves the problems
for himself, considers the structure and interrelatedness of the problems
and asks himself questions about the context, about evaluation aspects and
about any necessary changes.
This brings us to a second point: that of the teacher as developer.
The teacher must find his own answers to the questions. In short,
teaching calls for personal involvement and a productive contribution on
the part of the teacher. Applied to 'Gulliver' this can mean a revision of
the theme, the production of a personal variant of the story content, the
addition of new questions or modification of certain parts.
Goffree summarises. these two points in the term "constructive analy-
sis": the teacher analyses the material and if necessary constructs a variant
that reflects his personal ideas on education and in tum revises his variant
after the teaching experience.35
The theme 'Gulliver' is therefore neither ''finished'', "teacher-proof" nor
"ready to use". On the other hand, the package represents more than only
general suggestions. Rather it is one example - as we might join Sixma in
saying -, that "offers clear orientation and activity possibilities, that is
security to the practitioner without being strictly prescriptive, thus stimu-
lating the teacher's (as well as the pupil's) initiative."36
This can be formulated even more strongly: the kind of mathematics
education Wiskobas has in mind and that is adequately reflected in
'Gulliver' demands a strong personal contribution from the teacher and
calls for the mathematical-didactical attitude of constructive analysis.
Of course such an attitude is of importance for traditional arithmetic
instruction as well. However, Wiskobas' ideas of mathematics education
not only emphasise this mathematical-didactical attitude, but also offer
greater possibilities for a productive contribution on the part of the teacher
as well. All in all it can therefore be said that mathematics education, as
Wiskobas would have it, aims at fundamentally new innovative content -
new for, and appealing to, the pupil as well as for the teacher.
4.3 The Innovation

It is clear that this "newness" of innovative content does not make the task
of distribution and realisation any easier. In fact, dissemination is just as
difficult in the open, cyclic, innovative approach of Wiskobas as it is in the
closed, linear, r-d-d strategy.
In the initial Wiskobas innovative phase this was true for those outside
the development 'circuit' - inside we have the Wiskobas development
team, the design school, the follow-up schools; at a slightly greater
distance the participants at the first retraining courses, the course leaders
and counsellors. In a later phase, when the supply of ideas and material
INTRODUCTION 23
has more or less been completed, the problem still remains for those who
did not participate in the development.
How can the new message be conveyed to "foreigners" in a way that
will enable them to achieve the kind of mathematics education desired?
This is what Hacker refers to as the unsolved problem of dissemination. 37
From the previous discussion it can be concluded that Wiskobas has
taken a variety of initiatives to further the distribution and realisation of
the desired mathematics education. This was done by forming working
groups, by organising retraining courses for teachers, holding conferences
on curriculum development, supporting author groups and co-operating in
radio and television programmes, and similar activities.
These activities will be left for what they are and attention will here be
directed to one aspect of the dissemination problem; that of goal descrip-
tion, which emerges in almost all these initiatives. We presuppose that goal
description is important, a statement which will be made plausible at a
later stage.38
5. THE PROBLEM
How should the goals of mathematics education desired by Wiskobas

- with their many new traits - be described for those on the outside of
the development circuit who are not adequately acquainted with the
mathematics education at issue?
This was a topic of concern from the very outset of the Wiskobas
project. With the rejection of the use of such modern mathematics text-
books as were available around 1970, with the simultaneous approach
to the development of mathematics for the primary school, retraining,
training and guidance, and the urgent appeal to teachers, trainers, counsel-
lors, policy makers and other interested parties to participate in the
development of ideas and materials, Wiskobas was immediately con-
fronted with the problem of goals and objectives. What does Wiskobas
mean by mathematics education in the primary school? That was the
question at issue with regard toboth rejection and invitation.
To be more concrete: what were the objectives of the theme 'Gulliver'?
IQ other words: a number of participants asked - and rightly - to b'e
shown the Richtziele and Grobziele in Wiskobas mathematics innovation,
and the Feinziele for certain concrete parts of the math programme - to
use the terminology coined by Christine Moller and popular at that time. 39
Since, however, the objectives, in so far as they were clear to Wiskobas in
the initial phase, were partially new as related to arithmetic education, the
problem immediately arose how to describe the objectives for those who
were not, or were insufficiently, acquainted with this particular mathe-
matics education.
24 CHAPTER I
This problem remained during the course of the innovative process and
became even more urgent when the supply of material increased and the
dissemination circle grew.
This permanent question will be examined more closely in the course of
the next sub-section, before passing to the detailed formulation of the
question at issue and a summary of a number of problematic aspects.
5.1 The Problem of Goal Description

What exactly does the problem of goal description involve? Do the
existing goal descriptions not fit the goals of mathematics education? Or
rather: What kind of goal descriptions are being used in general, and why
should they not suffice? Each of these questions will be dealt with and
answered in this study, but one answer can be anticipated right now. In
our opinion the existing methods of goal description were not sufficient
for the formulation of the objectives of particular concretisations of
mathematics education for those who were not acquainted, or not suffi-
ciently acquainted, with "new" mathematics. In other words, if the problem
of goal description is considered within an innovative frame the existing
types of formulation apparently do not suffice. As we have already
pointed out, this is espeCially so for those people outside the circuit of
development.
In the literature on innovation and curriculum development the prob-
lem has clearly been recognised. Dalin remarks:
Often where objectives are operationalized, only the cognitive variables are taken into
account because they are more tangible and accessible to measurement. Therefore
products are created which reflect certain parts of the goal structure and there is a great
danger of producing side effects not directly related to the more broadly defined
educational objectives.4o
Dalin, as well as other authors, does not consider the matter of the side
effects or even harmful effects of goal description from the point of view
of "not-being-acquainted-with", which is inherent to innovations with
fundamentaly new goals. In other words, in the literature dealing with the
formulation of objectives, the questIOn of innovation has not been fully
considered.
5.2 The Question at Issue

It is precisely this innovative aspect that has occupied the Wiskobas
project from the very outset. In the simplest fashion our problem of goal
description boils down to the question: given a theme like 'Gulliver', how
can the objectives be described so that instruction can be given (do not
read: 'must' be given) in the way the designers of the topic had in mind,
INTRODUCTION 25
always supposing that the teachers, the curriculum developers, the

researchers, the psychologists and other participants are not sufficiently
acquainted with the desired mathematics education in general and with the
specific piece of instruction in particular?
In a broader sense the question would read: given an example cur-
riculum as a structured entity of problems, themes and courses, how can
the objectives for the published material (over-views, packages, working
sheets) be described so that instruction can be given as desired, and be
understood as intended, within a wider circle of participants (teachers,
students, counsellors, researchers, developers, psychologists, policy makers,
parents)?
There is, however, more to it than that. In the question as formulated
above, the emphasis lies on the form aspect of the goal description.
However the content component of the goal description will also have to
be given due attention.
This part of the problem can be formulated as follows: What are the
starting points, the general goals and the more concrete objectives of mathe-
matics education as attempted by Wiskobas?
Bearing in mind the preceding point, one should add: How can the
presented topics be described so that they will be understood by the wide
circle of participants who are not sufficiently acquainted with the intended
mathematics education?
In the present study an attempt will be made to answer these two
questions. We will describe the solutions that Wiskobas - or, more
accurately, the present author (on behalf ofWiskobas) - has created.
At the same time we are attempting a scientific justification of the
chosen goal description in order to contribute to the discussion about ways
of describing goals in the context of innovation. From what has been said it
has become clear that by "the context of innovation" we mean that the goal
descriptions. are intended for those who do not belong to the development
"in-crowd". We have also indicated that the problem we have raised can be
of value in a more general sense for any innovation that seeks to achieve
fundamentally new goals.
The problem of goal description can also be of importance in teacher-
training where the position of "not-being-acquainted-with" is an inherent
element of the learning situation. The situation also occurs for developers,
researchers, psychologists and other participants in the continuing process
of developing mathematics education. Thus we consider the question at
issue, and the answer, to be sufficiently important generally to warrant
scientific analysis.
5.3. What Is Not Dealt With?

A few remarks should be given about the issues that will not be con-
26 CHAPTER I
sidered here. Strictly speaking the problem of goal description in the

context of innovation is also embedded in the process of development. As
stated earlier, "context of innovation" as understood here, shall be
restricted to one part of the innovation process, namely the dissemination
phase. In other words, innovation is here meant in a restricted sense. The
function of goal description in the total process of development is there-
fore disregarded here. In chapter V, however, the question will be touched
upon to shed more light on the general matter uf goal description. The
same will be done for closely related problems of evaluation, psychology
of learning and curriculum theory: they are only touched upon if they
serve to further the explanation of goal descriptions.
Finally, questions like ''who determines the goals?", "how are goals
found?", "how can concrete objectives be derived from the more general
goals?", which refer to matters of competence, legitimation and deduction,
are almost entirely disregarded.
6. OVERVIEW OF WHAT FOLLOWS
Having given a sketch of the innovative context and the formulation of the
problem, there now follows an overview of the content of this study.
Firstly the chapters and related examples are listed. The function of the
examples is restated. Finally a short summary is given of the contents of
the various chapters.
6.1 Chapters
The chapter headings are listed, the titles of the examples of mathematics
material are given together with the year in which these were developed.
Chapter I: Introduction
Example: 'Gulliver' (1974 )
Chapter II: Starting-points
Example: 'Counting Problems' (1972)
Chapter Ill: One-dimensional goal description .
Example: 'Grains on the Chessboard' (1975)
Chapter N: Two-dimensional goal description
Example: 'The Land of Eight' (1976)
Chapter V: Three-dimensional goal description
Example: 'Freckleham' (1973)
Chapter VI: Surv¢y and justification
EXcuhple: Algorithms (1982)
Chapter VII: Fr~ework for instruction theory
Example: The Wiskobas Curriculum (1986)
INTRODUCTION 27
The chosen topics were not specially designed for this study, but form
parts of the example-curriculum for mathematics education that was
developed by the Wiskobas team during the period 1971-1975. Besides
being representative of Wiskobas' efforts, these topics are chosen here
mainly because of the author's own involvement in their development. It
would have been possible to have chosen an entirely different range of
examples from the example curriculum which for the greater part was de-
veloped by Van den Brink, Van Bruggen, Ter Heege, and Streefland.41
6.2 What is the Function of the Mathematical Material?

What is the purpose of the examples? In the "guide to the mathematical
material" (page xv) a number of these functions are mentioned. A summary
will suffice now:
- to give the reader an opportunity to take notice of, and to experi-
ence, the kind of mathematics Wiskobas wishes to stand for;
- to offer the reader a concrete basis with which to judge the goal
description of mathematics education, as it is offered here, in terms
of both form and content;
- to give the author the opportunity to support the opinions held
regm-ding the form and content of goal description.
In short the given examples can serve to provide further, familiarity,
explanation and support, if . .. the reader does not avoid the mathe-
matical-didactical aspect of the problem.
After what has been said concerning the problem of goal description in
the context of innovation, one more function can be added to those
already listed.
The manner of presentation followed. in this publication is a true
reflection of the way in which the problem of starting points, general goals
and concrete goals is presented ,to the o~ter circle. So the question of goal
description in the context of innovation is presented to the reader, who at
the same time is himself placed' in' the position of the less-familiar but
involved individual. This makes it possible to conduct discussion of the
matter in the same fashion as it happens' in the reality of innovation. This
means unity in form and content: alongsid~lhe "reflections on" the reader
can also meet with the "experience of". For instance, reflections on the
starting points of mathematics education as found in the next chapter are
similar to the treatment of that same subject in the process of innovation.
However, the present study includes a reflection on the chosen manner of
working and a scientific justification of the chosen approach which are
lacking in the practical realisation of the goal description.
In the next two chapters, the emphasis lies on the description of the
contents of the starting points and general objectives, which is virtually
28 CHAPTER I
identical to the style of description realised in the innovation process. In

the last two chapters and the Appendix the elements of "reflection on" and
"justification of" dominate the discussion.
6.3 Short Summary

With these closing remarks we outline the content of the chapters which
follow.
In the chapter dealing with the starting points of mathematics education,
combinatorial counting problems are used to describe the concept of
mathematisation and to illustrate the starting points of mathematics
education. The reflection will end with the following sentence, which
includes the eight mathematical-didactical starting points.
The starting point for Wiskobas is an active, differentiated, vertically planned learning
process, in which the structural character, the language aspect, the applicability, the
dynamics and the specific approach of mathematics are done justice.
In the chapter dealing with the one-dimensional goal description, twelve

general objectives of mathematics education are described and illustrated
by the theme of expone:p.tial growth: 'Grains on the Chessboard'. The
one-dimensional· objectives point to skills that are to be permanently
pursued. These twelve are subdivided into four integral and eight mathe-
matical objectives.
The chapter on two-dimensional goal description deals with more or
less concrete objectives, formulated in terms of ultimate behaviour or in
terms of activities. They are related to six subject areas. This chapter
considers not only. the contents but also the manner of goal description in
a broad sense. Using examples from 'The Land of Eight' it is shown that
goal description in terms of ultimate behaviour is not successful if the
learning effect cannot be registered as an ultimate skill, but reveals itself
only in the learning process. It also shows that goal description in terms of
activities is insufficient when considered in the framework of innovation.
The three-dimensional goal description serves as a concrete means of
describing the desired objectives. This is especially so for the process
objectives that are commonly described in terms of activities. The three-
dimensional goal description is a description in a didactical context. It
forms the core of this study with respect to both content and form of
description. It indicates the way in which the question under consideration
of the objectives of mathematics education in general, and in a certain area
in particular - for example 'Gulliver' - is answered. In this chapter
Lilliput has made way for 'Freckleham'.
Our goal description is visually supported by a cube. The eight starting
points are represented by the vertices, the twelve general objectives by the
edges and the six subject areas by the faces of a cube.42 This objectives
INTRODUCTION 29
cube is, however, no more than a didactical aid. It is not a mathematical

model, since the relationships between the starting points and objectives
are not adequately represented on the cube.
7. CONCLUSION
The present study is concerned with the description - with respect to

both the form and the content - of the objectives of mathematics
education and with a scientific justification of that description, undertaken
by a member of the Wiskobas team in a certain phase of the Wiskobas
project. This is done from a mathematicai-didactical perspective with
regard to the content of the objectives and from a more general educa-
tional perspective with regard to the form of description and its justifica-
tion.
Examples are used that serve both to illustrate the points and to
acquaint the reader with the mathematics education as seen by Wiskobas.
Thus a platform is constructed on which the intended mathematics
education can be discussed.
The problem of goal description is viewed in the framework of an
innovation. In other words, it is assumed that the individual for whom the
goal description is meant is not acquainted, or not fully acquainted with
mathematics education as seen by Wiskobas. The supposition is quite
realistic in this case; mathematics in the primary school is a new "subject",
the current .and future user has not been trained in it and the content of
mathematics education compared to existing arithmetic education is new.
"New" in relation to content, knowledge, skill, insight and attitude of
the pupils as well as to the knowledge, skill, insight and mathematical-
didactical attitude of the teacher. The importance of the scientific justifi-
cation should be viewed in the light of the previous statement. It is most
likely that the three-dimensional type of description presented here has a
general validity for other innovating "subject areas" that wish to bring
about a fundamental renewal of content in education.
In order to illustrate the problem of goal description and to offer a
profile for the "newness" of Wiskobas, the opening chapter uses the
'Gulliver' theme - in the eyes of Wiskobas a "giant" example. But what is
so "great" about it? When Gulliver arrived in Brobdingnag country it
appeared that he was a dwarf compared to the inhabitants there. In short,
it is important primarily to illustrate the Wiskobas standards with respect
to the desired mathematics education. This will be done in the next
chapter by eight mathematical-didactical starting points, which form the
vertices of our objectives cube.
hapter I I
e r i a lf o r C
Mathem a t i c a l Mat
P roblem s
Counting
32 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL II
This mathematical activity consists of eleven counting problems for grades

one to six. In chapter II these assignments are used to illustrate the basic
concepts of mathematisation and didactisation as well as to illustrate the
starting points of Wiskobas' mathematics education.
Before reading Chapter II, the reader is asked to complete the assign-
ments. The answers are given at the end of the mathematical material
section, and the reader can find fUrther comments on the problems later on
in Chapter II.
Design based on ideas from A. Engel, H. Freudenthal, E. de Moor and A.

Treffers.
COUNTING PROBLEMS
1. Flowers
Given: three sets of flower petals, each of a different colour and two
different coloured centres. How many differently coloured flowers can be
made?
2. Routes
How many different routes run directly from a to c via b? Describe them.
Q C
3. Apples
An apple tree has three branches. Each branch has three smaller
branches, each of the smaller branches has three stems and each stem has
one apple. How many apples are there on this tree? How can the position
of an apple be indicated?
4. ToandFro
How many different routes are possible from a back to a via b?
5. ToandFroAgain
A person lives in a and works in b. On the way to work he can use the
exit roads pb, qb and rb, to which he can go directly, i.e. without going out
33
of his way. The same is possible on the way back, but now in the opposite
direction. How many different aba routes can our traveller take?
6. Number Cards
There are three cards numbered 1, 2, 3. Find out how many different
numbers can be made from the combination of these three cards.
7. The Cube Crawler

A cube crawler goes directly from a to g along the edges of the cube. How
many different routes can he take and how can these routes be described?
I
I
I
I
J---
"
a ""
Io<.-_ _ _---'V
8. Routes on a Highway Network
How many different routes go from a to b on this network without making

a detour?
a
9. Score Progression
In the soccer game PEe versus Heerenveen the final scores were 6-3 (at
half-time 4-2). The score progression is a chain of successive goals made
COUNTING PROBLEMS 35
by either team. In our case there are nine links. A possibility is

p-p-h-p-p-h-h-p-p.
How many different chains are possible? In other words: in how many
different ways could the score have developed?
10. Families
Acting on the assumption that the chance per family of a boy being born
is as great as the chance for a girl, indicate the boy-girl situations that can
be expected in a sample of 160,000 families with four children. For
example: 20,000 families with four boys; 30,000 families with three boys
and one girl, etc. Explain the answer!
11. Other Roads

A person travels from a to c via b daily, taking what he considers to be the
shortest route. One day he decides that he will take a different "shortest"
route abc.
How many times will he be able to change his route?
ANSWERS
1. 3 x 2 = 6.
2. 2 x 3 - 6.
3. 3 x 3 x 3 = 27.
4. 3 x 3,. 9.
5. apb contains two routes; aqb has 1 route; arb has six routes. There are nine possible
routes on the way to work.
The total number of different routes aba is therefore 9 X 9 - 81.
6. 3 X 2 = 6.
7. 3 X 2 = 6.
8. 20. a
b
9. 15 X 3 - 45.
10. Approx. 10,000 families with four boys.

Approx. 40,000 families with three boys and one girl.
Approx. 60,000 families with two boys and two girls.
Approx. 40,000 families with one boy and three girls.
Approx. 10,000 families with four girls.
11. There are ten "shortest" routes of equal length a to b. There are three from b to c. The
number of routes abc is therefore lOX 3 = 30.
CHAPTER II
STARTING POINTS
We begin this chapter with a short discussion about the heart of mathe-
matical activity, i.e., about what Wiskobas considers to be the essence of
mathematical activity in primary school mathematics. The actual process
of deciding on that essential activity is not discussed here.' Therefore
when speaking of ''the'' mathematical activity in this study, we shall mean
that activity in mathematics education which is in accordance with
Wiskobas' ideals.
After a consideration of mathematical activity based on the series of
counting problems, we will ask ourselves what the characteristics of the
didactical action are that make actual mathematical activity possible.
This is illustrated by an example of a mathematics lesson. The learning
process will be seen to have certain characteristics. Moreover Wiskobas
feels that mathematics education as a whole should possess these charac-
teristics, which means that they are in fact the starting points for mathe-
matics education by Wiskobas.
In the third sub-section these starting points are further illustrated by
referring to the counting problems in the first part of the chapter. In
conclusion a short reflection is needed on the importance and the
limitations of the starting points. The conclusion is that an explicit
definition of mathematical-didactical starting points is desirable, but not
sufficient to indicate precisely the type of mathematics education that
Wiskobas is looking for. Thus a description of objectives is necessary, and
that will be the substance of subsequent chapters.
This chapter deals with the description of the vertices of the objectives-
cube as eight mathematical-didactical starting points. However, as each
of these eight bases for mathematics education is concerned with such
fundamental aspects, it is only possible to dwell on each of them briefly in
the course of this chapter.
1. MATHEMATICAL ACTIVITY
In this sub-section a number of characteristics of mathematical activity are

illustrated using the first ten counting problems given earlier. The problems
are arranged according to an increasing complexity and serve as markers
for a course of combinatorial counting problems.2 They do not reflect an
actual portion of instruction. The ten mathematical markers of vertical
planning are too sparse for that purpose and the entity of the course is
also too fragmentary. However the essential aspects of the mathematical
37
38 CHAPTER II
activity can be clearly recognised. Each problem will be discussed sepa-

rately and a brief indication of the various types of solution will follow.
The following analysis is based on a large number of observations made
during the learning process involving primary school pupils, teacher
training college students, teachers and instructors, who were confronted
with these kinds of problems. At the end of the sub-section a summary of
specific mathematical traits of the described activity is given, thus indi-
cating what Wiskobas considers to be the essence of mathematical activity,
namely mathematisation.
1.1 Flowers
Given: three sets of flower petals, each of a different colour and two
different coloured centres. How many differently coloured flowers can be
made?
If actual petals and centres are given out to kindergarten children the
assignment can be completed by them without any help.
The results:
One child did not understand the assignment. Another child worked systematically: always
choosing two similarly coloured sets of petals with different centres. The other children
checked to see if the flowers they were making were any different from the ones already
made. 3
The problem can also be offered at a higher level: without actual petals
and centres; each time six different flowers were found. Note that impor-
tant performances were present at each level:
- it is understood that the flowers are to be different;
- the assignment is completed in a systematic fashion with concrete or
with schematised material.
1.2 Routes
How many different routes run directly from a to c via b? Describe them.
Q C
A similar systematic approach can be followed here. A possible kind of

description is to place numbers (or letters) next to the different routes and
indicate the route with a pair of numbers:
ST ARTING POINTS 39
·c ':>.cC :=:>'
1 3
The routes are:(1,3); (1,4); (1,5);

(2,3 ); (2,4); (2,5).
By the use of symbolisation, the systematic approach can be directed to
the symbols rather than to the routes. This opens up the possibility of a
more abstract approach.
The number-pairs will possibly be associated with co-ordinates: thus
the road-problem is transformed into an intersection problem via symboli-
sation.
Pupils in grades three and four are often capable of generalising this
type of problem and sometimes even capable of giving a general formula.
This displays an approach to an even higher level. So we have
- concrete action;
- systematic concrete action;
- systematic action and symbolisation;
- systematic approach, symbolism, generalisation and formulation. 4
1.3 Apples
An apple tree has three branches. Each branch has three smaller branches,
each of the smaller branches has three stems and each stem has one apple.
How many apples are there on this tree? How can the position of an apple
be indicated?
W ~·---_I
In arithroeticallanguage: the number of apples is 3 X (3 X 3) == 27.

In ordinary language: there are three groups of three groups of three, or
three boxes containing three smaller boxes, with three apples in each. The
position of the apple can be determined using an ordered number triple,
i.e. apple (3, 1, 2) can be found on branch 3, smaller branch 1 and stem 2.
40 CHAPTER II
This kind of symbolisation can of course vary but the one given above is
efficient and brief. Indeed a discussion about its efficiency and brevity can
in itself be the objective of a lesson for third and fourth graders.
1.4 To and Fro

How many different routes are possible from a back to a via b?
I'C_:?>b
This problem has the same structure as the previous one. The systematic
approach, symbolisation and generalisation can also be applied here.
There are also a few new aspects. For example, a difference of opinion can
arise in the interpretation of the concept "different routes". Is route (1,3)
different from (3, I)? The necessity for an agreed definition arises. Then it
can be seen that a number of previous solutions can be associated with
this problem.
·c:~·
Now route aba becomes:
------ I ------
I
The way back is, as it were, the way there reflected or turned over. The
grid can be used in this connection; routes are then represented by
intersections .. The tree can also be used; routes become branches. Hence
routes, grids and trees can be associated with other problems. This
becomes the first step on the long road to the concept of models. What is
first presented as a problem can later be used as an instrument to solve
other problems, not because it is prescribed or required but because it
offers itself - spontaneously or not - as a support.
We can see this for ourselves in the next problems:
ST ARTING POINTS 41
- a mouse runs from a to the cheese in c; find the number of possible

routes that it can follow.
a c
- there are five people on a committee; two must be elected to be

chairman and secretary; how many possible pairs are there?
- the committee-members shake hands; how many handshakes are
given?
- how many different ways are there of filling in a football pool form?
1.5 To and Pro Again

A person lives in a and works in b. On the way to work he can use the
exit roads pb, qb and rb, to which he can go directly, i.e., without going
out of his way. The same is possible on the way back, but now in the
opposite direction.
How many different aba routes can our traveller take?
q
a.---t--....'
No new essential elements are added to this problem, but a good deal
of counting will have to take place before the problem is reduced to
familiar proportions. There are nine possibilities for the route to work.
Thus making 9 X 9 routes. This "thus" finds its origin in 1.4, as a
generalisation of that solution. But also the grid, the road problem, 1.2,
and the tree 1.3, can serve as a model for the solution, although this is
not so obvious here because of the signals given by "routes" and "to and
fro".
42 CHAPTER II
It is also possible for a less efficient procedure to be followed. For

example, by applying the systematic counting strategy described in earlier
cases, we obtain the following solution:
'C,mq:>·
2 waysviap
6x6+6xl+6x2=S4
lx6+1xl+lx2= 9
2x6+2xl+2x2=18
6 ways via r 81.
In itself this is an interesting strategy: the bringing together of the exit

roads shows a clear connection to the original picture and the systematic
approach is now applied to the collection instead of to the individual
routes.
If this problem is presented before the previous problems are offered,
all the difficulties of systematisation, symbolisation, simplification, gener-
alisation and precise concept determination will pile up. The organisation
of the problem area would have been much more difficult ... and
probably more interesting!
1.6 Didactical Digression
We have just seen that the grid model can be used to display a multiplica-
tive situation: for example 9 X 9.
We wonder if the same grid can be schematised in such a way that it

could insightfully display a multiplication like 67 X 78, and then further-
more, whether this schematisation can be the result of a mathematisation,
through discovery learni11-g. 5
ST ARTING POINTS 43
There are five possible phases in this schematisation process:

- count the intersections on the grid, as was done for 9 X 9;
- count the intersections more easily by splitting; for example 13 X 6;
10 x6 = 60
3x6 = 18
78
6
L -_ _ _ _"T,_ _ _ _---ll L'---'Ir----'
10 3
- find a schema for the grid; work with thicker lines for the tens, for
example 13 X 16:
10 x 10 = 100
3 x 10.= 30
lOx 6= 60
3 x 6'" 18
6 -+
208
10
10
- symbolise the grid; place numbers along one line; for example
67 X 78:
60 7
70
8
44 CHAPTER II
- change the schema to a familiar algorithm; for example 47 X 26;
40 7
47
26 x
6--~-~-- 282
GV - cv--
I I
20-- 940 +
1222
I I
We may wonder whether this increasing schematisation is an effective
means of teaching the algorithm of multiplication through vertical plan-
ning, where by an algorithm we mean a fixed procedure for getting the
answer. If so, an important didactical phase has been outlined here, which,
however, does not yet justify our didactical digression in a discussion
about mathematisation.
Yet we could go even further and suppose that a pupil can experience
the phase of increasing schematisation by himself in a guided learning
process, in which the necessary opportunities for mathematisation. are
given, but without offering him the prepared five schemas. In our opinion,
if the pupil is offered the described grid problem, "in time" he will be able
to experience the process of schematisation by a discovery method if he is
stimulated to do so.
Thus we feel that learning an algorithm can (do not read: must) be done
through a mathematisation process.
At the same time we voice the opinion that on the one hand the
mastery of an algorithm can be an important aid to mathematisation (as
the addition algorithm is a necessary aid. in the previous example), while
on the other hand a mathematisation process can lead to the discovery of
an algorithm (in this case the multiplication algorithm).
It is therefore incorrect to place mathematisation and algorithmisation
(learning an algorithm) as two conflicting elements in mathematics educa-
tion. What we have is a mutual meaningfulness.
Mathematics education will have to contain both the inventive as well
as the receptive element, not as conflicting but rather as supporting
necessities. That which is the result first of a discovery can later be used
as a secure routine for the solution of problems at a higher level.
It is fitting. that this evidence is formulated explicitly in an argument
about the concept of mathematisation, and this is the reason for this
didactical digression.
ST ARTINO POINTS 45
1.7 Cards for the Cube Crawler

There are three cards numbered 1, 2, 3. Find out how many different
numbers can be made from the combination of these three cards.
A cube-crawler goes directly from a to g along the edges of the cube.
How many different routes can he take and how can these routes be
described?
~-------------.g
A possible approach.
Take the solutions starting with 1 .
This approach can be represented by a tree diagram:
If the problem is formulated as: ''first I had three possibilities, then only
two and then one", a jump can be made to the road network model. The
problem can best be visualised using the tree model since the various
possible choices can easily be distinguished on it. The road model reduces
the concrete cards to possible choices and shows a more abstract
approach. The grid diagram offers no possibilities of this kind.
If the number card problem is extended to four or more, an elegant
solution can be found using the systematic approach combined with
reasoning based on considerations of symmetry. A fifth grader attacked
the problem like this:
46 CHAPTER II
(IJ[1J[1][f]
(IJ[1J[±][1]
(IJ11J[1J(fJ
1II11J[±][1J
(IJ[f][1J[1]
(IJ[i]m~
''There are six possibilities with card 1 in the first position. With 2 in
the first position another six possibilities, and the same for 3 and 4. So
there are 24 possibilities."
The symmetry of this kind of reasoning can be represented on the tree
diagram: one of the branches is considered with all its side branches, we
know there are four branches, so ...
Similar remarks can be made concerning the cube crawler.
It is worthwhile comparing the two problems with each other. If a move
to the right is represented by 1, a move to the back by 2 and a move up
by 3, then each route can be described by using three digits as with the
earlier card-numbers.
For example:
/ / : - - - - - - -.....~- g
",
// ",/
,-
"'----~---_f'
I ' I
I I
[I] [II III is the route: 1
1 I
I
I I
I I
I " " ...... , j .. "
I I
I I
/,g
/ .... I
----.:-----f""// 1
1
1
III [IJ mis the route:

1
I
I !
I 1
1 I
" .. " ,I" .. " .. -;)
I /'
1 "
- - - - _____ J... ... ;
a
Therefore the interpretation of one problem can completely match

another one. This is an example of isomorphism.
STARTING POINTS 47
1.8 Routes on a Highway Network
How many different routes go from a to b on this network without making

a detour?
If we do not succeed in solving the problem - which is not so surpris-

ing, since the routes are difficult to untangle - we can simplify the assign-
ment by placing b closer to a and gradually moving b further away.
Then a pattern becomes visible behind the successive possibilities,

namely,
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
which shows that the total number of routes to b is 20.

Not much counting is necessary, if, at a certain point, we continue the
pattern independently of the drawing. We are then supposing that the
48 CHAPTER II
pattern will continue in the original fashion and will not suddenly drop a
stitch!
Is that a daring supposition? It would not seem so, but the remark "and
so on" will have to be justified.
Can we explain why this type of pattern occurs on the highway
network? Take an arbitrary case: is it plausible that the lOin the pattern
results from the addition of 6 and 4?
10
Once this is understood, the whole pattern is suddenly explained. At a

higher mathematical level the solution will have to be fitted into the jacket
of complete induction to comply with "and so on". The explanation: we
arrive at r only from p and q. From p four routes lead to r, from q six,
making a total of ten routes to r.
The specific mathematical approach is well expressed in this example:
first the problem is simplified, then gradually expanded, resulting in a
certain pattern, of which the underlying structure must be explained in
order to provide sufficient justification of the solution.
To that end, an arbitrary piece (p, r, q) is cut from the pattern and on it
the general principle is explained: the example is a model for the other
relations. Now the whole pattern is explained in one breath.
Sawyer describes mathematics as the study of regularities, patterns and
structures.6 From the above it follows that the explanation of the regularity
or the underlying structure of a pattern is the important finishing act. The
search for the pattern and the generalisation takes places according to
inductive reasoning where explanation and proof have been reached
through deduction. We should point out that the principle of complete or
mathematical induction is more closely related to deductive than inductive
reasoning. The daring jump that characterises induction and which reflects
the fact that the generalisation is made on a very flimsy basis, becomes
a calculated leap in broad day-light for mathematical induction, since
the generalisation is already contained in the principle of complete
induction.
ST ARTING POINTS 49
1.9 Score Progression

In the Soccer game PEe versus Heerenveen the final scores were 6-3 (at
half time 4-2).
The score progression is a chain of successive goals made by either
team. In our case there are nine links. One possibility is
p-p-h-p-p-h-h-p-p. How many different chains are possible? In
other words, in how many different ways could the score have developed?
Each of the previous aspects are combined in this problem. This
complicated problem can be untangled in various ways. In most cases it
will mean a lengthy procedure. If the connection with the previous
problems is recognised and the course of the scoring is represented as a
route on the highway network, the question can be solved more quickly:
Il
Point a represents the beginning of the game. Point b represents half

time (4, 2). Point c represents the final score (6, 3). A goal for PEe means
a move to the left. A goal for Heerenveen means a move to the right. The
course of the scoring is then represented as a route from a to c via b.
Notice that the route cannot exceed the limits of the drawn rectangles.
The number of possible routes from a to b and from b to c is deter-
mined by the addition rule that we have detected in the previous problem.
Il
6>
b
.1
1 2
3
c
b
50 CHAPTER II
The number of routes from a to b is 15, b to cis 3. The total number of

routes from a to cis 15 X 3 = 45. The difficulty with this problem lies in
the modeling, which means, in this case, taking goals as being "moves".
The problem is then replaced by an isomorphic problem, for which the
solution is partially known, in so far as it concerns the separate considera-
tion of the goals in each half of the game.
Then the product rule from section 1.2 must be "seized" with the
network. All in all this is quite a job. The mathematicians among the
readers have a different model at their disposal. This is a model from
probability, which gives: "Before half-time six goals were scored, two for
Heerenveen, the possibilities for the score progression are (~) = 15: after
half-time (f) = 3: the total number (~). (f) = 45.
But even this reasoning is not as automatic as it looks. And why not?
Because, in any case, it must be discovered that the progress of the score
before half-time (4-2) - as far as the possibilities for the sequence are
concerned - is similar to the manner in which two marbles of the same
size can be placed in a row of six holes. And ... that there is a formula to
fit this: (~), to be pronounced as "two out of six", meaning: (6 X 5)/
(1 X 2)= 15.
Another question is how to find such a formula. It is a fact that
knowing a formula does not imply its use in situations in which it can be
applied.
1.1 0 Families
Acting on the assumption that the chance per family of a boy being bom is
as great as the chance for a girl, indicate the boy-girl situations that can be
expected in a sample of 160,000 families with four children. For example:
20,000 families with four boys, 30,000 families with three boys and one girl,
etc. Explain the answer!
The road highway network can also be used here. The boy/girl ratio
can be seen as the end of one route on the network:
ST ARTING POINTS 5.1
Each of the 160,000 families is asked to follow one of the routes. The
route cannot be read from the destination - with the exception of the
extremes.
For example, there are four possible routes for a family with three boys
and one girl (the first, second, third or fourth child can be a girl; therefore:
four possibilities).
The total distribution is:
- one possible route for four boys;
- four possible routes for three boys and one girl;
- six possible routes for two boys and two girls;
- four possible routes for one boy and three girls;
- one possible route for four girls.
- Total: 16 possible routes.
From this it follows that:
- There is a chance of 1/16 for four boys;
- there is chance of 4/16 for three boys and one girl;
- there is a chance of 6/16 for two boys and two girls;
- there is a chailce of 4/16 for one boy and three girls;
- there is a chance of 1/16 for four girls;
To interpret this calculation we have used the law of large numbers.
The law says that for this large number, the relative deviation will
probably be small. The term "approximately" takes care of the matter of
probability.
Yet we have been somewhat too hasty and abstract in the explanation
we have given. First of all we should have asked ourselves whether the
chance of having four boys is the same or smaller than the chance of
having two boys and two girls. In general the first reaction is: "the chance
of having four boys is smaller, but I don't know why, I just have the feeling
it is." That ''feeling'' is a good opportunity to quantify the chances. To
simplify matters somewhat we can begin with coins and ask ourselves if
the chance of getting head-head is smaller than the chance of getting
head-tails. Analogously, is the chance of boy-boy smaller than the chance
of boy-girl in a family of two children? Then ... , this is the path followed
in a course of study.
The foundation should be laid in a varied series of linked experiences,
which will lead to familiarity with the concepts of probability and chance.7
1.11 Mathematising
Mathematising is an organising activity. It refers to the essence of the mathe-
matical activity, to the thread that runs through all mathematics education
directed towards the acquisition of factual knowledge, the learning of
52 CHAPTER II
concepts, the attainment of skills and the use of language and other
organising skills in solving problems that are, or are not, placed in a
mathematical context. In the ten counting problems, organising occured by
means of:
- noticing similarities and differences (see 1 .1);

- being systematic (see 1.1 and following);
- symbolising (see 1.2 and following);
- generalising certain solutions (see 1.2 and following);
- formulating these generalisations (see 1.2 and following);
- formulating and visualising one problem in various ways (see 1.. 3);
- precisely defining concepts (see 1.4);
- using different models (see 1.4);
- applying a discovered rule in non-obvious cases (see 1.5);
- schematising increasingly a solution model (in this case: the net-
work), which produces an algorithm;
- recognising the isomorphism of two problems (see 1~ 7);
- reasoning on the basis of considerations of symmetry (see 1.7);
- discovering regularities through induction (see 1.8);
- understanding and explaining the underlying structure of a pattern;
the proof (see 1.8);
- proving the solution by means of the principle of mathematical
induction (see 1.8);
- explaining a relational link that is paradigmatic for all other links, so
that the whole pattern is explained (see 1.8);
- transforming and adapting a problem into a familiar model;
- combining a number of solutions, strategies and rules;
- using formulae (substitution) (see 1.9);
- finding a relationship and expressing it in a formula (see 1.9);
- identifying a specifically mathematical element in a general context
(see 1.10).
This list of mathematical operations is certainly not complete. If the

Gulliver theme had been included in the analysis, we could have added:
- estimating results;
- empirically experimenting as a starting point for a mathematical
exploration;
- analogical reasoning.
The problems encountered in mathematising can, depending on the level

at which the activity takes place, be very different. Sometimes it will be
difficult to detect the mathematical aspect of a problem, as in the case of
the family problem, where it is essential to fit the problem into the
network of the route problem. On another occasion it would be hard to
ST ARTING POINTS 53
generalise using a specific case and to apply the discovered rules to

another problem, as occurred in the complicated "to and fro" problem.
It is also possible that the difficulty will lie in detecting essential
similarities between a series of problems or of fundamental elements
within one problem, thus finding underlying structures at a greater depth.
It is a case of raising the level, which allows the original problem to be
seen differently.
This ever-progressing process of expansion and raising of the level is
essential for the mathematical activity; new problem areas are explored
and old areas are considered from a different point of view. Thus it can
happen that lower levels are used as an algorithmic basis for higher levels,
as has happened with the intersection-grid. It is also possible that initial
problems become the model for the solution of new problems.
We have given a short characterisation of mathematising. It will
however be apparent that rather than starting autonomously, this mathe-
matisation process must be prompted and supported through didactical
action.
2. ACTING DIDACTICALLY
This sub-section gives a description of a mathematics lesson and a

reflection on it from the didactical point of view.
What was stated previously about mathematising is once more illus-
trated here by using a concrete piece of mathematics instruction. Where
previously the emphasis lay entirely on the learning aspect, now the
teaching aspect is also taken into consideration.
It will become clear how the teacher initiates and stimulates the
learning process, thus generating a learning process that has certain
specific traits.
2.1 A Mathematics Lesson

The problem treated in the mathematics lesson reads: A person travels
from a to c via b daily, taking what he considers to be the shortest route.
One day he decides that he will take a different "shortest" route abc. How
many times will he ·be able to change his route?
We will describe the most important moments of the lesson as it was

given to two sixth graders - Jolanda and Tineke. Neither girl had
encountered a combinatorial problem before.8
54 CHAPTER II
First of all the teacher explains the structure of a city map and points
out that direct does not mean straight but that the route must run via the
squared city map. Therefore:
ae:-----,----r-----, a o--~--
....
.... ....
.... ~I
I_~~-
....
.....
~I
....
L..-_-'--_---'--_ _...._ b
.... ....
~- . - b
not like this but like this
The first questions that arise are

- Are there more 'shortest' routes?
- What does 'other' routes mean?
The girls discover that there are various other shortest routes of equal
length. To their surprise a "round-about" route appears to be no longer
than a "short-cut" route.
a ---- -----,I . I
I
I
I
I
I
I
L---'------'---_b
First the girls draw the round-about route and then - hesitatingly - the
short-cut route:
a ----,- I
I
I
I
I
I
I
'----I --- b
Their hesitation results from the interpretation of the term "other".

Initially "other" is seen as " having nothing in common". But after a short
discussion they come to the conclusion that the term implies "not exactly
the same".
Now that they understand the problem sufficiently clearly the girls
decide first of all to find the different routes abo The problem is thus split
STARTING POINTS 55
into two parts: determine the various equidistant shortest routes for ab
and then the different routes be. They start by colouring the various routes
but when it becomes difficult to tell these apart, Jolanda decides to draw
them separately:
Note that both when colouring and drawing, the children naturally keep
within the rectangle (with a and b as opposite vertices). They realise that
they are detouring as soon as they leave the rectangle.
While Jolanda and Tineke are still busy finding the other routes, the
teacher intervenes. He asks: "How many steps from a to b?" Their answer
is ''five''.
He asks: how many steps is that to the right and how many down?
The girls count the steps involved in each route and come to the
surprising discovery that each shortest route ab has three moves to the
right and two moves down. On looking back it is self-evident, but when
they were counting the steps they were not yet aware of this regularity.
The five steps can now be divided. into three to the right and two down.
The teacher uses this information to introduce coding. He asks the girls to
describe the routes. The description "right-right-down-right.;.down" is
replaced by the notation "r-r-d-r-d" at his suggestion.
This manner of coding is then used to describe the original problem of
the total number of shortest routes.
The solution is:
Jolanda Tineke
drrrd drrrd
ddrrr rdrrd
rddrr ddrrr
rrddr rrrdd
rrrdd drdrr
drrdr drrdr
drdrr drd ..
drrdr
Neither girl shows evidence of having used a systematic approach.
Asked whether they are sure that there are nine routes and not more,
neither girl is bold enough to confirm the answer: They decide to have
another look. The teacher advises them to further simplify the code by
asking themselves whether it is necessary to record the letters "r" once the
56 CHAPTER II
"d's" have been recorded. They decide this is no longer necessary, since
"r's" can be filled in in each empty space. The code for the route is clear
now: in a column of five squares you mark the letter "d" twice or put two
crosses, which determines the route:
Ix I I x I means drdrr
This code is now used to determine all the shortest routes abo
Jolanda and Tineke's second attempt looks like this:
lo1anda Tineke
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x x
x x x
x x
From the above it becomes clear that Jolanda has switched to a

systematic approach. She is now sure that there are ten shortest routes abo
At first Tineke fails to solve the problem, but when Jolanda points out
the systematic approach she used, Tineke quickly solves it.
After having found the three routes be, the girls come to the conclusion
that the total of the routes abe is 13, reasoning that: "... ten for a to b,
three from b to e, so ten plus three from a via b to e...."
They are in total agreement and see no reason to doubt their answer.
After instructing them to draw a route ab in red, the teacher asks:
"How can you go on from b to e? ... In how many ways can you continue
on from b to e?"
Tineke: "In three ways ...." Now the teacher draws part of a tree
diagram: one branch (red) with three smaller branches.
a
Before the teacher can explain the diagram any further, Jolanda says:
"Dh, I see, the answer is thirty, you can go on in three ways each time."
ST ARTING POINTS 57
The teacher asks Tineke: "How many shortest routes aba are there?"
Tineke answers the question correctly and her explanation is also
sound: "One hundred, you can show that on the tree diagram."
The teacher concludes the lesson with a short review of all that they
have covered. He points out the following important moments in the
process:
- the meaning of the words "other route" from the problem and the
discussion that followed;
- splitting the problem into parts;
- the progression from colouring to coding the routes;
- further simplification of the code using crosses;
- systematic notation for the different routes;
- being able to prove that each of the routes has been found;
- combining the sections of routes ab and be to find the total number
of routes abe;
- illustrating the combination of routes sections by means of the tree
diagram;
- application of that which has been learned in a similar case.
2.2 Didaetising
This was an example of mathematics instruction as Wiskobas would like it

to be. Several aspects of mathematising which were summed up in the
previous sub-section can be seen in the list above, such as symbolising,
systematic approach, proof and generalisation of the solution. However,
not only are the essentials of mathematical activity shown in the mathe-
matics lesson just described; but also one can see those of corresponding
didactical activity.
First of all we note the choice of the central problem, which appears to
be at the right level for sixth graders. Interest is aroused to a degree that
ensures a willingness on the children's part to attack the problem.
The organisation of the learning situation gives evidence of being
adequate: the children examined the problem situation individually or
together, they helped each other and were helped back on the right track
either by individual support or through the group discussion. The teacher
kept the learning process going by:
- asking leading questions;
- prompting;
- making the children aware of "self-evident" facts;
- explaining, using visual aids for organising;
- insisting on shortcuts;
- determining evaluation criteria;
58 CHAPTER II
- asking them to apply what had already been learned in another

problem;
- making the children aware of the learning process they had experi-
enced.
These essential didactical activities are referred to by the term "didactisa-
tion". Just as mathematisation refers to the essence of the mathematical
activity, didactisation refers to the essence of the didactical action which
makes mathematisation possible. Clearly our summary of learning activ-
ities does not give a complete picture of didactisation.
In another piece of mathematics instruction - Gulliver, for example -
the emphasis of the didactisation would lie more in the construction of a
story context for the initial problem or in the selection of effective learning
materials or in the observation of the learning processes.
Without going further into a more comprehensive description of the
concept of didactisation (for a more detailed account of the concept see
the publications by Goffree)9 we can say that didactisation results in a
learning process that has certain characteristics.
These characteristics will be briefly described, using the mathematics
lesson above.
First of all the children work actively; the given problem becomes
their own problem and they go all-out to solve it. The description of the
lesson shows how the teacher stimulates and supports this activity. At
tiines the children are capable of working on their own, as in the interpre-
tation of the words "other route", or when one pupil is explaining some-
thing to the other, ~s in th~ systematic approach. But at other times the
teacher's support is necessary to help them along.
Secondly, different pupils show different approaches, a situation which
we call 'differentiation'. The shortest routes ab could be found by:
- colouring the routes on .the grid;
- drawing the routes;
- drawing and ordering;
- coding and ordering;
- simplification of the problem: place b closer to a;
- application of the formula for "two out of five":
G) = (5 X 4)/(1 X 2) = 10.
Though the differences between Iolanda and Tineke are not great,
differences can be detected in the following things: in the drawing of the
routes, systematic recording of the possibilities and in seeing the meaning
of the tree diagram.
thirdly, the choice of the problem is such that the mathematics lesson
fits into the whole of mathematics instruction on combinatorial problems.
We can say that this instruction is vertically-planned.
STARTING POINTS 59
Fourthly, there is evidence of various aspects of mathematising in the

lesson. The pupils are given the oppor.unity to develop a code language,
to discover a rule for combinations, to ~pply this rule to another problem,
to offer a proof and to reflect on their own mathematical behaviour.
To summarise, it can be seen that the didactical action in'the lesson
renders a learning process that has the four characteristics mentioned.
However, it is not only this lesson, but mathematics education in general
as understood by Wiskobas, that has, or rather, that should have, these
characteristics.
This brings us to the following description of didactisation. Didactisa-
tion "is achieved by organising instruction in such a way that pupils are able
to do active and differentiated work within a vertically planned learning
process, in which justice is done to the various aspects of the mathematical
activity. With respect to this definition, the question arises as to the
grounds on which the characteristics of the learning process are chosen.
This question brings us to the starting points for mathematics education
by Wiskobas, which are dealt with in the next sub-section.
3. STARTING POINTS FOR MATHEMATICS EDUCATION
The question concerning the characteristics of mathematics education

which does justice to the specifics of mathematics - viz. mathematisation
- has just been answered by giving four cardinal points. The last of them,
that of mathematical activity, can be described in more detail by examin-
ing five important aspects, which therefore brings us to the following eight
characteristics of mathematics education, as distinguished by Wiskobas:
- activity: learning mathematics by doing mathematics;
- the differentiation: learning mathematics personally;
- the vertical planning: learning mathematics in a certain sequence;
- the structural character: the content of mathematics;
- the language aspect: the language of mathematics;
- the applicability: the use of mathematics.
- the dynamics: the developing process of mathematics;
- the specific approach: the method of mathematics.
In other words: the essence of mathematics education according to
Wiskobas, lies in a vertically planned learning process in which the pupils
can be active and work in a differentiated way and in which the structural
character, the language aspect, the applicability, the dynamics and the
specific manner of approach of mathematics are expressed. The mathe-
matics lesson as described has these characteristics. The question however
is whether mathematics instniction should have these characteristics.
Wiskobas would argue iliat this' is very much the case. However, the
choice of the starting points listed is - as goes without saying - arbitrary,
60 CHAPTER II
in the sense that it is quite possible to add or take away from them. So, the
reason for suggesting these eight starting points is that the basic interpre-
tation Wiskobas places on mathematics education is adequately expressed
by these starting-points.
The three didactical principles mentioned - activity, differentiation
and vertical planriing - are related to the classic "Unterrichtsgrundsatze"
as "Anschauung", "Aktivitat", "Lebensnahe", "Ubung" and "Kindesgemass-
heit"; and the five mathematical principles - structure, language, applica-
bility, dynamics and specific manner of approach - refer to the most
important aspects from which the mathematical activity can be viewed.
Aided by these eight basic "rules" the fundamental interpretation of
Wiskobas mathematics education can be illustrated. There will be frequent
reference to the counting problems described earlier.
3.1 Activity
Mathematics is an open system that is always developing. This is true
objectively for the development of the science as well as subjectively for
one's own personal development. In contrast to this openness stands a
pre-fabricated system, the completed structure. If mathematics is ap-
proached only as a closed system, then the acquiring of subject-matter
knowledge and the imitation of already established structures are the
major ingredients of mathematics education.
It is understandable that when considering such a finished product,
questions will arise such as: whether we should begin with the child, or
with society, or with the subject matter. Indeed, in a closed approach to
mathematics these three elements will have to be placed against each
other. In the open approach, mathematics appears more as a process, as a
"doing" discipline, as a practical skill, that is carried out in the region
between the inspired art and the technique. Thus mathematics is some-
thing that is built up from the learning individual: it is an activity.
Mathematics education based mainly on the idea of an activity is also
referred to as activity-centred, as opposed to child-centred and discipline-
centred education. In general this reference to "centred" is not a happy
one, since it implies the principle that the elements child, subject matter
and society are contradictory. It is particularly unfortunate with reference
to activity, since it is 'not the activity as such that matters but what it
includes. Better still, the issue concerns education in which the three .
elements are not separated.
The "centred" terminology rests on a didactical anti-thesis model, while
the concept of activity supplies the synthesis through education that
should be both pedagogically important and socially relevant.
For that reason we would prefer to speak about "mathematics as an
activity" rather than about "activity-directed mathematics education". In
ST ARTING POINTS 61
summary, the actlvity is an important starting point for mathematics

education, but not a focal point or goal in itself.
In the task of presenting mathematics education as a human activity, the
concept of 'meaning' is central. IO Especially important is the question of
how to involve the pupils in such a way that the problem will have a sense
of reality for them.
The context within which the mathematical problems are posed is of
the utmost importance in this conception of mathematics education: it is
not a cover, nor a wrapping; but it belongs to the essence of the mathe-
matical problem statement. This context is therefore seriously considered
from the very outset of curriculum construction. The previously described
combinatorial counting problems can be found in the example-curriculum
programme of Wiskobas in a series of "natural" situations, such as bus
problems, building blocks and making telephone calls. I I The introductory
chapter also has described how the problem of the relation between
circumference, area and volume in linear enlargement is presented in the
Gulliver story. Furthermore, from the examples given in the following
chapters it will become abundantly clear that Wiskobas has devoted the
utmost attention to the context of mathematical problems.
In the light of this it can be no coincidence that the reflections on
mathematics education are based on a number of common problem
experiences. That does not mean that "a" problem is necessarily "my"
problem. It can happen that it hardly appeals to "me" at all. On the other
hand it is also possible that a problem is inviting and that the solution
contains a strong "Eureka" element, which will lead to an important
personal experience. But what about those who search persistently, but to
no avail? Will such a negative experience not lead to a complete loss of
interest in any future activity? This illustrates the many restrictions as well
as the many possibilities of mathematics education in which the organised
activity forms the main event.
3.2 Differentiation
The analysis of problem situations makes it possible to indicate a number

of such possibilities and restrictions. There are problems for which the
restriction lies in the limited variety of possible methods of solution. An
example is found in 3.7 but we are already familiar with them from earlier
examples.
It is a fact that in such cases there is really only one path along which
the solution can be found, and then it is so hidden, that finding it at all
seems a coincidence. Subjectively speaking, such problems, which have a
high degree of "Eureka-character" and a low degree of differentiation,
may be attractive. However, for general educational use they are less
62 CHAPTER II
suitable. For that reason - and rightly - they are often offered as 'enrich-
ment' problems.
We have, however, previously encountered a number of problems that
could be solved in a truly differentiated way. For example, in the card
problem 1.7, 'differentiated' means approaches differing in level con-
cerning: systematic action, or ,systematic action and reasoning on grounds
of symmetry, or reasoning according to the method of mathematical
induction to solve the problem.
The advantages of such problems speak for themselves. Each pupil can
try to find an appropriate solution at his own level, and, in the group
discussions during the last lesson on a theme, a summary can be made of
the various methods of solution where each pupil can judge his solution
against those of the others.
This kind of differentiation in terms of the general solution process is
linked to another kind of level differentation, which concerns the specific
calculation method. We briefly described in Section 1.6 an example of
learning column arithmetic according to the principle of spontaneous
progressive schematisation: the same problem is solved by each pupil at
his own personal level of schematisationP If a contextual problem which
involves a multiplication is to be solved, we can observe some children
immediately discussing the required arithmetic operation, which then is
carried out at a low level of schematisation. Meanwhile there are others
who master the completely schematised algorithm of column multiplica-
tion but who have great difficulty in recognising the multiplication in the
problem situation, and perhaps resort to repeated additions. In brief we
can distinguish differences of level with regard to the general solving
process and also to the· specific calculation procedure. It is not so much
the quantitative difference in pace or content of the material that is
essential in the learning process, as the qualitative distinction in this
process.
It is most likely that this level of differentiation is too exclusively
restricted to mathematics education to claim a general validity. However,
it is a fact that this two-sided level of differentiation is of the utmost
importance within mathematics education next to the differentiation
according to pace and 'enrichment' material. 13
3.3 Vertical Planning
Vertical planning was given a concrete meaning in the series of counting

problems; the combinatorial problems were refined and displayed in an
ever-increasing type of organisation. The principle of vertical planning is
based on the notion that the "lower" activity offers a necessary basis of
experience for the "higher" activity.
This is no new idea. In the previous century elementary geometry was
ST ARTING POINTS 63
taught in preparation for systematic geometry. At the same time it was

frequently pleaded that preliminary instruction in geometry should pro-
vide a basis of experience before any systematic treatment took place. 14
Particularly through considerations of probability and algebra the prin-
ciple of' vertical planning has led to a new perspective on arithmetical
subjects. 15
The idea of vertical planning was internationally promoted with the
help of Bruner's view of the psychology of learning encapsulated in his
famous statement "any subject can be taught effectively in some intellec-
tually honest form to any child at any stage of development", which
became the slogan of curriculum developers. 16 From the mathematical
perspective it was primarily Dienes who supported this view and gave it
meaning.
The risk of an abuse of the principle was also high: the meaning of
"lower" was derived too exclusively from the "higher" in some. develop-
ments and the result was a 'descending' innovatiye: movement which,
produced a pseudo-scientific and formalised type of mathematics for the
primary school. 17 On the other hand the realisation grew that genuine
mathematical activities could take place at a 'concrete' level.
3.4 Structural Character

The result of the mathematisation process is an organised body of
knowledge. Regularities, patterns, relationships and connections are found.
During the solution of the preceding problems the remark ''They are the
same" shows recognition of those connections that indicate the structural
character of mathematics. The total sequence of ten counting problems
consists of links that show a clear structural resemblance.
To illustrate a few:
The two pictures can be joined:
I
64 CHAPTER II
We can attach the cards to the routes:
cards cube-crawler
''They are the same" in these cases means that the one problem can be
transformed into the other: openings become roads and cards serve as
signposts.
In the first example (mice and routes) the isomorphism can be more
easily detected than in the second case (cards and cube crawler). The
expression ''the same" does not mean that the problems are the same as
such, but it indicates similarity at a higher level. The surprise is a happy
one of discovering a structural similarity and not a disappointment
because of failing to' see a simple likeness which was detected later.
As well as the isomorphism between the problems, the structural aspect
is also apparent within the various problems. The arithmetical structure of
the route problem has been dealt with extensively. It concerns not only
the connection between the numbers but also the explanation of the
connection.
3.5 Language Aspect

These explorations and explanations must also be expressed in words.
Which requirements must the formulation fulfil?
'In the first place; intelligibility. A route in the highway problem is
pointed out by giving directions. This is intelligible sign language. If the
route cannot or may not be pointed out we make ourselves understood by
saying, "first we follow the upper route :q-om a to b and then the middle
route from b to c". If the roads have names, the route description is easier
to give, "first the High road and then the Low road." The connotation of
the road-pairs originates in a natural way through a reductive process
ST ARTING POINTS 65
(upper road, middle road) and, also for the letter-pair (u, m) or the
number pair (1,4). The demand for intelligibility is thus related to the
comfort of brevity in a completely natural way. This kind of language for
route description also makes it easier to discover isomorphic problems,
the pedestrian and the mouse use the same route code.
Let us return to the Pascal triangle and ask ourselves how the relation-
ships can be formulated in this case, so as to comply with the require-
ments of intelligibility, brevity and support. For a time we will follow the
analysis by Freudenthal. 18
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
We can begin with one particular example and continue by saying: "and
the same is true for each number in this table." The intelligibility is then
restricted by pointing to one example like:
6 15
~/ 21
'21 = 6 + 15'
This means that if I cannot point to it with my fingers, I am left empty-

handed, or so it seems.
This objection can be taken care of by isolating one example from
the pattern, citing the characteristic relationship "21 = 6 + IS" and by
adding: "so each number originates by adding the two numbers above it".
The requirement of intelligibility has now been met, but the brevity is not
quite what it should be.
The following formulation is more satisfactory:
The kth number in the nth row = the (k - l)th number in the
(n - l)th row + the kth number in the (n - l)th row.
However, with the use of letters as variables both the particular example
66 CHAPTER II
(part of the pattern) and the generalisation of it (in each case....) can be
fitted into an exact formula:
m= (k=D + (nkl)
m
where indicates the kth number in the nth row (k, n E N).
To the given requirements we should add the necessity of a gradual and
natural adaptation of the mathematical language in order to attain the five
characteristics of intelligibility, brevity, exactness, support and simplicity
with which the formulation above complies, and which makes it compara-
tively easy to describe the wealth of relations hidden in the table. This
touches on the applicability of the developed language. Let us take a
closer look at this matter of applicability in a general sense.
3.6 Applicability
Let us consider this with respect to the road network and road grid
problem:
- How many different routes are there from a to c via b?
Q ...------.c
- How many different routes are there - with no detours - from a to

b?
Q
Let us consider which problems can be solved by using the knowledge of

the multiplication rule from the road network problem or the addition rule
from the road grid problem:
- How many different routes are there from a to c via b?
ST ARTING POINTS 67
The multiplication rule can be very simply applied to an identical case.

The application is at a lower level than the discovery of a generalisation.
That is the reason why the phrase "application of a discovered rule" is not
appropriate for this type of identical case.
- How many different routes are there from a back to a via b'?
For this problem, matters are somewhat different.. While the previous
situation concerned an identical case, here the multiplication rule applies
to a related situation. This implies that it cannot be applied immediately.
On the contrary, in general this rule is quickly rediscovered from the "to
and fro problem" itself, independent of the prior problem and only then is
the relationship to that prior case detected.
- How many different routes aba are there via the exit roads at p, q and
r, without making a detour?
Again we see a related situation, even though the applicability is somewhat

more complex since both rules are or can be used within one problem
situation.
- PEe versus Heerenveen final score 6-3 (halftime 4-2). In how
many different ways could the score have been developed?
While the previous problems are put within the same mathematical
situation as the basic problem, this problem initially lies outside the
starting domain; we find ourselves in a new situation.
A new element is added to the matter of applicability: the development
of the score can be illustrated as a route on the road grid. Using this
"translation" the score problem is placed within I} familiar mathematical
context and so makes the application of the two basic rules possible. This
applicability is at the level of a complex related situation:
- Give the boy/girl ratio for a total of 160,000 families with four
children.
This is a new complex situation; the translation to the grid and the use of
68 CHAPTER II
the concept of probability makes this problem almost impossible to solve

for non-mathematicians.
Summary
The applicability of rules was explained by three essentially different
forms of the two starting problems:
- an identical situation; the same context, the same case;
- a related situation; the same context, a different case;
- a new situation; a different context, either the same or a different
case.
"Different context" means that at first sight there is no indication of a
road problem, even though transformation to the grid model is possible.
"Similar case" means that the application can take place according to
the prototype.
In the first two situations (identical and related) we are dealing with a
direct application within mathematics. In the third case the problem must
first of all be placed in a mathematical context before it can be applied.
This matter of putting into a context (model building) is also very much a
specific mathematical activity.19
3.7 Dynamics
The reader should try to decide for himself what course his mental
processes took in finding the solution to the problems at hand. In order to
offer a similar opportunity" for reflection but on a new basis, we will
consider a new problem. One example of a possible solution will be
offered immediately after the statement of the problem in order to sketch
the dynamics of mathematics (in a subjective sense). Each reader can
place his personal experience alongside ours. One warning; the puzzle is a
tricky one!
- Determine whether a grid of n by n (unit squares), from which two
opposing "comer squares" have been removed, can be covered by
dominoes of two by one (unit squares) shape.
El
STARTING POINTS 69
The report of one solution follows:
In the first instance I discovered that coverage was impossible when n is odd. This is
because the number of squares of the grid with corners removed is then odd as well, and
cannot therefore be covered. Up to this point the proof was easy. If n is even, matters are
less simple. I tried to apply symmetry, but this got me nowhere. Next I simplified the
problem and filled in 2, then 4 then 6 for n.
Coverage was not possible in any of these cases. That gave me the idea (induction) that
it would not work for any even n. But I was careful - if coverage did not work for 2, 4
and 6 that did not mean it would not work for any even n. For the time being I would have
to make do with an inductively found hypothesis, and that is no small achievement. I now
knew in which direction to look. It was not possible to tackle the problem by mathematical
means. What should I do? I abandoned the problem for a while.
Several days later - I had "forgotten" the problem - a coloured squared cushion
reminded me of the unsolved domino puzzle. It was the pattern of the diagonal squared
that especially caught my attention: the corner squares were both yellow.
All of a sudden I got the idea that I had found the solution (although I should report
that I had had that same idea when considering symmetry). In any case, I drew the chess
board structure on the grid. From that pattern two black (or white) squares must be
removed. Each domino that is placed on the board - horizontally or vertically, no matter
which - covers one black and one white square. That did it. Since the chess board with
removed opposite corners did not have the same number of black and white squares, it
could not be covered. This proof holds true for each even n.
A fmal remark about my experience. I was rather frustrated after my initial failure. The
puzzle remained in the "back of my mind and I had a hard time letting it go. On the other
hand I was more than ready to abandon it.
The problem suddenly reappeared in the form of the cushion. At that very moment I
was sure I had the solution and was quite excited about it. Having completed the proof I
was impressed by the beauty of my solution. It was an important personal experience.
Looking back I realized that it was only with great difficulty that I could recollect that it
was the cushion that triggered off my solution.
Here is a summary of the mental dynamics in that experience:

- initially two cases - odd and even - are distinguished;
- then the impossibility of" coverage for the case that n is odd was
proved; "
- then - after many detours - the inductive discovery is made that in
" the case of n even, coverage will most probably be impossible;
- a convincing proof is sought;
- if at first you don't succeed. . . until
- the chess board pattern is superimposed on the grid.
The description of mathematics as the discovery of patterns was illustrated
very explicitly by this problem. But the dynamics of the( mathematisation
process is illustrated just as handsomely. Initially the mental process took
place in a clear, concise and conscious manner, whereas later on this kind
of reasoning could not be followed quite as readily.
The dynamics of analytical reasorJng are characterised by clarity,
consciousness and cohesion. An account of the process is possible
afterwards. This was the case for the odd grid.
70 CHAPTER II
On the other hand, intuitive reasoning characterises itself by a sudden,

unexpected and uncoordinated leap of the mind; it will be hard to re-tell
the tale. This was true for the even grid. It is possible that the solution
itself will force itself upon the mind long after the explicit focussing given
by the problem has disappeared. Even though it may seem that the
solution suddenly comes to mind, it is true that intuitive reasoning is
largely dependent on previous knowledge and experience. It should
therefore not be compared to gambling, guessing or magic.
Analytical and intuitive reasoning complement each other. By means of
intuitive reasoning, solutions are often found that could hardly have come
about by the analytical process. On the other hand, analytical reasoning
makes it possible to place intuitive hypotheses in a clearer light. The
solution given to the domino problem amply illustrates this complemen-
tarity.
The analytical element took care of part of the solution, prepared
another part and rounded off the whole situation. Intuitive moments could
be seen in the symmetry and chess board structure. The first supposition
did not yield a solution, the second attempt did.
Throughout history the emphasis in mathematics education has been
on clear, explicit and analytical reasoning. Rough global and intuitive
approaches are less-favoured. In itself this is not surprising, since there is a
fine line between the "no-strings-attached" gamble and the inspired
educated guess. Yet we can only do justice to the dynamics of mathemati-
sation if there is also room for the daring leap. And that means leaving
room for guessing and anticipating the solution through reasoning that is
not totally conscious and that cannot yet be formulated explicitly.20
3.8 The Specifically Mathematical Approach
Using the ''family problem" we shall now attempt to give an impression of

the learning process in which the specifically mathematical approach is
expressed. (A word in advance; the family problem can be made more
realistic if it is related to the designing of houses.)
If it becomes evident that no mathematical methods are (yet) available
by which the desired ratio can be found, the possibilities of an empirical
approach are worth considering. The coin, dice, spinner and phone }>ook
form useful aids by which a number of distributions can be produced.
Certain patterns and symmetries become visible. We detect that there is
more behind the large difference between the number of families with four
boys (or girls) and the number of families with two boys and two girls.
Now the grid model comes within our grasp. We can depict the simulated
distribution as a route on the grid knowing that the chances are that we
will end up in the middle more often than at the edges. The chances can
ST ARTING POINTS 71
be compared even more precisely by using the previously discovered

pattern of the Pascal triangle.
Thus through an empirical approach - observation, experimentation,
inductive reasoning - the problem is transformed in such a way that it can
be approached by strictly mathematical means. The attempt to schematise
the problem mathematically is indicated by the term "horizontal" mathe-
matisation. In our example the horizontal component consisted of finding
the physical model - the simulation of the boy/girl ratio by using the coin
or spinner - and then the mathematical model - the transfer of the
simulation results to the grid model.
In general one can say that horizontal mathematisation consists of a
schematisation of the area that makes it possible to attack the problem by
mathematical means. The activities that follow and that are related to the
mathematical process, the solution 9f the problem, the generalisation of
the solution and the further formalisation, can be described as "vertical"
mathematisation. In our case the vertical component is found in the
calculation of the different chances using the numbers of the Pascal
triangle, as well as in the generalisation of the solution and in its expansion
to a broader area of application.
Dividing the mathematical activity into these two elements is an
artificial operation. In reality the distinction is difficult to make, mainly
because schematisation and mathematical processing are closely related.
Yet this distinction is meaningful, if only to make it clear that activities like
constructing, experimenting and classifying fit as well into the process of
the mathematisation as do symbolising, generalising and formalising. It is
not superfluous to emphasise this, since the constructive, experimental and
more "concrete" elements were rather neglected in the· ten counting
problems.
4. CONCLUSION
One of the parts of the question at issue formulated earlier was: What are
the starting points of mathematics education, as pursued by Wiskobas, and
how can they be described to those who are not sufficiently· familiar with
this kind of mathematics education?
This very question has been answered in this chapter, both in relation
to content and to form. The content of the starting points was described;
and the manner in which this was done - through concrete examples of
mathematics education - is similar to the kind of description used by
Wiskobas for the benefit of unacquainted readers.
The description of the mathematical-didactical starting points is of
importance, since by it the general bearing of this mathematics education
can be made clear, independent of the specific objectives of a certain part
of instruction. The starting points can be seen as orientation pointers for
72 CHAPTER II
teaching mathematics, as they reflect the basic ideas about mathematics

education and reproduce the overall flavour. An explicit formulation of
views on mathematics education is of utmost importance because of the
basic differences in opinion between Wiskobas, on the one hand, and
current arithmetic instruction and the three trends in education mentioned
previously, on the other.
While formulation of the starting points is of importance, such a
description is not sufficient. In certain views on teaching without objec-
tives, about which more will be said later on, the starting points are given
an over-emphasised character. This conception is restricted to principles
of procedure and implies that objectives can be left unconsidered. 21
Though we value highly the importance of starting points, we feel that
principles of procedure cannot take the place of objectives, and certainly
not in the situation of mathematics innovation. A mathematics lesson
dealing with the problem of the shortest route abc, can thus be presented
in different ways within the framework of the starting points.
In other words, starting points do not by themselves offer a clear
criterion by which mathematical-didactical decisions can be measured.
Should pupils be capable of solving analogous combinatorial counting
problems? Should they be able to find the number structure in the Pascal
triangle for the route problem? Should they be able to solve problems
concerning order such as in "three out of six"?
The starting points give no answer to such "should" questions. They can
be confirmed or denied in complete accordance with the starting points.
The answer depends on the objectives that are set for the mathematics
lesson. Thus there is room for various objectives within the given starting
points.
Even though objectives for certain learning activities cannot be derived
from educational principles directly, this does not mean that they should
be seen as isolated from each other. The relationship between starting
points and objectives can be described in the following way. Starting
points determine objectives in the negative sense; they restrict the possible
objectives and exclude goals that cannot be realised in accordance with
the basic principles. Formulated in a more positive way; starting points
and o\>jectives are in agreement with each other and are "collinear", as will
be seen in the next chapter.22
In order to have a good understanding of the objectives, it can be
helpful to illustrate the starting points. To that end attention to the starting
points has been given here, prior to the description of objectives.
So, what are the objectives Wiskobas has set for mathematics educa-
tion?
An attempt to answer this question will be made in the following
chapter. An indication of the way in which these objectives can be
described for those who are not sufficiently familiar with Wiskobas'
STARTING POINTS 73
mathematics education, will become evident from the following chapters.

First of all we shall deal with those objectives that take up a permanent
position in all of Wiskobas' mathematics education. These form the edges
of the objectives cube for which the vertices were shown to be the eight
mathematical-didactical principles, as expressed in the following formu-
lation:
- the starting point for Wiskobas is an active, differentiated, vertically
planned learning process, in which the structural character, the
language aspect, the applicability, the dynamics and the specific
manner of the approach of mathematics are emphasised.
Mathematical Material for Chapter III
Grains on the Chessboard

76 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL III
Chapter III deals with the permanent general goals that are pursued by
Wiskobas.
The theme "Grains on the Chess-board" - designed for the sixth grade
- selVes to illustrate the so-called one-dimensional goals.
It is important for a good understanding of the contents of the general
goals that the reader not only deals with the mathematical problem but is
also aware of the ways in which pupils solve the given problem, and which
are collated in the commentary at the end of this section on the mathe-
matical material.
Designed by USMES-project (M. Lazarus). Revised version.

GRAINS ON THE CHESSBOARD
1. Grains of Wheat
According to the legend, the inventor of chess brought his new game to
his king. The monarch was delighted by it and offered the inventor a
reward of his own choice.
. .. "Your Majesty, this is my wish: give me my reward in grain,
measured in the following way: one grain on the first square, two on the
second, four on the third, eight on the fourth, and so on for each square."
The king was astonished: "Is that all you want? Only grain? Very well,
so be it. Fetch a full sack of grain."
A strong servant left to do his master's bidding.
I> Will one sack of grain be enough?
2. A Faster Count
One hour later .... Several men were busily counting the grains. The king
was becoming slightly uneasy.
"Haven't you finished yet?" he asked.
"Oh no, my lord, we've only just reached the 14th square."
"Only the 14th? Why is it taking so long?"
"Sire, for the 14th square.alone we need thousands of grains: it will be
some time before we have finished counting them."
'vrhis could take all night!", the king sighed.
No one heard the inventor mutter under his breath: "I'm afraid it will
take a lot longer than that."
"Can't you count less precisely and more quickly?", the king begged.
The inventor intervened and said "I have an idea that will speed things
up." ...
How long will it take to count the grains for the 14th square?
I> 'That could take all night", the king sighed.
How long will it really take? Can you think of a quick way of making an
estimate of the number needed?
3. More Sacks of Grain
The inventor explained to the king how the counting could be speeded up .
. . . "A good idea," the king said, "fetch a scoop and a pair of scales."...
77
78 MATHEMA TICAL MATERIAL III
Some time later . . . . A number of servants were still scooping and

weighing.
The king was pacing up and down. One of the servants approached the
king to inform him that the sack of grain was empty.
"What, do we need mor.e?" he exclaimed.
The servant answered, "Yes, Sire, much more."
"Very well, fetch a new sack, and just to be sure, bring an extra sack as
well."
Two servants were sent out to do so.
[> Which square do you think the servants had reached when the first
sack of grain became empty? Will two extra sacks of grain be enough?
Explain your answer.
4. A Kingdom of Grain
Later still .... Sacks of grain filled up most of the throne room when it
was reported that the royal stores were empty. Now what?
The chess master said: "Majesty, give me the rest later, but before I go I
would like to know how much you still owe me."
"Very well", said the king, "call for the royal treasurer."
Shortly after he had received the king's order, the treasurer said "Sire, I
have bad news for you, there is not nearly enough grain in your entire
kingdom to pay for this."
"But that's impossible", the king declared, "it is such a simple request:
first one grain, then two, then four, then eight ..."
"Certainly", the treasurer replied: "At the beginning the amounts were
small, but they grew rapidly, the 11th square has 1024 grains, let us say
1000 to make it easier, that is one scoop of grain. The 1000 scoops for
the 21st square fill one sack. From this point on the number of sacks are
doubled. The 31st square requires 1000 sacks ... a bamful!"
[> In the story it is said that the sacks of the grain filled up most of the
throne room. How many squares had been covered at that point?
[> Is the treasurer's calculation correct? Follow his argument from the
41st to the 64th square in such a way that it will express the amount for
the last square in comprehensible terms.
5. The Calculation
The royal treasurer went on. He spoke of thousands of rooms of grain and
of figures with more than ten digits and showed how to determine the
number of grains for the last square. The king showed the results to the
inventor.
"Sire," the inventor replied. ''to be honest, I am not completely satisfied .
. . . This amount gives me only the amount of grain for the last square,
while you promised me the total of all of the squares together."
GRAINS ON THE CHESSBOARD 79
The king recalled the treasurer and demanded an explanation. He had

not known of the king's promise.
"Nevertheless, I want to know the total, and quickly at that, I want to go
to bed", the king ordered.
The treasurer sat down on one of the empty sacks and started his
calculation.
The inventor watched over his shoulder and the king, who was bored
by now, let some grain slip through his fingers.
[> How many digits are there in the number that expresses the number of
grains in the last square (working with rounded-off numbers)?
[> Calculate the exact number of grains on the last square. (A pocket
calculator may be used, even though it is not equipped to give the final
result).
[> Calculate the exact total number of grains (Give this assignment only if
the addition rule, from the previous sections, has already been discovered.
See Section 3 of the Comments for a description of the "addition rule").
6. The Dream
The treasurer, who was a mathematician, discovered that the total number
of grains on the first four squares was one less than the number of grains
on the fifth square; the total number on the first five squares was one less
than the number of grains on the sixth square, etc. He showed the king
that in this way the total number of grains could be determined quickly
once the amount for the last square was known.
This was too much for the king, but one thing was very clear to him: he
had been caught, even if it was in an honest fashion.
The inventor had slipped away unnoticed since he realised that the
king's mood was none too good; The king looked around for him, but not
seeing him anywhere, muttered something to the treasurer and turned to
leave the throne room but not before ordering: "Tell the farmers to grow
more grain."
He went to his royal bedroom and once asleep he had the most
extraordinary dream.
[> Give your version of the king's dream.
COMMENTS
1. Grains of Wheat
The class was allowed only a short time to think. Therefore the answers
were wild guesses. Were the children aware of the fact that some impor-
tant information is missing?
Their estimates varied greatly: from 6000 to a few million grains. A few
pupils doubted whether one sack of grain would be sufficient. The
different groups each explained their estimates. The feeling in general was
to question: who is right?
2. A Faster Count
The class found two ways to determine how long it will take to count: by
agreement (1 count per second, therefore ...) and by measuring (50
grains per minute, so...).
General conclusion: count on indefinitely.
The teacher showed the class an easier method: approx. 1 minute for
the 7th square (64 grains); 2 minutes for the 8th square; 4 for the 9th; 8
for the 10th; 16 for the 11th; 32 for the 12th; 64 for the 13th (about 1
hour); 2 hours for the 14th square, and so on.
The class found two ways to conduct an indirect count: scooping and
weighing.
One thousand grains (the rounded-off number for the 11th square)
weigh approx. 30 grams and fill a measuring glass of 50 cm3 •
In conclusion, the teacher asked: "how much do the grains on the 14th
square weigh? On the 15th? On the 16th square? Which square yields 2
dl and which will yield a little less than 1 dl? Will one sack of grain be
enough?"
By now most of the groups doubted whether one sack of grain would
be sufficient.
3. More Sacks of Grain
The contents of one sack of grain was estimated, then measured and
finally found to be t hI.
Agreement: the amount on the 11 th square (t dI.) is one scoop.
Question: how many scoops to one sack? Some guessed, others calcu-
lated with cubic measures. The 11th square equals one scoop, therefore
the 21st square equals 1024 - say 1000 scoops, or 1 sack.
Up to this point the teacher had held a tight rein on the amount of
material used.
This was now the time for class discussion. Will they discover that the
number of grains on a certain square is one more than the total number of
grains on the previous squares? (In this context "one more than" can be
considered as "equal to"). If not, it can be left undiscovered and a rough
addition can be made.
Conclusion: the sack will be empty when the 21st square is reached.
The teacher can illustrate the answer using fractions: calculating back-
wards from the 21st square to show that 112 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1116 ... is
approximately 1.
GRAINS ON THE CHESSBOARD 81
The second question can now be answered: the class came to the
conclusion that the second sack will not be enough to fill the 23rd square.
By the end of the second lesson the pupils had noticed the ''unimaginable
growth", which will be made "imaginable" in the next section.
4. A Kingdom of Grain
The children chose their own dimensions for the throne room, calculated
the volume in m3, transformed this into an estimate of the number of sacks
and tried to estimate which square will be reached. Some pupils substi-
tuted 10hl for 1 m3, that is 20 sacks of .; hl each, which is the treasurer's
measure. A few decided to work with barns full of grain, just as suggested
later on in the story.
Not only did the solution strategies vary - the estimates for the size of
the throne room were even more divergent.
Both of these points were then discussed briefly.
The capacity of the barn or the classroom - 1000 sacks - offered a
good basis. Again the addition rule became important. It is possible that
the relationship between the number of grains on one square and the total
of the previous squares will then be found.
In any case retracing the steps like the teacher did for the sacks of grain
will be helpful. Calculating the number of barns may also he useful.
Conclusion: Depending on the size of the throne room, the entire
supply of grain will be used up by the time the 40th square is reached. To
make this imaginable: throne room (41st square), sky-scraper (51st
square), city (61st square).
The amount for the last square: a cube-shaped chest with an edge of 8
km. The Hague in the shape of a cube!
By the end of the third lesson the problem had almost been solved. A
few surprising finishing touches remained.
5. The Calculation
So fat the pupils had discovered that a jump across ten squares yields a
thousand fold increase in grains. This rough estimate can be used to
determine the number of grains on the last square: 11 th square 1000
grains; 21st square 1,000,000; 31st square 1,000,000,000; and the 61st
square "a one with 18 zeros" (a number with 19 digits).
This, multiplied by eight for the 64th square, results in a number of 19
or 20 digits - the rounding off procedure was a source of uncertainty.
Now the exact number for the 64th square could be found so that a check
could be made. The way in which this was to be done was discussed.
Repeatedly the teacher asked the class: "Who can think of a better way?"
The pocket calculator cannot be used straightaway. It cannot express a 19

digit number.
This assignment can be· given to pupils who have already learned to
work in other number systems: Write the number of grains of the 64th
square in the binary system.
The answer is quite a revelation: a one with 63 zeros. The same can be
done in base four and base eight. Pleasing number patterns emerge. By the
end of lesson four the problem had been completely solved. The theme
was rounded-off by the last part of the story.
6. The King's Dream
A few facts: the total number of grains is 18,446,744,073,709,551,615.

World production of grain for 1976 was 1 billion metric tons.
Most of the lesson was taken up by writing the story of the king's
dream. The teacher also made his own version.
One short example: The king dreams of a huge chess board set out on
the black and white tiles of the courtyard. The servants count out grain
according to the inveptor's method.
One sack fulfils the requirements for the 21 st square; two come on the
22nd square; four sacks for the 23rd square. The king climbs up the steps
of the tower rising above the next square. One thousand sacks are needed
for the 31st square. From his position in this tower, at 1 km up, the king
can survey most of his kingdom. At the 42nd square the king finds himself
1000 km above the ground.
And still the servants keep piling up grain.
Soon the king passes the moon, the planets, the sun and finally
disappears into space filled with glistening grains.
The tower on the last square begins to sway and the king plunges into
the dark depths beneath him. He wakes up with a scream of terror.
The teacher used his version to illustrate a graph showing exponential
growth. Furthermore, he showed that such growth could only be portrayed
to a very limited extent.
CHAPTER III
ONE-DIMENSIONAL GOAL DESCRIPTION
An unsuspecting reader might believe that it would not be asking too

much to describe the goals of a certain piece of mathematical material like
"Grains on the Chessboard" or even of the whole of mathematics educa-
tion as it is pursued by Wiskobas. It can be presumed that those who
develop any such kind of material will proceed in an orderly fashion and
have definite aims in mind: i.e., first one would determine the objectives
and then construct the means to achieve them.
According to a certain concept of curriculum development that is
exactly the procedure which is followed. There are however other con-
structive procedures which do not necessarily follow this strict ends-means
pattern. Given further thought it becomes evident that in curriculum
development the relationship between ends and means is more complex
than the "journey paradigm" (one must first know where one wants to go
before choosing the means to get there). Mutatis mutandis this is also true
for educational practice.!
Take the question of what an educational objective should be. Should it
indicate a general attainment level of the pupil or should it provide a
desirable learning pattern that can be pursued and observed? How much
time is involved and what degree of consolidation is allowed? For whom is
the objective formulated and what function should it serve?
The wealth of objectives resulting from such questions and the multi-
tude of possible goal descriptions is reflected by just as many adjectives.
People can speak of goals as being indirect, provisional, integral, tran-
scendent, specific, operational, instrumental, abstract, expressive, interme-
diate or concrete. These are just a few of the many aspects of goals and
kinds of descriptions that can apply.2
In the first sub-section of this chapter an attempt is made to elucidate
the way in which the problem of goal description and goal determination is
tackled in this study. We make the distinction between one-, two- and
three-dimensional goals. In some ways the one- and two-dimensional goals
coincide with the general goals and the concrete product- and process-
goals respectively, in the way that these are often expressed in the
literature.3 The three-dimensional goals as we see them, however, are new
in the sense that this kind of description has not been presented elsewhere.
After a glance at the different types of description, the rest of the
chapter focuses on one-dimensional goals, which are the permanent goals
that apply generally to mathematics education as seen by Wiskobas.
They are stated in terms of general hehaviour patterns and can be
83
84 CHAPTER III
separated into 'integral' and 'mathematical' objectives, where the 'integral'

goals are general school objectives and the 'mathematical' goals apply
especially to mathematics education.
The second sub-section deals with the content of one-dimensional goal
description. After a historical survey, our views about these goals will be
given in the context of the theme "Grains on the Chessboard".
In the third sub-section the mathematical one-dimensional goals are
formulated - both in terms of the content, and the kind of description -
for educational practice as seen in the framework of innovation in mathe-
matic~ education.
The fourth sub-section indicates the relationship between the mathe-
matical and integral objectives. The chapter concludes with a summary
illustrated by the 'objectives-cube'.
1. ABOUT GOAL DESCRIPTIONS
This sub-section gives an overview of the problem of goal description.

First of all, we consider general and concrete goal descriptions; then the
distinction between one-, two- and three-dimensional goals in the context
of the distinction common to all three, between "general" and "concrete".
1.1 General, Intermediate and Concrete Goal Descriptions

One way in which goals can be described is in terms of their degree of
concreteness. De Corte 4 gives the following example of such a classifi-
cation:
1. Primary education must bring the pupils to master the fundamental basic knowledge,
insights and skills that form the foundation for all forms of secondary education.
2. The main task of the primary school lies in equipping children so that they have
command of the instrumental cultural skills, especially reading, writing and arithmetic.
3. At the end of their primary school education children should have attained the
following arithmetic goals: insight into the number system; command of basic operations;
understanding of the common units of measurement and of geometrical forms; the ability
to solve simple meaningful problems from everyday life; and understanding of the decimal
system.
4. The pupil must be able to indicate the positional value of each particular digit in a
number (in the number 724 the 2 indicates two tens), and be able to separate a number
into "hundreds, tens, and units". (724 = 7 H + 2 T + 4 U or 700 + 20 + 4.)4
Formulations such as those in 1 and 2 above are found in the literature

under the terms '.'aims", "Richtziele" or "generalleaming objectives". They
are highly abstract and can be interpreted in several ways. General objec-
tives like these are practically content-free: i.e., what is indicated is a
property, a characteristic, a pattern of behaviour, behaviour potential, or
ONE-DIMENSIONAL GOAL DESCRIPTION 85
behavioural disposition, without giving any further description of the

content of learning.
Formulations such as those described in 3 above are called "goals",
"Grobziele" or ''intermediate goals". Compared with the "aims" or general
learning objectives in 1 and 2 above they are more specific both in terms of
the descriptions of the behaviour (e.g., "insight", ''understanding'') and of
the content (e.g., "number systems", "decimal system"). Yet the descrip-
tions are not unambiguous. One can ask what exactly is meant by ''insight''
and how is "number systems" to be interpreted?
The objectives in 4 above allow only one interpretation: the behaviour
component is clearly stated (''the ability to indicate ... the ability to
separate ...); and the content component ("hundreds, tens and units") is
precisely specified. This third level of formulation is referred to as
"instructional objectives", "Feinziele" or "concrete product-goals" to men-
tion but three of the many terms in the literature.
There are authors who distinguish a fourth level of abstractions -
"performance objectives", "Testaufgaben" or "operationalised goals". They
can be compared with sample test items as an evaluative operationalisa-
tion of concrete product goals, as, for instance, the examples in brackets in
4 above.
Clearly, there is no hard and fast distinction between these particular
categories; so how important are such distinctions between types of goal
descriptions for the preparation, execution and evaluation of the teacher's
work?
Opinions concerning this vary greatly. Consider first the two extremes:
for one, the description of ultimate concrete goals formulated in terms of
behaviour is considered to be essential for adequate and responsible
education; whereas the other extreme holds that such goals are unsound in
education and lead to erosion and dispersion. As can be seen from the
general goals, the two points of view can be expressed as follows. On the
one hand general goals are seen as vague, ambiguous, and imprecise
formulations that offer little support for effective teaching, while, on the
other hand, general goals are considered summaries of the permanent
aims of sound educational practice. According to the latter view, general
objectives are important landmarks for everyday education. The second
point of view prefers process goals, formulated in terms of activities
clearly related to general goals, rather than concrete product goals formu-
lated in terms of behaviour. These process goals do not list what a pupil
should be capable of doing by the end of his school life but rather what he
shall do during this period. According to this school of thought, the
intermediate goal ''understanding the decimal system" would not be
further subdivided into concrete product goals such as "being able to
separate a. number into hundreds, tens and units" but would be specified
by the description of an activity like "exploration in the Land of Eight"
86 CHAPTER III
where the pupil is offered the opportunity to develop his own positional
notation.
This question of "product" versus "process" objective will be discussed
at greater length later, but for the moment it is enough to say that there is
no consensus about the particular importance of these goals for educa-
tional practice.
To complete this overview of goal description, therefore, the division
mentioned earlier should be expanded to include process goals in terms of
activities, which then produces the following categories:
general goals
j
intermediate goals
j
concrete behaviour goals activity goals
(product goals) (process goals)
It has already been said that numerous terms are used for similar goals.
We have also mentioned that the various goals are not described in the
same way in each case and furthermore that their importance for educa-
tional practice is assessed differently. In what follows, one-, two-, and
three-dimensional goals, as we have distinguished them, will be considered
in the framew()rk of the formulations listed above. This will also offer us
the opportunity to describe the various categories more precisely and to
indicate the importance of these goal descriptions for educational practice.
1.2 One-, Two- and Three-dimensional Goal Descriptions

One-dimensional goal descriptions sometimes coincide with the general
goal descriptions. The "one-dimensional" nature of general goals has
already been mentioned. They most often have only one dimension, that
being a behaviour component; and if there is any evidence of a content
component, it is found to be so general that it could apply to virtually the
whole subject.
Two-dimensional goal descriptions have two components: a behav-
ioural and a content component. Both the intermediate and the concrete
product and process objectives fit the category of two-dimensional goal
descriptions. In the case of concrete product objectives, the behaviour
component details the intended ultimate behaviour that pertains to a
specific content. The process objectives refer to an activity related to a

certain content.
Together, one- and two-dimensional goal descriptions encompass all
the ways of describing goals and objectives used up to the present time.
We now introduce a three-dimensional goal description which extends
the formulations of goals already commonly used. The third dimension is
related to the didactical context which is added to the behaviour and
content dimensions of the two-dimensional objectives.
One-dimensional goals can be separated into those which are generally
applicable, that is, not limited to one subject (e.g., the ability to think
critically), and those which apply especially to mathematical instruction
(e.g., the ability to prove theorems). In the first case we can use the term
integral goals, and in the second case, mathematical goals.
In each case they are postulated as a constant feature of mathematics
instruction. So, permanent goals is a fitting term if we wish to express
substance, that is, what the goals claim to be. We would not be opposed to
the term general goals, provided it is understood to mean their general
validity in the whole of mathematics instruction, rather than broadness,
vagueness, or ambiguity, as it is often taken to mean.
"General goals" can also refer to the description of this type of goal.
Thus "general" could mean "summarising" or "condensing".
It is necessary to stress this distinction between the substance of a goal
and its formal description. On the one hand, generality means perman-
ence, and on the other, it means comprehensiveness. We try to avoid the
use of "generality" in the sense of vagueness and ambiguity. Instead we
stress permanence and comprehensiveness of the one-dimensional goals,
and we do so because it is quite understandable why people equate
"general" with "vague". A look back over history will demonstrate this. In
education practice - as Tyler discovered - one only too often hides
behind impressive sounding phrases without bothering to find out either
their meaning or their use in the didactic activity.5 But there is no reason
to reject "generality" as such just because it can mean "vagueness" and
"lack of clarity", while it can also mean "comprehensiveness" and "abstrac-
tion".
If we stress these aspects of generality, we do not oppose at all the
demand for concreteness, which is conjured up by the vagueness and
ambiguity of the "general" goals. So long as the one-dimensional goals
remain condensed expressions of permanently pursued objectives, they are
vague and ambiguous to the less well-informed among us.
Thus they indeed lack the concrete orientation basis of the related
mathematics education. For that reason one-dimensional descriptions will
never be sufficient in the framework of innovation. The concrete contents
of mathematics must therefore be described in more than a one-dimen-
sional way.
88 CHAPTER III
Can two-dimensional goals adequately describe the intended mathe-

matising?
Only partly so, we feel, with respect to the more concrete product
objectives stated in terms of ultimate behaviour. Later on we will see that
certain pieces of mathematics instruction appear to escape this kind of
formulation. In particular situations where learning depends on research
- that is, where we are not primarily dealing with mastering skills or
training abilities, but where the important part of instruction is putting the
pupil in a situation where he has to do the investigating for himself -
goals can be better described in terms of processes and activities than in
terms of ultimate behaviour. This then means that the substance of the
objective lies in the activity of searching, exploring, discussing and
constructing, which cannot be adequately described by short-term behav-
ioural features.
Sometimes the description of the activity is supplemented by a refer-
ence to general objectives: "the objective lies in the activity in which the
pupil gets the opportunity ...", which obscures the fact that the process
goal itself offers no clarification of the result in terms of ultimate be-
haviour. This may not mean that the person who formulates such a
process goal does not believe that ultimate skills will result from an
activity. It is rather felt that a product goal of "being able to" will cloud
rather than illustrate the "giving the opportunity to ..." result, thus leading
to misunderstanding. The fact that the pursuit of a process goal implies the
learning of certain skills does not also imply that the desired ultimate
learning results can be best described through "skill objectives".
In the next chapter the theme ''The Land of Eight" is used to illustrate
this problem. It will become clear that the objective just quoted - ''insight
into the decimal system" - cannot exclusively be described by product
objectives such as "the position value of numbers" and "being able to
divide a number into hundreds, tens and units ...", but also ill terms of
activities via process objectives.
We have just asked rhetorically whether two-dimensional goals can
sufficiently express the desired mathematisation. From our point of view
this question requires the suffix ''for those less familiar with ...". The
answer is that the product goals are more or less clear for the restricted
number of cases to which they apply, but that this is not the case for
process goals.
The process objective refers to an ac~vity in a learning context,
possibly including a global reference to general ~oals. However, if one is
not familiar, or not sufficiently familiar with the proposed mathematics
education, such process goals Will not offer sufficient clues as to what is
really sought: the activity by itself does not offer that information and
neither does the global reference to general goals.
Our conclusion is that two-dimensional goal description might not be
sufficiently expressive for the desired learning result to be understood by

those who are not acquainted, or not sufficiently acquainted,' with mathe-
matics education - i.e., mathematics education as seen by Wiskobas.
This conclusion brings us to three-dimensional goal description. This
description makes use of the didactical context. The essence of the
intended learning (mathematising), and the core of the didactical action
that is aimed at making learning possible (didactisation), are presented in
this context. It is concrete to the degree that it makes the mathematics to
be developed clear to those who are less familiar with the subject.
The three-dimensional objectives can be described as two-dimensional
but with an extra unequally large condition stipulated, namely, a descrip-
tion of the concrete learning situation in which the process of mathe-
matisation takes place. The description makes the process goal (giving the
opportunity to), and in some cases the product goal (being able to),
concrete as to their content. In principle all the components of the
didactical context can be used in the goal description; instructional
activities, learning activities, teaching materials, evaluation. In this way the
relationship with the permanent one-dimensional goals can be made
concrete, which was not always possible with the two-dimensional goal
description.
Chapter V gives examples of three-dimensional goal descriptions on the
theme "Freckleham".
Finally we should make here a few remarks about the relationship
between the one-, two-, and three-dimensional goals. From what has been
said it might look as though this relationship is roughly similar to the one
between the general and more concrete goals: i.e., the multi-dimensional
goals are a concrete and encompassing specification of the one-dimen-
sional goals. The dimensional terminology suggests that the difference
between the one-, two, and three-dimensional objectives is purely quan-
titative. In other words: it seems as though two-dimensional objectives
result from one-dimensional objectives with the addition of the content
dimension.
This is not the case. One-dimensional goals formulate what is per-
manently to be sought after in teaching. Therefore a particular two-
dimensional objective need not be directly linked to a one-dimensional
goal, simply because it does not clearly fit in the category of permanent
objectives. But even if this happens, it remains the case that, as we have
said before, this relationship is not (as for the product goals) or not
sufficiently (as for the process goals) expressed by a two-dimensional goal
description. For that reason a third dimension has been introduced.
A second confusion may be caused by the dimensional terminology.
The behaviour dimension of a one-dimensional goal is a general quality,
for example, the ability to work systematically. In the two-dimensional
goal this behaviour component receives a specific meaning, for example,
90 CHAPTER III
"noting down systematically all possibilities of taking two out of five". But
now the character of the behaviour dimension has changed: the general
quality is transformed into a specific skill. Therefore if the relationship
between the various goal descriptions is seen merely as 'additional', the
specific nature of the one-, two-, and three-dimensional goals is misunder-
stood.
We will not deal with the question of how the one-, two-, and three-
dimensional goals arise from each other.
1.3 Summary
Three kinds of objectives are distinguished according to their type of

description: one-, two-, and three-dimensional goals. The one-dimensional
goals coincide with general objectives, in the sense of permanently sought
after goals which comprehensively express intended qualities of pupils to
be achieved as the result of education. The two-dimensional goals can be
linked to more concrete product goals in terms of ultimate behaviour, and
process goals in terms of activities. However, seen in the framework of
innovation, the two-dimensional process goals do not sufficiently describe
their relationship to the general objectives. For this reason a third
dimension has been added, namely that of the didactical context. This
three-dimensional description can clarify the intention of a certain portion
of mathematics education, so that those who are less familiar with that
portion of mathematics education can fully understand it.
The relationship between the one-, two- and three-dimensional goals is
more complex than the terminology suggests: a multi-dimensional goal
is not simply the result of adding a dimension to a one-dimensional
objective.
This chapter, as well as chapters four and five, will deal with the
content of this summary at greater length. This sub-section indicates
various types of goal description that can be used in the framework of
innovation. Now we are going to examine the one-dimensional goals more
carefully as to their substance, description and importance.
2. INTEGRAL ONE-DIMENSIONAL GOALS
One aspect of the problem concerns the substance of the general goals
that have been set by Wiskobas. The response to this first part will make it
possible to deal with the second aspect, namely, the problem of goal
description in the framework of innovation.
Especially important is the way in which the relationship between
concrete and general goals can be expressed. The answer to that question,
given in the form of the earlier three-dimensional goal descriptions, can be
understood only if one is reasonably familiar with the substance of the

general goals that find a permanent place in Wiskobas' efforts. These we
have referred to as one-dimensional goals, and it was suggested earlier
that they can be separated into integral and mathematical goals.
This sub-section will review the substance of the integral educational
goals, which means that we will reflect on these goals without giving an
actual list of formulations of integral objectives. We will however give a
few indications of how mathematics education can contribute to general
school goals. The next sub-section, about the mathematical goals, will
contain a list of one-dimensional goals which can be considered as a
supplement to the general discourse which now follows.
Here we will consider what mathematics education can offer to the
values of:
- personal development;
- socialisation;
- preparation for further education;
- social relevance.
Each part begins with a brief, historically framed outline of mathematics
education in Holland and the opinions of Wiskobas are displayed against
this historical background. In each case use is made of a concrete example
taken from the theme "Grains on the Chessboard". Special reference is
made to the content of the goals rather than to their descriptions. The type
of description and the valuation is given only for the first point under
consideration - the purpose of personal development.
2.1 Personal Development

In the nineteenth century mathematics was especially advocated for its
formal value. It was argued that the practice of mathematics would
sharpen the mind and further the development of the personality.6
These ideas originated from the neo-humanistic trend and were
supported by psychological. convictions (the development of abilities
as mental muscles) and pedagogical effects (pestalozzi).7 The conviction
of mathematics having formal value prevailed in the first half of
the twentieth century and it applied to both arithmetic and mathe-
matics education. The formal qualities of this education were listed as
including:
concise use of language, the ability to express oneself clearly, responsibility for one's state-
ments, learning to distinguish between issues and side-issues, reverence for the grand
conceptions of the human mind, appreciation of the beauty of mathematics....8
Some went even as far as to pronounce mathematics as a weapon against:

92 CHAPTER III
- the unrest and loss of concentration in the nineteen thirties; 9

- national socialism ("as a science above error and deception, mathe-
matics can protect the individual against speculation and the roman-
tic emotions of the evil powers"); 10
- female discrimination. ("One of the advantages of mathematics for
females is that it teaches them to reason. Our era calls for ibdividuals
- including women - who have the power to reason, who can
recognise their own errors, who can work with control, and who can
value the work of others and show perseverance").11
What were the reasons for this optimism concerning the formal value
of mathematics education, and especially for the formation of the intel-
lect?
A few classic arguments were:
- The fact that mathematics furthers logical reasoning stems from the
structure of the subject. Having experienced its formal value, the
pupils show a manner of reasoning at the end of their education
which is the same as the kind of reasoning that is necessary for the
construction of a deductive system. In short, the structure of the
subject is "impressive": i.e., it leaves behind impressions on the
mental structure of the pupil. Furthermore, the method of education
determines the clarity and consciousness of the impressions. 12
- The second argument does not claim any isomorphism between
subject structure and mental structure, but is restricted to the
conclusion that intellectual meaning has been established by psy-
chology through transfer of training. It is claimed that training of
critical behaviour and precision of mathematical expression has a
positive influence on similar abilities in many other subject areas. 13
- The third motivation is based on personal experiences from one's
own school-days. The reasoning is that even if the transfer is not
scientifically proved, nevertheless the formal value of mathematics
can be accepted on the basis of one's own school experience.
- Finally, it is assumed that because of the "simplicity" of mathematics,
it is an appropriate field to train the pupil in the practice of abstrac-
tion and critical capability within the subject. Later this can be
applied to other areas of knowledge where these ''mental habits" can
be of great value. One condition that is required for this transfer is
that the educational approach must be directed at the process of
mathematising, where concrete, non-mathematical problems are
transformed into mathematical problems.15
H these kinds of argument were popular during the nineteenth and the
beginning of the twentieth century, it is especially true that the last
argument was frequently used after the nineteen-fifties. 16 This view is
supported particularly by the extension of the time allocated to school

mathematics and by the resulting broadening of possibilities for mathe-
matisation and modeling.
To counteract this intital optimism a number of arguments were
espoused relating primarily to the concept of negative transfer. The
simplicity of mathematics, it was argued, could well mean a restriction on
the possibilities for transfer .17 Also, the practice of mathematics could
result in a false attitude to areas with a different structure. This could be
seen in discussions about social problems, where the mathematician would
go no further than to inquire after the exact meaning of the relevant
concept. In such a case, exactness is called for in areas where no high
degree of exactness is possible and thus restricts the progress of thinking:
evidence of negative transfer. In tum it can be argued that both the power
and restrictions of mathematics can be better estimated by a pupil who has
learned about mathematising and model-forming. Be that as it may, the
discussion is endless, especially since didactics is involved and hard facts
are lacking.
The arguments about formal value disappeared from the mathematics
curriculum during the fifties, perhaps because the pros and cons had
produced a feeling of helplessness. Moreover, there was now a tendency
to make goals more concrete and operational, a move which really became
more popular during the sixties, and which often resulted in a turning
away from general goal descriptions. Attention was drawn to the vague-
ness and unverifiability of general goals. It was claimed that vague goals
(i.e., goals that have no relation to educational practice and its quality),
made it difficult to speak in concrete terms about goals and the results of
education. Hence, there was little discussion during the sixties about
general goals related to the aim of personal development. Indeed it was
only after the introduction of computer science in secondary education in
the seventies that the formal value of general goals was seriously
considered again. IS •
Wiskobas supports the conception that mathematics education can con-
tribute to the integral objective of personal development, even though it
disagrees with the ideas described above in a few important respects.
The statements in the previous paragraphs concerning vague, inexact
and ambiguous formulations certainly apply to the traditional ideas
concerning the aim of personal development. Characteristic of these vague
generalities are the weighty reflections found in many articles written in
the first half of the century or the unconvincing recommendations found in
the prefaces of many arithmetic and mathematics textbooks to this day.
Any reference to the concrete manifestations of those general goals in
particular learning situations is lacking.
In the opinion of Wiskobas, a general objective such as the aim of
personal development is a goal that deserves a permanent position, as long
94 CHAPTER III
as it is operationally defined by more concrete goals. Consequently it is

clearly possible to speak in general terms about order, regularity, connec-
tion, truth and beauty in mathematics teaching - to give but a few of the
aspects of the integral objective of personal value. However, these goals
must be based on concrete examples of mathematics education which
indicate that intellectual, aesthetic and creative aspects can be made overt
in the learning process.
The theme "Grains on the Chessboard", for example, offers a range
of activities that can be included in the integral objective of personal
development. These are:
- a critical judgement of one's own and other people's estimates of the
total number of grains (sub-sections 1,2,3 and 4);
- strategies for indirect counting (sub-sections 2 and 5);
- arguments about the best approach (sub-sections 2, 3, 4 and 5);
- stimulating initiatives for finding certain information (sub-sections 2,
3,and 4);
- imagining a dream related to the problem at hand (sub-section 6);
- evaluation of the various strategies, reasonings and results (sub-
sections 2, 3, 4 and 5).
Let us, as an example, take a closer look at one of the listed activities, that
of the addition rule. How can the pupils discover that the sum of the
grains on the first n squares is one less than the total number of grains on
square (n + I)? The children can verify this for a number of cases but
how can the relationship be proved?
One possibility lies in the use of the chessboard as a binary counter;
the number of grains for the different squares are written in the binary
notation. 19
Let us take a look at the first four squares. For square one, "I" grain; for
square two, "10" grains; for square three, "100" grains; and for square
four, "1000" grains. The total of the grains of these four squares is
therefore "1111", a number that can be registered on these four squares
by' means of one digit on each particular square. The total number of
grains on the first five squares is "11111", and the total number on the
first n squares shows the digit' l' n times.
The chess board itself serves as a counter. Now if "I" grain is added to
the total on the first six squares, the result is "111111" + "I" =
"1000000" and that is exactly the number of grains on square seven. The
total for the first seven squares is "1111111". Add one grain here and the
result is the total for the eighth square, etc.
Thus the addition rule is illustrated by the binary digits on the chess
board. The attempt to teach understanding and the values of order,
regularity, connection, truth and beauty in mathematics is given concrete
expression in this example. It is, however, also evident from the given
example that these personal values cannot be imposed. One pupil will be
touched by the simplicity and beauty of the proof, while another will react
with "so what?" . It is for this reason that integral goals can more
adequately be described in terms of "offering opportunity for ..." than in
more binding formulations such as "being-able-to ...".
The matter of concrete descriptions of the aspects of general goals will
be left for the moment, though more will be said on the subject in the next
chapter.
2.2 Socialisation
The socialisation value of mathematics education in former times was
derived from the functional reasoning and expression that was pursued in
mathematics instruction, which, it was assumed, banned misunderstanding
and furthered 'reasonable' understanding.
In that way socialisation was, as it were, equated with the rationality of
mathematics education.2o After World War II the socialising contribution
was seen less in the light of the rational aspect of mathematics than in the
light of the relational!didactical component of mathematics education.
This change can, as elsewhere, be perceived in the introduction of a
textbook for the teaching of mathematics.21 This textbook is a sort of
problem-bank that generates a series of educational learning activities. The
educational route is only marked by the various problems so that both
teacher and pupils are left with sufficient room for their differentiated
learning processes.
It is claimed that through the exchange of experiences, discussion of
solution strategies, task-sharing, listening and explaining to each other,
contributions to both the integral school objective of socialisation and also
the specific purposes of mathematics are made.
Wiskobas shares in the convictions concerning the socialisation value of
mathematics education as expressed in this way. Mathematics, as it is
pursued in several approaches and also by Wiskobas, serves to further
socialisation by accentuating empirical activities, the research character
and the richness of problems.22
In our opinion, the theme "Grains on the Chessboard" expresses these
possibilities in a concrete way. The socialisation value of the theme lies
in working together, in argument and discussion, in listening to -each
other, in co-operation and the evaluation of the opinions of others: aspects
that are given due attention in each of the six parts of the theme.
In the first sub-section it is interesting to see whether "extraordinary
estimates of the number of grains in a sack are allowed". Do the pupils
feel they must comply with the average estimate - 500,000 for example?
How are other opinions evaluated? What attention is paid to the argu-
ment, i.e., the reasoning behind the estimates?
96 CHAPTER III
The subsequent sub-sections all call for co-operation. For example, do

the pupils accept their role in the group and the task given to them?
How do they explain matters to each other? How do they help each
other? By such means and by others, like having the pupils work in
heterogeneous groups, the theme offers a range of possibilities that can
contribute to the achievement of the objective of socialisation. The idea is
to offer optimal possibilities and not to force certain characteristics of
social behaviour. As was argued earlier for the objective of personal
development, here also the formulation of the objective of socialisation
can most adequately be expressed in terms of "offering the opportunity for
...". How this goal description should be given in concrete terms for those
who are unfamiliar with the subject will be discussed at a later stage.
2.3 Preparation for Further Education

Besides the task of building personality, primary education must also lay
the foundation for further education.23 In the past this task seems to have
been interpreted in two main ways. Firstly in the passing on of the
necessary skills and secondly in the laying of a solid basis of experience
for further concept formation. These two matters will be discussed briefly.
In a text published by the Kohnstamm Institute (1968) we read:
. . . that he is sufficiently prepared for the arithmetic and mathematics subjects in the
various types of advanced education, as far as to the application of arithmetic skills is
concerned, such as in simple assignments that call for insight into the structure of numbers
and the number system, learning good methods of solution, and acquiring skill in the
choice of efficient methods of calculation.24
That quotation describes the first aspect of the preparatory task that
has been mentioned. A more detailed summary of the necessary general
ultimate skills of arithmetic in the primary school could be found in the
types of problems set for the entrance examinations to secondary schools
and can be found more recently in catalogues of ultimate objectives for
primary education.25
Generally speaking there has been a reasonable consensus concerning
this aspect of the preparatory task. There has also been a certain stability:
historically there was agreement about the ultimate objectives, in which
the content changed only gradually. Not until the seventies did the
substance of the ultimate goals become more of a problem due to
influences from new ideas about mathematics education for the primary
school.
The second aspect of preparatory value is related to the principle,
mentioned earlier, of vertical planning. Until very recently this planning
applied only to the restricted area of arithmetic instruction: the recogni-
tion of shapes (preparatory geometry) had been removed from the
primary school programme by the end of the last century. This meant
that there were no topics in elementary school arithmetic that extended
into secondary education. Indeed, there was usually no subject called
"arithmetic" in secondary education and no "mathematics" in primary
education.
The introduction of mathematics for the primary school changed this,
as did the changes in mathematics education for secondary education.
Thus the idea of vertical planning extended across the borders of ele-
mentary education to secondary education, giving new meaning to the
preparatory value. At that stage it was not clear exactly what the substance
of the new integral objectives should be. Should the pupils be exposed to
specific experiences in probability during their primary school period?
What geometric ideas should be conveyed? How should relations and
functions be prepared for?
For these kinds of questions it becomes clear that, for this second aspect
of preparation, we are not so concerned with certain (arithmetic) skills as
with certain mathematical experiences and the learning of concepts and
properties which are built upon and structured in secondary education.
Behind these ideas of preparation lie firstly the notion that certain
specified mathematical performances are possible and compulsory at
various levels (read: ages); secondly that these mathematical activities must
be sequenced and positioned in a ''vertical'' line and thirdly that this
vertical line should spiral upwards. This means that the same basic
problems must be considered and solved at gradually higher levels, not
waiting for the time when they can be solved at the highest possible level. 26
This conception of vertical planning has been worked out in various
ways for mathematics instruction in the primary school. In each case,
however, it has implications for the preparatory valueP
Wiskobas clearly recognises the importance of the preparatory value
aspect of the integral objective. However, these ultimate goals of arith-
metic and mathematics education must be the result of education agree-
ments. This is not the place to consider the policy Wiskobas pursues to
reach an agreement on the preparatory values of primary education. We
will only mention here a fewimportant questions.
What degree of arithmetical skill should pupils· have acquired by the
time they leave elementary school? In this connection: how can pocket
calculators be utilised in arithmetic instruction? Is it desirable to postpone
the greater part of learning and operating with fractions to the secondary
school? Which mathematical topics should be introduced in the primary
school?
These questions should serve to illustrate the immense problems
encountered in deciding the exact content of this integral objective.28
In the theme "Grains on the Chessboard" it is particularly the second
aspect, that of vertical planning, which is illustrated, although the first
98 CHAPTER III
aspect, concerning arithmetic skill with large numbers, relationships,

measurement and calculations, is not neglected either. It will be evident
that in this theme a first step on the vertical line, or the beginning of the
spiral of education, is taken in instruction on exponential growth.
Kirsch has laid down the most important markers for this topic 29 and
we agree with his views.
As a first marker, he gives the legendary chessboard problem that has
served so often for the introduction of powers or the illustration of
geometrical progression. In Kirsch's case, and our own, it is used to
deal with exponential growth together with related problems concerning
doubling.
The second important point of orientation is the percentage growth:
"growing by p%" means "multiplied by a factor (1 + p/l00)".
This increase - as in the case of compound interest - is connected to
the first problem by the idea of time taken for doubling. With a growth
factor of 10% per year, how long will it take to double the amount? Once
the period of doubling is known, it can be used to calculate larger steps of
growth.
At a later stage the progression of discrete growth is refined to become
continuous. This .requires interpolation. For instance, if the time of
doubling of a population is known - say 30 years - one may ask for the
growth over a smaller period - say 15 years. Square roots and exponen-
tial functions emerge.
Kirsch continues with this train of thought, but we will leave it for
now. 30
The point is that directions in primary education can extend (must
extend) far into secondary education. This requires renewed consideration
of the substance of the preparatory value that is accorded to primary
education. The three questions that were raised above for arithmetic/
mathematics education concerning skills, use of calculators, fractions and
new mathematical topics, also apply to "Grains on the Chessboard" and
that which follows. The answers to these questions from Wiskobas are
represented in this particular instance of "Grains" - arithmetic skills are
reviewed, the use of pocket calculators opens up new opportunities,
percentages are calculated and new subjects dealing with large numbers,
exponential growth, etc., find their beginning in the elementary school.
Here we have a few pointers for a new account of the integral objective
of "preparation", which could be made concrete as ultimate objectives of
primary education in terms of "being-able-to" and "offering the oppor-
tunity for". We will not deal in detail with the question of the legitimacy of
these objectives because we are primarily concerned with the answer to
the question of how these aspects of integral goals can be described in a
concrete sense. This we shall tum to when we have discussed the goal of
social relevance.
2.4 Social Relevance

By social relevance we refer to the meaning of mathematics in everyday
life and the use of mathematics as a part of everyday life.
In the first half of the century so-called general education was ex-
pressed in terms of intellectual, ethical, cultural and social values, whereas
the characteristic of usefulness was hardly mentioned. Instruction con-
cerning mechanics in a pseudo-deductive framework was a far cry from
physical reality and so was geometrical education31 • On the other hand,
vocational training was closely related to practical usefulness. Pupils were
taught formulae and properties in order to apply them which, however,
did not result in useful operational knowledge: that is, the insight neces-
sary for a broader application of what had been learned was not attained.
Between these extremes of didactic formalism and didactic materialism,
the social relevance of arithmetic and mathematics education took shape.
There was no difference of opinion concerning the contribution of arith-
metic education in the primary school to this integral school objective. If
arithmetic were not taught this would serioJlsly affect the social meaning of
education. However, this did not mean that emphasis was placed on the
practical application of arithmetic. On the contrary, traditional arithmetic
education was infected with useless impractical problems. For the greater
part social relevance was seen in terms of its formal value.
As mentioned in the first chapter, this situation changed slowly after the
fifties. The coming of New Math re-introduced formalism into the primary
school, although it should be recognised that it did not take root in the
Netherlands. 32
Since 1970 there has been a reverse current which emphasises the
relationship between mathematics and other areas of reality and everyday
life. This is expressed by the inclusion of recommended subjects such as
statistics and probability, geometry, measuring, functions, and the graphic
processing of data. 33
The integral school objective of social relevance is given considerable
attention in a number of recent projects, without slipping back to the
formalism and materialism of the earlier times. It would seem that modem
mathematics education is more capable than old arithmetic and traditional
mathematics of capturing reality without being captured by it.
The theme "Grains on the Chessboard" seems to confirm that assump-
tion, at the same time giving evidence of the fact that Wiskobas has tried
to make the most of social relevance by emphasising connections with
reality and with other subjects. The same is true for the work of Wiskivon
(the department that works with the 12-16-year-old group).
There are numerous societal problems that are related to exponential
increase or decrease. To name a few:
- increase in population;
100 CHAPTER III
- consumption of natural resources;

- the world food problem;
- increase in pollution;
- decay time of radio active material;
- compound interest, insurance.
Important in these problems is the question of whether the. model of the
exponential function fits these processes and, if this is not the case, where
the restrictions in the use of the model lie. In this way the restrictions of
the mathematical application are also shown. So the social reference of
mathematics itself can thus become an object of instruction.
There are still other elements of social importance in the theme, for
example, calculating with measures and weights, and the use of the pocket
calculator.
2.5 Summary
A short summary will now be given of the integral one-dimensional goals

of education in· general and arithmetic and mathematics education in
particular. It has become evident that Wiskobas has orientated itself
towards the four integral school goals of personal development, socialisa-
tion, preparation and social relevance. It does not, however, take these to
be vague, imprecise or ambiguous goals but rather as goals that deserve a
permanent position within education.
These general goals are related to more concrete goals for mathematics
instruction. The way in which the aspects of integral goals are described
concretely for those who are unfamiliar with the subject will be discussed
in the following chapters. It was suggested that the terminology "offering
the opportunity for" is a better description than "being-able-to" in a
number of cases, while the reverse may be true in others.
Thus the distinction between process and product goals is a relevant
factor in the consideration ofintegral objectives.
By a number of references to the learning activity in the theme "Grains
on the Chessboard" an attempt has been made to give the integral goals a
more concrete shape and also to offer a profile ofWiskobas' views.
The emphasis in the overview was more on the substance than on the
manner of description of the integral objectives.
In the next sub-section about mathematical one-dimensional objectives,
there is a summary of the total mathematical objectives. The following
sub-section will refer back to the integral goals which have been discussed
in this chapter.
3. MATHEMATICAL ONE-DIMENSIONAL GOALS
The mathematical one-dimensional goals can all be characterised by the

imperative: mathematics education should be mathematically valuable.
In the eight mathematical objectives that will be enumerated later, each
of the aspects of mathematisation that were described in the previous
chapters can be recognised, even though a few matters have been refined.
Eight mathematical objectives can be distinguished which refer in order
to:
- the arithmetical aspect;
- the language aspect;
- the applicability;
- the practical use;
- the structural aspect;
- the methodological aspect;
- the dynamic aspect;
- the attitude aspect.
Compared with the starting points given earlier, there are a few differ-
ences.
The structural element appears here as an arithmetical and a structural
aspect; practical use has been added to applicability and the attitude
aspect has been added in order to include the connection between the
mathematical.and the integral goals. Again, it should be pointed out that,
as in the case of the starting points, this sub-division is arbitrary. It is our
opinion, however, that the permanent goals that Wiskobas pursues are
adequately and clearly reflected in these eight mathematical objectives,
since every important aspect of mathematising receives due attention.
Every facet of the core of mathematical activity as it is pursued by
Wiskobas can be described in terms of the eight points of view.
In what follows the eight mathematical goals will be described in
comprehensive terms, followed by an analysis of each in the light of the
"Grains" theme. By this means it will become clear how the mathematical
one-dimensional goals that are permanently pursued in mathematics
education are recognisable from this concrete example.
Note that we are not concerned with determining whether all of these
aspe~ts should be fo,rmulated as goals for this particular piece of instruc-
tion nor how this should be done. At this point we are only attempting a
concrete illustration of the respective mathematical one-dimensional goals.
3.1 Arithmetical Aspect
Mathematics education should serve to further the pupil's insight into, and
102 CHAPTER III
understanding of the arithmetical system and equip him with the skill to
solve arithmetical problems.
For the pupil this might mean:
- knowledge of all sorts of quantitative aspects such as those which are
expressed in counting, measuring and calculating;
- skill in the use of arithmetic concepts and operations in real-life
situations;
- insight into relevant number systems and operations within these
systems;
- mastery of the algorithmic execution of mathematical operations.
The arithmetical aspect in "Grains" is found in numerous activities: calcu-
lation with ratios by means of the linear graph and the ratio matrix,
conversion of measures (dl to hI), learning to calculate with powers and
the calculation of 2 to the power 63 in as few steps as possible. It is
noteworthy that, in contrast to most other arithmetical work, the concern
here is not only with an exact solution but also, and more particularly,
with estimation and approximation.
Example: 1024 approximated by 1000, and later determining whether
this rounding off has any great bearing on the result; approximating the
time needed to count to half hours (2 ~ ... 2 !), days (20 hours ... 1 day),
and weeks (eight days'" one week) to show that counting would continue
forever; exaggerating a measuring error (one grain); calculating with
inexact measures (a handful). All of these require the pupil to understand
the actual meaning of the calculation. 34
3.2 Language Aspect

Mathematics is a means of describing aspects of the surrounding world.
Mathematics education should be directed towards giving the pupil an
adequate command of this language as a means of communication.
For the pupil this can include:
- having an adequate vocabulary of mathematical terms and symbols
at his command;
- having insight into and understanding of a mathematical system as a
syntactical system;
- correct active use of the language of mathematics in discussing,
formulating solutions, using language when asking a question;
- being able to read and interpret mathematical descriptions in verbal,
schematised and symbolic forms.
The language aspect in "Grains" is especially related to how results of an
enquiry and criticism of a certain strategy are expressed. The importance
of self-expression comes to the fore in the fantasy about the king's dream.
The teacher's version of the dream is related to graphs. Interpretation of

graphs that illustrate exponential growth is part of the language aspect, as
is, in time, the development of a notational system for powers, the
summarising of certain relationships by means of a formula, the use of an
adequate notation for functions, and critical consideration of how to
record solutions.
It is interesting to note that the language develops so that the ever-
increasing number of units becomes imaginable. And finally, the interpre-
tation of a text in connection with a series of mathematical problems
extends the idea of the traditional word problems. 35
3.3 Applicability
Mathematics education must aim at applicable knowledge: i.e., connections

can be made between a problem situation within or outside a mathematical
context on the one hand and mathematical concepts, structures and aids
on the other hand.
- learning to redesign, order and restructure a problem area that lies
just outside the mathematical area into a mathematical problem;
- use of mathematical aids, such as thinking models or organising
methods for the solution of problems;
- learning to work with' mathematical models and thus learning the
power and limitations of mathematics;
- learning to react adequately to all sorts of situations in which a
mathematical approach is applicable.
The applicability of that which is offered in "Grains" is wide-ranging. We
give one example, namely that the problem, or rather the chessboard, can
function as a model for the solution of problems dealing with exponential
growth. One example:36
One guilder after 750 years of inflation
AMSTERDAM, Tuesday
The value of one Dutch guilder in 1200 can be equated with the value of 879 million
guilders today.
This result can be obtained on the basis of a calculation by Prof. Dr. J Wemelsfelder in
Eindhoven. In a speech given today in Paris, Unilever economist Dr. M. Weisglas quotes
Prof. Wemelsfelder's calculation, coming to the conclusion that Western Europe has
known an average inflation of 2.7% per year since 1200.
If this 2.7% per year were to be accumulated during 773 years, one would find that one
guilder in 1200 would mean 879 million guilders today. Of course, for this somewhat
fictitious reasoning one must pretend that !here were "guilders" in 1200.
This gives an example of depreciation in the last 77 3 years. The investor

104 CHAPTER III
(or his heirs) should not get carried away by all of this, and no company
exists today that existed in 1200.
In these matters of exponential growth we are concerned with the
calculation of the time it takes to double. This can be done simply by
calculating how long it will take before one guilder becomes two, or by
using an approximate formula for - not too high - interest rates
(d = approx. 70/p where d represents the number of years for the time it
takes to double and p represents the percentage interest).
Suppose that the time needed to double in this case is about 25 years.
This means that in the period between 1200 and 1975 there have been 31
"doublings". In other words, we are on square 31 of the chessboard. The
number that goes with it is about one billion.
Thus what has been learned from the grains theme is applicable: it
offers support in the solution of similar growth problems.
3.4 Practical Use

Mathematics education must be directed at giving the pupil an under-
standing of all sorts of practical applications of mathematics in general and
insight into its value in certain areas of knowledge in particular.
-learning the applications of mathematics in physics, biology, tech-
nology and sociology, as well as in everyday uses;
- learning to understand the influence of mathematics in the life of
man as a consumer of goods, as a user of services and as a producer;
- learning to understand the role of mathematics at the present time,
for example in the forecasting of events;
- learning to understand and use mathematically orientated apparatus.
We can see examples of practical use in "Grains", particularly with
exponential growth in problems related to the increase in population and
the use of natural resources; the theme also makes use of common units of
weight and volume.
A very important practical point is made by the use of the pocket
calculator: 2 to the power 32 is 429,297,296. How can we calculate 2 to
the power 64? In order to find the first digits - it is impossible to
represent the complete numher on the calculator - a certain strategy must
be followed: the last numbers are set at zero and the square of 4292 is
calculated. How can the complete number be found? By omitting the first
part of the number? Is this allowed? These are just some of the questions
which deal with the use of calculating devices. 37 A discussion on the
meaning of the use of such devices and their place in arithmetic instruc-
tion should be held with the class at some time, and the present theme
may offer just that opportunity.
3.5 StnucflUralJ1spect
Mathematics education must be directed at learning to find relevant
connections, regularities of patterns and the distinctive meaning of stnuc-
flUres within mathematics.
- discovery of regularity in patterns in relation to numbers, shapes and
units;
- discovery of common properties of mathematical objects, operations,
relations and structures within relevant topics;
- detecting and formulating of rules and laws;
- being able to provide concrete examples when given certain rules.
The structural aspect comes to the fore in four ways in the "Grains" theme
- in passing over ten squares on the chessboard the number of grains
becomes 1000 times as large each time; this knowledge can be used
to calculate the number of digits of the number on the last square;
- in the number patterns that results when this number is written in
another system than the decimal;
- in the connection that exists between the number of grains on a
certain square and the total number of grains on the preceding
squares;
- in calculations with fractions: e.g., 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32
+ ... is approximately 1.
In a broader sense, we can add - the discovery of all kinds of rules for
the operations with powers of numbers.
3.6 Methodological J1spect

Mathematics education should be directed at the learning of methods of
exploratory and reasoning strategies, where intuitive, analogous, inductive
and deductive elements can be used.
- the application of the empirical approach characterised by experi-
mentation, observation, hypothesis forming and testing, possibly
followed by deductive reasoning;
- learning to use the proof of an experience as a chain of suppositions
leading to a "true" conclusion: where the truth is derived from
something that was previously accepted~
- learning to become conscious of the importance of analogical
reasoning, the importance of estimating, the idea of an hypothesis,
induction and deduction;
- learning certain solution strategies.
106 CHAPTER III
The methodological aspect can be seen in the first problem in the story of
"Grains", as explained in the commentary on the mathematical material.
The pupils first make an estimate. Are they aware of the haphazardness of
the guess? The subsequent sub-sections deal with the comparisons of the
efficiency of various strategies and the finding of the most suitable
method.
In connection with the points listed for the structural aspect the
question can be asked: how can we prove that certain patterns remain
consistent?
Let us restrict ourselves to the third point of the structural aspect: the
relationship between the number of grains in a square and the total
number of grains on the preceding squares. Can it be proved that the rule
applies in each case? In other words, if the relation holds for the fifth
square, can it be made clear that it also holds for the sixth square, etc?
2nd
(2)
3rd ~; Ilr~il l
2nd
4th
5th
(8)
3rd
4th
(4)
If the "sixth square" is placed next to the fifth, then the value of the total is
twice as large, 32, and so too is the value of each of the parts. The shaded
area of square five is worth "2" on square six, but as to its area, this must
be halved since each square moves up one field. Therefore the new shaded
area is worth "1" and the first square also ....
Therefore the rule that applied to the fifth square applies again. If it is
correct for the sixth square we can also show that the same is true for the
seventh square as well. This is an example of ''visual'' evidence according
to the principle of mathematical induction. In the elementary school
situation this is generally too complicated: the approach mentioned pre-
viously with the binary counter, or a more numerical approach, will
probably be preferable.
It is much easier to give evidence for the first two aspects of the points
in the structural section discussed earlier. In any case, this is an oppor-
tunity to place inductive hypothesis and deductive certainty side-by-side
as two important methodological elements. The last point concerning the
sum of fractions can be proved in various ways.
3.7 Dynamic Aspect
Mathematics is in constant movement and development. Mathematics

education must be directed towards making the pupil conscious of the
openness and dynamics of mathematics, both in the objective and the
subjective sense.
- some knowledge of the development of notation systems for num-
bers;
- some knowledge of the development of arithmetic skill: various
algorithms for basic operations, rules, computers and pocket calcu-
lators;
- some knowledge of the development of certain mathematical sym-
bols and concepts;
- a perspective on one's own mental process: retrospection in shorter
and longer terms, leading to an ever increasing understanding of the
mathematical area.
The dynamic aspect in "Grains" is found in the objective sense in the
treatment of powers. When was this type of notation introduced? What
are its advantages?
In the stricter sense of this theme, however, the dynamics are more
important subjectively. The pupil can attempt to make himself aware of
these dynamics. When did he notice the spectacular growth? When did
certain connections become clear to him? Numerous events in the prob-
lem can be retold and evaluated.
All of this is an attempt to gain perspective on the material learned. To
mention just a few points: approximating 1024 by 1000, the carry forward
principle, discovery of the addition rule, the relationship between moves
of "10" on the chessboard and the thousand-fold increase, different
possibilities for indirect counting, and the review by means of the dream
to become aware of the personal side of learning and of reflection on it.
3.8 Attitude Aspect
Mathematics education must aim at equipping the pupil with knowledge,

skills, abilities and attitudes, by which and in which the preceding objec-
tives of the arithmetical aspect, the language aspect, the applicability, the
practical usefulness, the structural aspect, the methodological aspect and
the dynamics, can be realised.
For the pupil this can mean being offered:
- the opportunity to make errors through "Let me try" experiences;
- the opportunity to appreciate the mathematical method;
108 CHAPTER III
- "eureka" experiences with puzzles, problems and investigations;

- the opportunity to work in a richly structured mathematical area,
where there is room for initiative, inventiveness and daring.
The attitude aspectis given many chances in the "Grains" theme:
- calculating to an adequate degree of accuracy;
- pointing out the specific mathematics in a patricular context;
- possibilities for "eureka" experiences and surprising methods of
solution;
- the linking together of empirical and mathematical activities.
Here are a few concrete examples:
- in guessing: being aware of not-knowing, the lack of vital informa-
tion;
- in rounding-off: 1024 becomes 1000 and the consequences must be
weighed;
- in counting: we do not let every grain count, but use a simple indirect
method;
- in estimating; sometimes estimates are called for (e.g., when reckon-
ing the size of the throne room); sometimes empirical approaches are
needed; on yet other occasions calculation instead of estimation or
measuring is necessary (e.g., when expressing the contents in number
of sacks of grain or in hl);
- the same is true for measuring and counting;
- in discovering a pattern: asking the question of why regularities
occur;
- in the surprising solution to certain problems: reasoning backwards
instead of forwards as was done for the addition rule for the "Grains".
So the theme has a great variety of essential mathematical activities, which
allow the attitude aspect to be given ample attention.
4. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN INTEGRAL AND

MATHEMATICAL GOALS
The division of the one-dimensional goals into integral and mathematical

goals suggests a difference between goals that relate to objectives for the
total school picture and the goals that relate to mathematics only. Such a
division would mean that the mathematical objectives would be subor-
dinate to integral objectives which concern the whole of education.
In a certain sense this is of course true, yet making such a division can
also be misleading. What. is of mathematical value can also be of value
from the integral point o(view. Each general goal concerned with mathe-
matics has one or more integral complements,· and vice versa, as in the
case of the integral objective of social relevance which is closely connected

to the mathematical objectives of applicability and practical usefulness.
Similarly the mathematical objective of the language aspect in the sense of
illustrating and analysing the methods of solution can be described in a
more integral sense as the willingness to listen to others, to discuss and
seek help and to learn constructive criticism. The mathematical objective
of conveying a mathematical attitude can have an integral complement in
being meaningful for personal development - in "eureka experiences" for
example. The mathematical objective of the arithmetical aspect can
contribute to the integral objectives of preparatory value and social
relevance.
Hence a broader integral meaning can be distinguished in each mathe-
matical goal. For this reason it is not desirable to make a strict divi-
sion between the two. On the other hand, making no distinction would
suggest that what is of mathematical value is automatically of integral
worth as well, which need not be the case. The emphasis of mathematical
education as a whole can be placed too much on one of the integral
objectives while the others can be relatively ignored. Consider, for
example, what has been said in the historical overview concerning geome-
try and formal reasoning, where the social relevance, i.e., the practical
applicability was forgotten.
Thus for a crictical appraisal of mathematics education as a whole it is
important to distinguish between integral and mathematical goals, even if
one is convinced - as is Wiskobas - that a strict distinction between the
categories as such is undesirable. 38
Moreover, if Wiskobas characterises mathematics as a human activity,
then this is done in the conviction that mathematical and integral objec-
tives can go hand in hand. The examples from "Grains on the Chessboard"
are the living proof of that, as is evident from the concrete illustrations
already given in the reflections on integral and mathematical one-dimen-
sional goalS. 39
5. CONCLUSION
This chapter has given a comprehensive description of the goals that, in

the view of Wiskobas, deserve a permanent place in mathematics educa-
tion. We spoke of one-dimensional goals, but that description only gives
one component, namely, of skills to be developed, behaviour potentials,
qualities, or whatever other name can be given to describe the desired
behaviour. All of this was illustrated by the example of "Grains on the
Chessboard".
The various differences between integral and mathematical goals are
in accord with the eight starting points that were given in the previous
chapter. The principles of activity and differentiation are, amongst' others,
110 CHAPTER III
connected with the integral one-dimensional goals of personal develop-

ment and socialisation. The starting point of vertical planning is related to
the integral goals of preparatory value and social relevance, while the five
mathematical starting points are connected with the general formulation of
goals of a mathematical nature. The one-dimensional goals are not
therefore in conflict with the earlier starting points.
To be more positive, one-dimensional goals agree with and complement
the starting points of mathematics education.
One part of the point in question that was formulated earlier is: What
are the general objectives of mathematics education as pursued by
Wiskobas and how can these be adequately described for those who are
not sufficiently acquainted with this type of mathematics education?
As in the preceding chapter, this question has been answered in terms
of both form and content. The content of the one-dimensional goals was
described, and the way in which this was done is similar to the kind of
description used by Wiskobas for the benefit of the "unacquainted". The
goals were illustrated concretely by the example of mathematics instruc-
tion concerning grains on a chessboard.
We attach considerable importance to the one-dimensional goals, since
they give a clear and comprehensive description of what must be per-
manent in mathematics education. However, their abstract character also
has disadvantages. Those not fully acquainted with mathematics education
miss the concrete orientation basis to which the goals are connected. It is
for this reason that the description given is linked to a concrete example
so that an indication can be obtained of what is pursued in mathematics
instruction as a whole without necessarily being able to oversee and judge
its total value. The example given serves as a paradigm or model by means
of which didactical orientation is possible.
While we consider the one-dimensional goals to be ultimate goals that
deserve a permanent place, we also feel that they are not concrete enough
to influence everyday teaching, and certainly not for "new" mathematics
teaching material. The one-dimensional goals will have to be described in
greater detail for particular pieces of mathematics teaching material, so
that less-familiar readers will be able to see clearly what is meant by this
concrete example.
One of the assignments of the following chapters is to examine how the
one-dimensional goals can be described concretely, which, in the frame-
work of innovation, means clearly.
In this chapter we have looked ahead to the 'multi-dimensional' goal
descriptions which must serve the functions of unambiguity and clarity. In
what follows an examination will be made of the extent to which the
two-dimensional goals meet these requirements for the "less-familiar".
This chapter on one-dimensional goal description concludes with
further reference to the objectives cube.
In the preceding chapter the eight starting points of mathematics

education were illustrated as the vertices of a cube. Now the twelve
general objectives of mathematics education are depicted as the edges of
this same cube.
In one sentence: The starting point of Wiskobas is an active, differen-
tiated, vertically planned learning process, which does justice to the
structural character, the language aspect, the applicability, the dynamics
and the specific manner of the approach to mathematics and where the
integral one-dimensional goals of personal development, socialisation,
preparatory and social relevance are pursued to the same extent as are the
mathematical one-dimensional goals formulated above.
Mathematical Material for Chapter IV
The Land of Eight

114 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL IV
"The Land of Eight" theme is meant for the fifth grade of the elementary
school. It serves here to illustrate the problem area of goal description for
Chapter IV.
The leading question is how to describe the objectives of this theme for
the "lessjamiliar" reader. In order to focus as sharply as possible on goals
and goal description, we have not filled out the concluding part of the
theme, which has an evaluative character. The reader is asked to draw his
own final conclusions and to compare his solutions with the two examples
in the text of Chapter IV. Thus different points of view about mathematics
education that are possible can emerge clearly.
Idea:D. W. Oort
Design: F. Goffree and H. H. M. Jansen,
Adaptation forthe elementary school: A. Dekker and A. Treffers.
THE LAND OF EIGHT
In this theme the pupils are taken to a country with strange arithmetical
rules. By taking a closer look at these rules, the children are offered the
opportunity to "back-track" on what they have already learnt about basic
operations in order to re-discover the properties of the decimal system. At
the same time they learn to see that the particular base of a positional
notation is irelevant for the purposes of counting and calculating.
1. Introduction to "The Land of Eight"
In the first lesson the pupils are introduced to "The Land of Eight". After
an introductory discussion about Walt Disney cartoons, the first work
sheet is handed out. The children are asked whether they notice any
peculiarities. After a number of comments, one pupil discovers that each
of the characters has only four fingers on each hand.
They are told that Disney did this on purpose: it saved time. Thousands
of drawings are necessary for one cartoon. And what is more, most people
never noticed that something was "missing" in the cartoon. They did
notice this when the figures had three instead of five fingers. Therefore
further thrift was unwarranted.
Up to this point the cartoon characters were doing well, but once they
were animated in the cartoon - which is nothing more than a series of
pictures - their problems started. By the use of story-like characters the
children realise that we have entered into the fantasy world of motion
pictures.
What were these problems? The cartoon characters, and especially the
children among these characters, were having trouble with counting and
calculating. Why was that?
One pupil suggested that it had something to do with counting on one's
fingers. We follow this suggestion: 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. We analyse
what the symbol ''ten'' (10) really means: I've used each of my hands once
in counting, we call it a grasp, and now I start counting again. Twenty-
three (23) means: both hands twice and three more.
The cartoon children could not count in this fashion, so it was decided
to count in a different way. To make clear what they had in mind, they
talked about "The Land of Eight."
115
2. Counting
First: how do cartoon parents teach their children to count? How many
digits will they need?
Some answer, seven; others say, eight. We still cannot be sure what
their answers mean. They write down their answers and the following
solutions are offered:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
0, 1,2,3,4,5,6, 7
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,10.
The last suggestion might be chosen, but let us now assume not. It would
be best to consider the row 0 through 7 or 0 through 8 and analyze it
analogously to the decimal sequence. We see that for eight we must say:
"Both hands once" (a grasp) and write down "10" but now pronouncing it
as one, zero - this is to avoid confusion with the decimal system. In ''The
Land of Eight", "nine" becomes "11" being both hands once plus one, and
is pronounced as one, one. (From now on in the text base eight will be
given between quotation marks).
3. Tallying
How do we tally in fives? Why do we do it like this? How would .they tally
in ''The Land of Eight". The pupils are asked to tally quantities:
.J.It .J.H' J.H" J.H" .J.H' J.H" .J.It .M J.If III
The idea is that the pupils should find a good counting strategy: two
groups of four make "10" (one, zero), and after that it is easy to count:
"10", "20", "30", "40", "47". It is more sensible to count directly using the
base eight system rather than first using the decimal system and then
having to convert the outcome into base eight:
9 X 4 + 3 = 39 = "47" (both hands four times plus seven). Both
strategies - direct and indirect - are discussed.
4. The Abacus
The loop-abacus is demonstrated. Attention is directed to
- notation,
- carrying,
- use of the abacus in base ten and base eight:
THE LAND OF EIGHT 1.17
The assignment:
Write down in "The Land of Eight": 28, 43, 54, 64 (use the abacus if
you like). Some of the pupils work with eights: 43 is five eight plus three =
"53". Others work in groups with the aid of the abacus. The conversion of
64 fails for most at the first attempt. Answer: 64 = "80". They forget to
change the eight eights.
The problem is discussed in groups. The abacus is used to demonstrate
what happens. We remind the pupils of the odometer. They soon discover
what they have forgotten: 64 = "80" = "100".
5. Clever Counting
The pupils are told to count the stars in the following pictures:
r'
r'
t!
>~ r~
The problem can be solved in various ways:

- by counting: "I", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "10", "11", ...
- by conversion: 20 X 16 = 320, and attempting to write this down in
base eight, which causes difficulties,
- by counting columns: "20" per column; the total being "20", "40",
"60", "100", ... "500".
- by making squares of eight by eight and then by counting in larger
groups: "100", "200", "300", "400", "500".
The four methods and combinations of them are discussed and the
additional method of multiplication is also suggested. Indeed, as the use of
multiplication is the easiest way to reach the solution in the decimal
system, could it also be used in base eight?
How can "20" X "24" be solved?

"2" X "24" = "48" = "50", therefore "20" X "24" = "500".
Are there any pupils who make suggestions in this direction?
The problem is left at this stage. The objective is to give the children an
indication that it is possible to calculate in base eight.
6. Addition and Subtraction

The following problems are offered:
'7' '3' '567' '100' '10000' '1245' '1233' '2350'
'6' + '5' + '765' + '3' - '100' - '533' + '5' - '105'-
Addition causes few problems, while subtraction is much more difficult.

Many pupils use the abacus in the latter case. We point out the analogy
with the procedure used in the decimal system:
((1) (b) (c)

9 10 '7'8 '7"10'
'100' '100' '100'
'3' - '3'- '3'-
97 '75' '75'
For (b) the two systems are mixed. This method makes it somewhat easier
since the eight-fold appears as the familiar eight and not as the "10".
7. Conclusion
The two final lessons serve to evaluate and reflect on the previous ones.
As mentioned earlier, the idea is to get the pupils to review what has been
learned in order to make them aware of the arithmetical processes that are
followed when using the decimal system and to make them realise that it
makes no difference which system is used (see pp. 141-146).
CHAPTER IV
TWO-DIMENSIONAL GOAL DESCRIPTION
The previous chapter described the permanent goals of mathematics

education that are pursued by Wiskobas.
It was also claimed that such one-dimensional goals, formulated as
behavioural qualities that are to be developed by pupils, are too abstract
to influence the kind of teaching of particular mathematical problems,
sections of the curriculum, projects, themes and courses. In order to fulfil
optimally the function of a constructive analysis of some mathematics
instruction for the benefit of planning, realisation and evaluation of that
instruction, goal descriptions will need further dimensions beyond the
behavioural. The descriptive possibilities of two-dimensional objectives, as
discussed in this chapter, add a content component that indicates what is
being learned and what material is used. A distinction is also made
between two kinds of two-dimensional goal descriptions, product goals
and process goals.
In the first sub-section these two categories are introduced by a short
report of a discussion between Popham and Eisner that deals with
"instructional and expressive objectives".
The following two sub-sections describe variants of these types of
description.
The fourth sub-section gives an analysis of the possible product and
process goals in ''The Land of Eight". We will check whether these
two-dimensional goal descriptions are explicit enough to make the objec-
tives of a certain piece of mathematics instruction sufficiently clear to
those who are less familiar with this kind of education.
The same thing is done in the fifth sub-section, but in a more general
sense and, after a short review of the main conclusions, we end with the
objectives cube.
Whereas the emphasis in the previous chapter was more on the
substance of goal descriptions, here we will deal more with the formal
aspect of the problem. The six subject areas from which Wiskobas takes
its content and instructional activities will not be discussed further, and for
a short description of the following subject areas we refer the reader to the
chapter notes: arithmetic (1), measuring (2), geometry (3), probability and
statistics (4), relations and functions (5), language and logic (6).
1. POPHAM AND EISNER: TWO VIEWS ON GOAL DESCRIPTION
We wish to examine the means of describing as unambiguously as possible

119
120 CHAPTER IV
the intentions of a certain piece of instruction, for example "The Land of

Eight", in terms of what is intended to be learned, for those who are less
familiar with "new" mathematics education as pursued by Wiskobas.
Before doing this, however, we shall attempt to differentiate between
different possibilities for goal description.
The discussion between Popham and Eisner offers an excellent starting
point, since it reflects different ideas about the problem of description, in
which the extremes can be characterised in de Groot's terms as "measur-
ing without shaping" as opposed to "shaping without measuring"'?
1.1 Popham's views on "Instructional Objectives"

We begin with a short account of Popham's views. We take notice of the
formulation requirements he sets, the importance he attaches to more
concrete product goals, his assessment of the possibilities for concrete
description and, related to this, his views on teaching.
Popham writes about the way to formulate concrete product goals by
means of "instructional objectives", according to his terminology, as
follows:
... an instructional objective should refer to an intended change which we wish to bring
about in a learner. More specifically, the position will be taken that the only sensible
reason for the educator's engaging in instruction is to modify the learner's behavior;
therefore, these intended changes must be described in terms of measurable learner
behaviors. 8
An example of a concretely formulated goal that describes the observable

behaviour of the pupil, or a product that results, is, according to Popham:
Having been given a previously unencountered literary selection from nineteenth century
English literature, the student will be able to write the name of the author and at least three
valid reasons for making that selection. 9
Will such a formulation, if conveyed to the teacher in the (pre-active)

planning stage, help towards (inter-active) didactical action? Do pre-
actively determined concrete product goals have a favourable influence on
the inter-active level of the learning process?
Popham leaves no doubts concerning the possible remedial function of
concretely formulated product goals:
We are at the brink of a new era regarding the explication of instructional goals, an era
which promises to yield fantastic improvements in the quality of instruction.
One can only sympathise with the thousands of learners who had to obtain an
education from an instructional system built on a muddle-minded conception of
educational goals. IO
What is the source of this high expectation? Not empirical evidence, since
TWO-DIMENSIONAL GOAL DESCRIPTION 121
an investigation in which Popham himself was involved shows that

teachers do not know what to do with "instructional objectives". Or rather,
they know no more about what to do with them than anybody else and
their results are no better than those of "non-users."
A conclusion from Baker's investigations was that "No differences in
the performance of the teachers using behavioral objectives and those
using non-behavioral objectives were detected on related test-measures."!!
Baker's interpretation, however, is not that concrete product goals do
not serve to improve education, but that the teacher must be trained to
adjust his instruction to concrete product goals. Popham's desire to see
education based on product goals therefore rests not on empiricai
evidence but on rational analysis, and this analysis uses the "travel"
paradigm. Metaphorically it can be interpreted as: if you know your
destination, you can determine beforehand whether you are sufficiently
equipped to take the trip and if not, you can take the necessary measures.
You can choose the best possible route, you are less prone to stray while
on the way, you can determine how far you ·have got and, finally, you
know when and whether the end of the journey is reached.
In short, if the ultimate goal is precisely known, the necessary measures
needed to reach it can be taken. Instruction can be planned better.
Through the use of such objectives, the instructor can engage in an exacting consideration
of the nature of his instructional sequence. His pre-active instructional decisions will be
based on a lucid conception of how he wishes the learner to behave at the end of the
instructional sequenceP
The rational analysis presupposes the possibility of goal-means separation

and applies the logic that means cannot be chosen if the goa) is not known.
This is the way that empirical evidence is interpreted in this train of
thought.
But can the intended learning always be formulated in terms of
concrete product goals? Popham is quite clear on this point. The range of
applicability of exact goal description is almost unlimited, according to
him. Even if it is restricted, he does not wish to emphasise this for
reasons of strategy, in order that the teacher should not use it as an excuse
for not formulating the product goals concretely.
Here is one remarkable quotation:
I want to make them feel so guilty that they will actually set about specifying as many of
their intended learner behavior changes as they can. I 3
1.2 Eisner's Views on "Expressive Objectives"
But why do teachers not make use of the instruments that could make
instruction so much better and more efficient?
122 CHAPTER IV
Or has the problem of concrete product goal formulation from the

teacher's point of view been oversimplified with regard to the technique,
the importance and the strategy? Does Popham's view rest on an educa-
tional philosophy that does not appeal to the practitioner?
Questions like these are brought forward by Eisner in his contribution.
Let us examine his views about the points made by Popham.
This difference in assessments finds its origin in an alternative view of
education and not primaily in a different assessment of technical or
educational practical problems. "Under the rug of technique lies an image
of man", according to Eisner. 14
Not only does Eisner's view of education differ in large degree from
Popham's, his view of the teacher does as well. As far as the question of
formulation is concerned, Eisner, more than Popham, sides with the
working habits of the average teacher and does not try to "hide" the gap in
the formulation system of the "instructional objectives", but describes it in
all openness. He goes even further and tries to bridge it with an alternative
kind of description, which according to him is much more closely related
to what the teacher encounters in his everyday school situation and is
more suited to what he is trying to teach his pupils.
To avoid misunderstanding, we would emphasise the fact that Eisner
has nothing against the use of instructional objectives. His main objection
is directed against the all-embracing area of application that some, includ-
ing Popham, assign to these goals. Eisner remarks that there is also valid
instruction that shies away from this kind of preconceived concrete
product goal description. The goals belong to those kinds of learning
situations he describes as "expressive objectives". For what kinds of
instruction are "expressive objectives" suitable and to which characteristics
does their formulation comply?
"Expressive objectives" do not refer to education as the introduction
into a certain well defined subject area and the learning of certain skills,
but rather to learning situations concerned with the development of more
general skills of action or the confrontation with important themes, where
it is impossible to predict what the confrontation will produce. 1S
These are the learning situations that display the goal-seeking behaviour
that form the corner stones of education and the building bricks of the
expressive objectives. 16
But how can the expressive objectives be described? The only way it
can be done, says Eisner, is to give a description of the activity, of what
happens in the instructional situation, and the assignment or the problem
situation that is presented to the pupil. In other words, the expressive
objectives, as results of instruction, can, beforehand, only be described by
means oflearning activities.
Expressive objectives as regards the assignment are inviting rather than
prescriptive, and as far as the results are concerned, diverse rather than
homogeneous and involve adventure rather than training.

Examples offormulations of such objectives are:
- ''To interpret the meaning of Paradise Lost".
- ''To visit the zoo and discuss what was of interest there."1?
Placing both kinds of objectives alongside each other results III the
statement,
. .. instructional objectives emphasise the acquisition of the known; while expressive
objectives (emphasise) its elaboration, modification, and, at times, the production of the
utterly new. I 8
But Eisner is not only concerned with the elaboration of possible goal
formulations for a certain kind of instruction - to be classified as being
open, creative or investigative - he also points out the danger of
"blinkered" instruction as a result of instructional objectives. Or as he puts
it:
that is, when you provide a window for looking at something, you also, if I can use the
analogy, provide something in the way of a wall. I9
That wall, according to Eisner, removes from view much more of the
broader educational scene than Popham would allow to be considered.
The fact that this statement is not a mere fabrication can be seen from
Popham's reaction when Eisner applies the concept of expressive objec-
tives to the situation of personal discussion. Eisner says:
This situation is a good example of an expressive objective, if I can use that term. We have
a general idea, but it's certainly not an instructional objective meeting the criteria that are
specified. We're having a dialogue and from our dialogue things are emerging from which
we are learning and after we complete this session we would be in a position to ex post
facto identify some of the things that we've gotten out of our encounter. So, if you were to
ask me for a sort of an operational example of an expressive objective, I'd say this would
beone."2o
However Popham has no wish to call this kind of intellectual interaction

"instruction", even though Eisner points out the structure in the situation
and the directed nature of the activity, Eisner comes to the conclusion that
his earlier statement concerning the difference in viewpoints on education
holds true - "under the rug of technique lies an image of man":
This relates to what I was trying to say earlier about one's conception of the educational
process. I would like, in terms of my preferences, to have this conception of instruction
remain a part oftheeducationai program as well as the other one. 21
Nowhere in the book is the tension about the "shaping-measuring" axis,

which was discussed in the introduction, so evident as in this brief
exchange of views concerning the essence of instruction as related to the
concept of expressive objectives.
124 CHAPTER IV
1.3 Summary
The most important points of the discussion can be summarised as
follows:
- the importance of instructional objectives is not denied by Eisner,
but he assesses their potential application as being less than does
Popham;
- the restricted applicability is founded on a broader vision of edu-
cation, in which not only the "introduction to" and the "equipping
of" but also the "confrontation with" has an important place;
- this elaboration leads Eisner to distinguish different kinds of ob-
jectives which he calls expressive objectives, and which, unlike
instructional objectives, are not formulated in terms of behaviour,
but are described in terms of activities. They apply to learning
situations with a strong search character, which allows for trial and
error, for which the outcome is not determined, and for which the
behaviour is not prescribed or specified;
- the travel-paradigm, which forms the corner stone of rational anal-
ysis, and leads to the recommendation of an exclusive use of instruc-
tional objectives in the planning of education, cannot, in Eisner's
view, be applied in these situations.
Before going more deeply into the possibilities and limitations of the
two different types of objectives, we will first discuss a number of variants
of these.
2. VARIANTS OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
There exist three different kinds of goal description relating to ultimate

behaviour that can be considered as variations on the instructional objec-
tives theme, namely:
- concrete product goals, described by observable behaviour;
- operationalisedproduct goals, described in terms of test problems;
- the "goals approach", described in terms of behavioural categories.
Concrete product goals are also referred to in the literature as behav-
ioural objectives, "Feinziele", specific goals, or briefly, learning objectives.
Operationalised product goals are also referred to as performance
objectives, "Testaufgaben", test or evaluative goals.
The "goals approach" can also be described in terms of behaviour or
test problems as well as by formulations that lead in the direction of goals,
"Grobziele" or intermediate goalS. 22
All of these goal descriptions can be included under the umbrella of
two-dimensional product goals.
2.1 Concrete Product Goals
What are concrete product goals? In the previous chapter an example of

such a goal was given as: "Being able to indicate the positional value of
each digit in a number. (In the number 724, the 2 indicates the tens)".
The formulation of a concrete product goal describes the pupil's
ultimate performance at the end of the instruction.
Its characteristics are:
~ the behavioural component (.. indicate ..),

- the concept (.. the positional value ..).
The behavioural component of a concrete product goal consists of an

action word, that is, a verb or verbal expression that refers in a specific
way to observable behaviour. "Indicate" is such a word. Many writers -
Gronlund, Gerlach and Sullivan, Walbesser, etc. - have compiled lists of
such action-words. 23 Terms like understanding, recognising and applying
are omitted from these lists, because these refer to a supposed or inferred
basis of explanation or behavioural potential rather than to the observable
performance.
The content area of a concrete product goal must also be exactly
specified. This is the case in the example given. There can be little doubt
as to the meaning of "each digit of the number". If there were any doubt,
one could be more specific and add that we are concerned with numbers
of no more than five digits.
Also, the condition under which the desired ultimate behaviour is to be
expressed must, according to the popular view, be included in the formu-
lation of the concrete product goal. This can be expressed at the beginning
of the address as "given a series ..." or by stating "with the aid of ..."
after which the reference to facts or aids can follow. The stating of the
condition can also indicate the connection between the learning situation
and the result of the learning, for example by. mentioning that the pupils'
performance at the end of the instruction is related to a relatively new
problem. An example was given in a previous quotation: "having been
given a previously unencountered ...".
Sometimes the concrete formulation of a product goal includes the
criteria for !l successful performance. For example, 80 percent of the
pupils should be able to do 8Q percent of the problems correctly. An
evaluative criterion of this kind makes the concrete product goal formula-
tion suitable for evaluation.24
In a complete account the statement· of a concrete product goal has the
following shape: "Given a series of objects or assignments of such and
such style, the pupil must, in at least so many cases, be able to perform in
such and such a way." Filled in with some mathematics this can than look
126 CHAPTER IV
like: "Given one co-ordinate of a point and a graph of the point, the
learner will supply the missing co-ordinate.
Sample item: Find the missing coordinate." 25
16'
\,;;/
o 8 16
2.2 Operationalised Product Goals

From the example just given from the list of "minimal performance
objectives for mathematics" of the Michigan State Department of Edu-
cation, it can be seen that concrete product goals can relatively easily be
operationalised, i.e., they can easily be given in terms of 'covering'
assignments, on the basis of which we can check whether or not the pupils
have achieved the objectives. The more concrete the product objective -
the more singular the behaviour, the more specific the content and the
more restricted the condition - the more prescribed are the test assign-
ments. In the most extreme case, one concrete objective should generate
exactly one test item. More typical is the concrete product objective acting
as a generator of a certain kind of test assignment.
Concrete objectives that allow many, essentially different, kinds of test
assignments are usually given in sub-goals. The random test taken from
the collection of possible assignments representing the goals produces the
material for a 'covering' test. The pupil who passes such a test has
achieved the related goal. Some also prefer to add the stochastic element,
''with a certain degree of probability."26
It is now only a small step to the definition of an operationalised goal
by means of test assignments. 27 If we move from Michigan to Kentucky,
theCatter's official list of objectives contains formulation like:
during the spring semc:ster of the eighth grade, Kentucky pupils will demonstrate applica-
tions of arithmetic computation by attaining an average grade equivalent score equal to or
exceeding the criterion (8.7) as measured by the Arithmetic Computation Subtest of the
Comprehensive Tests of Basis Skills, form Q, level 3.28
Within this 'operationalised' conception a product goal is defined by the

series of test assrgnments that it generates, or to be more exact, by a
representative and random test taken from that collection.
If we refer to this as an "extensional" conception of an operationalised

goal, we can see that there is also an "intentional" conception. According
to the most recent ideas, one tries to transmit the intention of a concrete
product goal through a series of examples which collectively form the
example-test. In educational practice this procedure has been followed for
years in test-making. The basic idea is that "If the pupils have undergone
the intended instruction, they should be capable of taking the next test."
This then is an example-test which will possibly include a condition and a
criterion.
The construction of operationalised goals as described seems to solve
all the problems at one stroke. There is no problem of coverage (the goal
covers itself) and no validity problem (the test measures what it pretends
to measure). The operationalised objective, looked at separately from the
concrete product goal, is enough in itself. Yet now the question arises as
to whether it is enough for us. In other words, can the meaning of a certain
piece of instruction be adequately expressed by questions in a test?
2.3 The Goals Approach

A more direct question is whether the two sorts of goal descriptions just
described, or a combination of both, are not aimed too much at evaluation
and not enough at the planning and execution of the instruction?
This question brings us to the third variant of instructional objectives:
the so-called 'goals approach'.
With the results approach, of which we have just described the two
basic forms, the concrete objective is defined solely as the desired
outcome-behaviour, but for the goals approach this is not the case.
McAshan says:
. .. the goals approach draws a distinction between goals, defined as specific learning
intents, and desired outcome-behaviours that can be used to evaluate goal achievement.29
The value of a concrete objective, according to McAshan, must be

measured in terms of the contribution that it can make to the learning
process as a whole and not only to evaluation. He therefore recommends
that the description of concrete or operationalised product goals should
be preceded by a more general description. 3o
The first part of the objective could look like this: ''The pupils must
have acquired insight into the decimal system, so that, given ..." In this
more general part, terms like knowledge, skill, concept, insight, inven-
tiveness, etc. can be used to indicate a certain level for the intended
learning.
The disadvantage of the lack of exact terminology in this supplement is
overcome, according to McAshan, by the important heuristic value it can
hold for both planning and realisation of instruction.
128 CHAPTER IV
In fact the goals approach is little more than a concrete formulation of

objectives, using a so-called taxonomy.31
However, what is done implicitly for a concrete objective in a hierar-
chical ordering of behavioural categories, is included explicitly in the
description using the goals approach. For the rest there is no essential
difference between McAshan's description and the taxonomic concrete
goals description. In either case it is nothing more than adding a level
indicator to a concrete or operationalised objective.
What are the advantages of an indication of level for planning, realisa-
tion and evaluation of instruction? According to the "taxonomists" the
teachers are thereby given a global indication of the intended learning that
can have important implications for education. It makes rather a lot of
difference if, in the given example, the words "to acquire insight" are
replaced by "to acquire skill". In the latter case we are concerned with
learning an algorithm. In the first case we are also concerned with
becoming conscious of the structure of the positional system in which
non-decimal systems can also be included.
In other words, the level indicator in the first part of the formulation
has important didactical consequences which, according to McAshan, are
not sufficiently expressed in the second part of the description where the
results of education are enunciated in terms of intended changes of
behaviour.
It is again "one more step" to keep hold of the first part of the formula-
tion (the goal description) while discarding the last part (the concrete or
operationalised formulation)', and go from Kentucky to California, where
the State Department of Education presents the objectives in terms of
goals such as, ". . . to understand the structure of the several number
systems and the special properties of each".32 This takes us outside the
area of variants of instructional objectives.
2.4 Concluding Remarks

If we accept that within the three given categories of product goal
description several variants are possible and if we realise that these
various types of description can be combined, it becomes clear that there
is a wide range of product goal descriptions. This enormous diversity of
possible formulations is indeed found in literature dealing with goals and
the practice of goal description.
One will encounter some concrete product goals with a small content
component almost identical to test items, and others with a large content
component reflected in a wide range of test items. The measure of
unambiguity of the behaviour component of concrete product goals can
vary. The condition formulation can be extensively illustrated, but may
also be completely lacking. The same is true for the criteria.
The extensional "exhausting" or intentional "exemplary" methods can

be applied to the operationalised product goals. In turn these two
approaches can be combined with concrete product goal formulations.
The "goals approach" can also differ to a large extent, according to
whether the terms for the behaviour categories are taken from different
taxonomies or from everyday speech.
So there are many "technical" possibilities for product goal formula-
tion, aimed at describing the intended changes in behaviour so concretely
that they can be observed and measured.
Later on in this chapter the possibilities of these types of description
and their limitations will be examined more closely. Before that, however,
we will consider the variants of the "expressive objectives" idea.
3. VARIANTS OF EXPRESSIVE OBJECTIVES
When we examine objectives described in terms of activities, we find three

variants of what we have referred to as "expressive objective" namely:
- PISA objectives; (see 3.1)
- process objectives;
- all-embracing process objectives.
These three variants differ not in terms of their type of description, as the
variants of instructional objectives did, but rather derive their distinguish-
ing features from the learning situations and learning processes to which
they are thought to apply.
PISA objectives refer to problem situations with a relatively open result.
Process objectives are related to learning situations for which the product
cannot be described clearly enough in terms of behaviour since the
essence lies in the process of the activity: investigation, exploration,
construction, description, etc.
All-embracing process objectives, in terms of activities, apply to the whole

of education. Within this variant, in contrast to the preceding two, there is
no room left for product goals.
All the objectives which relate to activities can be captured in the title
"two-dimensional process goals", since the expressive goals and the PISA
goals can also be considered asbeing process goals, as will appear later in
this chapter. These process goals, like the product goals previously
discussed, are two-dimensional, since they have a d.iffienslon of behaviour
and one of content. The difference between the process goal description
and the product goal formulation lies in the dimension of behaviour,
130 CHAPTER IV
which rather than describing an observable ultimate behaviour, indicates

instead on "activity behaviour".
An example of a two-dimensional process goal in the form of an
"expressive objective" was given earlier; interpreting (behavioural com-
ponent)the meaning of "Paradise Lost" (content component). Sometimes
a short reference to general goals is added to the formulation. When
complete, the frame of a process goal looks like this: 'the objective lies in
the activity of ...' thereby offering the pupils the 'opportunity to... .' As
stated previously, the distinction between the various process goals lies in
the nature of the activities to which they are expected to apply. Roughly
speaking, expressive goals, as we have seen them, are related to learning
situations without Clear problem indications, but with an important topic
that calls for expression, discussion, and research, without being able to
predict the way it will be taught or the result it will reach.
In what follows the characteristic learning situations to which the three
variants of expressive objectives apply will be identified.
3.1 PISA Goals

Eisner does not use the term PISA goals, which has been introduced by
Oudkerk Pool, but speaks instead of "type III goals".33 These are goals
that refer to problems which have been purposely framed to offer rela-
tively open solutions, for example, a problem about the improvement of
city traffic or (an example from Oudkerk Pool) the assignment to find a
construction that will keep the tower of Pisa erect.
The word 'PISA' is composed of the first letters of the four essential
components of problem situations to which the type-Ill goals refer: the
Problem-formulation, the Indications (conditions) that the solution must
satisfy, the Systematics of the solution and the Arbitration of the most
appropriate solution.34
In mathematics education there are many problem situations that have
the PISA-characteristics.
In general, if solutions of complex problems are to be found, for which
it is im~ssible to determine in advance which is the best or correct solu-
tion, then the description of the goals has to take place in terms of activities.
A disadvantage, according to--Eisner, is that in learning situations with
PISA-characteristics it is dearly not possible to give an adequate formula-
tion in terms of behaviour.
One might wonder if, in such cases, the formulation could not be given
in terms of behaviour, for example by including in the criterion com-
ponent the fact that the product or the result of the learning process must
comply with the standards set by competent judges. In this case the results
of the instruction are not judged on the basis of c.ertain. pre-determined
characteristics, but ra~er on the basis ,of m.ore or less explicit criteria. This
would produce PISA goal formulations that read like this: the pupil must
be able to give a "satisfactory" solution for the improvement of the traffic
problem in the given city, i.e., satisfactory in the eyes of one or more
experts. Thus the PISA goals would have been operationalised.
The question is whether or not Eisner's introduction of the concepts of
expressive objectives and type-III objectives has created a pseudo-contra-
diction. 35
We will deal with this question only briefly, since the answer is related
to the second variation of expressive objectives, which will be discussed
next.
In our view, Eisner's statements are not clear, and therefore often
misinterpreted, because he ties the desirability of goal description in terms
of activities to certain characteristics of learning situations, i.e., the open-
ness of the results. If the essence of the expressive goals and type-III goals
were to lie here, they could indeed be substituted by an operational goals
description with a ''floating'' criterion.
However, from the discussions between Popham, Sullivan and Tyler, it
becomes evident that Eisner has pinned himself down to the openness of
learning situation .because, in his opinion, that is exactly where certain
learning experiences can be attained and certain learning processes can
take place that are characteristic of the work done "at the cutting edge of
inquiry". It is this last aspect that he is concerned about. He says:
I would like to see us provide situations in a school where that cutting edge experience can
be undergone because in a very important sense, you might say that the ultimate criterion
of education is an aesthetic criterion rather than a product criterion. It may be that the
most important goal of education is to enable to think in such a way that the kind of
experience they undergo is a feelingful experience, is an aesthetic experience. 36
As I think about people who are doing research or painting, one reason that they do it is
because they like the interior excitement that they undergo when they're doing it, and this
excitement emanates in large measure from things which they come upon in course of their
muddling through. 37
Eisner is apparently concerned with the richness of the learning

experience within the open learning situation rather than with the variety
of results produced. The last quotation especially is very clear on this: the
learning process as a whole, with its emotion, its muddling and of course
also its result, forms the contents of an expressive objective and a ''type-III
objective" .
A formulation in terms of ultimate behaviour with a "floating" criterion,
would in Eisner's opinion, not serve to clarify the intended objective. For
that a different formulation is needed. 38
To that end the term "process goals" is often used, since that expresses
the essence of Eisner's intentions. Eisner himself does not use the term
''process goals". Apparently he wants to specify what he means by naming
132 CHAPTER IV
the characteristic learning situations to which the objectives refer. He has

not completely succeeded in that respect, at least not as far as mathe-
matics is concerned. What he has in mind for expressive goals and PISA
goals can also be pursued in less open problem situations. Following this
train of thought, it would be better to speak about the more compre-
hensive concept of process goals, even though this term can lead to
misunderstandings as well, as the reactions to Bruner's statement "know-
ing is a process, not a product" can illustrate.39
3.2 Process Goals

Does accentuation of the process of acquiring knowledge, of investigation,
of mathematical activity, exclude a goal formulation in terms of behav-
iour? What is the advantage of descriptions of process goals in terms of
activities?
These two questions have been briefly touched upon previously. We
will again deal with them briefly by giving an example. In Chapter Two a
lesson has been described on combinatorial problems on the grid of a city
map. Two girls were observed while they tackled the problem. Among the
important mathematical achievements were: coding the route, systema-
tically noting down all possible routes, using a model, and finally solving
the problem.
The objective of the lesson in terms of ultimate behaviour could be
described as follows:
The pupils must be capable of a systematic notation in order to make possible the choosing
of two or three objects from a series of five; they must be able to make a route-code on a
two-dimensional city map and solve combinatorial counting problems of the type that have
been familiar to them in all possible variations.
In other words, the desired outcome of the learning process can be

described in terms of behavioural changes.
But have we now said everything? No, it could be said that this
formulation covers only part of what was pursued in the lesson, and the
least important part at that. The primary concern is not the ability to
indicate the outcome, i.e., not what the pupil must be capable of at the end
of the lesson. If this were the case, the lesson could have been constructed
in a totally _different way. The obvious objective is to give the pupils
learning experiences. We wish the pupils to complete the entire cycle of
mathematical enquiry by exploration, solving partial problems, discovering
short-cuts,using a systematic approach, using models, solving the prob-
lem, verbalising the solution and formulating the general rules of solu-
tion.40 And this with all the "eureka!' experiences and emotions that belong
to working "at the cutting edge of inquiry", as Eisner puts it.
In short, what is intended cannot, or can orily partially, be described in
terms of ultimate behaviour. What is worse, according to those in favour
of process goals in terms of activities, by giving the product description

the emphasis can come to lie in the wrong place, creating a misunder-
standing rather than a clarification of the goals.
A description of process goals in terms of activities is needed alongside
.
the formulation in terms of ultimate behaviour, in order to describe the
wealth of possibilities for mathematical learning processes that are in-
cluded in the envisaged activity.
From the nature of the instruction it follows that process goals in terms
of activities apply to that part of instruction which is concerned not only
with. the transfer of knowledge and the attainment of certam well-defined
skills, but which is first and foremost concerned witb the fundamental
experiences and learning processes that are expressed by the starting
points and general objectives. Within these concepts there is room for
instructional objectives, as is also admitted by Eisner. This is not so with
the all-embracing goals in terms of activities, as we shall now see.
3.3 All-Embracing Process Goals

James Rath favours education within concrete product goalS. 41 According
to him it is not only open assignments or situations where there is a wealth
of research possibilities which demand goal description in terms of
activities, but all of education deserves this approach.
Rath summarised a number of points concerning values that should be
observed when considering education. The different directions that can be
chosen for education can be explained and evaluated on the basis of these
value postulates. For example, the following starting points can account for
the choice of certain activities: involvement of the pupil, topicality of the
subject, possibilities for working at different levels on the same problem,
agreement with the pupils' own objectives. For mathematics education
such views could mean that instruction is given only on the basis of
starting point~ and general objectives. This point of view, which is shared
by Stenhouse and Arnold, brings us to the end-point on the journey from
measuring to modeling.42
3.4 Concluding Remarks

As we have said, variants of the "expressive objectives" can be distin-
guished by the various learning situations to which they apply.
Expressive objectives relate to learning situations without clear problem
indications and with a variety of possible solutions. One example is given
in the discussion between Popham, Eisner, Sullivan and Tyler concerning
expressive goals.
PISA goals are related to clearly indicated problems having, however, a
relatively open solution set. An example: the combinatorial problems of a
city's traffic situation.
134 CHAPTER IV
Process goals are also directed at learning situations with a clear prob-
lem indication and a determined solution, but now we are concerned not
so much with the solution per se, as with the whole investigating process
that leads to this solution. One example is the combinatorial problems of
the girls Jolanda and Tineke, that is, mathematisation of the problem.
The al1~embracing process goal formulation applies to the whole of
education. When speaking of process goals, therefore, we have in mind
goals given in terms of activities, where the intended objective lies within
the activity itself, without describing this objective in terms of ultimate
behaviour. It does not matter whether or not these activities are "open"
with regard to the problem and its solution. Defined in this way, the
concept of process goals also includes the expressive goals and PISA
goalS. 43
4. PRODUCT AND PROCESS GOALS IN "THE LAND OF EIGHT'·
Following this overview of the various two-dimensional goal descriptions,

we want to examine their possibilities in relation to certain pieces of
instruction, rich problems, parts of curricula, themes and projects, exam-
ples of which are included in this publication.
Before treating the question in a more general way, we will first "weigh
up" the product and process goal descriptions on the basis of the theme
"The Land of Eight".
In accordance with the problem in question that is described in Chapter
I, we would now ask ourselves: Given a theme like "The Land of Eight":
can the two-dimensional goal description picture the objectives sufficiently
clearly for them to be understood as intended by those who are unfamiliar
with them? The question shows that we have departed from the
supposition that goal descriptions can be important for the planning,
realisation and evaluation of certain pieces of instruction. This supposition
includes the notion that the objectives cannot unambiguously be derived
from the problems and assignments presented to the pupils and that the
learning activities that are generated by these assignments can be used for
different purposes.
Becker makes the following remark on the subject:
Bei der Diskussion der drei Texte (2, 3, 4) hat sich gezeigt: Materiale aus dem Medium
Lehrbuch konnen auf sehpunterschiedliche Weise mogliche Ziele des Unterrichts anzeigen
oder festlegen44
This possibly different use of "materials" will also be evident in ''The Land
of Eight". Yet designers of teaching materials often have a certain objec-
tive in mind for a particular piece of instruction. The question is how to
describe those objectives, so that the teacher can, if he wishes, conform to
them or attune his teaching activities accordingly.
In this connection, Goffree was quoted in the first chapter as speaking

of a constructive analysis of the potential instruction of a given theme,
project or section of the curriculum.45 This means that the teacher must
"find" himself in that instruction. He should be able to "see through" the
theme and the teaching material to the underlying meaning, adapt it to suit
his purposes and, if necessary, offer a variation that reflects his own
educational views.
It goes almost without saying that a more or less concrete goal
description of what is intended with a certain piece of instruction can offer
an important support for that constructive analysis and also at the same
time for the planning, realisation and evaluation of that instruction.
Moreover, the goal description can possibly say something about the
"newness" of the mathematics instruction as a whole. The question now is
whether a two-dimensional goal description in general can offer sufficient
information about the objectives of a certain piece of mathematics in-
struction, and as far as· this sub-section is concerned, whether such a
description in particular can illustrate the objectives of ''The Land of
Eight". The answer to the second part of the question will provide clues as
to how to answer the more general first part.
''The Land of Eight" will first of all be examined from the point of view
of those who are in favour of an exclusive formulation with product goals.
Next, the theme will be examined from the point of view of those in favour
of process goals. The third sub-section offers an overview.
4.1 Product Goals in "The Land of Eight"

The theme contains the following four main activities, each to take one or
two lessons:
- counting in base eight and writing down the number sequence;
- learning to count fast and efficiently in base eight;
- doing simple additions, subtractions and multiplications in base
eight;
- a concluding section with an evaluative or testing character, which
has been left open in the description given earlier in this chapter to
offer the reader the opportunity to create his own closing lesson
which he can compare with our interpretations.
Considered from Popham's point of view, we wonder which product goals
should be formulated for ''The Land of Eight". Whateyer happens the
pupils should, after the first main activity, be capable of writing down the
counting sequence in base eight and of converting a series of numbers
from the decimal to the octal system. Does this product objective com-
pletely cover what we have in mind? Or do we want more? For example,
that they should be able to compose a counting sequence in base six as an
application of what was learned in ''The Land of Eight"?
136 CHAPTER IV
The last question can be confirmed, since the activities in "The Land of
Eight" are not meant solely for the attainment of knowledge and skills, but
rather for the understanding of the carrying principle and the arithmetic
algorithm of positional notation.
Should the pupil also be capable of writing the counting sequence in
base five? "The Land of Five" is more complicated than "The Land of
Six", because in ''The Land of Six" it is possible to imagine people with
three fingers on each hand, analogous to "The Land of Eight", but in "The
Land of Five" this symmetry is broken, thus depriving a number of children
of the concrete background for counting and carrying. Do we feel that
pupils must be able to deal with these kinds of circumstantial factors and
be capable of counting and calculating in the systems of base two through
nine?
This is a series of questions that can be asked in order to determine the
product goals for the first main activity.
It will not have escaped the reader's notice that in our earlier considera-
tions, terms like "knowledge", "skill" and ''understanding'' were used to
characterise the objectives and from there to determine the product goals.
We can also formulate matters the other way round. By indicating the
categories of assignments that the pupils must be able to complete, the
concepts of "knowledge", "skills" and ''understanding'' have been filled in.
The first is McAshan's goals approach and the second indicates
Klauer's operational method. 46 In both cases a "matching problem" arises;
one concerns the "deduction" of concrete product goals from a "goal" and
the other the "induction" from test assignments to a "goal".
Many authors have pointed out the necessity of having a goal described
in terms of behaviour categories, in order to escape, as Klauer expresses
it, the ultra-behaviouristic and ultra-operational practices of the self-
sufficient concrete and operationalised product goal formulation. In terms
of educational psychology, what matters in product goals related to
ultimate observable performance is not the mere performance but the
underlying activity structures, the behaviour potentials, of which the
performance is only the indicator. If this were otherwise, the product goal
would indeed be self-sufficient and arbitary.47 In other words: in order to
determine the product goals of a piece of instruction, one must consider
carefully and decide which behaviour potentials are intended for that
particular instruction.
An example of a deliberation process for "The Land of Eight" has just
been given. Now we can choose the product goal for the first activity as
follows:
The pupils should have an understanding of the carrying principle of positional notation,
i.e. they should be able to give the counting sequence in base eight as well as in base six
which has not been treated in the lesson. They must also be able to convert a given
sequence of decimal numbers into these systems and vice-versa.
After this, we can be brief about the second and third main activities.
Since these activities are closely related, the product goals can be formu-
lated together as follows:
At the end of the instruction, the pupils should have acquired skill in the counting of
quantities in base eight and base six, and be able to "do simple additions, subtractions and
multiplications in those systems.
Following this train of thought, the concluding lesson should consist of

doing and discussing a suitable test of the product goals formulated, which
might look like this:
1. Write down the first twenty numbers in "The Land of Eight".
2. Do the same for "The Land of Six".
3. Convert the following sequence of decimal numbers into base eight:
5,7,16,32,61,64,100
4. Do the same for base six.
5. The following numbers are given in base eight. Convert them to the
decimal system:
"3", "10", "55", "100" and "1000".
6. Do the same again, but now the numbers are from "The Land of
Six".
7. The following numbers are written in base eight. Complete the
problems in "The Land of Eight":
"5" "1245" "100" "2350"

"5" + "533" + "3" - "105"-
8. Do the same, but now in "The Land of Six".

9. Fill in the following multiplication table for "The Land of Eight".
x '1' '2' '3' '4' 'S' '6' '7'
'1'
'2'
'3'
'4'
'S'
'6'
'7'
138 CHAPTER IV
10. Do the same for ''The Land of Six".
x '1' '2' '3' '4' '5'
'1'
'2'
'3'
'4'
'5'
Taken together, we now have a goal description for ''The Land of Eight":
a series of product goals in terms of behaviour and a suitable test. How-
ever, the goal description could be made somewhat more exact by
deriving the terms of the behaviour component of that description from a
particular taxonomy.
Wood has constructed a relatively simple taxonomy, by which the
possible product goals for ''The Land of Eight" can be classified and
ordered as being:
- the level of knowledge (''writing down the counting sequence from
''The Land of Eight";
- the level of skill ("being able to do simple addition, subtraction and
multiplication in base eight");
- the level of understanding ("being able to complete the basic opera-
tions in the unfamiliar "Land of Six");
- the level of insight ("being able to execute the basic operations in
every system with a base smaller than ten");
- the level of inventiveness ("being able to write the counting sequence
in base twelve").48
Terms like knowledge, skill, understanding or insight used in the
formulation of goals give an indication of the levels of those goals, thus
offering a certain degree of clarity. We say "a certain degree" since the use
of taxonomies for goal formulation is rather problematic - more is said
about this in the next sub-section.
One can wonder whether the product goal formulation must contain
the three components mentioned - "goal", concrete product goal and
operationalised product goal - in every -case. In the example from ''The
Land of Eight" these three aspects were combined. This does not mean
that a combination of these three possible components of a product goal is
always necessary. In our opinion, for ''The Land of Eight" it would be
sufficient to give an operationalised product goal description in the form
of the collection of the ten test problems, with the additional information
that the pupils who are taking part in this lesson have previously worked
only in the base eight system. Yet here we are not concerned with this
kind of more sophisticated appreciation of goal descriptions. Whether a
particular solution is the most appropriate depends on too many special
factors to allow a general statement. Therefore there is no one "best"
description possible.
What we are concerned with here is that if "The Land of Eight" is
considered as a piece of instruction in which the primary concern is
learning to master, use and apply .certain facts, concepts, operations,
algorithms, rules, and methods, then the product goal formulation, no
matter in what form, can be handled efficiently. This can mean a large
number of "technical problems", but in principle the intended output can
be obtained by means of the product goal formulation.
4.2 Process Goals in "The Land of Eight"
But not all has been covered by this discussion, the defenders of process
goals will argue. The given product goals, being directed at mastery, do
not adequately express what they feel should be attempted by the theme of
"The Land of Eight".
Here we will take another look of "The Land of Eight" from a different
point of view about goal description. Once again we will consider the
three main activities and the concluding evaluation lesson.
First of all there is a more general goal interpretation. According to this
view, the primary concern is not to teach the children how to operate in
systems other than the decimal, but rather it is to offer the children the
opportunity to reflect on earlier learning experiences which used the
decimal system, by means of an exploration in ''The Land of Eight",
together with all the important mathematical learning experiences that can
be gained in such an exploration. By the end of the lesson, most of the
pupils will have almost certainly reached the level of the previously
mentioned product goals of knowledge and skill and the majority will also
be able to fill the requirement of the level of understanding and therefore
be able to apply what has been learned to the base six system.
Yet if the primary concern is not the pursuit of these product goals,
what is it?
The goal of the first main activity is the construction of the counting
sequence by the children who conferred together, i.e., the discussion
concerning the number of digits in "The Land of Eight".
The class discusses the proposals, 1 through 7, 1 through 8, 0 through
7, 0 through 8, and come to the conclusion, by analogy with the carrying
rule in the decimal system, that the "eight" is to be carried. This means
that we have a 'grasp' (two hands with a total of eight fingers) and zero
140 CHAPTER IV
fingers. Written as "10". Nine becomes both hands once and one finger:
"ll",etc.
Then the pupils continue by making suggestions about the distinction
between the two systems - base ten and base eight - and choose the best
suggestion for a notation, for example, between quotation marks for the
numbers in "The Land of Eight".
This is followed by some practice in the conversion of numbers from
one system to the other, using the hands, fingers and, in difficult cases, the
abacus, as for the number 64 that is "100" in base eight.
Important process goals are present, particularly in the common effort
to construct the counting sequence and to choose the notation for
numbers in "The Land of Eight", that is, goals which cannot adequately be
described in terms of ultimate behaviour, such as skills at the end of the
instruction, but which can' only be indicated within the learning process
itself. Naturally the learning process results in a series of product goals;
but conversely, the process goals cannot be "understood" from the
product goals. The intended process goal· relates particularly to introduc-
ing the pupils to the counting and notation problems and, through that, to
the process of mathematising "at the cutting edge of the inquiry".
Such a goal can only be described by the activity itself, possibly adding:
whereby the pupils are given the opportunity to argue, reason by analogy, devise a notation
system and reconsider how counting and arithmetic is done in the decimal system.
Even if we decide that, at the end, the pupils must be able to construct the
counting sequences in "The Land of Eight" and possibly in "The Land of
Six", this product goal in no way encompasses what was taken to be the
heart of the process goal, namely the common mathematical activity,
resulting in the construction of the counting sequence. It is for that reason
that we say that the process goal resides within the learning process itself,
which implies that this goal description can only be given in terms of
activities, with a possible short reference to general goals, and not in terms
of ultimate behaviour. This is the argument of those for whom 'process' is
of the highest importance.
The problems of process goal description are manifold. One might say:
But such an activity is surely not done for its own sake! The children are supposed to
learn "something" from it, and if this is accepted, the objective of the activity must involve
(and allow) a description of behavioural potentials, dispositions, properties, or whatever
.other word might indicate the depth of human behaviour.49
This question is at the heart of the problem of goal description. It will

be properly dealt with in the next sub-section. At present we will remain
with the conclusion which refers to the discussion between Popham and
Eisner: the difference in insight between those in favour of process goal
formulation and those against it lies in their different views of education,
and this leads in our case, to a difference of opinion on the interpretation

of "The Land of Eight".
With respect to the second and third main activities we could also
develop a series of process goals, particularly concerning "clever" calcu-
lating in ''The Land of Eight" without using the d~cimal system.
We will now pass on from these goals in order to focus on the conclud-
ing part of ''The Land of Eight", since it best illustrates the contrast with
the product goal approach.
As mentioned earlier, the fourth main activity in the description of
''The Land of Eight" has been left open to offer the reader the opportunity
to plan his own one or two concluding lessons of an evaluative or testing
character.
The previous sub-section concluded with the construction and discus-
sion of a series of test problems. That conclusion was in line with the
objectives of the instruction, even though one can argue about the accuracy
of the product goals that were set and the content of the test problems.
It is important to remember that we are only considering an imaginary
group of sixth graders, and not one particular group or class. The test
lesson is certainly not unreal: a group of curriculum developers and
teachers did indeed construct such a concluding test for ''The Land of
Eight" even though some members of the group had the uneasy feeling
that this test did not really "fit" and resembled a compulsory essay written
after the typical school outing. It apparently did not completely cover what
was intended with the instruction.
An example of an evaluative conclusion will now be given that does
seem to· fit the "process view" of ''The Land of Eight". It will also serve to
show the limitations of the two-dimensional process goal description.
The closing lessons of the theme begin with a story about Walt Disney.
The artist having come to the conclusion that cartoons with four-fingered
characters were a success, decided to make a text cartoon with three-
fingered characters. However the cartoon was discarded because the
strange little hands were noticed immediately.50 This true incident serves
to introduce the following problem: "Suppose that Walt Disney had made
this movie, how would' the three-fingered people have written down
numbers, and added, subtracted and multiplied them?"
After the suggestions for solving this problem have been briefly
discussed in· class, the main problem is presented: ''What other 'lands' are
possible besides the lanQs of eight and six, in which the characters should
be able to count and calculate?"
We promise the children a passport for each of these lands, ·if they can
produce the necessary documents, containing the following information:
- a fairly long counting sequence, say of twenty numbers, of that coun-

try;
142 CHAPTER IV
- a not too simple addition problem with its answer;

- a not too simple subtraction problem with its answer;
- a completed multiplication table.
The idea is for the children to acquire the passports of as many different
'lands' as possible.
The pupils work in pairs and the teacher observes, offers assistance and
. . . evaluates. Are any "odd" systems examined or do the children stay
with characters having two hands and an equal number of fingers on each
hand? Are there children who find abstract solutions, disregard fingers
and think only in positional systems? Is the abacus used or do the children
carry the numbers mentally? Do the children consider characters with six
fingers on each hand? And if so, how is the role of "10" orchestrated in
the "Land of Twelve"? Do they enter "The Land of One"? Do the pupils
understand that the base of a positional notation system does not really
matter in counting and calculating?
And, especially, how do the children react to certain "hints" given by
the teacher, how do they assist each other and how do they work
together?
This is just a series of observation and supporting points.
All that was discussed earlier in relation to the expressive objectives,
about the appeal of the assignment as opposed to the prescription, about
the diversity versus the homogeneity of the solutions and about the
"meeting with" as opposed to the "transfer of", can for the most part be
applied to this concluding section of "The Land of Eight".
In fact, the children are motivated by the challenge of the problem. The
results are diverse. Some children, with a lot of assistance, manage to
acquire a few passports, while others, with only a little help, manage to get
to "The Land of Twelve". The concern in this kind of approach is not that
each pupil learns to count with dexterity and calculate in as many systems
as possible, but rather that the (process) goal lies in the activity of the
detection of all possible "number systems'.' and therefore in mathematising
itself, which cannot, as mentioned earlier, be adequately described as an
ultimate skill in terms of behaviour.
Take for example the problem of "The Land of Twelve", where the
characters have six fingers on each hand. What does the number line look
like? "0", "I", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9", ... At twelve we have
a full grasp and as in the other systems, the number should be "one-zero":
"10".
But should "9" be followed by "10"? Isn't there something wrong? We
cannot have "10" twice in the sequence - at ten and at twelve. So what
can be done? The children come forward with all sorts of suggestions to
"repair" the counting sequence. Some cannot offer any solution since the
fault is with "II" and "12". Some positive suggestions lead to complicated
notation systems while others are more efficient, like one pupil's sugges-
tion of filling in the two open spaces in the sequence, for the ten and
eleven, with two Chinese characters. After discussion this last solution is
found to be the best.
In this process of research, reasoning by analogy, resolving conflicts,
thinking up systems of notation, weighing possible solutions, discussing
which is the most acceptable solution, demonstrating these solutions using
the abacus and explaining things to each other, which are all parts of the
unpredictable process of mathematising, lies the true goal, in the opinion
of the advocates of process goals.
It is evident that the teacher is also involved in that process. In this
connection we refer to the remarks on didactisation for the lesson of
Jolanda and Tineke in the second chapter and to the more recently listed
points of observation.
So the goal lies within the learning process, but this does not mean to
say that such a process should not lead to certain products in the sense of
ultimate skills, as were enumerated in the first part of this sub-section.
Those, however, in favour of process goal formulations, feel that the
intentions of the process goals cannot be reflected by means of a product
goal formulation. We might also say that they feel that not all intended
objectives can be formulated in terms of "at the conclusion of the
instruction, the pupils must be able to" ... , even if we add ''with some
assistance" to that sentence.
It is for this reason that the evaluative conclusion of "The Land of
Eight" takes place completely within the learning process and not at some
later date. Therefore some speak of an internal process evaluation, to be
combined with the external product goal evaluation that was described
earlier.51
So far the problem of process goal description has remained somewhat
in the background. How can the process goals for a certain piece of
instruction be described? Restricting ourselves to the concluding part of
the theme, we might formulat~ the process goal two-dimensionally as
follows:
The goal lies in the activity of detecting all the possible "number system countries",
whereby the pupils are given the opportunity to calculate, develop notational methods,
reason by analogy, argue, and become aware of the meaning of certain familiar arithmetic
techniques, such as carrying and borrowing in the basic operations.
Such a two-dimensional process goal description, besides giving a

description of the activity, also touches upon the permanent general goals
of mathematics instruction referred to earlier.
For the enlightened reader, such a two-dimensional process goal
description will undoubtedly contain sufficient clues as to the goal in
question, but seen in the framework of innovation, such a goal description
144 CHAPTER IV
is anything but clear. In other words the unenlightened will find little help
for the planning, realisation and evaluation of the instruction for "The
Land of Eight" in such a description.
Our conclusion must therefore be that the two-dimensional process
goal formulations cannot adequately describe the intentions behind it -
shared by us - in a way that what is intended becomes clear to those who
are "less familiar with" the ideas and intentions. To that end a much more
extensive description is necessary, one that expresses the different forms
of learning behaviour that certain pupils will show in mathematising, as
well as demonstrating the different kinds of instructional behaviour that
the teacher can hope to use in the didactisation.
A start to such an extension was made in the discussion of a few
examples in this sub-section. We summed up the reactions of the children,
and gave examples of the teacher's reflections, in order to clarify the
intentions of those in favour of process goals. Such an extensive process
goal description, however, in which the abundance of possibilities for
learning processes comes to the fore, cannot be made with a two-dimen-
sional goal description, restricted to a behaviour and content component,
because this would require a disproportionate conditional clause in the
form of a series of references to the instructional and didactising activities
involved. This is the reason why in that case we will speak of three-
dimensional goal description in a didactical context, which will be dealt
with later on.
For the moment it is enough to have shown why we consider a process
goal description to be as necessary as the previously mentioned product
goal description. We feel we have made this plausible in principle on the
basis of "The Land of Eight". We say "in principle" because there are a
number of important matters yet to be discussed.
4.3 Summary
Before proceeding further, we first give a summary of the results of our
explorations in the field of goal descriptions in "The Land of Eight".
At the outset we gave a justification for the choice of the theme "The
Land of Eight" in that it has, as far as goals are concerned, almost
chameleon-like characteristics. The instruction can be directed at routine-
like ultimate skills, at process activities, or at any combination of these
two. "The Land of Eight" easily adapts to either, or to any other
conception.
In this sub-section we have however not confronted extremes with each
other, in order not to distort the views about product and process goals.
Even in the product view, as we presented it, higher cognitive goals were
aspired to rather than restricting it to routine skills. We saw that these
"higher" product goals could be described clearly by a combination of
product goal descriptions: goal plus concrete product goal plus opera-
tionalised product goal - and with one clear condition, that the children
would have to be able to learn the well-defined performances exclusively
on the basis of the instruction given in base eight.
In short this goal takes the view that the pupil must be able to apply
what he has learned in ''The Land of Eight" to ''The Land of Six".
It is evident that such goals have consequences for the design of
education, since children will only be able to apply what they have learned
in ''The Land of Eight" to other systems if certain mathematical principles
behind the positional system, such as the exchange of certain quantities for
certain units, have been understood.
Instruction on the basis of these product goals must consequently be
directed at making the pupil aware of the routine arithmetic operations in·
the decimal system and at a systematic comparison of the decimal system
and other systems, using the abacus as an important aid.
An approach to instruction expressed in this way need not be in
conflict with what is pursued by the process interpretation of ''The Land
of Eight", though it sometimes can be the case. Indeed, the product
conception can result in the formation of a firmly directed learning
process, in which the teacher guides the pupil towards the intended goal,
step by step, without offering him the opportunity to discuss alternative
solutions, resolve conflicting situations, put forward his own opinions, find
his own short-cuts, develop the creation of his own aids and so on,
whereas the process conception, on the other hand, intends just these
features of mathematical investigation in ''The Land of Eight".
The distinction between these two types of approach has often been
equated to that between self-discovered and guided learning.52 However
this is unjust, since the process approach also holds in it a strong element
of guidance and direction, as can be seen from the previous description. In
this case, the guidance takes place in the context of mathematical inquiry,
while this does not have to be the case for the product approach.
However, as we have said, these two types of approach, taken as
indicated, can be in complete agreement, but if only the product goals are
offered there will remain a large degree of uncertainty as to what is meant
by the value of pursuing the process goals. What is much more important
is that by giving the description of the product goals only, a totally false
impression can be given about the intended learning. In this respect "The
Land of Eight" serves as an excellent example, since the theine seems so
close to the conventional arithmetic in the decimal system, while in reality
the intentions, or rather the process goals, are so totally different that an
exclusively product goal formulation would distort rather than clarify
matters. Especially from the point of view of innovation, it is therefore
essential to provide a process goal description for ''The Land of Eight".
The conventional· process goal description is two-dimensional, i.e., it
contains an activity and a content-component, to which a short refer-
ence to the general goals may h.ave been added or not - the latter· being
146 CHAPTER IV
more frequently the case. As a matter of fact a two-dimensional process

goal description does little more than describe the activity that is meant by
the respective goal. In itself such a. goal interpretation can be elucidating,
since it indicates that the main concern is the process of mathematising
and not primarily the learning of certain skills, which, however, can often
be the result of the mathematical activity.
Again ''The Land of Eight" can serve to illustrate this. Investigating the
counting sequence can lead to mastering it. The process goal, however, lies
in the investigation of the construction of such a sequence in base eight,
rather than in its mastery.
No matter how important, the two-dimensional process goal description
can be little more than an indicator. Those "less-familiar-with" find no
direct clues for consturctive analysis, planning, realisation and evalua-
tion of the instruction: the process goals are not described more fully, but
are indicated only indirectly via the activity.
Through "The Land of Eight" we have seen in this sub-section the
possibilities and limitations of the various goal descriptions. In the next
sub-section this will be treated in a more general sense, although we
shall refer back to "The Land of Eight" occasionally. As we have seen,
the theme reflects, with examples, various conceptions of mathematics
instruction.
5. THE POSSIBILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL

GOAL DESCRIPTIONS
In the first part of this sub-section, the possibilities and limitations of

two-dimensional product goal descriptions will be drawn up in the light of
the problem in question, concerning goal descriptions for mathematics
instruction, which has been illustrated by the inclusion of examples in
this study for the benefit of teachers and other participants.
The same will be done in the second part,but for process goal
descriptions. Such goal descriptions by the authors of mathematical
instruction may be necessary, as we pointed out earlier, since the goals
cannot usually be derived from the offered text book material itself.
''The Land of Eight" theme, for instance, was seen to be adaptable for
various goals, although the authors had quite a definite goal in mind when
writing it.
In general terms, one can wonder, apart from this example, what the
possibilities and limitations are for two-dimensional product and process
goal description of portions of mathematical instruction material, in the
framework of innovation.
In answering this question, the nature of the intended mathematics
education as seen by Wiskobascallnot be disregarded. This, in turn,
implies that in what follows there will be repeated references to the

previous reflections on, and examples of, mathematics instruction.
5.1 Possibilities and Limitations of Two-Dimensional Product Goal

Descriptions
Two-dimensional goal descriptions can be given in two basic forms, either
in terms of observable behaviour or in terms of behavioural products,
that is, completed test assignments, or in other words, by concrete or
operationalised product goal descriptions. These basic forms can be
encompassed by an all-embracing goal description - the goal proper.
"Product goal formulation" will mean that at least one of the two basic
forms is present in the goal description.
The answer to the question of whether the possibilities of a product
goal description are many or not depends on the requirements one sets
for such a description.
If "unambiguity" and "completeness" count as strict requirements of the
product goal description, the answer will be negative. Indeed in this case
the goal description for any piece of instruction would have to be so
concrete that it could easily, unambiguously and completely be translated
into assignments, which the pupil should be capable of completing in
order to be judged to have attained that particular goal. 53 This, however, is
an impossible requirement in mathematics instruction.
We will attempt to illustrate this by an example. Suppose the goal for a
piece of mathematics instruction is that the pupils must be able to apply
what they have learned in identical, related, relatively new or absolutely
new problem situations. "What was learned" could then be:
- the discovered relation between area and volume in linear enlarge-
ment (Gulliver);
- the sum and product rule for exponential growth (Counting Prob-
lems);
- the rule of doubling for exponential growth (Grains);
- the carrying principle in a positional notation system (The Land of
Eight).
How can such a goal description, which, as a matter of fact is quite
common in mathematics instruction, be translated into a comprehensive
collection of product goals? First of all one would have to specify the
qualifications "identical", "related", "relatively new" and "absolutely new"
in each case by listing the assignment levels to which these qualifications
apply.
For "identical" and "related" problem situations such a specification
would not be too difficult, since one can relate to the original theme with
relatively little variation. But when dealing with "new" application areas, it
148 CHAPTER IV
becomes almost impossible to be complete and unambiguous. Take "The

Land of Eight" for example. What was learned can be applied to a few
problems in "Grains on the Chessboard" in proving the so-called sum rule
for the notation of 2 to the power 64 and for calculating 2 to the power
64 using the pocket calculator by using the· chess-board as a binary
counter. Another example of the link between what was learned in "The
Land of Eight" and "Counting Problems" is that the number of figures
with two digits in "The Land of Eight" is 64, which can be shown by
combining pairs of numbers.
Hence in characterising relatively or absolutely new situations where
one can apply what was learned, one can choose from a limitless range of
totally different possibilities. How can these possibilities be described
completely and unambiguously? A more abstract formulation which could
be interpreted in many' different ways can be given, but this we have
already had in the form of the goal. So it would be ideal to enumerate all
the various possible applications, but this is impossible in practice. Neither
is a representative sample feasible since the possible assignments vary
greatly.
We conclude that for the description of product goals concerning
"higher cognitive abilities" there can often be no complete and unambi-
guous formulation, and enumerating the conceivable assignment categories
is also practically impossible.
In fact there is only one possible solution left: combining an abstract
goal formulation with an incomplete series of product goal descriptions,
which helps to clarify what is intended.
We would include this last type of description in the category of
product goals. In this we differ from the group including Popham, Mager,
Klauer and others, who only consider admissible a complete and exhaus-
tive description of product goals. They consequently reject the incomplete
and "example-description" of a goal combined with a series of examples of
operationalised product goals 54 •
The result of this "strict" conception of product goal description is
therefore that the "higher" product goals are not made accessible, or not
sufficiently so. This in turn has the consequence that mathematicians such
as Adler, Rising, Kaufman, Braunfeld, Martin, Davis and many others are
strongly opposed to formulating such "strict" product goals, since mathe-
matics, as they see it, is thus dismembered and disfigured. 55 Thus when we
refer to the possibilities and limitations of two-dimensional product goals
in our exposition we use the term "product goal" in the broader sense
explained just now.
As indicated, the all-embracing goal description in the form of a "goal"
is then of essential importance. Should this "goal description" be lacking,
there might be a danger that the instruction is too strongly attuned to the,
sometimes incomplete, collection of product goals. This means that the
product goals will not be understood as intended and the instruction will
not be given as envisaged by those who designed it. For the goals
formulation, behavioural terms can be used which are borrowed from a
particular taxonomy, but this is not necessary. In the example, "The Land
of Eight", we used Wood's taxonomy in which order classes of knowledge,
(routine) skills, understanding, insight and inventiveness can be distin-
guished.
These terms are similar to those used conventionally in such practice
and can be relatively easily and unambiguously understood. Even if there
were disagreements about the interpretation in eve,ry case, we join De
Block in saying:
It should be mentioned that differences of opinion concerning the exact position of a cer-
tain learning objective in the taxonomy should not be dramatized. The main concern is that
the respective learning objective and its relative importance be seen and consciously be
pursued in the educational process. A taxonomy should be a guide, not a straight-jacket.56
This pragmatic. attitude toward the use of taxonomies should not make
us blind to the criticisms from many quarters of the problem of level-
indication, of the underlying principle and of the mathematical didactical
usefulness of the taxonomies in general, and certain taxonomies in
particular.
In some cases this criticism has led to a subject-didactical adjustment
of the taxonomy, for example Wilson's taxonomy as a mathematical-
didactical adaptation of Bloom's taxonomy. In other cases the critical
analysis has led to the recommendation of a more subject-didactically
directed terminology for the formulation of goals superseding the terms
for the general behavioural categories of a taxonomy.51 . .
An example of such a description has already been given on the basis
of the concept of applicability, of what has been learned in identical,
related, relatively new and absolutely new problem situations. This can
lead to a· breakdown that closely resembles Wood's. Differences of
opinion concerning the interpretation of these qualifications can also arise
here, but a global level-indication is at any rate given, which can be made
clearer by the addition of examples of product goals for each of the
categories.
Notice. that we have said "can lead". It often happens that in the product
goals a conditional clause is lacking which would indicate the relation
between the goal and the envisaged instruction. The result can be that no
clear picture can be given of the degree of difficulty of this objective.
For example, what does "being able to count and calculate" in the base
twelve system say about the intended objective, if it is not known that the
children are supposed to have worked exclusively in the base eight
system? In general this is the source of many misunderstandings of
product goal formulations. 58
150 CHAPTER IV
A conditional clause can also contain a description of the aids that are
to be used while completing the assignments indicated by the product
goal. One can go as far as to consider the teacher as an "aid", i.e., that to a
certain degree he is allowed to help the pupil to understand and to
complete the assignments. To come back to the example from the base
twelve system: he can draw the pupils attention to the "six-fingered"
situation of characters and to the notation of "10" for the number twelve.
A product formulation in this sense for ''The Land of Eight" could
read: ''The pupil must, if necessary with some help from the teacher, be
able to count and calculate in base six, four, five, two and twelve".
Finding out whether or not the pupils have attained this objective must
almost certainly take place within the learning situation. It will also be
clear that a product goal formulation that includes ''if necessary with some
help from the teacher"· in fact lacks a clear conditional clause (what is
"some" help?) and does not allow for an exact criterion.
Now it is not necessary to have an exact criterion for every product
goal description. Goals with a strong creative and productive element can
afford to use a ''floating'' criterion determination, which indicates that by
the end of the given instruction the pupil must be able to find a "satis-
factory" solution to a certain task or problem situation. In this context
"satisfactory" can mean as much as "comply with a series of more or less
objective criteria", and for assignments with a more open solution it can
mean ''found to be satisfactory by one or more experts in that field".
Now, suppose that not only the intended results of the task or the
solution of the problem, but also the process that leads to that result or
solution (which takes place within a didactical context) is included in the
product goal formulation, together with the supposition that the teacher is
the only competent judge of the process. The formulation could then read:
The pupil must be capable of finding a satisfactory solution to the assignments at the end
of a given piece of instruction - if necessary with some help from the teacher - and the
solution should be satisfactory in the opinion of the teacher.
The questions remain: what does ''with some help" mean and what is
"satisfactory"? These questions are well suited to be placed in the evalua-
tion lesson for ''The Land of Eight" where the various possible number
systems were to be examined. Therefore it is not difficult to formulate a
minimum requirement to which the children must comply if they are to be
considered as havipg sucessfully completed the work connected with the
theme. We have already formulated such a requirement: "Capable of
independent transfer of what has been learned to 'The Land of Six' ", to
which we could add "and with some help from the teacher, to the lands of
three through to nine".
By giving a fuller description of "some help", however, we have
extended the limits of two-dimensional product goal clescription. A further
explication will have to take place in the description of the didactical

context which would bring us to the region of three-dimensional goal
descriptions.
In brief, the conditional clause and the criteria determination can be
extended to include variables such as "with help from the teacher" and
"according to the teacher's judgement" to such a degree that not only the
completeness but also the unambiguity of the two-dimensional product
goal description can become a matter of debate.
In any case it has become evident that if the product goal formulation
is not bound to strict requireinents of completeness and unambiguity, one
can get a rich variety of two-dimensional product goal descriptions each of
which allows for the constructive analysis, planning, realisation and
evaluation of instruction. That is to say: there are certain limitations to the
completeness of the product goals but these can be taken care of by a goal
formulation combined with a series of examples of product goals with
clear conditional clauses.
If the teacher is allowed to be regarded as an "aid" in the assignment
which the pupils are to complete, there must also be certain limitations
from the point of view of ambiguity. Only a product goal description in a
didactical context .could serve to enhance the unambiguity. In general,
however, it can be said that there are sufficient possibilities for a relatively
clear product goal formulation for those who are "less-familiar-with".
Wiskobas utilises this diversity of possibilities in the product goal
description of mathematics instruction, first of all using the goal descrip-
tion with an example test and, secondly, using the goal description
together with a series of assignments in a didactical context. Both forms
have been described for "The Land of Eight".59
It is now possible to answer the question concerning the possibilities
and limitations of the product goal formulation.
If a product goal formulation consists of a behavioural component
given in terms of behaviour that can be observed, a restricted content
component that generates a reiatively homogeneous category of assign-
ments, a conditional clause that does not indicate the relationship between
the intended objective and the instruction, and an established criterion to
which the pupils must comply, the possibilities of applying such a goal
description to mathematics teaching according to Wiskobas are few.
Only if mathematics is considered to be a collection of algorithms will a
description of this kind suffice. If, however, mathematic/> is considered to
be a field of enquiry into specific problems, then this "strict" product goal
description can only partially be applied since the requirements of com-
pleteness and unambiguity that are set for such a formulation cannot be
compatible with the "higher" behaviour potentials which are pursued and
are related to a wider content.
In the latter case product goal descriptions are required in which the
152 CHAPTER IV
"goal" is extended with examples of assignments in a didactical context

which the pupils should be capable of doing, and for which the criteria of
success are decided by the teacher himself. If that kind of formulation is
counted among the possible and legitimate types of description of product
goals and also of course for all the forms that lie between the given
extremes (which are numerous because each of the four components
allows for variants) then the possibilities of applying two-dimensional
goal descriptions are considerably extended. This means that it then
becomes possible to explain clearly the intended product goals for mathe-
matical instruction for those who are "less-familiar-with" them.
There still remains, however, the possibility of extending this descrip-
tion in an extra dimension, namely that of the didactical context. An
example of a three-dimensional goal description was briefly touched upon
in the discussion of the concluding chapter for "The Land of Eight". In the
next chapter we will deal with this problem in greater detail.
In general it can be said that the two-dimensional product goal formula-
tion, if taken in a broad sense, can adequately describe the product goals
of a particular piece of instruction so that it can be understood as was
intended by the author. If necessary, the teacher himself must make a
definitive list of product goals, or if the product goal formulation is given
in terms that point to an unexplicit didactical context, he should work
these out for himself in the planning, realisation and evaluation of the
instruction.
Such product goal formulation is therefore not "teacher-proof", but
this statement points to the many possibilities rather than the limitations,
at least if seen from Wiskobas' point of view concerning mathematics
instruction.
5.2 Possibilities and Limitations of Two-Dimensional Process Goal

Descriptions
Product goals are defined in terms of behavioural potentials. Process

goals, on the other hand, are given in terms of the activities and charac-
teristics of learning situations.
But why are the intentions of the process goal descriptions not given in
terms of behaviour? An activity is certainly not pursued for its own,sake!
Does one wish the pupil to achieve something by them? Or more exactly,
are process goals not in fact learning activities?
To begin with the last question, process goals are not learning activities,
as is thought by some authors. By means of describing the activity one
tries to explain something about the background goals, thereby ''taking the
risk of not describing the objective at all before the encounter or activity"
as Eisner puts it.6o
As we have seen, a short reference to general goals is sometimes added

to the description of the activity. This is done in terms of "the pupil is
offered the opportunity to ...", followed by "for example, apply a certain
mathematical strategy, learn to discuss, learn to develop a mathematical
attitude, etc".
Thus process goals are focused on general goals in the sense that
they indicate that the respective process goal can, for instance, contribute
to the acquirement of a mathematical attitude, without being able to say
that the pupil has indeed acquired it by the end of the teaching process.
The behaviour potentials to which these process goals point often do not
become visible for some time and then are usually of a personal character.
Yet in most cases the learning process usually provides many indications
of the intended contribution to this general goal.
We have used this introduction to clarify the fact that those in favour of
process goals do not necessarily commit the logical error often attributed
to them - of confusing goal and means.61 It will also be clear that when
considering process goals one assuredly has specific "product goals" in
mind which will in the short or long term be manifested in behaviour
potentials or dispositions at some time or another and can be observed
and reported. 62
The one-sided exclusive results approach, i.e., the description in terms
of behaviour of which the pupil must be capable at the end of the given
instruction, is rejected by those in favour of process goal formulation. This
is not because they feel that the pupils do not have to be capable of the
appropriate performance, but rather because, in their view, the emphasis
lies too strongly on the mastery of the product and too little on the
process of the inquiry. In their opinion the important learning experience
gained from that inquiry cannot be described exclusively in terms of
ultimate behaviour, but can sometimes only be indicated by means of an
activity.
Those in favour of product goal formulation will hardly deny the
importance of what is indicated by the process goals, but will be quick to
add that these are already included in the starting points and general goals
of mathematics education. That is where a summary is supplied of what
should be given a permanent place in mathematics instruction. According
to this line of thought, rather than describing the process goals explicitly
one can manage with formulations of behavioural goals in ultimate terms.
To a certain extent one might be able to agree with this argument, were
it not for the fact that the function of goal description is disregarded. If we
consider the problem of goal description in the framework of innovation,
however, we take it for granted that the teacher is not, or not sufficiently,
acquainted with the "new" mathematics education and its underlying
conceptions. This also means that in this context it is not at all self-evident
that the teacher discerns the permanent goals in all aspects of mathematics
154 CHAPTER IV
education. One could also query whether the process goals can be derived
from the basic concepts of mathematics education in each concrete case,
as is assumed by the purveyors of the results approach. But let us not
insist on this point. From the specific innovation point of view, this
self-evidence certainly cannot be taken for granted. On the contrary, the
permanent goals can only be made explicit by the concrete description of
goals.
The question remains whether this explicitness can be realised by
means of descriptions of activities. Before answering this question, we
tum to Eisner's motives for preferring goal description in terms of
activities:
it is precisely because of the richness of these encounters or activities and the unique
character of the outcome that the expressive objective becomes so difficult to describe in
advance. To avoid attempting to do the impossible, I shifted to a description of the
encounter.63
In this connection Block says:

But this does not mean that one cannot pursue certain goals {structuriflg, systematic
working, being able to produce something, spontaneously consulting sources of infor-
mation, etc.64
Eisner does not dispute this either. But - and this is the weak spot in
the activities formulation and the origin of a great deal of misunder-
standing - the process goal description does not reveal what wealth of
possible learning experiences or process goals are locked up in the
proposed activity, nor does it explain why this particular activity is
included in the instruction. One does not do something just at random,
there is most certainly a purpose behind the proposed activity. But what is
it?
Why does one visit the zoo and talk about what one has seen, to
mention one of Eisner's examples?
Interpreted for mathematics instruction, we could say that process goal
description in terms of activities does not make sufficient reference to the
starting points and permanent one':'diinensional goals and consequently
does net--reveal the possibilites for the learning processes hidden in the
given activity, nor the conditions under which these process goals can be
realised,
Applied to 'The Land of Eight", the description of the activities does
little more than indicate that the goal is implicit in the activity of solving
the proposed problems. It does not emphasise the wealth of opportunities
for important learning experiences in mathematising problems, such as
analogical reasoning, use of learning aids, becoming aware of certain
arithmetic techniques, which are not given concretely or in detail.
At best these opportunites are only indicated globally. Only a global
description of the activity is given and the opportunities for the learning
process are left unspecified and open. It is an "open" goal description, in
the sense of ''undetermined''.
As such there is nothing wrong with an open goal description. On the
contrary, in certain instances it is quite enough to indicate the activity,
since the relation to the general goal, or the wealth of learning experi-
ences, is self-evident.
There are, however, learning situations, as for example in the lesson
dealing with the combinatorial problems at the end of ''The Land of
Eight", where the opportuniti~s for learning processes are so hidden in the
activity that the teacher who is relatively unfamiliar with the mathematical-
didactical problem at issue cannot be assumed to have insight into the
intended process goals, such as "offering the opportunity to ...". In such
cases two-dimensional goal descriptions in terms of activities are not
sufficient. Here the type of description will have to be adapted to what we
refer to as three-dimensional goal description, concerning which more will
be given in the next chapter.
Summarising, it can be said that alongside the product goal formulation
of "at the end of the instruction the pupil must be capable of", the process
goal description in'terms of "during the instruction the pupil is offered the
opportunity to" is also of great importance, since it is here that the
subjective and formal aspect of the goals of mathematics instruction are
expressed.
However, only a global indication pf the wealth of possible learning
experiences is given in two-dimensional process goal description. What
"being offered the opportunity to" means exactly does not become clear
because the didactical context, and therefore also the role of the teacher,
is not taken into account. All of this means that we support the intentions
of what is meant by a process goal, but consider the two-dimensional type
of description incapable of making these intentions clear. This was already
evident from the discussion about ''The Land of Eight" A two-dimensional
process goal description at the end of the theme, which indicates the
relationship with the general goals, is Greek to the "less-familiar with"!
Only an illustration with concrete references to the instruction can serve
to make it clear.
5.3 Summary
In this chapter it was stated that for portions of instruction which are
concerned with teaching mastery, use and applications of certain facts,
concepts, operations, algorithms, rules and methods, the product goal
formulation can be used effectively, albeit considerable "technical" diffi-
culties can be encountered. We have also seen that these difficulties,
especially where they relate to higher cognitive skills, can be overcome by
156 CHAPTER IV
making use of a "goal" combined with a collection of product objectives,

i.e., an example test. Possibly the conditional clause may also be added
that the pupils should be able to complete the assignments with some
assistance from the teacher.
In brief, a two-dimensional product goal description, if broadly inter-
preted, is, generally speaking, an adequate means of expressing the
intended results of instruction material as they are presented in this
publication. The limitations of product goal descriptions are not, however,
caused so much by "technical" problems as by matters of principle that lie
at their foundations. Product goal descriptions are in fact concerned with
what the pupil must be capable of at the end of the particular period of
tuition.
There are, however, goals that can only be indicated in the learning
process itself and that cannot be adequately described in terms of ultimate
products. These are the process goals.
Not every two-dimensional process goal description, consisting of a
description of an activity with a possible brief reference to one-dimen-
sional goals, can clarify the intended process goals. The activity itself may
not reflect the wealth of possible learning experiences, and the brief
reference to the one-dimensional goals will likewise do little to clarify
matters because of their general character.
Even though we recognise the importance of process goals for mathe-
matics instruction, we feel that they cannot be satisfactorily expressed via
a two-dimensional process goal description. In our opinion, the possibili-
ties of two-dimensional process goal descriptions, unlike two-dimensional
product goal descriptions, are very limited, if seen in the framework of
innovation. The reason for the difference in usefulness between the types
of two-dimensional description lies in the fact that product goal descrip-
tion is aimed only at the pupil. In process goal description, however, the
teacher is also involved in the formulation, by means of "offering the
opportunity to ...". In the latter case, the "interactive" n~ture of the
learning situation becomes apparent. This makes it necessary to involve
the dimension of the didactical context in the goal description, if one is to
make clear what is being pursued. There is one exception to the distinc-
tion we have made. This is when the product goal contains a conditional
clause in which the teacher is expressly mentioned by the use of the words:
"the pupil must ... if necessary with some assistance from the teacher, be
able to ...". But it is especially in this case that the product goal
description is found to be clear only if the didactical context is involved,
and the description is then genuinelythree,.dimensional.
6. CONCLUSION
By adding the .learning material dimension to the behaviour dimension, the

chances of creating a more concrete goal description have been improved.

This chapter has dealt with the possibilities and limitations of two-
dimensional product and process goal descriptions, examine<J within the
framework of mathematics innovation.
The question to which an answer was attempted is: Are the conven-
tional types of description of two-dimensional goals in terms of ultimate
behaviour and in terms of activities adequate for the designers of material
used in such teaching as ''The Land of Eight" to make clear their
intentions? Is it possible to make the authors' intentions clear, avoiding all
misunderstanding, to teachers and others who are less familiar with the re-
lated mathematics education, through two-dimensional goal formulations?
On the basis of a discussion between Popham and Eisner the various
conceptions concerning the possibilites and limitations of more or less
concrete product goals were illustrated. The differences of opinion were
seen to lie not so much in a different assessment of the "technical"
possibilities of concret~ product goal description, but rather in a dis-
tinction of principle in views about education. This resulted in a process
goal formulation, in terms of activities, that is marked by a large degree of
"openness" as far as the intended learning is concerned, an openness that
can be, but need not be, restricted by the teacher's pre-conceived ideas.
Using the concrete example from the theme "The Land of Eight" we
came to the conclusion that, while these types of goal description are very
useful in certain respects, they cannot adequately fulfil the function of
innovation as we would like to see it. Taken as such, the product goal
description excludes the permanent one-dimensional goals to a large
degree, while the process goal description is too "open" for those "less-
familiar with".
We would therefore seek to introduce a three-dimensional goal descrip-
tion alongside the twei-dimensional description, which would make it
possible to describe the kind of learning intended in a didactical context.
How this can be done will be demonstrated in the next chapter on the
basis of an example of a theme used for instruction. In conclusion we refer
again to the objectives cube.
In the previous chapters the starting points of mathematics instruction
according to Wiskob~ were placed at the eight vertices of the objectives
cube; and the twelve permanent one-dimensional objectives were depicted
on the twelve edges. Now the subject areas that were introduced as facets
of two-dimensional goals will be projected on the six faces of that same
cube.
Added to the description from the previous chapter, this gives the
following objectives adage:
The starting point of Wiskobas is an active, differentiated, vertically
planned learning process, in which attention can be given to the structural
character, the language aspect, the applicability, the dynamic and the
158 CHAPTER IV
specific type of approach to mathematics. Both the one-dimensional

integral goals that aim at having formal, socialising, preparatory values and
socially relevant aspects, as well as one-dimensional mathematical objectives
that include those same aspects, are pursued.
The following are suitable to serve as subject material planes of the
two-dimensional product and process goal descriptions: the arithmetical
system, measuring, geometry, probability and statistics, relations and
functions, and language and logic.
fo r Chapter V
M at he m at ic al Material
Freckleham
160 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL V
The "Freckleham" theme forms the basic material with which three-dimen-
sional goal description as prepared by us will be demonstrated. The various
assignments from the theme can be found in Chapter V together with the
addition of a goal description in a didactical context.
This goal description will only be clearly understood by the reader if he
himself has first solved the problems in "Freckleham", working in a way
that would be similar to that of the third grade pupils for whom the theme
was designed.
Design: A Treffers
FRECKLEHAM
1. The People of Freckleham

The people of Freckleham are strange creatures. The mayor has three
freckles and three hairs and the postman has one freckle and one hair.
Every Frecklehammer is different from the other and has at least one
freckle and one hair but no more than three freckles and three hairs.
Draw a picture of each of the Frecklehammers. Make sure you do not
forget anyone.
2. A Map ofFreckleham
Years ago the Frecklehammers chose where they wanted to live in their
town, but at the postman's request the mayor changed all that.
Arrange the Frecklehammers in an orderly fashion on the grid above.
- Where could -e live?'"

- Where could 0 live?
- Give names to the streets and avenues.
.. The black sections represent either a hat or a scarf and therefore conceal either hairs or
freckles.
3. Greetings
Once they had been re-housed in a more orderly fashion and the postman
161
162 MATHEMA TICAL MATERIAL V
could work more efficiently, the mayor also decided to improve the
manners of his townsfolk. He issued an order: when two Frecklehammers
meet, the one with the most hairs or freckles will greet the other and say "I
have more ... than you have".
"I ~ you" means: "I have more hairs than you have".
"I Q ______ _ JJ you" means: "I have more freckles than you have".
The townsfolk started to practise this and so will we:

- Draw in the arrows for the following pictures:
.
-e
.1
~ b 0
Ob
--
0 ~ ~
\-----------
(j W'
K
"
Q Q
- Draw in hairs and/or freckles to fit the patterns below.
.
e
J
~---~----~ ~
e e .'
b
o-~-:---O
'·"o~y
, f
0---:---0 O---:--V
'
·"o--y
~,
FRECKLE HAM 163
4. Confusion
- Which of the patterns can cause confusion or an argument? (No
arrow means that no greeting takes place). Change the arrows when
necessary (in red ink).
.I
e---~----e l-e e -e
I
h
e---~-----e
,
~--~---~
--..,.-----
-e -e
d
'------ -~--
5. Thieves
Soon each Frecklehammer had learned to greet the others in the proper
manner, but not every Frecklehammer was happy with the new situation.
One day a policeman from a neighbouring town came to see the mayor.
He reported that three Frecklehammers had tried to break into the
barber's shop in his town. They were looking for more hairs and freckles!
The. three thieves had escaped. The policeman did not know what they
looked like, but he said he had heard their greetings. He drew the sketch
show below:
- What could the three thieves have looked like?

But the policeman had not heard correctly. His fellow officer remembered
the greeting exactly. That made it easier to identify the thieves.
164 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL V
- Who are the thieves?
6. The Town Meeting

Somehow the people of Freckleham seemed less contented than before.
The Mayor had become aware of this since the robbery. He decided to
call a meeting of all the townspeople to decide what could be done to
improve matters.
- The greeting "I have more ... than you have" was heard many times
that night. How many times?
7. New Proposals
It soon became clear that many of the Frecklehammers were unhappy with
the current way of greeting each other. It sounded so boastful and the
postman especially resented the fact that he had to stay quiet during all
greetings. He reasoned that everyone should be able to .say hello and
he proposed to do so by saying "I have as many ... as you have". The
emphasis would lie on the similarities and not on the differences.
Everyone was pleased by the new idea. They began to practise, and so will
we.
- Do you think that everyone will be satisfied by this new way of
greeting each other?
Discuss these questions:
- How many greetings will be heard at the next town meeting?
- How many times will each person greet another at the next meeting?
8. The Freckleham Song

From that time the Frecklehammers celebrated their new way of greeting
on an "as many as" day. The Freckleham song was. composed to be sung
on that day and the words were engraved on the wall of the town hall. It
looked like this:
FRECKLEHAM 165
100 22,1,211,12 1,201 111,1,112,221 22,1,100,200,201

1,201 221,120,210.
100 22,1,211,12 202,22,1,202 111,1,112,221
20,200,12,10,102,110,12,201 202,120,120.
1,112,11 221,120,210 11,120 1,201 100 11,12Q
100 22,1,211,12 202,22,1,202 111,1,112,221 202,120,120.
100 22,i,211,12 1,201 111,1,112,221 1,201 221,120,210.
In Freckleham only three digits 0, 1,2 are used for everything including
reading and writing. Strange! In the first grade of school little Freckle-
hammers learn that 1 + 1 = 2 and 2 + 1 = 10. Imagine that!
I have not been able to decode the Freckleham Song, which consists of
exactly ninety (which is 10100 in Freckleham) "letters": Perhaps no one
will ever be able to discover the words to. the song and it will remain a
secret for ever. I do know that the Freckleharrimers lived happily ever
afterwards. The fact that the mayor's new form of greeting had to be
altered only goes to prove that "I have more than you have" does not
always make people happy.
- Try to find the words to the Freckleham Song.
ANSWERS
1. There are 9 Freckleharnmers (see the choir on the title page).

2. One possibility: the Freckleharnmers with 1 hair in the left-hand column, with 2
hairs in the middle colcumn and with 3 hairs in the right-hand column; one freckle
bottom row, 2 freckles middle row, 3 freckles top row. This results in the following
pattern:
Of course a two-way arrangement can be displayed differently, and there are 8

possibilities.
3. N.B. The absence of an arrow means that the characteristics are alike.
4. c will cause a problem since one or both of the two Freckleharnmers will greet each
other incorrectly.
f contains a mistake: the lower Frecklehammer has just as many freckles as the other
two, who do not have the same number.
h cannot be correct either, since each of the three Freckleharnmers would have
more than the others.
166 MATHEMA TICAL MATERIAL V
5. There are several possibilities for the first group of three Frecklehammers. Looking
only at the hairs we have:
(2,1,1)
(3,1,1)
(3,2,2)
There are also 3 possibilities for the freckles. A combination of the two results in 9
groups of three Frecklehammers. There is only one possible answer for the second
pattern:
The quickest way of finding the answer is to consider the hair and freckle forms of
greeting separately. The Frecklehammer that greets twice has 3 hairs (freckles) and
the one that greets once has 2 hairs (freckles). The one that says nothing has 1 hair
(freckle). This conclusion can be drawn since there are no 'equals' present, i.e., no
arrows missing.
6. The total number of greetings can be found by using the grid. Consider the hairs
first. Each Frecklehammer greets his lesser fellow, and therefore his left-hand
neighbour. This means that those with 3 hairs greet 3 X 6 = 18 times and those with
2 hairs 3 X 3 = 9 times. All together 27 times. The same is true for the freckles. In
the grid this is made visible by "going down". A total of 54 greetings is obtained.
7. Each Frecklehammer greets all the others in his street or avenue thus resulting in
four times. The total is 4 X 9 = 36.
8. The letters are coded according to their position in the alphabet written in the base
three system. The words to the song are therefore:
I have as many hairs as you.
I have that many freckles too.
And you do as I do,
I have that many too.
I have as mamy as you.
CHAPTER V
THREE-DIMENSIONAL GOAL DESCRIPTION
In this chapter the three-dimensional goal description that has been

introduced previously is explained and discussed on the basis of the
"Freckleham" theme.
In the first sub-section the significance of goals in the design and
development of instruction material for themes such as "Freckleham" is
discussed. We use two conceptions concerning curriculum development,
one of the progressive concretisation of goals and the other of the pro-
gressive structuring of activities. We shall consider how "Freckleham" and
other pieces of Wiskobas instruction were developed.
Knowledge about how "Freckleham" was developed can contribute to a
good understanding of its three-dimensional goal description, given in the
second sub-section in a form that is practically identical to the teacher's
text which is incorporated in the instructional material.
The third sub-section, after the presentation of a description of the
various kinds of three-dimensional goals, contains a characterisation of the
three-dimensional goal descriptions in a didactical context, that are used
here. To distinguish this description from the others; we will refer to it as
being "holistic". The chapter ends with a number of conclusions.
1. THE HISTORY OF "FRECKLEHAM" AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF

ITS GOALS
For a good understanding of the problem of goal description for pieces of

mathematics instructional material as presented in this publication it is
important to identify the role played by goals in the development of those
materials. Although goal description in this study is analysed from the
point of view of how it functions in innovations, it is our opinion that its
developmental aspect cannot be disregarded. By development we mean
the process of design and revision of the respective sections of teaching
material, i.e., themes or parts of them, that can be used in educational
practice. 1
In the literature (')n development one finds, roughly speaking, two
conceptions. According to the first, development is primarily a process of
progressively making the product goals concrete. The other conception of
development is that of a progressive structuring of activities on the basis
of a certain educational philosophy. The differences indicated in the
preceding chapter between the two-dimensional goal formulations for
167
168 CHAPTER V
teaching material which has already been developed appear to be visible

in the framework of development itself.
A short characterisation of these .two development strategies will be
given in this sub-section. This is followed by an account of the develop-
ment of "Freckleham" and a discussion of the significance of the goals in
that theme. A few conclusions will be drawn at the end.
1.1 Development as a Process of Making Goals Concrete

On the subject of development Baker says:
The bulk of school initiated curriculum development until recently would fail both criteria:
it rarely described replicable procedures and the manner of its production can hardly be
recounted.2
Note that she says: ''until recently". There has been a noticeable change in
this respect since the beginning of the sixties. Since then, many procedures
for curriculum development have been designed. These vary from a short
series of "hints" and a long series of suggestions, to complicated flow
charts of directions. 3 Many of them agree in one respect: they are
"objective-based", Le., goals in terms of ultimate behaviour form the basis
of curriculum development.
In its simplest form the procedure comes down to the following:
- drawing up a plan of ultimate objectives in terms of goals;
- programming a sequence of product goals in terms of behaviour that
leads to these goals;
- preparing the design of the instruction by collecting all the relevant
information about the pupils in relation to those product goals
- drawing up a definitive list of product goals;
- proceeding to the development and realisation of instructional
material that leads to the intended goals (didactical operationalisa-
tion of product goals);
- adapting if necessary, the list of product goals on the basis of the
information gained from educational practice;
- evaluating the instructional material (evaluative operationalisation of
product goalS).4
This may be followed by a number of directions on how to proceed from
one phase to the next. For example, for the first step, analysing existing
programmes or appraising the opinions of experts; using the method of
task analysis by Gagne or Glaser to get from the first to the second step;
discussing with children is an important part of step three; using
Gal'perin's theory to guide you to the didactical operationalisation of
product goals for mathematics instruction, etc.
In her paper, Baker argues that it is impossible to arrive at a generally
THREE-DIMENSIONAL GOAL DESCRIPTION 169
valid procedure for curriculum development: the specific nature of the

particular subject area, the innovative framework in which the develop-
ment takes place and many more specific circumstances, make a general
strategy impossible. However, within a more restricted area "the produc-
tion of replicable materials through relatively codified means" is possible,
according to the technological conception.
These are a few general characteristics of development seen as a
process of making goals concrete, leading to the operationalisation of
those goals in the instruction (didactical operationalisation) and to test
items (evaluative operationalisation). In some models this process is taken
to be linear, while in other procedures the emphasis is placed on the cyclic
character of the development process. However, as we have already said,
the core of the development is the goal formulated in terms of ultimate
behaviour.5 This is how the procedure distinguishes itself from the one
that follows.
1.2 Development as a Progressive Structuring ofActivities
Walker says about this view of development:

Recent curriculum projects typically did not set aside time at the beginning of their work to
state objectives. If objectives were stated at all, they came in the course of the development
of their materials.6
Walker comes to the conclusion that the development task often begins
with the construction of concrete pieces of instruction and discussion of
them, rather than with making the objectives concrete.7 .
After a period of time, the result of the co-operation is "a shared
systems of beliefs and working principles" which Walker refers to as the
"platform".8 This platform is the basis of the educational conception used
and the development of the teaching material. Is there a place for
objectives in this platform? According to Walker there is, but it does not
occupy an exclusive position:
At the present moment in history I think it most important to try to explode the widely
believed myth that all curriculum development should begin with objectives and work in a
formal and systematic way toward the creation and evaluation of plans and materials ...
There are other ways.9
The road that Walker prefers to describe is one of development as

"practical reasoning." It is a process of deliberation and construction from
a common platform of basic views on education and curriculum develop-
ment. 10 Yet even that platform must also be constructed. This is done by
proceeding from a deliberate policy in the formation of the development
team that had, from the very outset, produced and discussed that teaching
material. Gradually this process leads to an ever better structured group of
170 CHAPTER V
activities, which means that the outlook on and the connection to the basic
conceptions become clearer and the activities are ever more attuned to
each other. Like Baker, Walker also emphasises the fact that there is no
one "best" procedure for curriculum development:
We need many ways to match the many circumstances in which curriculum development
takes place and the many different patterns of educational values that different people
embrace. I I
The following sub-section gives an example of the way in which a mathe-

matics theme was developed, followed by a consideration of mathematics
instruction as a whole.
The reader will notice that Wiskobas' procedure is in accordance with
Walker's ideas. In order to avoid misunderstanding it should be stressed
that its "platform" consists of much more than starting points and general
objectives. For instance, the use of contextual problems at the onset of
concept development, the use of aids for visualisation, and of thinking
models, and so on, can belong to this shared system of beliefs on working
principles.
1.3 The Objectives and History of "Freckleham" in Wiskobas

"Freckleham" was designed at the beginning of the integration phase
(1973-1975). In the preceding exploration phase (1971-1973) the area
of mathematics education was examined, but there was not at that time a
detailed view of a curriculum for the whole of mathematics education. 12
The first step on the road to such a curriculum programme consisted of
the construction of the so-called ''frame'' (1973) in which global (less
concrete) terms such as behaviour, learning material, activities, together
with catch-words and short literature references were used to give a rough
outline of the programme. This framework served as the starting point
from which concrete pieces of mathematics instruction for a certain period
of a certain grade could be designed. 13
The following indications from a specified period of the third grade in
the framework served as a starting point for the "Freckleham" project:
- reasoning from arrow-diagrams, where the properties of transitivity
and (anti)symmetry are used;
- time divisions, ordering on the time-line;
- measurement; length and weight;
- counting problems.
From the outset the designers looked for a complex problem situation that
contained as many elements of these four global subject indications as
possible. The choice of an initial problem, in which the given subjects
could be "embedded" in an integrated and natural manner, was related to
the views of mathematics education which had been developed in the

course of the exploration phase. In the first instance the design group
worked on a number of initial problems, amongst which was a story with
hidden time-order problems, a series of balance problems about finding
the heaviest person (later used in a sequel to "Freckleham") and a vague
idea to do something with grids. This last idea was tackled later by one of
the group in a further development. The most important orientation points
were: the grid, the arrow-diagram and the complex problems that could be
constructed by using these two aids.
A number of ordering-problems relating to length and weight cate-
gories, height and width, age and weight were discarded. After much effort
the idea of an imaginary world in which characters were asked to greet
one another in a particular way was created. The story of "Freckleham"
was put together piece by piece. "I;'alks with children and colleagues
resulted in a first draft. After extensive considerations this theme was
constructed as it is given in the mathematics teaching material for this
chapter.
A detailed report on the phases of preparation, construction, delibera-
tion, revision and adaptation will not be given now. What we are
concerned with here is the purpose of the objectives in the development
process.
It is remarkable that for the development of "Freckleham" no further
concretisation of the goals, or what could be interpreted as such, took
place. Only a global indication was given in order to leave space for
creative construction.
Experience has shown that in looking for a suitable initial problem
something emerges which in the end turns out to be totally different from
one's original intentions. Room should be left for the development so that
there should not be restrictions or blockages caused by a premature
concretisation of goals. On the other hand the activity indicated by the
global goal can prevent the developers from straying too far from the
original path. Therefore the space between the goals and the instruction
that is to be constructed is intentional. This is in the hope that step by
step, or perhaps by a sudden leap forward, the gap will be closed. In the
latter case one waits for inspiration. For "Freckleham" this was the idea of
connecting the greeting problem, the arroW-language and the grid.
From the first rough draft "Freckleham" was constructed by painstak-
ingly observing the pupils' activities.
Important facts were uncovered concerning:
- reasoning on the basis of transitivity;

- two-way ordering;
- the use of arrow language;
- the experienced reality of "Freckleham" .14
172 CHAPTER V
A number of these facts have been included in the three-dimensional goal

description in the next sub-section.
On the basis of what we have said it can be concluded that two-
dimensional product goals played no dominant part in the development,
either at the beginning, during the process or at the end. The history
behind the other themes included in this publication show a similar picture
to that of "Freckleham", though the role of the objectives in these other
topics is greater. It is, however, a slight rather than an essential difference.
But though granting that there is a remarkable similarity between the
method used to develop "Freckleham" and, say, ''The Land of Eight", one
might ask what about "The Land of Ten", that is learning to calculate in
our decimal system? Do not the pupils learn the basic operations
according to an objective-based instruction? Can the development of an
algorithm programme not be described as a process by which two-
dimensional product goals are made progressively concrete?
This matter was already touched upon in the second chapter in relation
to the principle of progressive schematisation for multiplication. It was
indicated that in teaching the basic operations not only the "objectives",
but also "higher" process goals could be pursued and also that it is
impossible in principle to describe the system of mental activities of
schematising and understanding by two-dimensional goals in such a way
that it becomes clear exactly what can be expected from a pupil at the end
of instruction. 15
Even though objectives can play an important part in large areas of the
development of mathematics instruction, it would be incorrect to call
Wiskobas' curriculum development exclusively objective-based. Even in
the teaching of the basic operations the process goals can be seen to be
important. for the development of instruction.
This means that Walker's conception of development as being a pro-
gressive structuring of activities on the basis of a platform of basic views
on education seems to be more applicable to the development of
Wiskobas instruction than does the "objective-based" development. Yet
there are differences between the Wiskobas method and Walker's concep-
tion. Wiskobas does not see development on a small scale (for themes like
"Freckleham") as separate from development on a larger scale (the
example-curriculum). The role of the goals seems to be more important,
and from the very beginning of the development the research aspect is
more strongly emphasised by Wiskobas. These and a few other differences
can be stated, but an important similarity is that two-dimensional product
goals play no dominant part in the development of mathematics instruc-
tion by Wiskobas, even though there are gradual differences between, on
the one hand, a theme like "Freckleham", and an algorithm programme for
the learning of the basic operations, on the other, about which we will
write at greater length later.
1.4 Conclusions
An overall look at what has been said about the place of objectives in the
framework of the development of mathematics instructional materials
leads to the following conclusions:
- the actual process of development is not in accordance with the
conception of development as a progressive concretisation of objec-
tives:
- the interpretation of development as a progressive structuring of
activities on the basis of a common platform of views on education
and curriculum development, in an alternating process of construct-
ing, deliberating and investigating, is better suited to the description
of the developmental method ·followed by Wiskobas than that of the
objective-based development even though the objectives most cer-
tainly playa role;
- the starting points and general objectives can find their role in
concrete pieces of instruction if the development is closely related to
the concrete learning situation;
- "goals" can serve as orientation points for development on a more or
less explicit basis of starting points and general objectives of mathe-
matics instruction;
- the kind of development used by Wiskobas, in which both two-
dimensional and one-dimensional objectives are made concrete by
developing instructional themes, can be taken as a synthesis of the
objective-based development and the activity-based development.
Thus the significance of goals in the framework of development is more
complex than one would suspect at first sight. In any case the idea that
curriculum development can only take place along the route of more or
less concrete two-dimensional product goals does not apply to Wiskobas'
work. Especially where the relationship with the general objectives is
strong - and that is the case in each of the themes included in this study
- the development takes place close to the instruction, which means that
an intentional gap is left between the goals and the construction of the
learning materials in order to create the necessary space for important
objectives that are formulated generally as permanent one-dimensional
goals.
These objectives of developed material which are seen in the frame-
work of innovation, can only be described concretely in the didactical
context in which they were developed. An example of goal description in a
didactical context is given in the following sub-section.
2. "FRECKLEHAM" IN THREE DIMENSIONS
"Freckleham" consists of eight parts, each of which takes up one lesson.

174 CHAPTER V
The theme is designed for pupils in the third or fourth grades and is very
different from existing arithmetic instruction. The relation to the per-
manent one-dimensional goals is clearly present, as will be seen from what
follows.
The effect of the instruction with "Freckleham" cannot be given clearly
in terms of ultimate results because the benefits will mainly appear in the
learning process. Hence "Freckleham" is an ideal location for a three-
dimensional goal description. In the following we offer, apart from a few
references to points from the publication, the text for the guidance of the
teacher and other participants.
Each goal description of the eight lessons contains three parts: the
assignment, a goal description in a didactical context and a summarising
goal description. Together these form the three-dimensional goal descrip-
tion.
After the description of the eight parts there follows a supplement that
places the theme in a broader context. This enlarged context is not
compulsory since in many cases it can be presumed to be familiar. In the
case of "Freckleham", however, we will take it that this relation with what
follows is not completely clear. For that re'?tson a brief overview will be
given of a possible continuation.
We conclude with a short sketch of the relation between the goals of
"Freckleham", on the one hand, and the starting points and permanently
desired objectives, on the other. This supplement is not always necessary,
although it has often been presented at seminars and conferences to
illustrate the objectives-cube.
2.1 The People of "Freckleham"

The people in the town of "Freckleham" are strange creatures. The mayor
has three freckles and three hairs, the postman has one freckle and one
hair. All of the inhabitants are different and have at least one freckle and
one hair and at most three freckles and thre,e hairs.
- Draw a picture of each of the Frecklehammers and make sure you do
not forget anyone.
What we bave here is a combinatorial problem that is quite similar to the
counting problems in the second chapter. Tbe· didactical highlight is
reached with the que.stion: "Did we forget anyone?" A third to fourth
grader is not capable of formulating the answer to this question, but he.
can demonstrate that there are no more than nine inhabitants by arranging
the chips and circles in an ordered fashion. Seen from a higher level, it
appears that the tree-diagram structure is being used. One variable is fixed
(one hair for instance), while the second independent variable (in this case
the number of freckles) changes systematically. This method is convincing
and therefore has conclusive force.
The pupils use this method of persuasion to convince themselves and

each other that "Freckleham" has (at most) nine inhabitants.
Summary of the goal: to offer the pupils the opportunity to apply a
systematic method, reasoning by symmetry and a proof argument to the
given combinatorial problem, in which discovery, guided or not, can be
used in the problem of ordering in a grid structure, which follows in the
next section.
2.2 Map of Freckleham

Years ago, the Frecklehammers made their own choice of where they
wanted to live in their town; but at the postman's request, the mayor
changed all that.
- Arrange the Frecklehammers in a orderly fashion on the grid above.
- Where could ~ live?*
- Where could 0 live?
- Give names to the streets and avenues.

The two-way. ordering, that is the classifying and ordering according to
two criteria, takes place within the limitations of material factors, i.e., chips
for Freckleham characters. Initially the ordering is functional. The mayor
or the postman is assigned a position in the middle of the grid because this
central point has apparently been chosen for a number of reasons. But
then the pupil runs into trouble because of the 1-2-3 ordering he wishes to
apply to the hairs and freckles. In some cases this leads to the removal of
the mayor or postman to a point in accordance with the hair-freckle
co-ordinate. In other cases a compromise is reached or else the functional
* The black sections represent either a hat or a scarf and therefore hide either hairs or
freckles.
176 CHAPTER V
principle is retained. But when the entire class finally comes to a decision,
the two-way ordering, as suggested by the postman, is chosen rather than
the "messy" functional structure. The same is true for the naming of the
streets (horizontal) and avenues (vertical). Conventional street names lose
out in favour of names like "one-freckle street" and "three-hair avenue".
The result of the ordering and name-giving activities is a grid with hair and
freckle coordinates on the map of Freckleham.
Three Freckle Street
Two Freckle Street
One Freckle Street
Summary of the goal: to offer the opportunity for two-way ordering and
name-giving which can lead to a co-ordinate grid.
2.3 Greetings
Once the houses had been re-arranged in an orderly fashion and the
postman was able to do his work more efficiently, the mayor decided to
improve his townmen's manners. He wanted them to be more polite in
their way ofgreeting each other. Therefore he issued the following order.
Every Frecklehammer is required to greet his neighbour if he has more
hairs or freckles than that neighbour by saying: "[ have more ... than you
have".
"[ ~ you" means: "[ have more hairs than you have".
"[ Q _____ ~.,o you" means: "[ have more freckles than you have".
The inhabitants of Freckleham started to practise and so shall we.

- Draw in the arrows for each of the following pictures.
e e
a
~
be
0 ob ~ -0
f
c/:) 0
g
~ ~
c
~
(Jd
Q 6 @
~b
- Draw the hairs and/or freckles to fit the following patterns.
a d
~---~----~ ~ ~
-eY"O--Ye
b e
0- · -0 ---~---
0-· ---0---~
c
oY'-,O/Y
4-0
- . . ---~-:::.€/
f
The introduction and practice of the arrow language is the main problem
in these questions. The way in which the arrow-language is introduced is
crucial. The arrows can be offered ready made or the symbolism can be
developed by the pupils themselves as a variant of the balloon in a comic
strip.
118 CHAPTER V
In the last series of problems it is important that the pupils discover and
are able to verbalise that the lack of an arrow between two Freckle-
hammers means that the number of hairs (or freckles) is the same. So the
absence of an arrow also means something.
Summary of the goal: to offer the opportunity to develop an arrow
language to indicate the relationship of the inhabitants; to practise this
language and to draw the appropriate Frecklehammers for a given arrow
pattern. Now each of the pupils should be able to place the Freckle-
hammers on the grid, to indicate the greetings by arrows in the pictures
and to deduce that the lack of an arrow indicates persons of the same
class who consequently are living in the same street or avenue.
2.4 Confusion
Find out which greeting patterns can cause confusion or argument. If there
is no a"ow it means that there is no greeting. Change the arrows, using red
ink, when necessary.
Q e
e---~---~ ~ ~
~
b f
e--~---~ ~---~--~
~
c g
~---.--~
~--~---~
. -- ....._----
'4,~
d b
~ ~ ~---~---~
,,
""~ -"
.-
The idea IS to let the pupils discover the possibilities and limitations of a
greeting pattern at the highest possible level for themselves. Some pupils
appear to reason using the arrows as a guide, others using the map of
'Freckleham' to track down the discrepancies, but most, of them work by
trial and error.
Yet others work at various levels, depending on whether they deal with
the harmony or the conflict pattern of that particular picture.
We find the different levels of use of arrows, map and experimentation
in the following explanations of the picture (e). "They all have one freckle,
or they all have two freckles, or three". ''They live in the same street";
"they all have the same number offreckles".
Seen from a higher level, we are concerned with the application of the
properties of (anti)symmetry and transitivity in equivalence and order
relations. For pupils who cannot solve the conflicting situation the linear
ordering offers a way out: "I have more than" is changed into "lives to the
right of".
In this way the principles of anti-symmetry and transitivity are locked
into the linear order. Hair Avenue or Freckle Street serve as a model.
Summary of the goal: to offer the opportunity to investigate the
possibilities of certain greeting patterns at different levels; to symbolise
and formulate by application of the relational properties of (anti)symmetry
and transitivity, either with or without the intervention of linear order.
2.5 Thieves
After a time everyone in Freckleham learned to greet one another in the

proper manner. Yet not all of the inhabitants were satisfied with the new
situation. One day a policeman from a neighbouring town came to see the
mayor. He reported that three Frecklehammers had tried to break into the
barbers'shop in his town. It was his guess that they wanted more hairs and
freckles! He had not been able to arrest the three thieves and he did not
know what they looked like, but he had heard them greet each other. He
drew the sketch shown below.
- What could the thieves look like?

But the policeman had heard incorrectly. His fellow officer remembered
the correct greeting pattern. That made it much easier to identify the
thieves.
180 CHAPTER V
Who are the thieves?

It is not the aim that the pupils should find all the solutions of the first
problem. There are three possibilities for the hairs, as well as for the
freckles. Since the greeting patterns for hairs and freckles are independent
they can be combined to give nine thieves in groups of three. It is
sufficient for the pupils to discover that there are several possibilities. For
the higher grades of the primary school, finding all the possibilities is a
useful way of applying the systematic and combinatorial approach to
assigned tasks.
The second problem which is, didactically speaking, the highpoint of
"Freckleham", can be solved in various ways. At the highest level: there
are no two inhabitants that have the same number of hairs and freckles,
therefore the one who says "I have more ... than you have" twice, has
three hairs or freckles. The one who says "I have more ... than you have"
once, has two hairs or freckles, therefore.... Note that this reasoning
follows solely from the pattern of arrows.
It is also possible, at the other extreme, to apply the method of concrete
trial and error. In general the pupils substitute different hair and freckle
values and consider whether they fit the pattern. The substitution is not
"blind" in most cases: at least one specific arrow is accounted for. This is a
short term plan by which the hairs and freckles problems are considered
separately, but in general these pupils do not succeed in completing the
abstract reasoning on the basis of the arrow pattern.
Summary of the goal: to offer the opportunity to apply what has been
learned about arrow-patterns in the two preceding parts of two complex
problems concerned With the identification of three Frecklehammers by a
given greeting pattern.
2.6 The Town Meeting

Apparently the inhabitants of Freckleham seemed less contented than
before. The mayor had become aware of this since the robbery. He decided
to call a meeting of the townspeople to decide what to do to improve
matters.
- The greeting "[ have more . .. than you have" was heard many times
at the meeting that evening. How many greetings were heard al-
together?
A few remarks about the solution strategies may be made.

An unsystematic approach without the use of the area plan may lead to
the correct solution after a lot of trial and error, but in itself is of little
value.
The significance of the problem lies primarily in the type of approach.
The pupils will have to be more or less guided into the right approach for
tackling the problem.
In the first place the grid should be suggested. Then we take note of the
freckles only (we place the Frecklehammers with a hat on in the grid) and
discover that each greets the fellow who lives "below" him in the grid. For
the top three we see that each one says the greeting six times: the middle
three do this three times. A total of 27 greetings is obtained. On the basis
of symmetry considerations the same is true for the hairs. Altogether 54
greetings were said.
Summary of the goal: systematically counting the number of greetings
by using the grid structure with the possibility of reasoning on the basis of
symmetry consideration and of discovering all types of number patterns
on the grid.
2.7 New Greeting Suggestions

After the meeting was opened, it became clear that the manner of greeting
by saying "I have more .. " was unpopular. It sounded so boastful and the
postman had always resented the fact that he had to remain silent during
all greetings, which did not please him. He felt everyone should be able
greet each other and suggested that they altered the greeting to "I have as
many . .. as you have". Now the emphasis would be on the similarities of
the inhabitants and not on the differences.
Everyone liked the new idea so they started to practise it and so shall
we.
- Do you think that everyone will be satisfied with this new greeting?
Discuss the following questions in class:
- How many greetings will be heard at the next town meeting?
- How many times will each person greet another at the next meeting?
We are concerned with counting problems much like the previous ones.
Once again the systematic approach on the basis of the grid offers
opportunities for an elegant solution. Each Frecklehammer now says the
greeting four times, giving a total of 9 X 4 = 36 greetings. On the grid it
appears that each Frecklehammer says the greeting four times to the
others in his street or avenue.
Summary of the goal: to offer the opportunity to apply what was
learned previously about systematic counting on the grid in an analogous
case.
182 CHAPTER V
2.8 The Freckleham Song in Code

After the meeting the Frecklehammers decided to celebrate by having an
"As-Many-As"-day each year. A Freckleham Song was composed to be
sung on that day. It was engraved on the wall of the town hall and looked
like this:
100 22,1,211,12 1,201 111,1,112,221 22,1,100,200,201
1,201 221,120,210.
100 22,1,211,12 202,22,1,202 111,1,112,221
20,200,12,10,102,110,12,201 202,120,120.
1,112,11 221,120,210 11,120 1,201 100 11,120
100 22,1,211,12 202,22,1,202 111,1,112,221 202,120,120.
100 22,1,211,12 1,201 111,1,112,221 1,201 221,120,210.
In Freckleham only three digits 0, 1, 2 are used for writing and doing
arithmetic. Strange! At school little Frecklehammers learn that 1 + 1 = 2
and 2 + 1 = 10. Imagine that!
I have not been able to decode the words to the Freckleham Song which
consists of exactly ninety (in Freckleham they say this is 101(0) "letters".
Perhaps no one will ever find the words to the song. If not, it will be a
secret for ever.
What we do know is that from the time of ''As-Many-As-Day'' the
Frecklehammers lived happily ever after. This only goes to prove that "I
have more than you have" does not always make one happy.
- Try to decode the Freckleham Song.
The words to the song are:
I have as many hairs as you,
I have that many freckles too.
And you do as I do,
I have that many too.
I have as many as you.
The letters are depicted by their order in the alphabet.
The numbers are stated in base three. If the pupils do not know this
system they can decode the text according to the train of thought: a =
1, b = 2, c = 3, but they have no "3", so c will be 10; d = 11, e = 12, f
= 13, but they have no "13" so fwill be 20, etc.
It does not matter' if the problem is left unsolved for the time being.
Once different number systems are presented at the beginning of grade
five, this problem can be taken up again. Perhaps there will be another
,opportunity halfway through grade four, when coded messages and the
related letter frequencies are looked at again. In our case it will then be
discovered\ that the 12 will probably be the "e", and the "a" will also be
found quickly, etc.
Various strategies are possible for decoding the song. The idea is to
attune the end of the story of Freckleham to the imagination and dis-
coveries of the pupils of that particular class.
It is certainly not the intention to introduce the base three system at this
time. This can be done some two years after having been introduced to
"Freckleham" .
Summary of the goal: to offer the pupils the opportunity to decode an
ordering problem given in the form of a coded message.
2.9 "Freckleham" in a 'Wider' Connection

A follow-up series of problems to be given a few months after "Freckle-
ham" is included in the example-curriculum programme by Wiskobas. Its
aim is to further the pupils' reasoning abilities on the basis of transitivity,
one of the important subjects of "Freckleham".16
The problem is to determine which of the nine Frecklehammers,
represented by nine potatoes, is the heaviest. The balance is used to
demonstrate this.
The idea is that the pupils, with guidance, discover that the best method
to determine this is to take two which look or feel heavy and determine
which is the heaviest by using the balance and then compare the heaviest
to another object. Once again find the heaviest, etc. comparing always with
the object that is the heaviest so far. In the case of the nine Freckle-
hammers this means that the heaviest character can be determined after
weighing eight times. (If two subjects weigh the same, either can b~ taken).
Then the pupils draw conclusions from arrow-diagrams in which the
arrows indicate relationship directions such as "is heavier than", "is larger
than", "is stronger than" and "is older than". Counter-examples are also
examined.
Much later the properties of transitivity and (anti)symmetry that remain
implicit during the solution of the given problems are made explicit and
used to examine various sorts of relationships, though it is certainly not
necessary to extend the proces~ of mathematising this far for all of the
pupils.
In the previous description one of the important parts of "Freckleham"
was followed in a vertical curriculum line. The second important part of
the theme is formed by the (combinatorial) counting problems. These
problems have been considered at length in the second chapter of this
study and need not therefore be studied further here.
Altogether "Freckleham" and follow-ups such as those above offer
activities from three subject areas:
- calculating systems: counting problem;
- language and logic: coordinates, arrow-language and reasoning;
- relations and functions: arrow-diagrams and order relations.
184 CHAPTER V
2.10 Basis of "Freckleham" in a 'Deeper' Connection
The relationship to permanent educational goals is clearly visible in the

three-dimensional goal description of "Freckleham".
First the connection to the general mathematical goals:
- the arithmetic aspect in the form of ordered counting in the com-

binatorial problem of lesson 1, in the systematic counting problems
on the grid in lessons 6 and 7, and in the code in lesson 8;
- the language aspect is taken care of through the naming of streets
and avenues in lesson 2, and in the development of the arrow-
language in lesson 3;
- the practical usefulness and the applicability are seen in the long
term in the use of coordinates and arrow-language which can be
applied both inside and outside mathematics;
- the structural aspect is present in the counting and greeting problems
where the concern is to discover the regularities in grid and arrow
patterns;
- the methodological aspect is expressed in the systematic approach,
the reasoning by symmetry and in the deductive and inductive
reasoning.
- there is room for the dynamics of reasoning in various parts of the
"Freckleham" theme, in turn leading to "eureka"-experiences: the
proof of the existence of nine inhabitants, the order on the grid, the
(im)possibilities of certain greeting patterns, the principle of transi-
tivity, the reasoning by symmetry and the code language;
- the mathematical attitude can be taken care of in the proofs,
ordering, and counting by making use of the grid and especially by
trying to decipher the secret code.
The integral goal of personal value in "Freckleham" can be achieved: there

are possibilities for initiative, invention, "eureka" experiences, and emo-
tional involvement.
The socialising value is not over-apparent, even though there are
various sections in which the pupils can co-operate with each other and
matters which they can discuss amongst themselves, as in lesson 2 (map of
Freckleham) and lesson 8 (code). In general, the Freckleham form of
greeting will give little cause for the pupils to consider the phenomenon of
greeting in our society. They are too young for that. If "Freckleham" is
offered in the higher grades or in the secondary school, albeit in a
different context, these matters can be touched upon. How do we greet
each other in different contexts? Which rules do we follow? Why do we
do it as we do? Do people greet one another differently in other
countries? Is our kind of greeting influenced by "I have more than" or "I
have as much as" or by any other such aspect? These are a few questions
which are worth considering in this kind of reflection. I 7
The preparatory value lies primarily in the problem-oriented and
research-directed instruction that aims at a mathematical attitude. The
practical value of "Freckleham" in itself is almost nil. However, seen in a
wider context the use of coordinates can be mentioned.
Finally, a few remarks about the relationship to the various starting
points may be made. In three-dimensional goal description the starting
point of the activity is not clearly defined. Not until the actual lesson
begins will it become clear whether or not the pupils have accepted the
problems of Freckleham as their own and will work with motivation and
enthusiasm. From observations and reactions we may come to the conclu-
sion that in most cases the pupils were attracted by the "Freckleham"
problems and were eager to find solutions to them.ls
The three-dimensional goal description does give an impression of the
possibility of a variety of solutions. The principle of vertical planning has
been discussed in the previous sub-section.
The five mathematical starting points can be recognized in the overview
which has just been given. Thus it appears that "Freckleham"· is in accord-
ance with the starting points of mathematics instruction as pursued by
Wiskobas. The pupils are working actively and in a differentiated way, in a
problem area that is vertically planned and from which important mathe-
maticallearning experiences can be obtained.
3. HOLISTIC THREE-DIMENSIONAL GOAL DESCRIPTION
Before giving a short characterisation of our holistic three-dimensional

goal description, we shall first of all discuss the four kinds of goal
descriptions which are often suggested as being three-dimensional.
In our terminology three of these would be indicated as being two-
dimensional, but the fourth appears at first sight to resemble the holistic
three-dimensional goal description.
In the second sub-section, our type of description is described and
compared with another three-dimensional goal description.
In the third sub-section, the rough empirical foundation of a holistic
three-dimensional goal description is described on the basis of "Freckle-
ham" and in the fourth the various functions of such a description will be
briefly mentioned.
3.1 Different Kinds of Three-Dimensional Goal Description
In the literature on goal description the qualification "three-dimensional"

is used repeatedly to indicate certain kinds of objectives.
186 CHAPTER V
First of all these are the objectives which, next to the behaviour and
content components, contain a product section suggesting ways by which
the envisaged performance of a specific task (report, essay, paper) could
be produced. This generates a three-dimensional description space for
objectives that shows a relationship to the scheme of the structure of
intelligence designed by Guilford. Klauer's approach, which was men-
tioned in the previous chapter, leads on to the Guilford modeI.19 De
Corte's suggestion for a four-dimensional goal description is also based on
Guilford's ideas. 20
Secondly, there are three-dimensional goal descriptions in which the
third dimension, next to the behavioural and content components, con-
tains a transfer component which indicates the scope of the particular goal.
Wheeler's contents-cube contains a third dimension, the three parts of
which are 'specifics', 'ways and means of dealing with specifics and
universals and abstractions."21 De Block recognises three similar transfer
levels, the subject matter, the rather general, and the general transfer. 22
In the third place there are goal descriptions in which the third
dimension consists of general objectives that are mentioned expressly
alongside the behavioural and content components. Johnson, Rising and
Van Dormolen adopt this approachP For the latter this dimension con-
tains the general goals that reflect the social significance of mathematics
next to dimensions of specific goals of knowledge and skills pertaining to
mathematical theory, algorithms, logical principles, problem-solving and
communication, and the dimension that contains the behaviour categories
from a taxonomy.
The fourth kind of three-dimensional goal description is by Pikaart and
Travers. Their third dimension is one of instruction, which indicates ''what
the teacher does to bring about the desired changes in the leamer."24
The well-known two-dimensional description of product goals is thus
extended to a three-dimensional description space for educational pur-
poses, in which next to the desired conduct by pupils, the implications for
the instructional behaviour of the teacher are taken into account. The
behaviour dimension consists of the ordered classes of knowledge, under-
standing and problem-solving. "The content dimension contains subject
materiat, for example the addition of fractions with different denomina-
tors. The third dimension of the "process" is sub-divided into planning,
teaching and evaluation and contains directions for the teacher on the
planning, realisation and evaluation of instruction with respect to the
product goals that are to be pursued.
The first three examples above can be interpreted as refinements of the
two-dimensional goal formulations which were discussed in Chapter IV.
The three extensions, product dimension, transfer component and the
dimension of the general goals, were mentioned in Chapter IV during the
discussion of the so-called "floating" criterion, the higher cognitive goals

and the process goals, respectively.
Thus in our terminology, these three types of description are to be
qualified as being two-dimensional. This is not so for the fourth model. At
first glance this seems to hold properties similar to our three-dimensional
goal description. Was this what we had in mind when we announced a
three-dimensional goal description in a didactical context in the previous
chapter? An attempt to answer this question is found in the next sub-
section.
3.2 Characteristics o/the Holistic Three-Dimensional Goal Description

The three-dimensional goal description, as demonstrated by means of
"Freckleham", is characterised by the didactical context in which it is
placed. This didactical context serves to concretise the process goal in
terms of "opportunity to", and the product goal in terms of "being able to".
In principle, all of the components of the didactical context can be used to
this end, insofar as these contribute to clarification of the goals. In the
three-dimensional goal description for "Freckleham" we made reference
to:
- instructional activities:
• leading questions (lesson 1: "do you have them all?");
• suggestions (lesson 3: "the absence of an arrow also has a mean-
ing");
• working methods (lesson 2: class discussions concerning the
choice of the town plan);
- learning activities:
• specific difficulties in the assignments (lesson 2: the "functional"
ordering);
• indication of solution levels (lesson 5: the various ways in which
the thieves can be found);
- instructional aids:
• the use of materials (lessons 1 and 2: the use of chips for the
individual Frecklehammers).
These components are, however, not isolated. They are included in a total
description of the teaching process directed at the objectives being
pursued. This is why the three-dimensional goal description can be
referred to as being "holistic". Rather than a "one-sentence formUlation" it
is an extensive description aiming at an image of the essentials of the
teaching/leaming process: mathematising and didacticising. It is concluded
by a summarising two-dimensional goal formulation.
What can a three-dimensional goal description look like? One pos-
188 CHAPTER V
sibility was given in the description for "Freckleham". There are, of

course, many other kinds of presentation. In a three-dimensional goal
description one might use parts of transcripts of lessons to indicate the
important moments which are essential to the learning process. Instead of
transcripts one can do it with a constructed or re-constructed series of
lessons. In the latter case reality is idealised or formalised in one example
while in the former case one lesson is reported in detail and taken to be a
model of the instruction for that topic. 25
So there are various ways of describing the third dimension of the
didactical context in more or less concrete terms. The manifold descrip-
tions of mathematics instruction throughout history reflects this diversity.
It is important to describe the didactical context concretely against the
background of the one-dimensional objectives that are actually to be
pursued. This means that in the three-dimensional goal description,
important moments, which are essential to the learning process, are
inserted which can contribute to a clarification of the goals being pursued.
These important essential moments are connected with the teaching-
learning process as it took place or can take place in reality. Thus in
content the holistic description rests on an empirical basis. At the same
time we have stated that it can be formulated in countless ways.
In "Freckleham" the goals for the different lessons are mostly process
goals. This can be shown from reading the two-dimensional formulations
which are summed up at the end of each lesson, often given in terms of
"being offered the opportunity to". The product goal formulation of "being
able to" is used only once, at the end of the third lesson.
In case of a prior formulated knowledge or skill, a more closed product
goal description can be made. But when aiming at the level of optimum
achievement and the personal contribution of the pupil, a more restrained
formulation will be called for. Beside restraint, the formulation of "offering
the opportunity to" also expresses a certain openness of the goals. By
placing this kind of goal in a three-dimensional description very 'near' to
the instruction, it can be sensibly illustrated for the teacher. The relation-
ship to the permanently pursued one-dimensional goals especially can be
set down concretely in this way.
This gives more scope to the holistic description. Not only are the goals
for that particular piece of instruction expressed but also the permanent
goals of mathematics instruction as a whole. What then is the relationship
between our holistic goal description and the description given earlier by
Pikaart and Travers?
They are concerned with describing instructional behaviour that is
attuned to the achievement of certain two-dimensional product goals. Seen
by themselves these product goals are very concrete.
The third dimension contributes little to the illustration of the goals, but
does indicate the instructional route by which these can be achieved. In
fact this dimension for them is more of a means than a goal component. It
offers no actual new point of view of the two-dimensional goal description.
In our case, however, the three-dimensional goal description is espe-
cially related to the inadequacy of the two-dimensional process goal
description, and especially with regard to what is meant by "offering (or
being given) the opportunity to". What does it mean when we' offer the
pupils the opportunity to give a proof in the first lesson? In this example
the main issue that lies in the three-dimensional description "do we have
all of the Frecklehammers?" can offer clarity about "offering (or taking)
the opportunity to".
In short, the third dimension was introduced primarily to illustrate the
goals, and not to indicate the means of achieving these goals, as is the case
for Pikaart and Travers.
Of course, it must be added that the holistic goal description also gives
information concerning those means, but this is a derived function. So
much for the formal characteristics of the holistic three-dimensional goal
description. In the following sub-section the material aspect will be
considered and we shall ask ourselves on which facts this kind of goal
description is based, or can be based. To that end the "Freckleham" topic
will be used once again.
3.3 Rough Empirical Basis of the Holistic Three-Dimensional Goal

Description
From the history of "Freckleham" that was given briefly in the first
chapter, we can surmise that the goals, in this case mostly process goals,
are related to the learning process, i.e., the teaching process as it appeared
to take place.
When the first draft was finished, the designer was rather sceptical
about whether the topic would be workable in the classroom. This was not
so much on the basis of the mathematical value, but rather because of his
doubts of whether the children would be attracted to the problem and
would find the activity meaningful. 26 Surprisingly enough the pupils were
attracted by "Freckleham" and were not held back from working the
assignments which were important mathematically, in spite of the imper-
fection of the first draft. Further development lead to the final version as
found here.
In composing the final text use was made of:
- experiences of teachers in the school which first used the "Freckle-
ham"theme;
- suggestions made by teachers from other primary schools who had
worked with "Freckleham";
- proposals made by students in teacher-training colleges;
190 CHAPTER V
- remarks made during in-service courses organised by Wiskobas;

- recommendations made by tutors of these courses.
It is impossible to repeat all of the reactions here. An overview will be

given of the most important points.
First of all it became clear that a strong emotional presentation of the
story - using "live" Frecklehammers, etc. - restrained mathematical
performance on the pupils' part.
Secondly, the use of adequate aids, cards featuring Frecklehammers
which could be used for placing in order, were important to the activity of
two-sided ordering.
Thirdly, and as far as we know this is a new fact, many third graders,
under certain conditions, were able to do their own two-way ordering.
Those conditions stem from the activities of lesson 1, where everyone was
asked to look for all possibilities and the proof that "no one was for-
gotten", i.e., systematic counting.27
In the fourth place reasoning on the basis of transitivity was found to be
simplified by teaching the pupils to make use of the linear arrangement of
themap.28
In similar assignments at a higher level it was found that even adults do
not often spontaneously use linear ordering to arrive at a simple method
of solution.29
In the fifth place it became clear that the arrow-language was under-
stood by the pupils: they understood the indicated relation condition and
could make active use of the arrow language.3o
Sixthly, small changes in the story can have a large influence on the
motivation to attack the assignments. Initially, the problems about the
thieves in lesson five were reversed. At firs~ there was less enthusiasm but
later on, when the objective was to identify the thieves in the (now) first
problem the pupils became more eager to tackle the assignment. In the old
version they had already been apprehended.
In the seventh place the town map appeared to offer a great deal of
support for the solution of reasoiring and counting problems. However,
the children did have to be encouraged to use this model.
Lastly it can be said that in the opinion of both teachers and pupils the
theme was considered to be successful. 3l
Generally speaking it can be said that the instruction material devel-
oped by Wiskobas. (series, themes, projects) is based on research and
on a large amount of data from experiences in various quarters: design
school, follow-up schools, in-service courses, teacher training colleges,
teachers' centres and response groups, etc. Much of this material was
incorporated in the form of leading questions, hints, possible levels of
solution, suggestions for the use of aids, observation points, etc.
A wealth of teaching experience lies in these descriptions: this rough .
empirical evidence can play an important part in the function of planning,

realisation and evaluation of education.
3.4 Functions of Holistic Three-Dimensional Goal Description

As has been stated repeatedly, holistic three-dimensional goal description
is first of all meant to describe the objectives for a certain piece of
mathematics instruction in such a way that it will make the intentions of
the designers clear to teachers and others who are less-familiar-with the
kind of education involved.
From the example of "Freckleham" it can be seen that a holistic goal
description can indeed fulfill that function.
A number of facts concerning possible learning processes are found in
such descriptions; e.g., mathematising, and also instructional suggestions
for the generation of these processes, e.g., didacticising, which explain
what is currently meant by "offering (receiving) the opportunity to" or
"being able to". Should these facts concerning the didactical context be
lacking, the "less-familiar-with" would find little information about the
intentions of the instruction, as became apparent from "Freckleham".32
This is not surprising, since the relevant objectives are related to the
learning processes as they appeared to take place at certain crucial
moments during the instruction and these objectives could hardly have
been predicted, not even by the designers. A number of objectives were
then formulated later.
One might complain that all of this is still no argument for the necessity
of a holistic goal description. Could not the teachers discover these
objectives themselves in the course of the instruction? In reply to this we
have previously argued that, with reference to "The Land of Eight", the
prepared texts, instructional material or themes can be used to further
various ends.
We might also say that if certain instructional activities do not take
place, certain learning activities will also be lacking. For example, if the
leading question from lesson one, "have we forgotten anyone?", had not
been put, the children would have been denied the opportunity to practise
a systematic approach, because on their oWn it is quite likely that they
might not have come to use that approach. Similar examples can be drawn
from every lesson, showing that the objectives concerning mathematising
often become clear through a description of the didactical a<;tivities.
Hence the didactical context is an essential component in the lucid
formulation of the envisaged objectives in the framework of innovation.
. We say it is "essential" for "new" mathematics instruction, where "new"
refers to subject matter and working methods which are totally different to
current subject matter and methods. This does not mean however that this
essential condition of clear goal description is also sufficient to ensure the
192 CHAPTER V
adequate realisation of that instruction. In the first chapter we have

explained that many other activities are required for that to happen. 33
Even so, adequate goal description plays an important part in the
dissemination and realisation of instruction as pursued by Wiskobas.
If a holistic goal description for a certain piece of instruction is
available, one can, using one's own experiences in solving mathematical
problems, come to a constructive analysis of the material. The crucial
points that are found in the three-dimensional goal description offer a
sufficient "handle" to achieve that aim.
On the other hand, this kind of description often leaves so much
"open", that the teacher does not feel restricted at all.
Only the crucial points of the learning process which can serve to
elucidate both the process and product goals are included. So the holistic
three-dimensional goal description makes a contribution to what earlier
was referred to by Goffree as the "semi-transparent mirror function". It
offers the teacher the opportunity to look through the theme and see the
objectives behind the material, while granting him the freedom of making
his own contribution to the instruction. As such, this kind of goal descrip-
tion can play a supporting role in the planning, realisation and evaluation
of instruction.
The matter of evaluation will be considered separately, since it is
closely related to the problem of goal description. The question of the
evaluation of process goals is one of which special note will be taken.
By interfering with the ex~lusiveness of product goals a "counter
culture" has arisen of instructional evaluation which is directed against
the exclusive use of the formative and summative evaluation methods.
It is manifested in adjectives like "responsive". "illuminative", "holistic",
"portrayal" and "transactional".34
As far as we can judge, the importance of these broadened forms of
evaluation has up to now been defined only in a negative sense. The
one-sidedness, rigidity and imperfection of the methods of the "objec-
tive-based evaluation" are exposed to day-light, but a clear picture of a
well-founded alternative is not yet available. The means of evaluation
envisaged by the "counter culture" are of a qualitative character; that is,
more or less structured observations of the learning process, interpre-
tations of activities and observations, reporting of the ideas that the
teacher and the pupil have about the instruction, and descriptions of "case
histories of solutions". These can all be elements of such an "activity-based
evaluation".35
Now with the holistic three-dimensional goal description it becomes
apparent that this offers a series of starting points for possible learning
processes, for possible case histories of solutions, for limiting factors and
for didactical suggestions. These in turn can offer many supporting points
for a holistic evaluation, an evaluation of the learning process as a whole,
by which the global feeling of "today it went smoothly" or "today it was

not what it should have been" can be analysed more profoundly. We
have in mind "eureka"-moments, observing learning processes, identifying
different approach strategies and evaluating one's own teaching methods
and approach when asking leading questions as preparing and directing
the process of discovery.
In summary, the holistic three-dimensional goal description offers
support for a holistic evaluation of the learning process as a whole. Does
such a description, beside offering evaluative support during the instruc-
tion, also offer clues concerning what the pupil must be capable of at the
end of their instruction?
In Chapter IV we saw that, for ''The Land of Eight", three-dimensional
goal description can also be of great importance for the evaluation of
product goals. This is especially so in those cases where the pupil is
confronted with a certain problem for which at the end of the instruction
he, even if assisted by the teacher, must be able to find a solution. Here we
have a product goal evaluation in a didactical context. For ''The Land of
Eight" a product goal formulation could read: "At the end of 'The Land of
Eight' the pupil must be able, maybe with assistance from the teacher, to
count and calculate in all possible number systems."
We saw how the pupils were placed in an instructionaVlearning situa-
tion by means of the so-called "passport" strategy which is ideal for the
evaluation of what has been learned. A three-dimensional goal description
of such an evaluation lesson can offer a great deal of support to the
teacher for the evaluation of the product goals of that theme.
In the three-dimensional goal description of "Freckleham", suggestions
for such an evaluation of the product are lacking. The reason is that in the
Wiskobas curriculum this theme is followed by various activities with
evaluative moments, such as working with co-ordinates, arrow-diagrams,
counting problems and transitive reasoning. However, it would be possible
to develop a similar theme for evaluation. Instead of Frecklehammers one
might substitute Indian head-dresses with one, two or three stars and one,
two or three feathers of different colours.36 How many different head-
dresses can be made, how many different town plans? Certain greeting
patterns can be made, followed by the introduction of the arrows. These
evaluation lessons could be described three-dimensionally and the
description could indicate what the pupils should be capable of if they are
to be considered to have followed the instruction successfully. Taking into
account the special nature of Freckleham, we did not consider an
analogous theme as appropriate for evaluation. Rather we chose to include
this evaluation in the various activities which followed. One of them has
been described in sub-section 2.9, the balance problem.
Apart from these specific reasons we can, however, conclude that the
three-dimensional goal description in principle can offer excellent clues
194 CHAPTER V
for the product and process evaluation of the envisaged learning. Further-
more, generally speaking, holistic goal description for a certain piece of
instruction, alongside and together with clarity concerning the envisaged
learning, can offer good support for the planning, evaluation and realisa-
tion of that instruction.
We would finally like to mention one other function of three-dimen-
sional goal description for teaching purposes, namely that pertaining to the
theory of instruction. In the goal description for "Freckleham" there are a
few points that are important to the theory of learning and teaching: for
instance the two-way ordering and reasoning on the basis of transitivity.
More important aspects could be found in the other themes given earlier.
"The Land of Eight", seen from Gal'perin's point of view, could lead to a
large number of questions. The same is true for "Counting Problems".37
Questions of growth as in "Gulliver" and "Grains on the Chessboard",
working with large quantities and calculators, have not yet been tackled
theoretically. Especially in the use of calculators, we are confronted by an
important and theoretically tricky problem; In the three-dimensional goal
descriptions for that kind of instruction one might well find a considerable
amount of raw experience material that could warrant further research.
We make these remarks to indicate that the three-dimensional goal
description can offer certain impulses to (mathematical) educational
psychology. Various authors have recognised the one-sided or insufficient
analysis of the essence of 'mathematics' in diverse investigations and
theories of educational psychology.38 In our opinion three-dimensional
goal descriptions can offer a view on mathematics as a human activity
which contributes to a broadening and deepening of the psychological
conceptions in mathematics, thus making possible a closer connection
between theory and practice. They can also contribute to the insight that
certain psychological theories do not ''fit'' certain parts of mathematics
instruction.
For if there is no structural relationship between psychological theory
and what is considered to be the essence of mathematics, the application
of the one to the other can be damaging for mathematics instruction.
Three-dimensional goal descriptions could offer a contribution to a better
insight into the heart of mathematical activity, or at least bridge the gap
between general and specific educational theories.
4. CONCLUSION
There are various kinds of three-dimensional goal description. Our

version of three-dimensional goal description, unlike the others, is holistic.
Every component of the leaming process that can contribute to a clarifica-
tion of the process and product goals is, in principle, included in the goal
description, for example: leading questions, didactical suggestions, indica-
tions of levels of solution, observation points, etc. In this way all the data
that have emerged from the experience of working with the design and the
development phase and which are considered to be crucial for the
envisaged learning process can be included in the holistic goal description.
These data, as well as the observations of the designers in the experi-
mental phase, are derived from the reactions of the teachers, students,
tutors, etc. who are involved in the development activities. Next to its main
function of didactical action in the actual practice of instruction, three-
dimensional goal description. can also function in educational theory.
The main question concerning the way in which objectives for "new"
mathematics material such as "Freckleham" should be described for the
"less-familiar-with" has now been answered as follows. Describe the
objectives holistically, i.e., place the two-dimensional goal descriptions in a
didactical context, thus making clear what is meant by the terms "offering
(receiving) the opportunity to" or "being able to" in a concrete way. These
three-dimensional goals will then fill our objectives cube.
Mathematical Material for Chapter VI
2. .J
Algorithms
198 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VI
The examples of mathematical activities at the beginning of the preceding

chapters were themes. Yet the contents, starting points and objectives as
well as the ways to describe them can also be studied if whole courses are
concerned. How this can be done will be shown by an example, which now
is taken from a part of mathematics instruction that is known as the barest
and most algorithmic: column multiplication and division. We briefly
sketch first the traditional approach, and then that of Wiskobas. At the end
of the mathematical material we ask questions about starting points, goals
and goal descriptions, which are answered in the 'Commentary', so that the
reader is able to compare his own answers with that of the commentary.
Furthermore of this mathematical material offers a retrospective view of the
preceding sections of the book.
My experience of in-service courses in the past twenty

years is that if we cannot show different approaches in
what teachers still regard as the core of their jobs,
teaching algorithms, and show the relevance of concepts
in that context, then there is no change in classroom style
in any part of the teaching of mathematics (and who can
blame them given all the pressures?). Succeed in this, and
'all else is added unto you'. Fail here, and the rest is
looked on as a fringe activity.
Arthur Morley
Draft by: J. C. van Bruggen, A. Dekker, H. Ter Heege and A. Treffers.

COLUMN ARITHMETIC
Under traditional instruction, column arithmetic can be characterised as

an isolated subject, globally organised according to the principle of
progressive complication of the problems. The order of the problems in
multiplication, for instance, is first one digit by two digit, by three digit, by
four digit ... numbers, two digits by two digits, two by three, two by four,
and so on. Besides the size of the factors, the number of required transfers
and the zero difficulties are also measures of complexity. Not until less
complex cases have been mastered are the next higher ones tackled.
Moreover one is almost exclusively concerned with the bare arithmetical
context-free problems. In other words: column arithmetic is neatly sepa-
rated from the solving of contextual problems. This is what we mean by
an 'isolated subject'.
These kinds of courses for multiplication and division usually contain
600 to 1000 bare arithmetic problems, which require about 60-100
lessons. The result of this intensive training is that at the end of the sixth
grade (12 years) two out of three pupils master the complete subject. That
is to say, as soon as solving contextual problems is the issue the pro-
cedures on which so much training time has been spent are often avoided. l
Problems involving a multiplication are attacked by such pupils by some
kind of repeated addition; problems involving a division by repeated
additions and subtractions.
Even if based on insight rather than on blind teaching of procedures
(which is not rare either), such an approach does not match the starting
points and objectives of mathematics instruction from the Wiskobas
viewpoint as were formulated earlier.
Indeed, the pupils are not active participants in the process of algorith-
misation; the opportunities for differentiat,ed working are restricted to the
terminal performance of the standard procedures, and the longitudinal
planning is straightforwardly directed towards the product of the algorith-
misation. Moreover there is too little oppoitunity left for mathematising:
none of the aspects of language, structure and dynamics, nor the specific
character of the mathematical activity, get a chance. Even the applicability
is in danger, as was mentioned earlier.
Is there another way? - that is our question. Can column multiplication
and division be taught so that the starting points and general goals we
have sketched can be realised?
199
1. Integrated Column Arithmetic According to Progressive Schematisation:

Introduction
Integrated instruction of column arithmetic which is globally organised
according to the principle of progressive schematisation of the numerical
activity is, as it were, the mirror image of the traditional isolated instruc-
tion of column arithmetic.
Rather than by "superficial" complexity such as number size, the steps
marking the course are distinguished by degrees of schematisation and
shortening inherent to the procedural actions. This includes the fact that
from the start pupils work with rather large factors while the problems are
solved at an adapted level of schematisation and shortening. At a more
advanced stage the same problems are more briefly written and more
quickly calculated. The pupils may run through the course at their own
pace, and the terminal objectives need not be the same for all of them.
This implies the fact that a quite heterogeneous group can be given the
same problems, which are solved in a differentiated way with regard to the
procedures applied.
Another important distinction from traditional teaching of column
arithmetic is implied by the adjective 'integrated' versus 'isolated'. Inte-
grated column arithmetic means that contextual problems are inducements
and starting points for the learning of the procedures of column arith-
metic. They also occur as applications of what has been learned. Moreover,
column arithmetic is intertwined with "clever calculating". Or to put it in a
more pointed way: column arithmetic comes into being as a kind of clever
calculating. The main elements expressed by the keywords 'integrated' and
'progressive schematisation' will now be illustrated.
2. Column Multiplication According to Progressive Schematisation
As a starting problem of the course, we may take the following:

'Santa Claus has his gifts distributed in the village by eight
servants. Each has 23 parcels. How many parcels do they have
altogether?'
At the beginning of the third grade (8 years olds), the majority solve this
problem by repeated addition, albeit in a variety of manners:
- by repeated additions without using table products: 23 + 23 = 46,
46 + 23 = 69, 69 + 23 = ... ;
- by repeated addition with table jumps: 20 + 20 + 20 + ... , and
3 + 3 + 3 + ... ,160 + 24 = 184;
- by intermediate steps, with or without the use of table products:
8 X 23 via 5 X 23 and 3 X 23 or via 8 X 10,8 X 10,8 X 3;
ALGORITHMS 201
- by the doubling method: 23 + 23 = 46, 46 + 46 = 92, 92 + 92 =

184; and variants such as 20 + 20 = 40, 40 + 40 = 80, 80 + 80 =
160,160 + 24 = 184;
- by various other counting or reckoning strategies, such as fitting 8 X
23 on a long number line and by the 'quarters method' 8 X 25 - 8 X
2, with or without the use of table products.
The cover page of the mathematical material shows the various solutions
of a group of 15 pupils at the beginning of the third grade.
At first sight one is struck by the diversity, though the significant
influence of the multiplication tables is equally striking. Obviously solving
problems is still insufficiently integrated with learning multiplication tables
- at least in this particular group. This is nothing to worry about.
Gradually while solving such problems pupils become aware of the ease of
doing long repeated additions by means of the multiplication tables. This
holds in particular as soon as the tens play a part, in 8 X 23 and even
more in 12 X 23,21 X 23 and so on. In the short run all kinds of informal
methods, such as splitting and doubling, are accepted because in the long
run they will keep their significance for the benefit of clever reckoning.
Yet as has been mentioned, after a certain time, as soon as bigger factors
occur, practice shows that almost all children use multiplication tables
both in the units and in the split of tens, and conversely by this occurrence
are stimulated to completely memorise the tables.
The beginning of the course is attuned to the various additive and
partially multiplicative methods pupils use in simple contexts. Using the
tables to perform repeated a<;lditions is reinforced, as is the adroit strategy
of taking groups of tens, in problems like 12 X 23 and 21 X 23. This
appears to be a most natural road leading to the standard algorithm:
children copy the clever methods because these continue the partially
informal strategies and also they are convinced by their superiority.
For example after about 10 lessons, a problem like:
A directory of 62 pages has 45 names per page.

How many names are there in the directory?
is dealt with by the majority as follows: 45 + 45 + 45 + ... is mentally
placed in a column - a mental act that is symbolically accentuated by
gesticulations in the air. Six groups of ten are being taken out of the
column and noted down, with two extra terms supplied and finally,all is
added up. We show the work of five thirdgraders after 15 lessons. In
(a) we still notice the thought traces of the long-addition-in-the-air: 62
terms divided into six groups of ten terms and two singles. Even reminders
of place value marking position/strokes are still visible. In (b) it is about
the same; the interchange of digits (7290 instead of 2790) shows that no
previous estimation of size had taken place.
'IS lo)/'';Lh
=: i'Jo '~L=h.c>
10 l.=b"lC
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1."50 10XJ.:t 4'2. 0
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go
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£XI5'=SD
(x."9
ntlS .. U
(c.)
l~!i~ d)
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Fig. I.
For unclear reasons commutativity had been applied in (c). This pupil
calculated the intermediate products 40 X 62 and 5 X 62 only partially,
which might develop into a handicap for reaching the stan!iard algorithm.
Here the teacher should intervene. As far as notation is concerned, the
approach of (d) is detached from the long addition, as is that of (e). The
notation is perfectly clear, the partial products are separately calculated
and then added. The next phase that announces itself is the straight-
forward calculation and notation of 60 X 45. In (e) we notice radical short
cuts. To a certain extent it is just the background of the long addition that
stimulates the clever use of some properties.
The particularly striking elements in the displayed work are the
following:
- after about 15 lessons pupils do multiplications with rather long
factors;
- they work-at different levels of schematising and shortening;
- they use adapted notations.
The next phase in the course is combining the tens, thus writing and
calculating 60 X 45 via 6 X 450 with immediate carrying in the partial
products. As a matter of fact this means attaining the standard form.
ALGORITHMS 203
The preceding is a rough sketch of multiplying according to progressive

schematisation. It is a procedure with a tail of partially additive proce-
dures, which are suggested as a means of solving context-problems
involving multiplications. From the natural starting point of the long
repeated addition the course develops as a progressive schematisation and
shortening: trimming the taiI.2
3. Long Division According to Progressive Schematisation

As a counterpart, long division takes a similar course, starting with
repeated subtractions: piecewise distribution produces a long tail, which
by taking ever bigger groups of tens or hundreds, and so on, is shortened
even further.
For a global view on the progressive schematisation of the division
algorithm, we consider the example 324 + 4.
How does a pupil solve this problem in the various phases of the
course? The problem is worded as follows:
Distribute 324 match stickers fairly among four children (Sjoerd,
Bauke, Bart, Jan); how many does each of them get?
Phase 1: The distribution is correctly realised very early by taking ever
bigger equal portions. (In the case of division by proportion it happens in
a similar way.)
Phase 2: The distribution takes place mentally and is noted down so
that one can read how much has been distributed and how much is left,
though shorter notations are possible.
Sjoerd Bauke Bart Jan
324
40 10 10 10 10
284
40 10 10 10 10
244
40 10 10 10 10
Phase 3: The positions grow larger as does the degree of schematising and
shortening
324 '---' '---' '---' '---'
200 50
124
120 30
4
4 1
0 81
Phase 4: At each round the maximal number of tens and units is

distributed or at least this is tried. The notation approaches the standard
pattern
4/324
320 80
4
4 1
o 81
After about 15 lessons many pupils do divisions like 6394 -:- 12 on levels
(a), (b), (c). (For example, a proportion division: translation of months into
years.)
::ili- 1M J" \1~!>!1 0

Slelf , ~ool~
~ .5~~ 200
if!! -t1 I()(J
,
I~~O
1'1;: ..J \~
IStY
L1...o..A- ~4:>""'''
1i!
III it)
i SU-
\~~.~$06
~ t.\o
( ..... ) =\%1
t~~. (t.)
Fig. 2.
If the goal set for the whole group is level (c), it will again take 10 lessons
for the great majority to reach it. For the last step toward the standard
pattern 10 more lessons would be required. Indeed, it is well-known that
these kinds of transformations create new problems.3
If, however, one is satisfied with differentiated performances like the
preceding ones, the whole course of long division is finished after about
20 lessons.
4. Column Arithmetic Integrated with Clever Reckoning

Besides progressive schematising as exemplified by 62 X 45 and 324 -:- 4
ALGORITHMS 205
the specific part played by the context deserves to be considered. The role
of the context differs fundamentally from that played in the traditional
instruction of column arithmetic, which centres around bare number
problems. If there is any attention paid to context problems in the
traditional case, it is restricted to application of the procedures learned by
means of bare number problems. In other words, in the traditional
instruction of this subject context problems are in general not used as
starting points, whereas in an integrated course of column arithmetic they
are used to prompt schematising and shortening at every important stage
of the learning process. The background argument for this approach is
that learning column arithmetic is made easier by suggesting concrete
representations of the numerical actions and that applicability is increased
by the a priori organic connection between the formal arithmetic proce-
dures and the informal methods of solving contextual problems used by
the pupils.
However, in the case of column arithmetic the adjective 'integrated'
refers not only to its relationship with contextual problems but also to that
with flexible and clever reckoning. This includes the idea that systematic
attention should be paid to the a priori estimating of the result and also
that clever reckoning by using relevant properties and rules must not be
lost from sight. The last is rather easy since the courses are solidly based
on clever reckoning.
Column arithmetic is, as it were, squeezed in between estimating and
flexible calculating with the additional aim being to counteract an attitude
exclusively directed at algorithms. In particular, in the third and fourth
grades where the instruction is often strongly determined by the domi-
nance of the column arithmetic rules - at least in the traditional approach
- the danger of prompting an a- or antimathematical attitude is immi-
nent.4 There is, however, one more reason to integrate column with
flexible arithmetic: the opportunity to effect breaches in the troublesome
additive "carry-over" for pupils solving contextual problems. 5 To be sure,
estimating plays a part too in the process of shortening procedures. In
brief, there are a number of serious arguments for including estimating,
clever reckoning and contextual problems in teaching arithmetic.
Finally, an example is given of an evaluation lesson for division at the
end of the course, where progressive schematisation and the significance
of contextual problems is involved. It gives the following problems:
1. Figure out 6394 + 12 as a pupil would do after a few lessons

oflong division.
2. Once more after about 10 lessons if he is not as clever as you.
3. Now for a pupil who is at least as able as you are.
4. Invent a little story where the result of the problem 6394 + 12
would be 532.
5. Once more where the result of 6394 ..;- 12 would be 533.

6. Still once more where it would be 532 rem. 10.
7. Now ifit is 532~.
8. Now 532.83 rem. 4.
9. 532.8333333 ...
10. An impossible assignment.
5. Summary
The characteristics of integrated column arithmetic according to progres-

sive schematisation may be summarised as follows:
1. The course of column arithmetic starts as it were stealthily as a kind
of clever reckoning by using tables, in particular that of 10; esti-
mating plays a permanently important part.
2. Contextual problems are a source of the process of algorithmisation.
As a matter of fact they extend a meaning to the numerical activities
and a support to performing the procedures.
3. Good use is made of the informal methods pupils apply to solve
contextual problems. The various methods are discussed in the
group in order to stimulate the use of the most appropriate ones. In
brief, the course leading to the relevant algorithms is pursued in the
most natural way. The algorithms develop gradually.
4. From the start, problems involving rather large numbers are offered.
The pupils solve them in various ways: uniform task set, differenta-
tion according to solving levels.
5. As the course proceeds calculations and notations are even more
schematised and shortened.
6. The terminal levels can vary according to the envisaged objectives.
6. Queries
This is the sketch of an alternative approach to column arithmetic. It

should be acknowledged that its global lines had already been drawn in
the beginning of our century by the German didactician Kiihnel.8
Casting a retrospective glance on what has been said in the present
exposition on starting points, goals and goal description, we now ask the
following questions:
1. How does the Wiskobas view on instruction express itself in such a
course of column arithmetic; and does that view necessarily lead to
this kind of approach?
2. How do the one-dimensional goals express themselves?
3. To what degree are two-dimensional product goals attained with this
instruction of column arithmetic?
ALGORITHMS 207
4. How can three-dimensional goal descriptions of such long term

courses of column arithmetic be realised in practice?
5. What is the significance of such three-dimensional goal descriptions
for the theory - beside the practice - of instruction in the present
case?
COMMENTARY
1. Starting Points
In traditional teaching of column arithmetic the pupils are more often than
not immediately confronted with the standard terminal product, that is,
with a rigid procedure. Little if any opportunity is left for growing towards
the definitive algorithm, and by this means to experience the necessity of
an algorithm and to appreciate the efficiency and general applicability
of standardised algorithms. Moreover, by their overwhelming influence,
algorithms may put a restriction on the instruction of arithmetic in the
third to fourth grade and on the pupil's behaviour. In .contra-distinction,
Wiskobas proposes· an approach that leaves the child the chance to
develop terminal algorithms for himself, to rediscover the arithmetic rules,
which only in the course of centuries of human history got their final·
shape. This then is one way among others to help the child avoiding the
trap of a one-sided algorithmic attitude, or formulated in more positive
terms, to create important mathematical starting points such as learning
to schematise, to shorten, to develop notations, to reflect on one's own
activities. The faster learning of column arithmetic by this approach - we
will reconsider this point - is a bonus, since the Wiskobas algorithmic
programme is primarily a matter of principle because of its conception of
mathematics as a human activity fitted to the world that the child
experiences and lives in, and guided by the principle of reinvention. The
starting points of an active, differentiated and longitudinally planned
mathematically rich instruction are clearly visible in this approach, in
particular as regards the process of algorithmisation.
We did not, however, claim that this general view necessarily leads to
integrated column arithmetic by progressive schematisation. There is
another movement that would globally ·subscribe to Wiskobas' basic
conceptions and starting points as well as the consequent objections
against traditional programmes of column arithmetic, though their final
conclusions would diverge from those of Wiskobas. Rather than the
standard-algorithms (or variants) they endeavour to teach children
adapted methods that are not just standard 7 - let us call them the non-
standard movement.
2. One-dimensional Goals
Obviously there is a divergence as regards the one-dimensional goals
pursued. In the case of algorithmising, the non-standard movement
stresses exclusively the general goals of personal, social and mathematical
values. Beyond these, Wiskobas also stresses the preparatory value and
the social relevance of the standard algorithms (while admitting less
shortened versions). The availability of calculators and computers does
not reduce the merit of these values, even though in instructional practice
the actual teaching methods for column arithmetic may change and even
come closer to what we called the non-standard movement. These changes
concern, as we mentioned earlier, the process of algorithmising, that is the
general mathematical goals.
3. Two-dimensional Goals
The two-dimensional product goals are concerned both with the terminal
algorithms and their applicability in a context. Let us first consider the
envisaged terminal algorithms.
For the majority of children the envisaged level in multiplication
problems is:
62 X 45 --> 60 X 45 = 2700
2 X 45 = 90
2790
For the division it is:
12J6394
6000 500
394
360 30
34
24 2
10 532 rem. 10
A small minority of pupils would be allowed less shortened variants of
long division, such as those shown previously in (a) and (b) of the example
of pupils' practice. If the method of (b) or even (a) is accepted as a kind of
minimal level, the percentage of mastery is considerable higher than the
usual 70% (or even less) for long division, whereas the invested instruction
time - mark well - is considerably reduced. x Both facts are easily
understood and explained as soon as it is realised that in progressive
schematisation the procedural acts are built on insight and the numerical
techniques are less advanced. Insight protects the learners against a variety
of idiosyncratic mistakes, which are a well-known phenomenon in long
division. And as far as the arithmetical techniques are concerned, the less
ALGORITHMS 209
shortened method, far from compelling the pupils to estimate exactly the
partial quotients, gives them the opportunity to split off easily recognisable
parts. In other words, practically every pupil can learn a long division
whereas the long division is only accessible to two out of three pupils.
Since from the start column arithmetic is tied to solving contextual
problems, it may be taken for granted that in the integrated approach the
applicability of the procedures of column arithmetic is not lower than
in the isolated approach. This, however, has not yet been corroborated
statistically.
4. Three-dimensional Goal Descriptions

It is not feasible to give a three-dimensional goal description of every
lesson or instructional episode, and to be sure it is not needed. One can
restrict oneself to the important marks or beacons in the entire courses of
column multiplication and division. Part of these are the so-called evalua-
tion lessons, which we alluded to in 'The Land of Eight' (Chapter IV).
Here we must be satisfied with a few indications of three-dimensional goal
description by means of catchwords and phrases:
- The start of the course in multiplication: contextual problems, a
pattern card of solutions, stimulating the use of tables, splitting off
tens, gesticulating in the air, ways of notation, the case of zeroes;
- intermediate phase: required basic abilities, shortenings in calculation
and notation, stimulating to shorten, the significance of verbalising
the procedural acts, re~ention of insight into the underlying longer
procedural acts, the mastery needed at a certain level for more
schematising and shortening, a priori estimations;
- terminal phase: possibilities of differentiation, preserving the basic
abilities, the kind of contextual problems, speed of performance.
All these elements should concretely and in a didactical context be
represented in the goal descriptions. The same holds with regard to
division.
Earlier on we gave an example of an evaluation lesson for long division
after about 20 lessons, which might be an appropriate endpoint for a
three-dimensional goal description. Indeed, it can offer a pattern card
of solutions, characteristic mistakes, suggestions for teachers, levels of
mastery, schematising and shortening, opportunities for reflecting on one's
own learning process, and for application. Such a description of an
evaluation lesson in a didactical context might even yield a good overview
of the course as a whole.
5. The Significance for Instruction Practice and Theory

The significance for instruction practice has been made sufficiently clear
by the preceding exposition; three-dimensional goal descriptions, for

instance, in teacher guides belonging to methods or textbooks, are neces-
sary to shed light on the envisaged instruction - in the present case of
column arithmetic according to progressive schematisation, integrated
with solving context problems, estimating, and clever reckoning. So they
are a guide-line for teaching practice.
Yet such goal descriptions are also of theoretical significance. As a
matter of fact they can serve to illustrate the particular principles of
instruction theories according to which courses have been conceived.
The model of instruction as developed for column arithmetic and
presented by the three-dimensional goal description stands out in bold
relief against the background of general teaching theories such as the
information processing theory of learning, Gal'perin's theory of stepwise
evolution of mental actions, Davydov's activity theory of forming scientific
concepts.9
To summarise one would say that the specific features of structure can
be visible in three-dimensional goal descriptions or - to put it the other
way round - that in a particular case the starting points and objectives are
solidified to form a 'local' instruction theory or model. Interpreted this
way a description may yield a concrete orientation basis for theory
building and in this way fulfil a theoretical - beside the practical -
function in instruction. This is not a farfetched claim since effective action
in instructonal practice presupposes a more or less explicit 'theory', a
practical theory of action - one understands - which includes starting
points and goals.
CHAPTER VI
SURVEY AND JUSTIFICATION
The first part of the present chapter contains a brief sketch of the
prehistory of our publication. It deals with the various phases we went
through in the Wiskobas project before arriving at the conception of a
three-dimensional goal description within the frame of innovation. In the
second part we survey the contents of the present study. The third part
aims at justifying our attempt at answering the query about content and
form of goal descriptions for mathematics instruction such as are pre-
sented in our publication. Finally we conclude with a summary of starting
points, goals and methods of goal descriptions.
1. HISTORY
In Chapter I it was stated that, from the beginning of the Wiskobas

project, questions of the substance and type of description of objectives
were raised by many participants. Issues about goals at tlie level of
"Richtziele", "Grobziele" and "Feinziele", in the terminology of Christine
Moller, were raised.lO
At the beginning of the exploratory phase (1971) the Wiskobas team
did have a catalogue of more or less concrete product goals ("Feinziele"),
but it did not want to use a list of hundreds of objectives for the various
primary school grades to give the necessary illustration.
In the pre-institutional stage (1969-1971), the call for product goals
was so great, and the importance of a goals catalogue so emphasised, that
two attempts were made to construct just such a goals liSt. 11 However, the
results were found to be useless and even damaging. Useless because of
the lack of any context for the objectives, and damaging because the sum-
marising of product goals placed far too much emphasis on the isolated
contents and far too little on the connection between the goals themselves.
As far as the "Grobziele" and "Richtziele" were concerned, Wiskobas
seemed empty-handed. Yet from the beginning of the exploratory phase. it
was clear that a description of starting points, general objectives and
subject material areas in global terms was important for the extensive and
open development of mathematics education as Wiskobas viewed it.
The question of goal description was also posed from the very outset.
Since the product goal description as such was found to be insufficient in a
number of cases, the process goal description was also considered from
the very beginning.12 However, as the starting points and general objec-
tives had not yet been formulated, the process goals were only given in
211
212 CHAPTER VI
terms of activities which actually referred to those general objectives. It

was for this reason that, at the beginning of the exploratory phase, it was
decided that one of the tasks was to make explicit the starting points and
objectives behind the material already developed.
This was done by an analysis of the instructional material, by discussing
it in the Wiskobas team and by making an analysis of the practical
treatment and the more theoretically directed publications. The analysis
was not based. on any clearly defined method, other than a constant
consideration of the question of the core of the mathematical activity, the
basic concepts concerning mathematics instruction, the permanent general
goals and the exploration of the areas of subject matter as Wiskobas saw
them in the initial phase.
During the exploratory phase this work was recorded in two publica-
tions ''The Clock" and "The Cube", and in two external publications at the
end of the phase, the manual "maTHEMAtica" and an article in the
Wiskobas Bulletin. I 3
For the Wiskobas group and their surrounding development circle, the
eight starting points, twelve general objectives and six subject areas that
were distinguished were found to serve as adequate forms of expression
of what Wiskobas was seeking.
In the integration phase (1973-1975) the three-dimensional goal
description was first introduced at conferences and working sessions.
The kind of presentation was identical to the approach followed in
"Freckleham": first give a goal description in a didactical context, then
indicate the broader connection of that material and the relation to the
six subject areas, and finally give a sketch of the connection between the
general goals and the starting points. This type of description, as the
reactions proved, was most satisfactory.14
At the end of the integration phase and at the beginning of the
development phase (1975-1977) this three-dimensional goal description
was used to describe starting points, general objectives and the question of
goal description for a wide circle of concerned and interested people. The
curriculum publication by which this was done served in turn as a basis
for the type of description of objectives for mathematics instruction and
for this study, for which an overview is given in the following sub-
section. 15
In 1977 we entered the phase of formal research on the meaning of
research within educational development which, after the abolishment of
IOWO (end of 1980), has been continued by the group OW & OC (=
Onderzoek Wisktindeonderwijs en Onderwijs Computercentrum, Rijks-
universiteit Utrecht) with the stress shifted to the research components of
courses in column arithmetic, fractions and ratio. The material at the start
of the present chapter shows an example taken from integrated column
arithmetic according to progressive schematisation. As far as contents and
SURVEY AND JUSTIFICATION 213
method of description are concerned, Wiskobas still aims at teachers,

teacher trainers, counsellors, developers and researchers. Yet in the OW &
OC period (from 1981 onwards), three-dimensional goal descriptions
increasingly serve to illustrate local theories behind the design of certain
courses - thus to justify by means of teaching theory the instruction that
has been developed.
2. OVERVIEW
This publication is concerned with the content and type of description of

the goals for mathematics instruction, as they are pursued by Wiskobas.
The substance of description is particularly concerned with the starting
points and general objectives. The type of description is primarily
concerned with the concrete product and process goals.
The central question is how to describe objectives for a certain piece of
mathematics instruction for the benefit of teachers and others who are
less familiar with that kind of education, so that those pieces of instruction
can be understood as the designers intended.
In the first chapter the 'history and content of the Wiskobas project is
described against the background of international developments in this
area. A formulation of the problem of goal description is also made.
The second chapter gives a short analysis of the concepts of mathe-
matising and didacticising and also a sketch of the mathematical-didactical
starting points of mathematics instruction by Wiskobas. These chapters
are illustrated by a series of examples from a topic dealing with com-
binatorial counting problems and an example from a mathematics lesson.
The third chapter offers an overview of the permanent goals of
Wiskobas instruction. These one-dimensional goals are classified into
integral and mathematical goals that are related to general school goals
and mathematical goals of a general nature, respectively.
The theme "Grains on the Chessboard" dealing with exponential
growth serves to illustrate the general considerations. Both for the starting
points and the general objectives it is claimed not only that they are of
importance as general, permanently valid orientation points for mathe-
matics instruction, but also that they are not sufficiently clear for the
purpose of giving direction to certain topics. In other words, within the
framework of the starting points and general objectives, instruction can be
realised in various ways, not always in accordance with the ideas of the
designers of that material. So the objectives for a certain topic or part of it
cannot as such be derived from the described assignments, problems, etc.,
even though the starting points and general objectives from which the
material was developed are known.
In the fourth chapter the existing types of description of concrete
objectives, two-dimensional goals, for certain pieces of instruction are
214 CHAPTER VI
analysed for their usefulness in the framework of innovation. The conclu-

sion is that neither the concrete product goal description nor the process
goal description can sufficiently fulfil the innovative function as, we would
like to see it. The theme ''The Land of Eight" is used to "prove" this~
Chapter V deals with holistic three-dimensional goal description. This
is a goal description in which, next to the two-dimensional product and
process goal descriptions, all the components of the didactical context are
included insofar as they can contribute to a good understanding of
the desired objectives for the topic of instruction. The way in which such a
theme originated is described in the light of 'Freckleham'. The charac-
teristics and functions of the holistic goal description are illustrated.
The characteristics of the publication as a whole are:
- as far as the description is concerned: the use of examples in the

form of concrete pieces of instruction;
- concerning the point of view from which the goal description is
considered: the framework of innovation;
- concerning the "solution" to the problem at issue: extension of the
two-dimensional goal d~scription area, founded on the components
of behaviour and instructional content, with a third dimension in the
form of the didactical context.
The question, however, is to what extent the manner followed which led to
these conclusions and solutions, is scientifically justified.
3. JUSTIFICATION
The first part of the study, containing Chapters II and III, is of a descrip-
tive nature. It describes the starting points and general objectives of
mathematics education as Wiskobas would have it. Even though these
ground rules are not substantiated, they are not offered without any kind
of motivation either.
The examples of mathematics instruction not only serve to illustrate,
but also offer the opportunity for a critical reflection on what is presented.
This also arises from personal experience with the mathematics instruction
from the "mathematics material". The second part of the study, which
deals with the essence of the problem at issue concerning the goal
description, Chapters IV and V, is of a discursive nature.
The fourth chapter begins with two arguments on the problem of goal
description, by Popham and Eisner. It is noteworthy that they discuss
instruction in a rather general setting. Only once does Eisner refer to a
concrete example from an instructional situation, when he uses ''personal
discussion" to argue the necessity for the formulation of expressive
objectives. At that point the ideas of Popham and Eisner about what
instruction is, or should be, showed clear differences.
From these different views on instruction the different values they assign
to product and process goal description can be derived most clearly. For if
one considers the "confrontation with" certain investigational activities of
importance in instruction, one will not exclude the process goal formula-
tion. If however, like Bloom, one feels that "equality of outcomes" prevails
above "equality of opportunity", only product goal formulation will be
used. 16 The difference in views concerning instruction therefore leads to a
distinction in the kind of goal description desired.
The sketch we gave in the first three chapters about the basic concepts
and general goals, illustrated by concrete examples, was an essential means
of making clear that we find both two-dimensional product goal formula-
tion and process goal description important. We have left no doubt
concerning our support of the activity principle of "learning mathematics
by doing mathematics".
This starting point is often interpreted in different ways, but as under-
stood by Polya and others it does little more than convey the conviction
that by executing suitable mathematical activities, the pupil, as well as
gaining all sorts of skills, also acquires a mathematical attitude, which is
expressed in a specific view on problems and the approach to them. This
means that, in our opinion, next to product goals in terms of "being able
to", process goals in terms of "offering (receiving) the opportunity to" also
deserve a place in mathematics education. The examples of mathematics
instruction from the model curriculum of Wiskobas, which were not
specially designed for the problem of goal description, but do represent an
image of the instruction developed by Wiskobas, were considered as being
a given fact: the question of. legitimation was not being considered at that
point.
From this basis of concrete orientation in the examples described, the
various arguments for and against certain types of goal description were
assessed in relation to that mathematics instruction in the framework of
innovation. In tum the reader, from his 'own experience with the related
mathematics material, was able to analyse and judge our arguments.
The argument in Chapter IV was structured in the following way. After
the presentation of the various types of goal description, these were in
turn examined in relation to the theme "The Land of Eight", next to which
the question of the extent to which these types of description can express
the objectives for the ''less-familiar-with'' was considered.
In conclusion the possibilities and limitations of the two-dimensional
goal descriptions were considered in a more general sense, each time
referring to the concrete examples.
The fifth chapter gives an example of three-dimensional goal descrip-
tion which, in our opinion, complies with the requirements of clarity
216 CHAPTER VI
concerning the desired learning in the framework of innovation. The

process goals particularly, in terms of "offering (receiving) the opportunity
to", are made concrete in this holistic goal description. It is important to
note that there is a great deal of rough empirical material stored away in
this kind of three-dimensional goal description.
In the sixth chapter, and in its mathematical material, we cast a glance
beyond to what has not been particularly closely investigated in the
present study: the meaning of starting points and goals for educational
development, its research components and theory-building.
It appears that starting points and goals are no trivial formulations -
which is of course no surprise - but that they in fact yield consequences
for the contents of instruction and even for theory-building. It is surprising
that little, if any, attention has been paid by educational psychologists to
making this view on mathematics instruction explicit. More often than not
mathematics is accepted as a given well-defined domain of structures,
concepts and courses of thought, that is, a subject area into which children
have to be introduced in a psychologically responsible way rather than as
a human activity. In brief, one nurtures an implicit (and sometimes even
inconsistent) structural view on mathematics instruction while overlooking
the empiricist and realistic conceptions, often adhered to by mathemati-
cians and didacticians, which can lead to serious problems. As an example
Resnick and Ford's well-known book The Psychology of Mathematics for
Instruction 17 has been highly appreciated by educational psychologists,
according to a number of reviews. It is crystal-clear, well-organised, and
informative, indeed. Yet it leaves the mathematical-didactically oriented
reader with the nagging question of how "The psychology of mathematics
for instruction" is related to genuine mathematical activities. Schoenfeld's
answer says:
But there is little mathematics here, as mathematicians see it - and would like to see
conveyed in the classroom....
The view of mathematics represented in The Psychology of Mathematics for Instruction
is a travesty, and to have that represent "mathematics for instruction" would be
devastating. 18
With regard to column arithmetic we often see: isolated column arithmetic

according to progressive complication, with no attention paid to applica-
bility in contextual problems, no use of natural positional material such as
money, no contextual problems as starters for learning column arithmetic.
What aims can the results of such investigations on cognitive development
serve? Because of this structural view on column arithmetic, the building
of hypotheses and theories is seriously restricted.
In our view, cognitive development in the area of mathematics instruc-
tion is also determined by the character of this instruction. This means that
instruction itself must be subject to research, or more precisely, superior
and highly appreciated instructional courses should be included as such

in the developmental research. This, in turn, includes the idea that if
need be, for instance in the case of column arithmetic, a fresh instructional
reality should be created by reviewing the instructional course itself. With
respect to integrated column arithmetic built on realistic conceptions,
this has actually been performed. On such a· basis, research can be
continued in actuality with, in turn, important theoretical implications. In
the case of column arithmetic the aforesaid implications, as indicated in
the mathematical material, can, in particular, shed light on the significance
of informal "childlike" ideas and "natural" methods in the acquisition of
more formal "mathematically flavoured" concepts and operations, on the
gradual transition from the one to the other, on the significance of
verbalising, in group discussions or conflict situations, which may give
opportunities for reflecting, schematising and shortening the arithmetical
actions, and on the use of contextual problems as a basis of orientation for
mental actions.
As long as no such instructional reality has been created where children
themselves can develop the standard algorithms, is it then possible to draw
instructional theory conclusions with respect to the aforesaid questions?
This then is the issue of constructive research (or teaching experiments)
and theory-building as related to mathematics instruction. It is the ques-
tion of whether and to what degree educational psychologists should
consider it as part of their task to make the view on mathematics
instruction explicit and if need be, to develop instruction. In brief, would
cognitive educational psychologists be inclined to study the course of
learning processes by means of experiments with individual children
comparable to actual instructional situations ('the researcher as teacher')
rather than persevering in the state of preserving the instructional subject
matter ('the researcher as curriculum developer') remote from the group
of learners, drawing a borderline between curriculum and psychological
orientation. 19
Activity theory psychologists ~ for instance in the Davydov school -
do not draw that borderline. Rather they encourage development research
where scrutiny of the curriculum is stimulated rather than eliminated.
This is also our point of view. Once again we stress how the view on
mathematics instruction, whether or not formalised in starting points and
goals, determines both the macro-structure of the subject matter and
research hypotheses and theory building. Three-dimensional goal descrip-
tion of pieces of instruction - themes and courses - can be a key factor
in hypotheses and theory building as well as in their illustration, because
starting points and goals as well as empirical research data are involved in
that description. Beyond their instruction-innovating function these goal-
descriptions can serve educational theory.
Conversely, a description of the framework of instruction theory can
218 CHAPTER VI
help clarify the three-dimensional goal description, which is why we have

added an Appendix on instructional theory (Chapter VII) to this study.
4. CONCLUSIONS
Finally we give a summary of the conclusions that are drawn in this study
in answer to the problem at issue.
Firstly, the question concerning the starting points of mathematics
education, as seen from Wiskobas' point of view:
- the starting point of Wiskobas is an active, differentiated, vertically
planned learning process in which the structural character, the
language aspect, the applicability, the dynamics and the specific kind
of approach to mathematics are emphasised.
Secondly, the question concerning the general objectives of mathematics
education by Wiskobas:
- the four one-dimensional integral objectives that contain formal,
socialising, preparatory and socially relevant aspects are as important
as the eight one-dimensional mathematical goals which contain the
mathematical aspects mentioned in the starting points.
Thirdly, the question concerning concrete objectives of mathematics
education as desired by Wiskobas:
- the two-dimensional objectives are related to six subject material
areas: arithmetic systems, measuring, geometry, probability and
statistics, relations and functions, and language and logic.
Next to the content part of the problem at issue there arises the formal
question concerning types of goal description. Of particular importance is
the question of how to describe the goals for certain pieces of mathematics
instruction in a way that will make them understandable to a large circle of
teachers, curriculum developers, researchers and other participants who
are not sufficiently familiar with this mathematics education. The answer
given is that, as well as the usual two-dimensional goal description with a
behaviour and content component, which is distinguished in concrete
product and process goals, a three-dimensional goal description for "new"
sections of mathematics instruction is recommended. Such a three-dimen-
sional goal description can be called holistic, since all elements of the
didactical context can contribute to the clarification of "offering (receiving)
the opportunity to" or "being able to" by being included in the description.
The eight starting points fit the vertices of the objectives-cube. The
twelve permanent one-dimensional goals fit the edges, the six content
planes of the two-dimensional product and process goals fit the planes of
the cube and the three-dimensional goals fit the objectives-cube as a

whole.
More important than this concrete image of Three Dimensions in the
form of a cube is the basic idea that lies behind the image, namely that of
extending the current two-dimensional product and process goal descrip-
tions with the third dimension of the didactical context, thus creating
space to describe the objectives in the natural surroundings of the
concrete learning processes.
Mathematical Material for Chapter VII
The Wiskobas Curriculum

222 MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL VII
The present chapter explores the educational theory foundations of the

Wiskobas curriculum. Today, in 1986, the original six faces of the cube of
goals can easily be substituted by other ones which do more justice to the
actual arrangement of subject matter in the Dutch textbook series which is
based largely on Wiskobas. In what follows we describe its principal parts
as an orientation basis for a sketch of the instruction theoretic framework,
which in tum sheds new light on the instructional goals and, in particular,
on their third component, which concerns the teachinglleaming process.
The Lissajous curve on the previous page shows the projection of the
former IOWO logo, the Moebius strip, on one plane and that of the
OW & OC logo on the other. Its parametric representation is (sin t, sin 2t,
sin 3t).
THE WISKOBAS CURRICULUM
As far as didactics is concerned, the Wiskobas programme is globally

characterised by an emphasis on progressive mathematising, horizontally
as well as vertically (see Chapter II), and more specifically by:
1. The dominating part played by context problems, both as a source of
concept formation and as an area for applications.
2. The broad significance attributed to the development of context
models, schemas, diagrams and symbols.
3. The considerable, even decisive contribution of the pupils to the
character and form of the actual curriculum, which is expressed by
their own construction of solutions as well as by their own produc-
tions of problems, and which aims at transforming their intuitive and
informal actiVity into a reflective and more formal one.
4. The interactive character of the teaching/learning process.
5. The intertwining and structuring of the totality of learning strands.
These didactical characteristics are the common basis of the following six
subject matter domains, which will be dealt with more profoundly in the
remainder of this chapter.
I> Check for yourself how the above characteristics are expressed in the
six examples of Mathematical Material of the preceding chapters.
1. Basic Abilities, Elementary Arithmetic, and Estimating
Keeping the didactical characteristics sketched above in mind, it is almost

self-evident that, from early instruction, much attention is paid to context
problems involving the four basic operations. These problems should be
chosen as sources as well as examples of application. Identifying the basic
operations in a variety of elementary context problems is therefore one of
the basic abilities. It is complemented by tasks of the following kind: for a
bare arithmetical problem, appropriate simple context problems or situa-
tions are contrived, say, on the stage, in a dialogue or in a picture. The
intention is that full justice should be done to the variety of real mani-
festations of the four operations. Nor should one forget non-canonical
problems such as:
- which pile of books is higher, that with four or that with five?
- a thicker and a thinner book - which one has more pages?
223
- Mary was born in 1980, and John in 1981. How old are they now?
Who is taller?
- two friends celebrate their birthday together, one of them invites five
friends and the other six. How many have been invited?
- how long is the peel of an apple, who can make the longest one, and
how long will it be?
Even in memorisation and mental arithmetic elementary context problems
play a part: they can provide the arithmetical actions and properties with a
concrete orientation basis. The same holds for a variety of material,
models and diagrams.
Memorising the tables of addition and subtraction up to twenty and
those of multiplication and division involves a process of continued
shortening, of skilful reckoning, shortened counting, structuring based on
memorised knowledge, and insight into the arithmetical structure, estimat-
ing, repeated doubling and halving, and the efficient use of arithmetical
properties.
Elementary mental arithmetic develops by a process of continued
shortening of skilful reckoning based on knowledge of the multiplication
tables, understanding the properties of and insight into the positional
system. This mainly concerns addition and subtraction below a hundred,
multiplication by ten and multiples of ten, multiplying a number with
several digits by a one digit number and, finally slight extensions to
hundred and multiples of a hundred, thousand and multiples of a thou-
sand, . . . Training in basic knowledge and the development of abilities
takes place while sequences, tables, diagrams, and 'machines' are used in a
variety of games. Estimating is considered an extraordinarily important
means of learning to shorten certain arithmetical actions. For instance
counting, which plays an important part in early instruction, can be
'conquered' by having the children estimate results of 7 + 9 = ... ; 17 + 9
= ... ; 31 - 10 = . .. In other words, approximations are allowed
provided they don't deviate too much.
But estimating can also be a goal in itself: calculating by estimating.
Thus, either rough results are the goal or estimating as a means of
checking the orders of magnitude, or estimating is implied by the rough-
ness of the data, or finally a combination of these three elements. In brief,
it includes the appropriate use of empirical data, operations, approxima-
tions, rounding, precision and lack of precision, and estimation in numer-
ous everyday situations,where arithmetic applies.
Two examples of press-cuttings, useful in mental arithmetic, estimating
and developing a certain feeling for numbers:
25,999 chickens grilled
(From our correspondent, Hellendoom, Thursday)
In a fire on the farm of the family K in Hellendoom 25,999 chickens perished. There were
26,000 chickens in the burning shed. One chicken escaped. The fire, probably due to a
THE WISKOBAS CURRICULUM 225
short-circuit, started in a empty barn and because of the strong wind it spread to the
chicken shed. The damage is estimated at more than half a million guilders.
l> Comment on this arithmetic.
The classification obtained in this way has for some time functioned as a shadow classifica-
tion, although it has never found its way into the official tables. Nonetheless, a closer look
at the equivalence formula is revealing. It takes some figuring, so let us restrict ourself to
The Netherland's. This nation has about 14 million people, as opposed to about three
billion in the USA, which is 200 times greater. The area of The Netherlands is 40,000
square metres to the USA's 33,000 square kilometres, almost a thousand times as much.
Weighing one against the other, the population coefficient of The Netherlands is one fifth
of that of the USA.
l> Comment on this arithmetic.
2. Column Arithmetic
In the preceding chapter we described what we call 'integrated column
arithmetic by progressive schematisation'. 'Integrated' meant column
arithmetic not isolated from skilful calculating and application, but just the
opposite: skilful reckoning in context serves in the Wiskobas programme
as an initial motiviitional point for learning the procedures of column
arithmetic. 'Progressive schematisation' meant not heading straight for
standard procedures; learning proceeds along the continuous path of
ever-continuing schematisation and shortening. Much less time (about
half) is spent on learning column arithmetic with this approach than the
traditional ones (see Chapters VI and VII). Moreover the procedural
patterns themselves become a matter of investigation. A retrospective view
on column arithmetic as far as the positional principle is concerned is
taken in 'The Land of Eight' (Chapter N).
Take the following examples:
1. Use the digits 1,3,4,5,6,7 only to make additions such as:

134
657+
791
a. Make an addition with as big a result as possible. Each digit may be used once only.
b. Make an addition with the result 800.
2. I did the division 15317 + 379 with a pocket calculator. It showed 40.414248. How
can you use the calculator to find the remainder of the division?
226 MA THEMA TICAL MATERIAL VII
3. Ratio
In the Wiskobas programme the subject ratio is assigned an important
place: it is a 'Gulliver subject'. This is at variance with the traditional
arithmetic instruction in The Netherlands, where 'ratio' has withered into a
set of stereotyped, highly schematised problems. 'New Maths' dropped
this subject: ratios were reduced to fractions. However, the field of ratio
provides a great opportunity of mathematising relevant realistic problems.
Ratios primarily serve to compare situations. Comparing is a way of
organising, of assessing divergences and bringing about corrections, which
assures it an important place in the instructional course.
From the very beginning the observed reality reveals points of rele-
vance, such as in examples of magnifying, reducing, ratio-conserving and
nonconserving, representations in drawings, maps to scale, and so on. In
the bottom classes (5-8 years) this allows qualitative preparation for the
more quantitative operations with ratios.
The transition from a visual to a more numerical grasp of ratio
develops gradually in the middle classes (9-10 years). Models and
schemas like the double-scaled numberline, the strip, the stick-shadow
model, the rectilinear graph, the string of coloured beads, and the propor-
tion table are aids both for detecting numerical relations and for pro-
cessing them arithmetically. Connections between numbers of items and
prices, paths and journey-times are then investigated, as well as the
compostion of recipes and mixtures. In the top classes (11-12 years)
percentages are introduced, and the proportion table plays a central part
in the technique of 'reducing to 100'. In addition, the application of ratio is
extended to linear and non-linear relations between magnitudes; the
calculations are more and more schematised and shortened. Ratios are
also relevant to fraction activities to be dealt with later on. In brief, they
are a link between the various domains of arithmetic and mathematics,
and reality. Moreover, this subject anticipates secondary instruction in
mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and geography (see 'Gulliver').
To conclude, we present two examples of ratio problems for 11-12
years-olds (see next page).
4. Fractions and Decimals

The global features we notice in the Wiskobas fractions programme- are,
firstly, the variety of access to fractions (measuring, fair sharing, equi-
valence of distributions, mixture) and, secondly, the principle of not
prescribing calculation recipes for either common fractions or decimals.
Fractions are 'provided' by measuring, distributing, magnifying, reducing.
Starting with these activities fractions are gradually used as a means of
organising and describing the results of breaking, fair sharing, measuring
.t4..
In the USA.
Speed limit 60 miles/h.
How much is this in km/h?
< 50""",,, )
A stick of 80 cm produces a shadow of 50 cm.

At the same hour the shadow of the tower is 25 m.
How tall is the tower?
and calculating. At the start simple fractions are operated on, informally
rather than by rote. The progressive formalisation of the operation pro-
ceeds through four clusters of more or less simultaneous activities, which,
to be sure, are not clearly separated from one another.
The first regards 'fair table arrangements':
There are 24 pizzas for 32 children. Arrange them fairly, such as: two tables with 12 pizzas
each for 16 children.
The pupils are given a sequence of such tasks. The organising and
structuring activities lead to a kind of mapping of the situations in obvious
patterns, which allow for communication and encourage thinking.
16 16 8 24
Such schemas can be extended and shortened, that is, partitions can be
made with smaller and bigger numbers, which are all equivalent. Questions
can be asked like:
- Is the distribution fair?
- Who will get more, those at table , or at table ~?
- How much more?
- What about ~ and ,?
If the partition is carried out piecewise, one gets! + ! + ! = ~. In this way
ratio distribution situations are coupled to fractions. But, at the same time,
they are distinguished by means of notation. Indeed, ~ symbolises the
original situation of a table with 3 pizzas on it and 4 persons around it.
This is the beginning of the road towards operating with fractions: the
equivalence of distribution situations and of fractions emerges, as well
as ordering according to magnitude, previewing the determining of dif-
ferences. The second cluster of activities, which, as we have said, is closely
connected to the first, includes further exploration and elaboration.
Distributions are constructed with rectangles, circles and strips, and their
results are described. For instance:
Distribute 3 chocolate bars among 4 children. Draw the parts and describe them by
fractions.
The problem is solved in a great variety of ways. A few examples:

! + ! +!, 3 X!, 3 times a half of a half, ! +!, 1 - !. The task of distri-
buting 6 bars among 8 children can be solved by the same notation as the
table arrangements, but of course the variety is greater: 6 X i, ! + i, and so
on. During this activity of classifying ratio and distribution situations on
the one hand, and fractions as well as fractions of fractions on the other,
the converse - a third cluster of activities - is not neglected. This
involves the composition of fractions in problems like ! +! = ... ;
OJ 3" = ... ; 2 ~I XI 4.
13"3- 14 = ... ; ~1.1'3 I A··
gam It starts Wl·thth·
e plZza SI·tuti·
a ons
but now the pizzas have to be paid for. The central question is, how much
should a person pay who took first! and then %of a pizza (or who pays for
two people who got respectively! and %)? Initially one can prescribe the
pizza price; later on the pupils may choose it. How much do you pay
for to? This is another way by which adding, subtracting, multiplying and
dividing fractions can be realised (if the proportion table is used, dividing
by fractions does not pose new problems). Nothing, however, is enforced.
The jump from! + ~ to to via the price of 90 cents need not yet be made
explicit; looking for an appropriate price is not yet related to finding the
least common multiple of the denominators, and the multiplication rule is
not yet verbalised. Nor does this happen if pizzas are replaced by pieces
of chocolate bars and it is asked how many pieces is ! + ~, or how much
of the whole it is (here the rectangle model is best for both adding and
multiplying). Afterwards, conversely, the pupils can check whether the
result is correct by proceeding on the ~ymbolic level: to = to + 10 = ...
How do pupils finally come to operate with fractions? This happens in
the fourth cluster of activities. The students are constantly encouraged
to perform productions of their own on the symbolic level. This is done
both with regard to decomposition (i = ... + ... ) and to composi-
*
tion (! + = ... ). A first example is the series: i = * * *
+ + or
* *'
i = l + or i = 1 - The production of more complicated decom-
positions can be stimulated: ~ = ! + ! + ! + ! +! is a standard distri-
bution, belonging to " where each of the five objects is fairly distributed
among the six participants. This may be followed by ~ = ~ + ~ and
subsequently by ~ = ! + !. The transition from ~ to ! may be supported by
the table arrangement model as well as by that of paying for ~ or ! pizza or
by a combination of both of them. Then ~ becomes an alias of !. At a
certain moment the pupils can be asked to assemble what you might call
fraction 'monographs' of aliases. Similar production activities of com-
posing can be stimulated. The pupils may use the payment model, at first
explicitly and later tacitly.
Our second example series starts with ! +!. In principle, various
models and situations can be devised to solve such problems, reversing the
activities leading to the preceding 'monographs': the visual distribution of
the bar, the pizza price of Dfl. 4. - per unit, and so on.
As the first, second and third cluster of activities increase in multitude
and subtlety, the pupil can produce more problems of increasing ingenuity
at the symbolic level, and, in addition, the variety of applications
influences what is produced.
Overall, this sketch of a course on fractions faithfully reflects the
didactical principles of the introduction: context problems, models, pupils'
own production, the intertwining with ratio, measuring and calculating,
and interactive learning where children exchange products with one
another. We will close with a few examples:
How many litres in each petrol tank?

tank volume tank volume tank volume tank volume
40 litre 60 litre 30 litre 40 litre
*
A wine glass holds litre. How many glasses can be filled from a i litre bottle?
... glasses
The hall of an apartment is 2t metre long and Ii metre wide. The floor is laid with new
parquet (that is wooden boards). Dad bought an economy pack that can cover 5 square
metres of floor.
1
2jm
r
Is there not enough or is there too much? How many square metres?
In order to stress the fractional character of decimals, they are introduced

in connection with measuring, by changing (enlarging) the measuring units.
Another approach is non-exhaustive division (distribution).
Operations on decimal numbers are initiated by contexts, including
those which concern money. Gradually the children discover rules for the
basic operations using the decimal point. Our judgment and experience
suggest that tricks and rules taught by the teacher obstruct the applicabil-
ity of decimal numbers, which is indeed a problem. (Only in algebra
instruction might a broader applicability be attained.) The chcrracteristics
of the decimal positional system should be recalled where decimal num-
bers are to be introduced. Again, estimating and shortening contribute to
discovery of the rules. Calculators can be used as a didactic and a
checking tool. Again an example:
From our reporter

VILLEFRANCHE - Rarely has a racer gained a victory by such a slight margin as did
Laurent Fignon last Saturday at Villefranche-en-Beaujolais. After 51 kilometres the yellow
sweater appeared to have been 48 thousandths of a second faster than Sean Kelly.
Arithmetic experts figured out that Fignon finished 7.5 centimetres ahead of the Irishman.
t> A mistake made by experts. How could it have happened?

t> Calculate approximately the correct lag.
John has a kilometre counter on his bicycle. He adjusts it to nought and cycles along the
canal to his friend. There the counter shows 7.2 km.
He cycles back the same way. The'counter now shows 14.5 km.
t> How is this possible?
5. Measuring
Compared with traditional methods the Wiskobas programme pays much

attention to measuring: measure development, measuring by instruments
and by estimation, choosing convenient units in given measuring situa-
tions, calculations with magnitudes, processing measuring data by means
of tables and graphs - in brief, instilling a feel for measure. Standard units
are not used at the outset, nor does one aim directly for formulas, and
operating in the metric system is not governed by rules. Measuring is
approached conceptually, starting from practical situations.
Measuring is concerned with magnitudes such as length, area, volume,
time, money, density, speed and so on. They can be processed numerically,
that is, they can be counted, added, subtracted, multiplied and divided.
Calculating with this kind of magnitude was indeed a subject cultivated in
traditional arithmetic, but it was done algorithmically within the frame-
work of the metric system. Wiskobas, on the contrary, has preferred the
now internationally accepted qualitative initiation into measuring. Take
area, for instance - certainly not the simplest magnitude. At the start
magnitudes are compared, ordered and composed before a measuring unit
is introduced. When comparing figures the question of which one is larger
is avoided as long as it is not clear in which respect the one might be
'larger' than the other. For this reason the concept of area is first coupled
with other magnitudes such as price, weight, and so on, in order to prevent
confusion with, say, perimeter. Not until one has proceeded via natural
measures to standard measures (,square units') is the term 'area' intro-
duced. A number of strategies are applied to compare and measure by
means of measuring units: superimposing, cutting, sticking together, re-
constructing dissections, counting, approximate calculation, refining the
measuring unit, general strategies and formulas (for instance decomposing
in half rectangles). In a way these working methods increase in difficulty,
from qualitative comparing through quantitative measuring to calculating
by means of formulas and general strategies. At the same time, the
connection with perimeter and volume is investigated, as well as the
behaviour of the magnification and reduction of the relation between
formulas, their practical use in painting, flooring, furnishing, cultivating,
and soon.
After this brief survey on just one aspect of measuring- area - let us
turn to the attention paid in the Wiskobas programme to measuring in
general, which includes:
- indirect measuring and estimating;
- arithmetic by estimation in relation to measuring;
- developing measures for speed (of reading), wind-intensity, angle,
density and so on;
- the meaning of precision and imprecision of errors in measuring, of
estimating, of rounding, and their total effects on the results of
computations;
- measuring in the context of investigations and experiments;
- tabulating and graphical processing of data;
- finding relations between magnitudes;
- integrating measuring with arithmetic and geometry.
While numerical data is processed in tables and graphs, the converse
activity of interpreting is not neglected.
In brief, measuring belongs to the foundations of arithmetical-mathe-
matical instruction: it offers most natural access to calculating and
provides models (such as the number line) and context problems which
cover a vast range of applications. Besides, measuring as such is an
important area of mathematics instruction, not least because of its
mathematical and soCial relevance (see our examples on the next page).
6. Geometry
Geometry instruction as conceived by Wiskobas is the exploration of the

Determine the (approximate) thickness of the page on which this text has been printed. Say
how you did it.
Tides
Measure on a map the length of The Netherlands coastline from Hook of Holland to Den
Helder.
The difference in the width of the beach at low and high tide is an average of 100 metres.
How much is the beach area reduced by the high tide?
How much is the coast length reduced?
space where we live and move. Spatial experiences are mathematised by

problems and experiments. Initially spatial phenomena are mainly struc-
tured by visual means. The 'I see it like that' argument testifies to un-
verbalised insight. A broad foundation of intuitive notions is laid for
future concept attainment: the geometric reality will be organised by
reasoning and arguing, supported by linguistic symbols, pictures, chains of
conclusions. Concepts are made explicit, in order to be fitted into local
networks of statements and relations. This descriptive layer of geometrical
concepts is again the foundation of a non-globally organised deductive
system. But this is the theoretical level, beyond the scope of primary
education.
Let us restrict ourselves to primary instruction and amplify the preced-
ing sketch. 'Natural' phenomena of spatial perception form the point of
departure for developing geometric abilities and ideas.
234 MATHEMA TICAL MATERIAL VII
Initially this means looking and trying. For instance:
- looking boxes are made and analysed (look and wonder);

- orientation in space by means of pictures (where was it taken ?);
- building with blocks under certain conditions (four cubes houses);
- front and side views of such buildings;
- exploring shadows of the sun or a lamp;
- plane networks for spatial figures;
- exploring the mirror;
- and so on (see figures).
Make a looking box.

The children only have a picture:
A map of a big island, Waterland, is hanging on the wall of the classroom. The question is:
who can tell from which point the picture was taken?
Make a~ many four cube houses as possible.
Shadows of a cube. If possible, make a quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon.

This canvas covered with a thin reflecting layer is a marvellous aid for making selfportraits.
~
I
What went fundamentally wrong when this reflecting canvas picture was drawn?
~~--'-"
The coast of Soldaria stretches exactly North-South. North is the harbour Urtak, and a bit
South of it the harbour Romsk.
One day the coastguard of Urtak sees an emergency signal - West South West. The
coastguard at Romsk sees the same signal right in front of the coast, that is West.
1. Make a drawing of the situation (a map). .
2. The distance Urtak-Romsk is 3 km. How far is the ship from the coast?
.... H
-110
-,., 0100
',/ 0
.... 010
1:. /10
Z
Which picture belongs to which camera?
At an advanced stage of instruction the same activities can be made more

profound by description and reasoning: the looking boxes are related to
projections; orientation by means of pictures is related to angles; buildings
are erected from a given point and side views by 'spatial reasoning', that is,
by provWg or refuting the available possibilities; the effects of shadows are
understood by change of perspective; plane networks are analysed; size
and place of mirror images are investigated and explained.
Obviously, geometric concepts like point, line, plane are not defined
'from outside'; they arise from problems and experiences· with light,
shadow, aiming, projecting, and so on.
In brief, geometry instruction is de~igned according to the principle of
progressive mathematising, with its horizontal and vertical components, as
was the case in the five preceding subject areas. The other didactical
characteristics of the introduction are not neglected, of which we stress, in
particular, that of intertwining, in the present case of geometry with
arithmetic and measuring, as expressed in visualising, constructing models,
and spatial reasoning. Presumably there is no other area of mathematics
which can further the development of a mathematician better than geo-
metry, because of the motivating force of the problems arising in perceived

reality - this, at any rate, is the experience of Wiskobas.
For the sake of completeness and as a finishing touch to this short
description of the Wiskobas programme we repeat the question asked at
the end of the introduction in an adapted form:
[> Please check how the didactical characteristics of Wiskobas as outlined
in the introduction are globally expressed in the preceding description of
the six subject matter areas.
In the following basic text the specific question, as well as the general
one we have just asked, is placed in a framework for instruction theory.
CHAPTER VII
FRAMEWORK FOR INSTRUCTION THEORY
Wiskobas Viewed Three-dimensionally and Seen from the Outside
1. PREAMBLE
In the first chapter we distinguished four trends in mathematics education,

to wit the mechanistic (arithmetic), empiricist, structuralist and the real-
istic, represented by Wiskobas.
The fundamental ideas of these trends are to be csmsidered as frame-
works for instruction theory, embracing the basic views on mathematics
instruction, determining the architecture of the various courses, and
directing the didactical activity.
In what follows the framework for instruction theory, in particular
of the realistic trend, is described. We start with the global starting
points. Then we sketch the main lines of this framework in general terms,
that is paying no attention to the six subject matter areas described
above. Following our former terminology this is appropriately called a
one-dimensional description. The two-dimensional description shows the
impact of the general theory on the character of various courses as
concretised globally in textbook series. With the three-dimensional descrip-
tion we place ourselves on the level of the concrete instructional practice.
Throughout we use the examples of instruction and course descriptions
from preceding chapters of the book.
Finally, we discuss the place of the prevailing cognitive-psychological
theories with respect to the instruction theory of progressive mathematisa-
tion outlined here.
As emphasised before, the following description of such a theory also

serves to clarify the third dimension of the goal description, that is, in a
broader sense, the teachingllearning component. Indeed since we earlier
asserted that the instruction goals are, or can be, comprised in the
teaching/learning process itself, it would· seem useful also to explore the
content-related characteristics of the teachingllearning process in the
Wiskobas curriculum, after the sketch of the formal characteristics in
Chapter II. This tum to a more content-oriented and systematic descrip-
tion is now possible thanks to the solid foundation of concrete examples
and considerations which has in the meanwhile been laid down in this
study and on which the following description can be based. This a
posteriori description of a theoretic framework reflects· the historic pro-
cess; indeed, only after the curriculum development had for the greater
part been completed were we able to discover the theoretical' patterns of
239
240 CHAPTER VII
the development and actualisation of instruction behind the three-dimen-

sional goal descriptions.
1.1 Starting Points of a Realistic Instruction Theory

The starting points of a theory of realistic mathematics education can be
seen most dearly when placed against the background of the structuralist
viewpoint.
In 1962 a group of 75 prominent mathematicians from the USA
and Canada published a memorandum in 'The Mathematics Teacher',
directed against the oncoming movement of the so-called 'Modem mathe-
matics education' of structuralist character. A few fragments from this
memorandum:
... To know mathematics means to be able to do mathematics: to use mathematical
language with some fluency, to do problems, to criticize arguments, to find proofs, and
what may be the most important activity, to recognize a mathematical concept in, or to
extract it from, a given concrete situation.
Therefore, to introduce -new concepts without a sufficient background of concrete facts,
to introduce unifying concepts where there is no experience to unify, or to harp on the
introduced concepts without concrete applications which would challenge the students, is
worse than useless: premature formalization may lead to sterility; premature introduction
of abstractions meets resistance especially from critical minds who before accepting wish to
know why it is relevant and how it could be used ...
· .. There are several levels of rigor. The student himself should learn to appreciate, to
find and to criticize proofs on the level corresponding to his experience and background. If
pushed prematurely to a too formal level he may be discouraged and disgusted ...
· .. the best way to guide the mental development of the individual is to let him retrace
the mental development of the race - retrace its great lines, of course, and not the
thousand errors of detail ...
· .. Of course, not all mathematicians have the same taste. Mathematics has many
aspects. It can be regarded as an instrument to understand the world around us: mathe-
matics presumably possessed this value for Archimedes and Newton. Mathematics can also
be regarded as a game with arbitrary rules where the principal consideration is to stick to
the rules of the game: some such views may be considered suitable for certain problems of
foundations. There are several other aspects of mathematics and a professional mathe-
matician may favor anyone. Yet when it comes to teaching, the choice is not a mere matter
of taste. We may expect that the intelligent youngster wants to explore the world around
him, but we cannot expect him to learn arbitrary rules: why just these and not others? 1
Here are Polya, Sawyer, Pollak, Courant, and many others.

Was there at that time unanimity among prominent mathematicians?
Within one year after this appeal for realism the first volume of Papy's
spectacular 'Mathematique moderne' appeared - the structuralist wave
proved irresistible.2
But the opposition of prominent mathematicians continued.
Thorn turned against formalism, premature introduction and, in partic-
ular, pleaded with much passion for geometry instruction.3
FRAMEWORK FOR INSTRUCTION THEORY 241
Whitney stressed the need for meaningful instruction, full of motivating

tasks bound to reality, as opposed to the stiff formalistic problems in
actual education. Moreover, he asked for selfrestraint from the teacher
when explaining things: the children should selfreliantly move towards
concept attainment. 4
Hilton equally stressed the crucial significance of long lasting learning
processes and the patience needed to abstain from pushing too hastily to
too high a formalleve1. 5 The learning process can only be continued as
long as, again and again, it is started from a concrete basis: there must be
some underlying matter to be abstracted from, to be generalised, to be
unified. At the same time he stipulated the importance for teachers,
counsellors, developers and researchers of doing their own mathematics in
order to avoid losing contact with mathematical activity.
Lakatos turned vehemently against a dogmatic mathematics of eternal
and unimpeachable truth, where quest, failure and adventure are suf-
focated. 6 In his view textbooks should be rewritten in order to exhibit the
growth of discovery. Heuristically organised instruction need not neces-
sarily follow the precise course of the historical emergence of the concepts
under consideration; it comes about by a rational reconstruction of the
process of their coming into being, and then keeping the learner in mind
- that is globally Lakatos' course of thought.
In the same sense Freudenthal judged that 'one should recognise that
the learner is entitled to recapitulate in a fashion the learning process of
mankind. 7 This entails instruction not starting with the formal system,
which in fact is a final product, nor with embodiments (materialisations of
structures) nor with structural games. On the contrary, the phenomena by
which the concepts appear in reality should be the source of concept
formation. These actual phenomena elicit, as it were, the mathematical
structuring - this was the way it happened jn history and so it should
happen in education too, according to Freudenthal. This so-called prin-
ciple of reinvention in his course of thought is strongly associated with the
levels distinguished by Van Hiele in the learning process of the individual
and of mankind, to be dealt with later on.
Overall the global starting points of realistically oriented mathematics
education can be summarised as follows, in accordance with the earlier
mentioned formal starting points in Chapter IT:
- paying much attention to 're-invention', that is recreating mathe-

matical concepts and structures on the basis of intuitive notions in
the making or made ('active'),
- carrying on at various levels of concreteness and abstraction ('dif-
ferentiated'),
- the programming of the instruction is guided by the historical-genetic
242 CHAPTER VII
rather than the subject matter systematic method ('vertically

planned'),
- reality bound, meaningful ('and mathematically rich') instruction.
Stating these principles localises them globally within the framework of
instruction theory without, however, imposing a sharper outline. This will
be done later on by one-, two- and three-dimensional descriptions.
2. ONE-DIMENSIONAL DESCRIPTION OF THE FRAMEWORK

FOR INSTRUCTION THEORY
We shall start by describing the levels distinguished by Van Hiele in

the learning process. Then we shall sketch Freudenthal's didactical phe-
nomenology. Subsequently we will show how the theoretical construct of
the gradual progressive mathematisation can be fitted into that broader
connection of the level theory. And, finally, we shall view the one-
dimensional theoretic framework of realistic mathematics instruction
against the background of the three other trends of mathematics instruc-
tion mentioned above.
Strictly speaking we will be concerned with realistic mathematics
instruction as actualised by Wiskobas, viewed a posteriori. In fact when
that project of educational development was started, its theoretical con-
ception could only be made visible by paradigms of teaching/learning
units. All the time the theory was still implicit in the action, that is, in the
creation of instruction. Gradually the produced instruction became a
matter of discussion. Communicating within and reflecting upon the
concrete activity of educational development required developing an
appropriate didactical language. Only as the work went on could a
theoretic framework be constructed, into which the well-known Van Hiele
levels could be fitted in and reinterpreted. One may even assert that,
until recently, the level theory in our interpretation had not played an
explicit role for the group. By this feature the progress of the Wiskobas
work in three phases reflects exactly the learning process on three levels
such as described by Van Hiele.
2.1 Van Hiele's Levels

As an analogy to the learning process of the Wiskobas group alluded to
above, here is a quote concerning that of the Van Hieles:
'When the Van Hieles started teaching they were just as unprepared as many other young
teachers; nobody had told them how to do it. Of course they had passively undergone
teaching, may be even observed their teachers' performing, but this was not enough. As
time went on, they got the opportunity of discussing their teaching with each other and
with others. They subjected their own actions to reflection. They observed themselves
when teaching, recalled what they had done, and analysed it. Thinking is continued acting,
indeed, but there are relative levels. At the higher level the acting of the lower becomes an
object of analysis. This is what the Van Hiele s recognized as a remarkable feature of
the learning process, namely of that in which they learned teaching. They transfered this
feature to the learning process of pupils who were learning mathematics. There they
discovered similar levels.'s
In the Dutch literature levels of didactical activity are sometimes described

as follows:
- didaxis, the level where thinking is still embedded in didactical
activity;
- didactics, where acting is subjected to discussion and objectivation
though in a still incoherent and inconsistent language;
- didaxology, where acting didactically is viewed in the framework of a
coherent theory based on research results.
Van Hiele distinguishes similar levels in the process of learning mathe-
matics, which, to point out the analogy, could be called mathemataxis,
mathematics, mathemaxology.9 According to this view learning proceeds
through these levels, whose order is respected in instruction - the level
theory is therefore both descriptive and prescriptive. The order inter-
preted by Piaget as levels of development according to Van Hiele rather
represents phases in a learning process that can manifest itself at every age
and every level.
What do the levels look like, and what are their characteristic features?
Each level has its specific organisation of thinking matter. At each level
the objects of mathematical thought represent different things. At the first
level, in the primary grades for instance, they are embedded in operations
with material, observable objects such as concrete quantities of numbers
of things, measuring numbers, visible models and figures. At the second
level, relations between numbers and figures are the object of investiga-
tion. The result of this exploration is that numbers and figures symbolise
properties. In other words, a certain organisation applies in the network of
relations. At the third level, the relations themselves are objects of think-
ing: the character of relations and the connection between properties are
settled, which makes it possible to derive them from each other. The
organisation now fits into a logical and connected system.
The bonds between the various levels across different courses are fairly
complex. So the third level of the arithmetic system represents the con-
crete basis for the first level in algebra instruction, and the third level of
'fractions' is the basis for 'probability', according to Van Hiele.
In general he asserts that true learning on a higher level is not feasible
as long as the learning process at the lower level has not, or not suf-
ficiently, been completed. More specifically: traditional arithmetic instruc-
tion is insufficient and ineffective because it almost always starts at the
244 CHAPTER VII
third, the formal level. The symbols used refer insufficiently to first level
notions, for the simple reason that these notions have not been developed
to a degree that the connection can be made. The signal character of the
symbols is too weak, they do not refer to concrete (mental) objects, they
represent nothing, they are properly said to be no symbols at all, and at
that moment they don't allow the pupil to profit from the system of formal
rules according to which they are operated on. As Hofstadter would say,
there is a lack of active as well as of passive 'meaning'. 10 One cannot even
raise the question of real formal significance - it is merely formalism and
verbalism.
Compared with the traditional manner, instruction according to Van
Hiele goes in just the opposite direction. Instead of starting with formal
operations at the second, or even third level, and trying to apply the
matter learned in appropriate first level situations, one starts at the first
level with the phenomenological exploration of the manifestations of
mathematical concepts and structures, in order to continue with formal
operations on the second level, and subsequently on the third. Essentially
it is the same teaching/learning process by reflection and recursion, as
typified by Kilpatrick.ll The lower level is the basis of the higher; the
(mental) actions on the lower level become thinking matter at the higher
one.
In order to rise from one level to the next, the pupils pass through five
phases, to wit: information, constrained exploration, explicitation, free
orientation, integration. Still in brief, this means:
- getting acquainted with the subject;
- getting in touch with the relevant structured elements by means of
tasks;
- developing appropriate linguistic means for the field under consid-
eration, in order to describe and verbalise relations and structures;
- free exploration of the total field in question by using the now
available means of organisation;
- and, finally, condensing the learned matter and fitting it into the total
inventory of knowledge, abilities and insight.
Th~ are briefly, and in rather general terms, the levels and phases of the
learning process distinguished by Van Hiele.
Let us now, even more briefly, indicate what we appreciate as valuable

and stimulating in Van Hiele's conception as well as point out instances of
incompleteness and imperfectness - in particular from the viewpoint of
educational development as carried out in the Wiskobas project.
To start with, let us say that, in our view, the levels distinguished by
Van Hiele in the macro learning process, that is, viewed in the long term,
are still of great value for learning and teaching mathematics as well as
other subjects. If we restrict ourselves to mathematics, we may state that

Van Hiele's triad is well founded in the developmental and learning
process with respect to various subjects. This, then, is the reason why we
have decided to integrate it into our theoretical framework. And, anti-
cipating the last part of this chapter, we venture to state that, bearing in
mind the most recent theoretical developments and research data, the
level theory is now even more topical than it has ever been since its first
publication in 1957.12
It should, however, be pointed out that there are no strict criteria for
delimiting macro-levels independent of the contents (concepts, structures,
and so on). In short, more often than not there is no way to exactly
diagnose whether an actual teaching/learning process takes place on the
third level - that is, of the systematics of subject matter - or on the
descriptive second level or the intuitive first one: there are no sharp
delimitations, and we will soon show why not. As a heuristic tool,
however, the principle of level structure applies fairly well.
On the other hand, one should say that the vulnerable spots in the
materialisation of the three levels in the teaching/learning process as
envisaged by Van Hiele can now also be more sharply identified than in
the past. At the time when Van Hiele launched his level theory, the
contents of mathematics education were constantly under discussion. At
any rate, there was no question at that time of mathematics-for-all, or
mathematics in primary school, mathematics for slow secondary school
students or - to stay close to the work of the Van Hieles in those days -
of geometry instruction in primary school. The question, in fact, of what
mathematics-for-all should mean and comprise was not under discussion
in those days. Therefore, when at the end of the sixties the question
became topical in the so-called modernisation of mathematics education,
this obstacle was bypassed in Dutch secondary education (and elsewhere)
by focussing primarily on new subject matter. In primary education,
~owever,'Wiskobas could not avoid the central question. In other words,
with regard to primary education the development was not forced into an
- even somewhat loose - structuralist straitjacket. It gradually became
clear that we could not find in Van Hiele's level theory and its concretisa-
tion in his textbooks a ready answer to the following two questions:
1. How to shape concretely the phenomenological exploration at the
first level?
2. Which didactical acts should be performed to raise the pupils as
efficiently as possible from one level to the next?
Or, condensed into one question: What really is mathematics-for-all and
how should mathematics education essentially be structured?
These questions will be discussed in the following subsection. First via
Freudenthal's didactical phenomenology and then in the light of the
246 CHAPTER VII
concrete work of Wiskobas in which, for that matter, Freudenthal has

been strongly involved.
2.2 Freudenthal's Didactical Phenomenology

Freudenthal set out his didactical phenomenology with regard to Dienes'
structuralist procedure as follows:
In opposition to concept attainment by concrete embodiments I have placed the constitu-

tion of mental objects based on phenomenology....
What a didactical phenomenology can do is to prepare the converse approach: starting
from those phenomena that beg to be organised and from that starting point teaching the
learner to manipulate these means of organising. Didactical phenomenology is to be called
in to develop plans to realise such an approach. In the didactical phenomenology of length,
number, and so on, the phenomena organised by length, number and so on, are displayed
as broadly as possible. In order to teach groups, rather than starting from the group
concept and looking around for material that concretise this concept, one shall look first
for phenomena that might compel the learner to constitute the mental object that is being
mathematised by the group concept. If at a given age such phenomena are not available,
one gives up the - useless - attempts to instill the group concept.
For this converse approach I have avoided the term concept attainment intentionally.
Instead I speak of the constitution of mental objects, which in my view precedes concept
attainment and which can be highly effective even if it is not followed by concept
attainment. 13
Such a didactical phenomenology is of course not new. On the contrary it

is as old as instruction itself. Even the most mechanistic arithmetic instruc-
tion uses it when looking for appropriate applications. Even there sub-
traction, for instance, is not restricted to merely removing a part of a
quantity from a whole, nor does applied division appear only as fair
sharing of a quantity among a number of persons.
The novelty in the realistic conception is that reality does not only
function in applications but also serves as a source of concept formation,
that is, in order to first develop intuitive notions, or in Freudenthal's
terminology, to constitute mental objects. The emphasis is on laying a
solid basis for learning rather than only on a posteriori applications at the
end of the learning process. By this peculiarity more weight is placed on
this didactical phenomenology in the realistic approach than in the non-
realistic ones. For the same reason, the demands made on phenomeno-
logical analyses are higher. One is obliged to pay attention to the subtleties
required for the functioning of learning processes in which mental objects
or intuitive notions are formed - subtleties which we are not usually
conscious of, due to the simple fact that we ourselves have far outgrown
the first level of the mathematical concept under consideration or, con-
versely, because we have never discovered the wealth of the related
mathematical structures. In brief, we need knowledge of mathematics as a
phenomenon of phenomena, where mathematics is understood as a human
activity, tied to reality: mathematics-for-all. This phenomenological orien-

tation answers the first question posed with regard to Van Hiele's level
system. The didactical credo of Freudenthal's realistic approach is: put the
pupils in touch with the phenomena for which the mathematical structure
is the organising tool in order to let them shape these tools themselves in a
process of re-invention, and learn to handle and use these mathematical
organising tools in concept formation.
Freudenthal does not, to be sure, distinguish levels in the learning
process which are attained by reflection and recursion in the same way as
Van Hiele. In his view, however, there is no rigid tripartition but rather an,
in principle, unrestricted progression according to micro-levels which are
only relatively delimited against each other. This is a view to which we
subscribe too in the 'progressive mathematising' to be discussed later on.
Besides, we also support the macro-structuring according to Van Hiele's
levels which is in fact an adequate tool for describing the rough structure
of instructional courses. In particular, it is of fundamental importance to
distinguish between the level of subject matter systematics and, on the
lower levels, between an intuitive phenomenological level and a locally-
descriptive one.
The desire to have reality function as a source of mathematising
together with the structuring according to micro-levels by reflection and
recursion processes, as well as according to Van Hiele's macro levels,
gives the first outline of our framework for instruction theory.
In order to give an overall answer to the second central question 'How
does the teaching/learning process proceed from one level to the next?',
we will first look at the concept of mathematising and will then describe
the kind of instruction devised by Wiskobas in this respect.
2.3 Progressive Mathematising Guided by the Five Instruction Principles
Chapter II. described mathematising as the organising and structuring

activity in which acquired knowledge and abilities are called upon in order
to discover still unknown regularities, connections, structures. We dis-
tinguish horizontal and vertical mathematisation in order to account for
the difference between transforming a problem field into a mathematical
problem on the one hand, and processing within the mathematical system
on the other hand. In the horizontal component the way towards mathe-
matics is paved via model formation, schematising, symbolising. The
vertical sketch is concerned with mathematical processing and level raising
in the structuring of the problem field under consideration. We admit that
this distinction between horizontal and vertical components is a bit
artificial given the fact that they may be strongly interrelated.
Progressive mathematising, both horizontally and vertically, as under-
stood by Wiskobas, is inspired by five educational tenets which are
248 CHAPTER VII
logically related to the realistic starting point of the level theory and the
didactical phenomenology.
In brief, and leaving aside the subject matter, they are the following:
1. phenomenological exploration
In the first instructional phase of a relatively new subject an exten-
sive phenomenological exploration is undertaken. The mathematical
activities take place within a concrete context.· The real phenomena
in which the concepts and structures under consideration manifest
themselves are explored as multifariously as possible. The aim is to
acquire a rich collection of intuitive notions in which the essential
aspects of concepts and structures are preformed. This, then, is
laying the basis for concept formation.
2. bridging by vertical instruments
From the very start, in elementary problem situations, a variety of
'vertical' instruments such as models, schemas, diagrams and symbols
are offered, explored and developed. This is done with the intention
of helping to bridge the level difference between the intuitive,
informal, context bound operating at the first level and the reflective,
formal systematic one on the third. In conformity with the theoretical
construct of gradually progressive mathematisation this is more a
step-by-step progress rather than a single jump from one level to
another. This means that from the start more formal elements may
be involved in the learning process, although they take place 'locally',
that is, are bound to specific cases and within a concrete reference
frame. In other words, horizontal exploration is not free of vertical
features in the teaching/learning process, as illustrated by the follow-
ing picture:
level 3
I
I
level 2
r-
i
I level!
This sketch intends to show that, besides the macro-levels in the

learning process within a certain course, one can distinguish finer
meshes and a stepwise structure of mathematising at the micro-level.

Paradigmatic context problems, models, schemas, diagrams and
symbols are the vehicles of progressive mathematisation. On the one
hand the sum of horizontal components in the above sketch repre-
sents the variety of real situations in which the concept under
consideration may manifest itself, and the abundance of notions
required for concept formation. On the other hand, the sum of the
vertical components represents the more formal, subject-area-
oriented systematic knowledge and abilities acquired in the learning
process. Admittedly, this schematising of the process of mathematis-
ing is a bit artificial: the passage from one mental level to the next is
not a neat lattice path but rather a patch-work of paths, if not a
labyrinth, although one where the teacher, knowing the right path,
can help the pupils to find their way up to the top.
3. selfreliance: pupils' own constructions and productions
Nonetheless, the trip should be made by the pupil on his own two
legs, which means that a decisive influences comes from the pupils'
own constructions and productions in the learning process. The
individual contributions can in general always be seen in the dif-
ferentiated production procedures used: solving problems on various
micro-levels as well as producing their own ideas with respect to free
tasks and problems within the subject matter area under considera-
tion. In both cases the pupil indicates by his activity at each moment
his location in the learning field and his progress in the process of
mathematising. This provides the teacher as well as the learner
himself with knowledge about the course of the learning process. In
brief, in this view, the constructive element, although often stressed,
is more than a credo, a nebulous thought, an elusive principle. It is
clearly distinguishable in the pupils' own constructions and pro-
ductions; it is visible in the concrete work presented by the pupils.
4. interactivity
This means that the pupils are also confronted with the constructions
and productions of their fellows, which can stimulate them to
shorten their learning path, to help themselves up on the procedures
of others, to become aware of the drawbacks or advantages of their
own productions, and that copying others' work slavishly will not
aid their own progress. In brief, the learning process is part of
interactive instruction where individual work is combined with con-
sulting fellow students, group discussion, collective work reviews,
presentation of one's own productions, evaluation of various con-
tructions on various levels and explanation by the teacher.
S. intertwining
However, when outlining a course one should be fully aware of the
250 CHAPTER VII
global connection of the various domains, the intertwining of learn-

ing strands. This involves preconditions for the possibilities of
progressive mathematisation which lie to a certain extent outside the
course under consideration. Such conditions can include skills and
algorithms, as well as aspects of insight.
These then are the five general principles to be generally observed with
the intention of making the transition from one level to the next in the
progress of mathematising according to Wiskobas. The progress is realised
by reflection and recursion, by a cyclic process of phenomenological
exploration and mathematical structuring, by a stepwise articulation of the
teaching/learning process.
At the first approach, context problems are elementary but nevertheless
paradigmatic, which means that they function as forceful mental models.
Or, in the terminology of mathematisation: they possess a strong vertical
potential, they lend actual significance to more abstract models and to
symbols, while as context problems their horizontal range is broad
because they represent a broad domain of real phenomena, which may
emerge as applications. The pupil's own contribution to the learning
process is an essential factor. The cognitive intertwining of learning
strands, which may be relatively separated from the viewpoint of subject
oriented systematics, is accounted for. And finally, this view on and theory
of the process of mathematising implies interactive instruction.
This ends the abstract one-dimensional description of the tenets of
instruction theory connected to Van Hiele's level theory and Freudenthal's
phenomenology. We were able to risk making the exposition in general
terms because the concrete basis of orientation had been laid in advance
- a precaution taken in order not to sin conspicuously against the
principles of phenomenological theory adhered to. In fact, this theoretical
framework will be given a more concrete filling as soon as we proceed to
the two- and three-dimensional descriptions. But before tackling these, let
us cast a glance at the three other instruction theory trends, indicated
above.
2.4 Schematic Comparison of the Four Trends in Arithmetic/Mathematics

Instruction
At the close of this section we venture to pose the question: How is the
instruction theory construct of progressive mathematisation related to the
instruction theory conceptions of the three other trends of arithmetic/
mathematics instruction?
Well, mathematising with its horizontal and vertical aspects is shaped
according to the four trends as follows:
Frameworks for instruction theory

Mathematising
horiz vert
Realistic + +
Structuralist +
Empiricist +
Mechanistic
In realistic mathematics instruction careful attention is paid to both the

horizontal and the vertical component of mathematising. This means that
the phenomena from which the mathematical concepts and structures arise
are implicitly used both as source and domain of application. This,
according to the tenet of the theory, creates for the learner the possibility
of concept attainment by orienting himself to a variety of phenomena,
which benefits the building of formal mathematical concepts and struc-
tures and their application. Mathematising proceeds step by step. A
number of specific micro-levels can be distinguished which, considered
over a larger domain and in the long run, are gathered into the three Van
Hiele levels.
In structuralist instruction, organised by subject-oriented systematics,
the vertical component is dominant: operating within the mathematical
system is the principal part of the mathematical activity. The horizontal
component manifests itself only in an a posteriori application of what was
learned before within the formal system, and then only in a restricted way.
As a consequence, the real phenomena do not and cannot function as
models to support operating within the mathematical system. Instead of
the real phenomena, one uses embodiments and materialisations of mathe-
matical concepts and structures (see Chapter I) or structural games in
order to create a concrete basis of orientation. There is, indeed, a struc-
turing according to levels, although mainly by means of vertical connec-
tions in the sense of Bruner's 'modes of representation', 'enactive, iconic,
symbolic', which we will reconsider later on.
Following the empiricist trend, the horizontal component predomi-
nantly determines the course of instruction. This is already clear from
the brief characterisation in Chapter I. There is relatively little pressure to
pass from the first to the second level. Or, as Morley says: the emphasis is
on environmental rather than on mental operations. 14 Empiricist instruc-
tion cares little about formal mathematical goals. Many ideas are taken
from Piaget's psychology. Maturing of cognitive opportunities in a stimu-
lating environment is preferred to consciously aiming at higher levels of
thought by offering paradigms, schemas, models and symbols as 'cultural
amplifiers'.
To end, the mechanistic approach is characterised by weakness of both
252 CHAPTER VII
the horizontal and the vertical component: no real phenomenon as a

source, little attention paid to applications, much emphasis on blind
memorising and automating of numerical facts and acts, no use for insight
in the operations of the formal system. A moderate form of this approach
is based on Gagne's cumulative learning theory, but stricter forms most
often lean on behaviouristic principles. In instructional practice the
mechanistic approach promotes 'individually prescribed instruction', that
is the cultivation of solitary formal calculations. The subject matter is
offered in such an atomised and fragmented way that the pupils master the
petty instructional goals step by step under their own steam. Sometimes
this method is called 'mastery learning' but this is a very narrow inter-
pretation of mastery, compared with that described in the preceding
chapters.
In what follows we will have the opportunity to refine the somewhat
schematic picture of frameworks for instruction theory sketched above by
adding subject areas (themes, learning strands) to the picture.
3. TWO-DIMENSIONAL DESCRIPTION OF A FRAMEWORK

In this section we explain the framework for instruction theory by means

of examples of themes and partial courses taken from the Mathematical
Material of the preceding chapters and the present chaptet.
We start with a description of the various levels in the teaching/learning
process of the most important courses. We continue with a description of
the five tenets which determine instruction according to progressive
mathematisation. Again, the present section is closed by a brief com-
parison of the four principal trends which can be distinguished in the
textbooks of arithmetic/mathematics instruction. The comparison, then,
will be guided by the five tenets.
3.1. Progressive Mathematisation in the Wiskobas Programme

In an six areas of the Wiskobas programme as described in the introduc-
tion to the present chapter, we can discover progressive mathematising
according to Van Hiele's macro-levels, as well as the phenomenological
foundation required. by Freudenthal.
We shall review the corresponding six courses while restricting our-
selves to the phasing on macro-level.
Remarking generally on the six subject matter areas, it should be
observed that, in most cases, the pupils do not aim at the third Van Hiele
level of subject-matter oriented systematics. Numbers and figures, rela-
tions between them and structures around them do not, for the pupils,
reach the degree of concreteness needed for systematic operating and

reasoning. This is certainly true with regard to ratio and percentage,
common and decimal fractions, the metric system and geometry. For the
majority of the pupils concerned, only local organisation in the areas is
feasible and the application of the operations will not be developed in its
full breadth. The symbols have the character of signals of context-bound
situations, schemas and models, but they are not yet sufficiently detached
to be able to operate on them within the system with no reference at all to
the underlying concrete infrastructure. In short, in these cases the pupils
do not reach the instruction level that is chosen as the start of the
instruction in the mechanistic and structuralistic approaches, mostly after
a short 'concrete' introductory phase.
Thus far our characterisation has been 'negative', that is, in terms of
what pupils cannot do in the presystematic phases. We could however
also discuss in a positive sense, that is, as regards the applications they are
able to make and the essentially mathematical abilities they develop,
interpret meaningfully and apply, which are not attained if the starting
level is too high. This is so, at any rate, from the viewpoint of mathe-
matics-for-all. After these general remarks on the macro-levels we will
now consider each particular subject area separately.
Basic abilities starts with a broad phenomenological exploration, followed

by schematising and structuring of calculating methods. 1s Even memoris-
ing is embedded in a process of progressive mathematising and the same
holds for the various forms of skillful reckoning. Many pupils, in the long
run, can operate at the 'pure' number level, discover properties, apply
them within the arithmetic system and recognise the basic operations in
various context situations, thus reaching the third level.
Column arithmetic offers the same picture that has been painted in detail
in Chapte'r VI. A number of pupils develop the standard algorithms, can
apply them broadly within the system of whole numbers, can use them in
context problems, and are able to make the algorithms themselves an
object of investigation.
Ratio activities start at the first level with qualitative and informal com-
parisons in mainly visually set problems and gradually pass into the stage
of more numerical and calculation strategies. The gap between is bridged
by all kinds of models. Finally, arithmetic processing becomes more and
more schematised, shortened and endowed with numerical precision, in
particular when dealing with percentages. It should be added, as said
before, that in primary school only a certain number of the pupils reach
the third Van Hiele level of more profound investigation of ratio, propor-
tion and percentage. 16
254 CHAPTER VII
Fractions shows the same macro-feature of progressive mathematising: a

broad phenomenological exploration, a well-knit coupling with ratio and,
from the outset, a great deal of attention to the qualitative comparison of
fractions as the result of fair sharing.17 All ways of symbolising ratio
situations and fractions results, as well as their descriptions, are exten-
sively stimulated. Models and model situations are offered, the pupils' own
production on the symbolic level is stimulated while, on the other hand,
the focus is not directed to ready rules. It is a long way from the first to
the second level, which means that some pupils can hardly transcend the
stage of context-bound calculations with fractions, while others are able to
perform and even interpret and apply them meaningfully. Formal fractions
are not used as a subject of extended investigation into the rational
number system at the primary school.
Measuring passes from tlie context-bound, qualitative work to more

formal numerical precision. Areas, for instance, are compared in the
following sequence: on qualitative grounds, with the naked eye, by estima-
tion, and by covering with and transforming of figures. This leads to
measuring, first with natural, then with standard units, which in the long
run are to be refined. 18 Finally, formulas are used for the areas of
rectangles and then of half rectangles, that is right-angled triangles, other
triangles, and quadrilaterals. In the latter cases structures and patterns -
which on the second level lead to certain rules and formulas - become a
subject of investigation and are extended to other instances. Likewise, the
relation between perimeter and area can be investigated at various levels.
The phenomenological exploration of ar~a is started by connecting area to
other magnitudes, such as weight, price.and so on.
Geometry is not begun in the traditional way, at the second level, by

introducing mathematical objects such as point, line, plane, plane figures,
the angles, angle measures, translations, rotations, reflections, but by
offering the natural phenomena of spatial perceptions as the starting point
of instruction. 19 Geometrical notions are developed by looking, building,
experimenting and trying out, which are later supplemented by reasoning
and reckoning. It is not assumed that elementary geometrical entities such
as point, line and plane are mentally constituted, nor are they defined.
They arise from activities concerning light and shadow.
That describes progressive mathematisation as a general characteristic of

certain Wiskobas courses. Of course the principle extends to secondary
education, where it has been concretised in the Wiskivon work of IOWO
and then in the Hewet project of OW & OC and of SLO-projects
(Foundation for Curriculum Development). In the next subsection the five
instruction tenets that are to shape the overall process of mathematising
and mathematical instruction are made more precise with the intention of
relating them to the themes and courses sketched above.
3.2 The Five Tenets of the Framework for Instruction Theory Revisited
(1) Phenomenological exploration by means of contexts

With regard to form and function context problems is a broader concep-
tion than traditional word or text problems. A context problem looks like
a word problem, or may be embedded in a play, a game, described in a
story, offered as a press-cutting, represented by modeb and graphs, or as
a combination of such information resources. They can be part of themes
or projects, of which the present study contains a variety of examples,
such as 'Gulliver', 'Roads problems', 'Grains on the Chessboard'.
As far as content is concerned, 'context' means:
a. that, in the case of an isolated, self-contained problem, one looks for
the 'surroundings' of the text or the presentation of the problem, in
other words, for that which is not explicitly formulated or presented,
but does belong to the background assumptions;
b. that, in the case of a non-self-contained problem, one looks for the
surroundings explicitly evoked by the story, the theme, the location,
which, as a matter of fact, also carry their own background assump-
tions with them.
Thus with the context a (subjective!) variable element is introduced into
the problem, and this variable can be stronger or weaker depending on the
kind of problem. For instance, in the problem of the fair sharing of 230
items among 10 persons, the variable is relatively weak, although the idea
of fairness is not necessarily unequivocal (among the to persons there
might be babies and adults). On the other hand, in the case of 234 items
to be shared among 10 persons the context may be more essential and it
will certainly be so as soon as the items are more precisely defined. The
context counts even more in a problem like 'our car does 10 to the liter
(that is 1 liter of petrol for 10 kilometers); how much does it use during a
trip of 234 km?'
In realistic mathematics instruction the pupils will certainly not have to
put their relevant knowledge and experience aside; on the contrary, they
will be able to use them by noticing that the 10 is an average (driving on
the main road is more economical than in the city unless one disregards
the tOO km/h limit) with the intention of arriving at a well-considered
answer. In brief, we should be aware, at least at the first level of phe-
nomenological exploration, of the part played by the context in which the
problems are proposed - a part which may be subordinate as well as
principal.
256 CHAPTER VII
Regarding or disregarding certain context factors, which is the essence

of modeling the problem, is in fact a non-negligible part of the process of
mathematising. Of course, this does not mean that each problem should be
heavily contextually loaded or fitted into a larger thematic context. Some-
times it would even be undesirable, in particular if an elementary problem
situation were to be assigned a model function.
A context problem is not merely a dressed-up word problem, with its
application subordinated to mathematics. Alongside the logical connection
a phenomenological one by which mathematics becomes ancillary to the
real problem is possible. In this case reality counts first, and mathematics
is a mere derivative. Any context problem, whatever it may be, includes a
(subjective) variable aspect which can elicit a realistic reconsideration or
motivation as soon as the answer is translated back to reality.
Context problems fulfil several functions, to wit:
- concept formation: at the onset of the course they offer the pupils
natural and motivating access to mathematics;
- model formation: they support the learning of formal operations,
procedures, notations, rules, together with providing other material
and visual models which fulfil an important support function for
thinking;
- applicability: they uncover reality as source and domain of applica-
tion;
- training specific arithmetic abilities in applied situations.
Take, for instance, division: an elementary division problem can be the

start for learning long division. Conversely, it can be chosen as a concrete
base for a bare division problem or for understanding a specific property
of division. In both cases the context conveys significance in such a way
that the procedure and the operation will in the long run become
meaningful within the formal system. Moreover, such a division problem
can function as an application of tables learned previously or of long
division procedures, as well as an exercise in the applied situation of
money arithmetic. In brief, context problems function both horizontally
and vertically. On the one hand they serve to make mathematical knowl-
edge and abilities applicable, and on the other hand they impart meaning
to formal operations. The urgent need for the latter function is witnessed
by the test scores of two division problems taken from a National Assess-
ment research (NAEP; 1980):
- 6/608 ... was correctly answered by 69% and 65% of the 13 and
17 years olds, respectively;
- the problem '26 children, four per car; how many cars are needed?'
was correctly answered by no more than 3% of the nine years olds
(handheld calculators were allowed); 12% chose for the answer 6.5
and 7% for 65 cars.20
Whitney's comment on the result:
These examples furnish further evidence that, right through the elementary schoolyears, the
attitude that 'schoolmath is something for itself, not for life outside school' is becoming
entrenched.21
Children evidently do not always imagine a situation in connection with

the bare arithmetic problem (608 +- 6) as, for instance, that of distributing
6 dollars and 8 cents among six persons. Conversely, in a realistic
transport situation they do not know what to do with a 'bare' answer (6.5).
In fact, a vast phenomenological exploration is not a luxury one can
dispense with but, on the contrary, is a sheer necessity. This necessity is
shunned by the formal, seemingly logical approach, devoid of any meaning
and leading to a kind of mathematics detached from and isolated in
reality. The phenomenological approach, on the contrary, does justice to
all phenomena in which the mathematical concepts and structures under
consideration reveal themselves.
It would take us too far afield to sum up how many-sided embedding in
the spirit of Freudenthal's didactical phenomenology of mathematical
structures takes place in each particular theme and course of those we
displayed above and what, among others, Sawyer, Vergnaud, Hilton,
Winter have contributed to it. We only mention the broad embedding of:
- ratio, with a reference to 'Gulliver' (Chapter I) and to the description

in the Mathematical Material for the present chapter: geometric
aspects, drawings, puzzles, stick-shadow, mixtures, densities, scale,
percentages, ... ;
- combinatoric problems (Chapter II): roads, tree diagrams, clothing
combinations, colouring, lattice, probability, ... ;
- division (Chapter VI); extensively discussed in the preceding and
present chapter;
- fractions, described extensively in the present chapter: breaking,
dividing, distributing fairly, measuring, ratios, probability;
- many more examples of a many-sided approach in the other courses
sketched in the Mathematical Material for this chapter.
However, rather than restricting our attention to the form, contents and
functions of the particular context problems belonging to a certain teach-
ing subject, we shall also consider them in their totality. An important
criterion is completeness, in other words, whether the variety of mathe-
matical phenomena in the real world is sufficiently ~xpressed. In partic-
ular, problem situations should be viewed which, thanks to their inherent
258 CHAPTER VII
manysideness, fulfil a number of different functions at the same time:

concept formation, modeling and applicability.
Such model problems - in the literal as well as in the technical sense -
are the core of realistic mathematics instruction because of the multitude
of horizontal and vertical impulses which they contribute to the process of
mathematising. They help to bridge the level difference in the learning
process. Let us give some examples:
- the handkerchief problem in 'Gulliver' (Chapter I);
- the roads problem in organised counting (Chapter II);
- the chess board for exponential growth (Chapter III);
- the Walt Disney drawings for number systems (Chapter IV);
- the lattice in Freckleham (Chapter V);
- the fair sharing situations in long division (Chapter VI);
- the distribution situations in table arrangements (Chapter VII).
We will return to this from another viewpoint in what follows now.
(2) Bridging by vertical instruments

Among the vertical instruments, models primarily fulfil a bridging function
between the phenomenal appearances of mathematics in the physical,
social, imagined and 'real' reality on the one side and the formal system on
the other side, as handy, visual, verbal or symbolic representations, and
real world situations (paradigms), which reflect essential aspects of mathe-
matical concepts and structures.,
Besides serving as thought models in the service of concept formation
and applications, models can also serve to facilitate calculations, to learn
algorithms, to explore regularities, and so on. In the present study we
encountered a large number of instances of this last category, such as:
- the roads model, the tree diagrams, the rectangle model (Chapter II);
- the abacus and the number line (Chapter IV);
- the arrow diagram and the lattice (Chapter V);
- the distribution pattern (Chapter VI);
- and many more in the Mathematical Material for the present chapter.
As a consequence, the character and function of models have already been
discussed incidentally, especially in Chapter II. For this reason we now
restrict ourselves to the kind of models we would like to call situation
models. Situation models are context problems with paradigmatic value
which, thanks to this property, are able to function as models in the sense
of prototype rather than of mould. To this end, the problem must be
investigated and analysed sufficiently in order to be able to recall the
prototype to be copied. Beca.use of this peculiarity they are particularly
important for the level theory of progressive mathematisation. In fact, in
this view on instruction, they are typically first level - at least in principle
since, as the pupils advance, many parts of mathematics can acquire the
same concreteness, but let us disregard this for the moment.
Instead, we give one example of this kind of model from each chapter.
The handkerchief problem from 'Gulliver' is first of all an object of
exploration and functions later on as a model for the behaviour of area
and perimeter under linear magnification.
The road problem functions similarly, together With the tree diagram in
organised counting as a model for combinatoric problems.
The chessboard problems with grains of com is an important basis for
(exponential) growth problems (growth by a certain percentage per year).
As a first step an (approximate) doubling time is figured out in order then
to use the chessboard model further.
The context of the Walt Disney drawings (characters with four fingers
on each hand) helps the pupils learn to count and reckon in base eight. The
fingers-hand model is then retained in order to do the same calculations in
base six and other number systems, and eventually, for instance, also in
base twelve, where two new symbols are needed - a unique opportunity
to demonstrate the force and function of digital symbols. Let us add that
the fingers-hand model, which initially provided strong support, might
later on block the process of generalisation - a feature inherent in the use
of models.
In Freckleham it was seen how linear ordering can function in prob-
lems when reasoning rests on awareness of transitivity. In note 27 of
Chapter V we dislayed four isomorphic order problems which not-
withstanding their isomorphism, differ considerably in difficulty. This is
because in certain cases, the linear order is not obtrusive enough to
impose the global thought model on the learner who, therefbre, proceeds
by chains of local deductions, that is, on a higher level than needed.
Numerous psychological experiments have revealed the enormous dif-
ference arising from the way isomorphic problems are proposed, that
is, whether they can be solved on a concrete and meaningful level or
whether, thanks to their specific adornment, it must be done on a more
formal level. The availability and possibility of using thinking models is of
crucial importance if a difference of level in such reasoning problems is to
be bridged - not only in reasoning problems but in mathematising as a
whole.
If the long division procedure is to be developed, the situation of fair
sharing and distributing plays a principal part. This is true of the first
phase of the course, but just as true in later phases if shortening is
stimulated and procedural mistakes are to be overcome. More precisely: it
is the combination of fair sharing With its symbolisation in a schema that
opens the road to self-reliant development of the algorithm.
Table arrangement is another opportunity to make similar observa-
260 CHAPTER VII
tions. Table arrangement (ratio) is symbolised in such a way (~ means

three pizzas on a round table for four persons) that the pupils can easily
imagine the portions and the arrangement behind the symbol. Moreover
the ratio is clearly distinguished from the fraction (~ in the present case) as
the result of the distribution per person.
In many of the preceding cases the main thing is the construction of
a meaningful situation (say at level one) with a fitting materialisation,
visualisation, and symbolisation (in some cases on a higher level), thus the
integration of an elementary situation and a model. This makes it possible
for similar models to fulfil both a horizontal and a vertical function. In
other words: abstracting, generalising, unifying, schematising, shortening,
reflecting, anticipating - all these can be made possible by modeling.
Not all models can function in so many ways. Artificial materialisations
and visualisations of mathematical concepts and structures, which pri-
marily or exclusively function within the mathematical system, may lack
this breadth of power: MAB material, 'machines', sticks and similar
structural models, schemas and diagrams can be useful thanks to their
strong vertical power, yet phenomenologically viewed their power is
restricted. They lack the bridging quality required for the transition from
the first to the second Van Hiele level, on which we have insisted. (Not to
mention the traditional pancake models, which fulfil only a transitory and
onesided function.) As a matter of fact, the bridging function of situation
models consists mainly in conveying meaning to symbols, procedures,
formulas and so on: they stand as models for something real, which is
signaled by them. The degree to which this is indispensable was shown
earlier by the division problems from a NAEP investigation.
(3) Pupils' own constructions and productions

In the instruction theory of progressive mathematising the pupils' own
constructions and productions occupy a key position. Horizontal and
vertical mathematising comes about by the pupils' actions and their reflec-
tions on the actions. When speaking about their own constructions, we
stress their actions, while in speaking about production the stress is on
reflection. Of course, this is only a matter of more or less emphasis, as
they are inseparable. In any case, the examples show clearly that the
pupils' contribution to the design of the courses is quite essential. On
closer inspection, it is essentially the pupils themselves who construct the
courses, albeit guided by the teacher. Take for instance number systems,
long division, fractions - examples that have been discussed broadly. At
certain stages in the instructional process the pupils are stimulated to
produce their own problems. Producing simple, moderate, complex prob-
lems means that the pupil reflects on the path he himself has taken in his
learning process, and at the same time anticipates its continuation. These
productions derive part of their enormous significance from the fact that
the instructional course is essentially the result of the pupils' own con-
tributions. The mere possibility of their own production protects pupils
from being forced into a subject matter oriented straitjacket. They are
relatively free, that is, as far as the space in which the pupils can construct
the instructional course permits.
Within the frame of their own constructions, their own production is, as
it were, the condensation point of the teaching/learning process. For both
the pupil himself and for the instructor the pupils' own contributions are
of eminent importance, both for mathematising and didacticising. The
reflective moment for the teacher as well as for the pupil is the significant
factor in the production. The pupil's production, as the result of instruc-
tion, functions as the mirror image of the teacher's didactical activity. Its
prognostic value is unmistakable.
In brief, the pupil's own production is both a learning and a teaching
tool - that is to say, in instruction where pupils' own constructions
determine the progress of mathematising. This, in fact, is one of the most
characteristic features of realistic instruction theory.
Other trends in mathematical instruction, in particular the structuralist
one, pay no attention to pupils' own constructions, let alone productions.
On the contrary, after a sometimes playful introductory period little space
is left for the development of informal approaches and their gradual
transformation into formal methods, and consequently as little for own
productions.
(4) Interactive instruction

The pupils' own constructions and productions, as well as phenomeno-
logical exploration and modeling, can be efficient only if they are realised
in interactiye instruction, that is, instruction where there is the opportunity
to consult, to participate, to negotiate, to cooperate, with review after-
wards and where the teacher holds back from providing explanations. All
the examples of instruction we have presented in this study involve this
interactive element, which clashes with the solitary rote calculation and
focus on pencil-and-paper learning of so-called individualised instruction.
In realistic programmes and textbooks instruction is didactically organ-
ised in such a way that interaction and cooperation between the pupils and
with the teacher are coexistent with individual work. Various differentia-
tion models are proposed,among which that of internal differentiation
within the classroom is considered as the most appropriate in The Nether-
lands. The subject matter is divided into blocks of more or less self-
contained units, each covering a few weeks of instruction. The members of
a year group always start together with such a block and for the most part
stay together during their way through the block. Each block includes
262 CHAPTER VII
opportunities for differentiation according to subject matter, level and

speed, which are strongly determined by the specific content. It is true that
vertical classes where the teacher is responsible for two or even more year
groups, are a complicating factor. In this case, quite drastic organisation
measures will need to be taken at class and school level in order to adapt
the system to interactive instruction.
Realistic courses have to pay attention to this organisation aspect of
instruction, and this obligation consequently extends to the theory of
instruction.
We restrict ourselves to these general points, as a more detailed
elaboration of differentiation would take us too far afield, in particular if
we wish to do justice to the great variety of possible practical elaborations
based on different textbook series.
For a more concrete example of unity in supply of instruction com-
bined with differentiation in demand we refer to column arithmetic,
realised according to internal differentiation in interactive instruction
(Chapter VI). The pupils start and stay together, they can help one
another up, there is opportunity for consultation and cooperation and,
consequently, for reflection and recursion. Each pupil gets the opportunity
to work individually and, within certain limits, to construct his own path
without isolating himself from the group.
(5) Intertwining of learning strands; the broader connection

The intertwining of learning strands has its deepest origin in the phe-
nomenological start, that is, in the real phenomena in which mathematical
structures and concepts manifest themselves. Rarely are the phenomena so
pure as to comprise one structure or one concept only.
On the thematic level, intertwining of a number of mathematical
elements is dearly visible in 'Gulliver', 'Grains on the Chessboard' and
'Freckleham'. On the course level intertwining is visible in column arith-
metic and skilful reckoning, in calculating and measuring, in fractions and
ratio, and in measurement and geometry.
Earlier on we remarked that the prerequisites for promoting pro-
gressive mathematisation are often partly found outside the course under
consideration. These prerequisites may concern arithmetic abilities as well
as .those of a conceptual and insightful nature. The basic abilities in
particular pervade almost all partial courses - which is why they are
called basic. But, the conceptual connection is equally strong in the
subjects mentioned above - measuring and arithmetic, fractions and
decimals.
The principle of many-sided embedding of concepts and structures,
which is inherent to the phenomenological level theory and to progressive
mathematising unavoidably leads to intertwining.
Yet in realistic instruction the ancillary function of mathematics in

reality does not lead, to subordinating mathematics to the contents, say, of
a project as it does according to the empiricist view. This instruction
hardly leaves any room for relatively selfcontained courses.
Giving in on this point means that the vertical component of mathe-
matising is not sufficiently cared for. Mathematically and phenomeno-
logically natural intertwining aims equally at promoting vertical mathe-
matising. These general considerations with regard to this subject together
with the reference to the concrete examples of themes, courses and the
sketch of the Wiskobas programme may suffice, since elaboration in detail
would certainly be as long as a complete textbook series manual.
3.3 Comparison o/the Four Trends

In the foregoing sections we have shown with parts of a realistic
programme (Wiskobas) how to discern the features of progressive
mathematising, and how the five tenets that direct instruction are to be
recognised in such a programme. The themes and courses described in
this study have continually been used as illustrations. If however, we
wished to contrast sharply and in detail the three other trends with the
realistic one, we would have to describe how themes and courses are
shaped in textbooks which represent those trends. We cannot possibly go
that far. All we can do is to check how the five tenets are dealt with in
mechanistic, structuralist and empiricist textbooks, one after the other. To
this end we will refine the schematic description by means of the
horizontal and vertical structure of mathematising.
In textbooks of the mechanistic trend one is struck by the scantiness
of its supply of problems: stereotyped word and text problems, as a
posteriori application of the subject matter learned within the formal
system, scholastic and preconceived, dressed-up arithmetic, where reality
is subordinated to applications. For this reason they are scarcely motivat-
ing in general and terribly insignificant. Little use, if any, is made of
models, let alone pupils' own constructions and productions. No inter-
activity is pursued and instruction is mainly individual. Speed is the main
criterion of differentiation. Rather than being intertwined, the partial
courses are isolated. Summarising, we may state that on each of the tenets
which direct progressive mathematising, the mechanistic trend diverges
from the realistic one.
Textbooks and programmes representing the structuralist trend are in
general not interested in context problems, except as a posteriori applica-
tions, where reality is a derivative of the mathematical problem. Material,
visual and symbolic models are used but only in a vertical function. That is
to say, they fulfil the bridging function between the formal system and its
natural and materialised 'embodiments' by means of structural material
264 CHAPTER VII
and games around it. In the initial phase, pupils are allowed to make their
own constructions; this is even stimulated, only to disappear later. Pupils'
own productions are not systematically used in the intermediate stages of
the learning process. Instruction is, or at least can be, interactive. Partial
courses which are connected might be intertwined if this is suggested by
some aspect of the subject matter, but phenomenological aspects do not
count in this respect.
In the empiricist methods all five tenets are active, although a strong
vertical component of mathematising is lacking. This implies that relatively
little use is made of situation models in modeling, schematising and
symbolising, that the pupils' own productions are not related to problems
of a more formal symbolic nature with situations in the background, that
interaction takes place on too low a level since the pupils have no
sufficient formal linguistic means of description and communication at
their disposal and, finally, that the mathematical activities are integrated in
problems set within themes and projects which do not allow any resolu-
tion of the intertwining.
While mechanistic and structuralist instruction methods are too formal,
empiricist instruction is bound to remain too material. And, while isolation
prevails in the first and second, integration dominates in the empiricist
presentation. If the first two start in at too high a level, the third stays too
long on one that is too low.
This, sharply outlined, is how things look from the perspective of a

realistic instruc.tion theory, which has itself been outlined by the Van
Hiele's macro-levels and Freudenthal's instructional principle of phe-
nomenology. In the present two-dimensional description of the framework
for instruction theory some attention has also been paid to the micro-
phases in the teaching/learning process. with regard to progressive
mathematising and the tenets which direct the instruction. In the descrip-
tion, however, we have stayed at the textbook and teacher-manual level,
that is, rather far away from classroom practice. Or rather: we have
restricted ourselves to referring to descriptions of courses and of the
organisation of subject matter. But in some cases we were concerned with
more concrete descriptions of themes. In this way three-dimensionality
was implicitly present in the description of the framework for instruction,
which will now be made more explicit.
4. THREE-DIMENSIONAL DESCRIPTION OF A FRAMEWORK

In our experience and according to research the four trends which we

distinguished in the textbook literature are also reflected in the minds of
teachers. This is not surprising as textbook authors often are, or have

been, teachers.
This does not mean that teachers' ideas always harmonise with the
intentions of the textbook they use, firstly because, for various reasons, the
teacher might have no say in the choice and, secondly, because the basic
ideas of textbooks are not always clearly enough outlined to prevent
preposterous, and as often happens, obnoxious interpretations.
For our purposes the following questions are momentous:
- What connection does there exist between views on instruction and
instructional practice?
- How can the teachers' views on instruction be refined, and if need
be, adjusted?
- How could the main features of the theory of realistic mathematics
instruction be more efficiently described to teachers, counsellors,
authors and so on?
A few remarks on the first question. It appears from the research of
Thompson and others, that there is a direct relation between teachers'
views on mathematics and mathematics instruction on the one hand and
their school practice on the other.22 This may lead one, as expressed by
Cooney, to consider whether it would not be advisable to pay more atten-
tion in training and retraining to instruction theoretic forming of future
and present teachers. 23 This could be done by having them work on their
own level and then reflect on their work, acting didactically and again
reflecting thereon, discussing alternatives to certain courses, presenting
research findings and so on, but also by the exposition of instruction
theory.
We are now concerned with the last of these options, and especially
with the three-dimensional theory description by means of one or more
examples of instructional themes or courses.
Let us start with long division (since this links directly with the three-
dimensional goal description in Chapter VI) and continue by summing up
the most salient points of the theoretic framework.
4.1 Progressive Mathematising of Long Division
First the preparation for long division: In the first phase of initial instruc-
tion, division is anticipated, namely by way of fair sharing. Indeed, fair
sharing leads to the relations of more, less and equal. It can be evoked on
by counting and grouping. Fair sharing between more people leads to the
questions 'How many does each of them get?' 'How many are left?' 'What
to do with the remainder?' At this stage dividing is not yet a formal
operation. Not until the basic operations of adding and subtracting, and to
266 CHAPTER VII
a lesser degree multiplying are widely explored, can formal division

become an explicit objective.
Even then division is deeply embedded in context problems which
involve fair sharing, as well as partitioning and inverting the multiplication
represented in the rectangle pattern.
As this continues the field of bare division tables is explored, structured
and gradually memorised, using all kind of reckoning strategies. From the
very start much attention is paid to context dependency of the result in the
case of divisions with a remainder.
Why do we insist on the link between solving context problems (side by
side with bare sums) and the learning of multiplication and division
tables?
Often pupils do not discern the division in the context problem.
Instead, they try more primitive additive and subtractive methods or
multiplicative mixed with additive ones. By using the context problems as
a source, division formally viewed is thereby associated with repeated
addition and subtraction as well as multiplication. In other words, the
association with the other basic operations and their integration makes it
possible to form the concept of division by progressive schematising and
shortening from the other, already known, basic operations. Division
arises as it were via these 'primitive' operations, informal strategies, and
context dependent procedures. On the other hand, pupils can orient
themselves, when structuring the field of division tables, to the real
phenomena of dividing, which is essential in discovering properties.
In this way the horizontal mathematisation of learning to discern the
division in appropriate problem situations and the vertical mathematisa-
tion of more and more skilful and shortened reckoning go hand in hand.
Research has proved that, as a consequence:
1. context problems can function as models for operating within the

arithmetic system;
2. formal operations are anchored in the informal procedures used by
the pupils when solving context problems. Both together support
formal arithmetic as well as applications thereof.
Long division is approached according to the same policy of progressive

mathematising. Context problems still cover the first phase of orientation.
The long division scheme is developed by the pupils themselves ~s an
extreme way of shortening the distribution pattern (see the more detailed
description in Chapter VI). Bare arithmetical problems are a useful
exercise but they also motivate reducing the division 'tail' more and more.
Given bare arithmetical problems, pupils contrive elementary context
situations for distributing and partitioning, which conversely give them
support in bare arithmetic and help them to shorten procedures.
Finally the long division schema itself explicitly becomes an object of

research. Schemas with empty places or dots in various places are helpful.
Equally important is calculating the remainder if, together with the prob-
lem itself, the answer is supplied as a decimal fraction. The remainder
itself is an object of investigation if criteria of divisibility by 10, 5, 2, 4, 9,
3, 6, and finally 11 and 7 are to be established. These, therefore, are
investigations in the formal system on Van Hiele's third level, which,
however, will not be attainable in the primary school or at least, not in its
full breadth and depth. Model situations of fair sharing and partitioning
can even form the background for the divisibility criteria. Attention is then
focused on the remainders in the various positions (10, 100, 1000, ...
divided by 2, 5,10,9 and so on).
More lines can be drawn connecting division with other subjects:
fractions, decimal fractions, ratios, percentages, averages. Altogether we
notice a diversity of horizontal and vertical mathematising moments and
their mutual links. Context problems are helpful in the gradual develop-
ment and shortening of the long division scheme. Moreover, they con-
tribute to linking division more solidly with adding, subtracting and
multiplying by means of the informal solutions offered by the pupils. The
phenomenological diversity also penetrates the problem series: division as
distributing, partitioning, as the inverse of multiplying, particularly if
related to magnitudes or remainders.
In the first phase, division is preponderantly context-bound, in the
second it is also performed as bare arithmetic within the system, and in
the third the schema of long division becomes a subject of investigation.
These are again the three Van Hiele levels, the phenomenological
foundation according to Freudenthal, and the progressive mathematisation
such as realised by Wiskobas, that is in the present case: mathematising
the procedures and shortening them under the influence of context
problems.
The fact that the standard algorithm is taken as the final product of a
process of algorithmisation rather than as starting point is, in a way,
paralleled by the historical development with its succession of divisio
ferrea, divisio aurea and galley division, each of which underwent pro-
cesses of schematising and shortening.24
Here long division is adduced to illustrate the framework for instruction
theory, sketched above. In particular, it reflects the five tenets of instruc-
tion directed towards progressive mathematising. The pupils themselves
construct the algorithm while starting from elementary context problems
and a notational schema of distributing, developed by themselves, and at
certain stages in the course they produce bare and dressed-up problems of
their own; the intertwining of division with the operations and other
activities is unmistakable, and interactivity is an indispensable prerequisite
for schematising and shortening.
268 CHAPTER VII
This three-dimensional description of the framework for instruction

theory could be completed by:
- a sketch of the results;
- a comparison with other approaches to long division instruction.
In order to avoid needless repetitions we refer instead to the Mathematical
Material of Chapter VI. As a matter of fact, the brevity of our exemplary
three-dimensional description is a consequence of the fact that we are able
to rely heavily on previous descriptions.
4.2 Two More Examples: Number Systems and Fractions

These two examples are again chosen because they offer the opportunity
of finding support from previous descriptions (to wit, number systems in
Chapter V and fractions in the present chapter). We can, however, give
one more reason: in both cases the pupils' own productions are clearly
seen. This then is the point to which we draw special attention. It appears
that the pupils' own productions in particular are especially suited as a
means for describing three-dimensionally the framework for instruction
theory. Those lessons enable us to look over the shoulders of the pupils at
a long stretch of the course.
With regard to the Land of Eight (see the Mathematical Material as
well as the description of the evaluation lesson in Chapter V) we draw
attention to the following point of theoretic relevance.
- The three Van Hiele levels can be seen in:
1. unreflected imitation of the counting sequence and in its notation,
particularly the carrying over algorithm;
2. consciously using the peculiarities of the decimal position system in
column arithmetic;
3. reflecting on the decimal system via non-positional and other posi-
tional systems.
- the phenomenological exploration takes place wj.thin mathematics;
- progressive schematising is made possible by the paradigm of Walt
Disney drawings functioning as situation model, and the pupil's own
production is stimulated by the desire to obtain passports to as many
number system countries as possible;
- all kind of micro-aspects of mathematising and its inherent dif-
ficulties can be demonstrated by using the pupils' own productions:
the asymmetry of the fingers-hand model in base three, the specific
difficulties of the system of base two, breaking the blockade of the
decimal system in base twelve - an inexhaustible wealth of examples
of progressive mathematising, progressing from level 2 to level 3.
Moreover, the meaning of reflection on the micro-level (how did I

do it in the Land of Eight?) and on the macro-level (what did I do in
the past when I added columns?) is elucidated.
- by the interactivity attention can be drawn to didactical action, as
well as to levels of didactical action that reveal a certain analogy with
the levels of mathematical action and thought with regard to the
positional system. Mathematisings are, as it were, reduced to the
same denominator, that of the phenomenological level theory.
'Denominator' evokes 'Fractions', our second example in this subsection,
which was dealt with circumstantially in the Mathematical Material of the
present chapter. Again we stress the importance of the pupils' own
productions.
Well then, to start the three-dimensional description one could con-
veniently present one of the production lessons as an example, though this
might also be a drawback, considering the complexity of the subject of
fractions. On the other hand, there would seem to be no better method of
doing justice to the subtleties of mathematising than just to display pupils'
own productions. As examples we choose more advanced stages of the
course, where larger parts can be scanned to give an overview of the
pupils' work. For this reason we will restrict ourselves now to the pupils'
own productions at the symbolic level, that is problems on decomposing
(i = ... ) and composing (H + i = ... ) and will try to ascertain what the
pupils are actually thinking about with these operations.
The viewpoint of instruction theory suggests the following:
- within a group of 11 years olds, say, a considerable difference of
level is manifested in symbolic expression: some children relate the
symbols closely to situations of table arrangement, concrete parti-
tioning or money problems (within the cluster of activities described
in the Wiskobas programme) whereas, for others, the symbols have
become meaningful in themselves. The last group are able to operate
adequately with them in the mathematical system, that is, as they do
with whole numbers, although even in this group there are grada-
tions of abstracting, generalising and unifying. The first group,
however, have not yet (or not yet sufficiently) freed themselves from
the concrete embedding. But in this group also there exist (local)
gradations. A pupil may be able to operate entirely symbolically with
halves and fourths without any concrete representation, while not yet
succeeding with other denominators. Thus the progress of progres-
sive mathematising can in a way be gathered from the pupils' own
productions;
- the various mental representations as concrete background for the
pupils' own productions on the symbolic level can be made the
subject of a discussion on the various aspects of the fraction concept
270 CHAPTER VII
and its appearance in reality. Moreover, they can be points of

motivation for making clear the objectives of the phenomenological
exploration within the four clusters of activities;
- the momentous power of 'natural' symbolisations, such as that of
table arrangements, as well as both the kinship and the distinction
between fractions and ratios are elucidated. The last point again
touches on intertwining as a means of mutual support;
- the opportunity for making their own constructions is used in the
pupils' own productions, for instance for adding fractions by using,
among other things, the 'payment model': the 'abstract' search for a
common denominator or the 'concrete' one for an equal table
arrangement, are superseded by the search for an appropriate pizza
price which permits paying for the portions (of pizza parts) in order,
after this settlement, to then convert the price into a fraction. The
pupils can proceed in various ways; the price can vary, as can the
calculation of the price and the relevant table arrangements; prices
can be replaced by areas representing chocolate pieces; some prob-
lems are already being solved at the symbolic level.
- in interactive instruction pupils can advance various possibilities and
thereby benefit themselves by reflection;
- by means of a similar outline of levels, phenomenological explora::-
tion, moments of progressive mathematising, verification of the five
tenets, a background description of alternative approaches, as well as
exposition of research results, is made possible.
Altogether, in an advanced stage of the course the pupils' own produc-

tions supply good opportunities for a three-dimensional description of the
framework for instruction theory in question. We have already given some
indications as to how to perform such a description based on previous
sketches. Under these circumstances a complete three-dimensional descrip-
tion would have given too many redundancies here. Moreover, it would
have been partly superfluous because, as we believe, the foregoing instances
show clearly enough what we mean by a three-dimensional description and
how it can be realised.
4.3 The Most Conspicuous Elements of the Framework for Instruction

Theory Seen from the Viewpoint of Implementation of Instructional
Ideas
The five tenets probably provide the most significant contribution to a
first acquaintance with the framework for instruction theory in ques-
tion: context-models-constructions and productions-interactive instruction-
intertwining of learning strands. They can be used to throw light on
mathematisation at micro-level, Van Hiele's level theory, and Freudenthal's
phenomenological starting point. Such an introduction should be illus-

trated by examples of lessons and courses. Moreover, one can appeal to
the teachers' own experiences when doing the mathematical work on their
own level, on probability, say, where the disadvantages of too high, too
formal, too subject matter oriented approaches can be experienced per-
sonally. Difficult schoolwork and extensions thereof can also be useful in
this respect. Another tool might be the parallels between mathematising
and didactising, at micro- as well as macro-level. As a counterpart to
pupils' own production one can propose the design of lessons and forma-
tive and summative tests by the teacher. The impact of reflection and
recursion can be stressed for mathematising as well as f~r didactising.
Finally alternatives allied to the other trends could be used to show the
greatest contrast with the realistic trend.
These, then, are the main lines we have followed over the past years
when describing our framework for instruction theory in statu nascendi.
This description can be extended rather arbitrarily of course: the impor-
tance of doing mathematics self-reliantly, the reserve the teacher should
observe when explaining things, the accord between teacher's and text-
book author's ideas, the importance of organisational measures with
regard to differentiated instruction, the instrumental or constructive use of
textbooks.
An additional point might be the description of general teaching/learn-
ing theories and of specific theories which are represented by the four
trends (for text book authors this might even be the main point). The
relation of such theories to that of the phenomenological level theory of
progressive mathematisation should then be discussed. This is the subject
of the following and last content-oriented section of the present chapter -
an opportunity to view the framework for instruction theory from another
perspective than the realistic viewpoint.
5. THE BROADER FRAMEWORK FOR INSTRUCTION THEORY
Although both components of the teaching/learning process determine

each other, it would be an exaggeration to consider instruction as a self-
referential system. Indeed, learning exists independently of teaching. And
at school, at any rate, there is a strong mutual dependence. For this reason
we often speak of teaching/learning theories where theory building is
concerned. There are, however, shades of emphasis with regard to teach-
ing and to learning in various theories. We shall discuss them, in partic-
ular, with an eye on their theoretical value for didactical action and
educational development. What kind of principles and rules for develop-
ing and implementing instruction can be obtained from various subject
matter-oriented didactical theories or more general information process-
ing and activity theories, and how do they agree with or diverge· from
272 CHAPTER VII
the framework for instruction theory of progressive mathematising as

presented above?
This, then, is the central question we will try to answer in what follows.
We will start with ideas of Gagne, Dienes, Piaget and Bruner which have
had a considerable influence on curriculum and textbook development
and consequently on instruction of the particular trends we have dis-
tinguished. Then we will discuss approaches towards theory building,
emerging among others in the recently established TME group 'Theory of
Mathematics Education'. Finally, we will analyse the more general cogni-
tive psychological research with reference to our central question.
5.1 Gagne, Dienes, Piaget, and Bruner
(1) Gagne and mechanism

Gagne's early work fits into the behaviourist tradition. His cumulative
learning theory consists of eight types of learning. The ordered set of
lower types is the prerequisite for learning the higher ones: 25
Problem solving (type 8)

requires as prerequisites;
Principles (type 7),
which require as prerequisites:
Concepts (type 6),
Multiple d'iscriminations (type 5),
which J'equire as prerequistes:
Verbal associations (type 4) or other chains (type 3),
Stimulus-response connections (type 2).
It is probable, though not yet proved - Gagne says - that the basis of this
learning structure is formed by the type 1 'signal learning', that is, Pavlov's
classical conditioned response.
Overall the foundation of Gagne's learning theory, that is, the sequence
of the first three to five types of learning, is about the same as that of
Thorndike, Tolman, Hull and Skinner. And these were primarily the types
of learning which appear in many New Math projects of the sixties and
seventies, partly guided by Gagne for designing curricula. Use was made
of task analysis as sketched by Gagne, which starts with the question:
What knowledge and ability is the learner required to possess at the start
of instruction?
This analytic question led Gagne to decompose a complex task into
a hierarchy of simple tasks, which can be interpreted as parts of the
complex one. Mastery of the elementary tasks simplifies learning to
perform the complex ones, according to Gagne. The cumulative learning
theory is reflected in this hierarchy: the lower it is in the hierarchy, the

more elementary is the learning type.
The influence of this neo-behaviouristic learning theory on instruction
and, in particular, on mathematics textbooks, is momentous. Not only
numerous well-known projects of the sixties such as UMMaP and IPI are
modeled upon this theory, but almost all the more recent individualising
programmes are deeply rooted in it. This holds even for more traditionally
oriented textbooks: organisation of the subject matter according to the
principle of progressive complic;:ation as we called it above. Both mechan-
istic and structuralist textbooks display this feature, although the second
kind aims at higher learning types than the first.
It should, however, be acknowledged that the third edition of 'Condi-
tions of Learning' (1977) reveals a drastic change in Gagne's views: the
eight learning types are not even mentioned.
With respect to mathematics Gagne's most recent views are clearly
expressed in an 'Invited Address', published in 1983. Here he presents a
three phase model for instruction in the frame of information processing
theory (!), which should also serve as a guide-line for research. 26
The first phase consists of converting a concretely stated problem into
mathematical shape, the second of carrying out the mathematical opera-
tions, and the third of validating the result.
An example: 19 workers earn 142 dollars a week each. How much
must be paid per week in total?
Phase 1 consists of translating the problem into 19 X 142, phase 2 of
the algorithmic performance of the multiplication and phase 3 of checking
the result by estimate, say 20 X 140.
.According to Gagne, these three aspects should be present in every
task analysis of mathematics instruction. He arrives at the following
recommendations for instruction with respect to these essential parts.
Firstly, special attention should be paid to 'translating' word problems,
which means a variety of different problems are offered which cover one
particular 'formula'.
Secondly, emphasis must be laid on the ability to carry out auto-
matically certain arithmetic activities, that is, techniques and procedures
which may not require insight. In the case of 19 X 142, Gagne rejects
the use of concrete material, such as sticks and blocks, which neither
simplifies the calculation nor helps automatising, and for the same reason
he rejects exercises in other number systems.
Thirdly, there should be emphasis on checking of the answer through
estimation.
At present, Gagne asserts, too much emphasis is put 'on problem
solving as a more ambitious enterprise', on basing arithmetical procedures
and formulas on insight, and too little on automatising and validating the
result. Altogether, these recommendations clearly reveal the most impor-
274 CHAPTER VII
tant instructional principles on which this moderately mechanistic mathe-

matics education is based. But, at the same time, the example chosen by
Gagne himself shows the vulnerability of his argument, since this elemen-
tary word problem can be solved excellently by informal methods. There
is no need for 'straight translation' into the formula' 19 X 142. On the
contrary: the informal procedure of adding up (19) notes of one hundred,
(76) notes of ten, and (38) notes of one dollar, taking it together or, if
need be, changing it, can be an excellent start for an insightful course on
the multiplication algorithm, which at the same time links up with informal
estimating procedures. In brief, translating, automatic calculating and
estimating are interrelated to a much higher degree than Gagne suggests
with this example.
Both Gagne's early and more recent views give a fair picture of a
possible theoretic infrastructure of mechanistic mathematics education.
Task analysis accounts for the subject matter aspect of this view on
education: the structure of the teaching matter is determined by the
increasing complexity of the task according to subject matter systematics,
that is, of the teaching matter products in the subject matter domain.
According to this course of thought, the teaching/learning process moves
on one level, that of the systematics of the subject matter, and all that
counts are quantitative rather than qualitative distinctions. This, then,
distinguishes this theory from that of progressive mathematising in a way
that is marvellously illustrated by Gagne's multiplication example. Besides,
this example can also be used to compare the results of other instructional
approaches, which at this moment may be left aside.
(2) Dienes and structuralism
Dienes' teaching/learning theory shows a great many similarities to Van

Hiele's, at least viewed formally, since there is a considerable distinction
between them as regards to content.
Dienes' theory rests on four pillars: the dynamical principle, the con-
struction principle, the principle of mathematical variability and that of
perceptual variability.
The dynamical principle is certainly the most conspicuous feature, since
it structures the teaching/learning process according to phases, which in a
sense are similar to Van Hiele's micro-levels. The first phase is that of free
play in an artificially constructed environment. The second is play con-
trolled by rules using the same material. In the third phase, an isomorph-
ism game is played: the identical structure of seemingly different games is
explored, and the children abstract the common rules which fit the various
embodiments of the game. In the fourth phase, the abstraction is visually
and audibly expressed, in order to be verbalised in the fifth phase. The
sixth phase finally is the formal system with its derivation rules (rules of
the game):
Finally, there will be the theorems of the system, which are the parts reached from the
initial description by using the 'rules of play'P
The construction principle is included in this phasing of instruction: the

children themselves construct the rules of the game, carry out abstractions,
and design the various representations of the structures.
Mathematical variability is, as it were, built into the material by the
designer. He can change the number system without affecting the posi-
tional idea: by this change of basis the system's essence is put in bold
relief.
Perceptual variability is accounted for by the multiple embodiments of
the abstract mathematical structures. This prevents abstraction from being
tied too firmly to one of its embodiments, and thereby becoming im-
mobilised. Thus far we have presented Dienes' instruction theory from a
bird's-eye view. 28 As mentioned above these teaching/learning principles
apply to Van Hiele's level theory as well. Formally viewed, Van Hiele also
knows this kind of phasing where acting on one level is subjected to
reflecting and exploration in the next phase. Level raising is in Van Hiele's
view also the result of the pupil's own activity. Mathematical variability, if
interpreted (as we did here) in the phenomenological sense, is accounted
for by the diversity of phenomenological manifestations of a certain
concept or structure in reality. Perceptual variability can be guaranteed
by multifarious realisations in the context of dramatising, games, word
problems, themes or mixtures of them all as described earlier. However,
where the contents are concerned, there are essential distinctions to be
made between the two theories.
Whereas in the first phases of Dienes' learning cycles the children come
in touch with concretised mathematical structures, with embodiments of
games in artificially created environments, the Van Hiele basic levels entail
an exploration of those aspects of reality for which the mathematical
concepts and structures (can) serve as means of organisation: 'embedded-
ness' versus 'embodiment'; the. naturally organisable versus the artificially
organised matter; eliciting a structuring activity in an everyday life or
physical or imagined reality versus debasing mathematical structures and
forcing them into an artificially created environment.
Because of this essential distinction at the basis of the learning process,
constructive activity, and mathematical and perceptual variability mean
completely different things. As a matter of fact, in Dienes' view, the real
world of and for children is an obstacle to mathematics instruction. A
quotation:
Let us consider for a moment the example of !ogic; we need to recognize that the natural
276 CHAPTER VII
environment in which the child lives does not embrace all the attributes which we consider
as logical. It is necessary, then, to invent an artificial environment. 29
Not only for logic is. this supposed to hold, but for mathematics as a
whole: the everyday reality is not pure enough, there is too much noise in
it for clean mathematics education according to Dienes. On the contrary,
in the framework of Van Hiele's level theory, reality is or can be the
source of mathematical activity and the starting point for both constructive
activity and what Dienes calls the principles of mathematical and per-
ceptual variability.
Dienes' influence in some domains is certainly not negligible, although
he has apparently been interpreted in the wrong way. It is true that
the most important impulses in structuralism come from subject matter
systematics. But, whereas Dienes cares about the meaningfulness of
symbols, technical language, logical patterns and strategies, this is no
longer true of structuralists in general. On the contrary, they believe that
after a short concrete introduction to the mathematical entities in ques-
tion, the formal approach enables the pupils to build the mathematical
structures. The learning cycle as used by them is nominally 'exploration -
concept introduction - concept application'.3o In the usually short intro-
ductory phase they use the materials, schemas, diagrams that have been
publicised by Dienes' work; but this way of working has in fact little in
common with that of Dienes, as little for that matter, as the sequence of
'actions first, then pictures, finally symbols' has to do with Bruner's view,
although it is ascribed to him. Let us, however, disregard this for a
moment.
(3) Piaget, Bruner, empiricism and mathematics education in general
To a considerable extent Dienes has borrowed his ideas on concept

formation from Piaget. But the system of stages perceived by Piaget in the
development of thought in general (thus admitting all possible contents)
during certain general age ranges, was applied by Dienes to concept
formation and, for that matter, both in the descriptive sense (i.e. learning)
and in the prescriptive one (i.e. teaching) - a transplantation of patterns,
which one also encoUnters in Bruner, Van Hiele and others.
Piaget's reserve with regard to influencing cognitive development by
instruction is well-known - we won't go into details, no more than we do
with the general characteristics of his own theory of development. Nor is
there any need for arguments stating that for Piaget himself it is scien-
tifically absolutely illegitimate to transpose macro-levels of cognitive
development into micro-stages of concept development - indeed it flatly
contradicts any age-bound phasing. We would prefer to point out some
consequences of Piaget's ideas for mathematics education, as stated by

Piaget himself.
According to Piaget, the first and central problem of mathematics
education is how to bridge the gap between natural, unreflective thinking
in a certain domain on the one hand, and the conscious reflective thinking
on structures in the same domain and its mathematical symbolisation on
the other. In general he remarks that the acquisition of knowledge, in the
mathematical domain as well, is operational. This means that children
don't learn primarily by transfer, but by construction of knowledge via
concrete action and operations. For this reason, instruction should be an
opportunity for children to form ideas themselves. Here one should,
however, account for the fact that children pass through certain phases in
their cognitive development, starting with that of concrete actions and
finishing with that of formal operations. Therefore, according to Piaget,
there is no point in bringing children into contact with the formal system
and the underlying course of thought until they have sufficiently experi-
enced the underlying concrete operations and ideas. In brief, one should
take care in instruction when introducing technical symbols and laying
down the logical carpet of reasoning conditioned by the systematic subject
matter. Not until the solid experimental basis of concrete operational
thought has been laid, can formal operations thrive, as is required in the
mathematical-logical approach, by defining, reasoning and proving. For
the ability of reflecting, in particular, the learner needs a rich fertile
soil of concrete-operational structures in order to pull himself up to the
higher formal-operational level of the systematic subject matter dependent
method - this is Piaget's 'conditional' recommendation for (mathematics)
education.
In his later work Piaget also indicated the importance of social interac-
tion between fellow-pupils. Diverging opinions of members of the group
can induce the pupil in the long run to reflect on his own ways of thought
- this is Piaget's version of what now is known as the socio-cognitive
conflict.
Piaget warns against tying 'concrete', in the context of thinking, too
closely to objects, that is, perceivable or visible outward patterns, and so
on. Operations, even concrete ones, are mental actions with certain
characteristics, which are not tied to handling material objects. In
(concrete or formal) operational thinking - rather than being at the mercy
of acting on materials - is allowed to mentally keep at a distance from it,
to raise oneself above it. Identifying 'concrete' with 'palpable', concrete
operational thinking with acting on material is not allowed - an identifica-
tion that seems to occur in (initial) empiricist mathematics instruction.
For an even more profound reason we may mention Piaget here in
relation to the empiricist persuasion because of this reserve with regard to
instructional influence on cognitive development, which is also found in
278 CHAPTER VII
the empiricist practice. It is true that practicians of this investigation-

oriented instruction offer pupils a mathematical, copiously structured and
stimulating environment, but their anxiety with regard to cautious matur-
ing of (mathematical) structures ends up being at the expense of deliberate
vertical mathematisation, as earlier mentioned. This empiricist practice is
(most often implicitly) motivated by Piaget's ideas: there is no point in
trying to accelerate cognitive development towards (formal) operational
thinking on mathematical concepts and structures, since instruction cannot
come to grips with it. Not until the age of about twelve are children ready
for a more abstract, formal, subject matter orientation on mathematics.
It should, however, be remarked that Piaget's influence extends beyond
the empiricist persuasion to the other ones as well, albeit indirectly and
not always in agreement with Piaget's own intentions.
We have already mentioned Piaget's influence on Dienes and Van
Hiele, and this is not so very different in the case of Bruner either: his
well-known gradation enactive-iconic-symbolic (e-i-s) is connected to the
phases distinguished by Piaget as pre-operational thinking, concrete and
formal operations of thought. 31 The triad e-i-s regards the ways of mental
representation (coding, processing, storing) used by children consecutively
in the process of forming the concepts they learn; the lower form of
representation lays the basis for the higher one in the process of concept
attainment.
For use in instruction, the e-i-s sequence is translated into the didactical
requirement that instruction has to be organised in a way that the concepts
to be taught can be represented first enactively, then iconically and finally
symbolically - a sequence that widely agrees with Dienes'. Bruner's
didactical triad has (had) a gigantic influence on mathematics education,
and in research, too, the so-called 'action-image-symbol sequence of
mental activity' (has) enjoyed great popUlarity. Actually, research has
shown that the didactical guide-line of action first, then picture and finally
symbol, allegedly drawn from Bruner's work, is too simplistic a represen-
tation of instructional matter. 32 As an example consider column arithmetic:
the connections between the actions on various levels, the completeness
and extension of arithmetical procedures, their verbalisation and repre-
sentation, the relations between the procedures and the positional system,
the ability to refer to elementary context situations (such as adding up
monetary quantities), partition of objects, shortening of procedures, reflect-
ing (and learning to reflect) are only a few examples among many that play
an important part and are not accounted for by what they consider as
Bruner's requirement. Actually, the same holds true for the cognitive
representation form as such.
This ends a sketch of Piaget's and Bruner's ideas which have influenced
(and still continue to influence) the development and implementation of
instruction, in particular via textbooks where the instructional implications
of theoretical views are elaborated, albeit often in a simplistic way.
(4) Conclusion
We have briefly sketched a few 'classical' theoretical frameworks used as

infrastructures of mechanistic, structuralist and empiricist instruction. That
is to say, instruction as documented by textbooks and; since te.xtbooks are
the most powerful determinant in actual mathematics education, one may
conclude: everyday instructional practice.
Only incidentally have we touched on the question of agreement and
contradiction with the teaching theory of progressive mathematising, and
when we actually have done so, it was from the viewpoint of Van Hiele's
theory, which forms a part of it. Notwithstanding disagreements with
regard to contents there were important points of agreement in the formal
sense, that is, with respect to phasing, instructional principles, the central
role of reflecting and that of building structures of knowledge.
5.2 Recent Investigations ofSubject Matter in Instruction Theory

The great variety of recent theoretic views is to an extent reflected by the
large number of terms used in various theories in the teaching/learning
process - terms that. indicate ideas or concepts, such as schema, script,
frame, micro-world, domain of subjective experiences, knowledge struc-
ture, conceptual model, conceptual field etc. From this variety of theoretic
frameworks we will choose a few which are significant for developing and
realising mathematics instruction on the level of textbooks and didactic
action. This issue is inspired by subject matter didactics or by mathematics
instruction theory - in the next section we will view this from the general
psychological or instruction theoretic perspective.
As in the preceding section we will touch upon the points· which agree
and disagree with our own theory only incidentally and incompletely; most
often they are self-evident. Where this is not the case we take Dienes' four
instructior principles as a basis, because they can also serve as a com-
prehensive means of description for realistic instruction theory~
As an example of a cognitive science approach we choose Davis' work.
Bauersfe1d's will illustrate interactional theory. The conceptual modeling
view will be exemplified by Lesh's ideas.
In no case can we speak of the approach because several approaches are
feasible within anyone viewpoint. Even in specific project bound research
such as that in which Lesh participates, various theoretic frameworks can
be distinguished. (Compare in this respect Behr, Lesh, Post and Silver,
1983, with Lesh, Landau and Hamilton, 1983, that is the Rational Number
Project with the Applied Mathematical Problem-Solving Project.) 33
We choose these three examples, firstly because they are considered in
general as rather important studies which. have attracted wide attention,
secondly because their aim is a general theory within mathematics instruc-
tion rather than restricted to certain aspects of the teaching/learning
280 CHAPTER VII
process or to certain subjects, as are many practical theories, and thirdly

because of the diversity of frameworks for instruction theory they repre-
sent. The last argument requires some comment: they represent the
theoretic starting points of information-processing and related views as
well as the more reserved scientific attitude towards the use of the
computer as metaphor for the teaching/learning process.
Once more we stress that these theories are primarily dealt with from
the viewpoint of their implications for developing and realising instruction.
This means that we disregard the sometimes overemphasised aspects of
learning theory; these tend to impose themselves, in particular, when
models of mind are viewed microscopically, as may be the case where
information processing and concept modeling are concerned.
(1) Davis' cognitive science approach

Davis distinguishes two views on teaching and learning mathematics, the
formal-mathematical view and the cognitive science approach.
They confront each other as follows.
1. The 'Notational View':

Mathematics deals with symbols
written on paper
with the manipulation of these symbols
according to rules
that are told to the students beforehand
by using 'natJIrallanguage' (ordinary English, ordinary German, etc.).
2. A newer 'Cognitive Science' View:
Mathematics is a matter of ideas
which a student builds up in hislher mind
(and this is something only the student himself/herself can do).
These ideas come from experiences,
and are not primarily coded in natural language statements.
New ideas are built up from ideas the student already
has in mind,
by combining them, revising them. etc. often il'l a
metaphoric way.
Effective learning requires not merely 'doing something',
but also reflection on what you have done after you
have done it.
Therefore an important responsibility is to help students develop appropriate meta-

language and 'meta'-notations.34
In the above description Davis uses the term 'idea' where in the theoretic
framework (our terminology) of his cognitive science approach he would
speak of 'frame'.35 A frame is a stable concept or, as pavis would say, an
information representation structure. In the terminology of computer
programs it is a subroutine of a higher level programme. Examples of
frames, in Davis' sense, are the function concept, the division algorithm,
the negative number - that is, such as understood by the pupils, accord-
ing to their ideas and representations.
What matters in instruction is building mental representation structures
that are stable, meaningful and useful, which is often not quite that easy.
How adequate frame-building should be realised can be made clear by
means of two layers of mathematical thinking that he distinguishes: the
calculator layer and the layer of experience. In the first layer - that of the
calculation world - symbols, operations and routines need not necessarily
be meaningful. In the second layer, on the other hand, they are taken from
concrete experience and therefore must be meaningful. The so-called
paradigm teaching strategy, which has a central place in Davis' theory,
aims at founding the activity of operating mathematically within the
abstract-symbolic layer upon that of the experience-bound knowledge.
As an example of a teaching strategy Davis uses the introduction of
negative numbers via the pebbles-in-the-bag paradigm. There is a bag with
pebbles and a pile of single ones. A problem like 4 - 10 = ... is assimi-
lated to 'first 4 into and then 10 out of the bag, thus 6 less than before',
which yields the answer 4 - 10 = -6. The assimilation paradigm of the
pebbles-in-the-bag is:
- a forceful representation
- which procures an accurate isomorphic image of additions and
subtractions of positive integers
- tells how pupils should solve the given problems
- and is simple.
In general, Davis remarks on assimilation paradigms:
Given the studies of recent years, however, it has become clearer that learning is primarily
metaphoric - we build representations for new ideas by taking representations of familiar
ideas and modifying them as necessary, ( ... ) 36
Examples of forceful representations according to Davis, are among

others: fair sharing, splitting, larger, further, straight, rectangular. There-
fore, activities and situations formed around these concepts can function
excellently in the paradigm teaching strategy, according to Davis.
If we consider the implications of Davis' view on mathematics educa-
tion from the perspective of Dienes' four instructional principles, we can
put it in the following way.
The mathematical variability is structuralist rather than realistic: the
pebbles-in-the-bag paradigm is envisaged mainly because of its value for
calculating bare sums. Davis does not notice that such a paradigm could
possibly block the applicability of the envisaged structure. In other words,
not much attention is paid to the various manifestations of mathematical
structures in reality and their relation to the use of assimilation paradigms.
282 CHAPTER VII
With regard to perceptual variability Davis refers to Bruner's modes of

representation. However, when emphasising the use of experience he
refers to situations such as fair sharing, which can, indeed, be represented
mentally quite clearly, although it is not quite clear to which mode of
representation these real scripts might belong.
The meaning of 'meaningful' is sometimes structuralist (being able to
insightfully manipulate Dienes blocks in relations to arithmetic) and some-
times realistic (situations in which column arithmetic is applied), but more
often it is the former.
The dynamical and the construction principle are also cornerstones of
Davis' instructional framework, as appears from our first quotation. With
regard to contents these principles are determined by the moderate struc-
turalist basic view on mathematical instruction with realistic influences
- at least according to our interpretation of Davis' cognitive science
approach to mathematics education.
Non-cognitive and interactive aspects are hardly mentioned by Davis.
They will be dealt with in (2).
Another information processing view on a theory of mathematics

education inspired by subject matter didactics, but with the 'expert system'
as central concept, is Nason and Cooper's, and with 'microworld' in the
centre Lawler's, about which we will say more in a moment. 37
In general the computer metaphor is not widely used in theorising
about mathematics education. And as far as it is done, one most often
subscribes to Kilpatrick's statement:
To conclude that the computer is the last metaphor for the mind requires the assumption,
first, that the computer will not change in its nature and, second,.that cognitive theory must
be computational. To conclude that the computer offers a complete metaphor for the mind
requires the assumption that all knowledge can be reduced to information and all wisdom
to knowledge. 38
(2) Bauersfeld's interactional theoretical framework
Bauersfeld, Krummheuer, Voigt et al. are busy developing a theory of

learning and teaching mathematics where emphasis is laid on the social
interactive component of the teaching/learning process - an interactional
theory.29 Within this framework Bauersfeld's construct of 'domains of
subjective experiences' is central.40
The meaning of this concept can be described very well by means
of Lawler's psychological interpretation of microworld (which differs from
Papert's didactical one).41 A microworld is a cognitive structure in the
shape of a microcosm, but then a domain-specific structure, which is quite
different from Piaget-style general cognitive schemas where the thinking
operations are considered to be independent of the contents. A micro-
world organises the knowledge of a certain domain. For instance, young

children may possess various numerical worlds - a counting world, a
money world, a paper-and-pencil calculations world - which initially may
be clearly separated from each other. As a consequence, they might be
able to solve problems set in the money context (such as 25 + 35) and
unable to solve bare calculation sums (2 + 7), and conversely.
It is a general characteristic of these microworlds that they are not
governed from above by a central authority, a homunculus, in order to
find problems to work on but that they work autonomously and competi-
tively in a kind of self-governing system. Or, as Hatfield formulated: 'a
child's microworld may be less like a parliament where some executive
officer attempts to keep order, and more like the floor of a stock
exchange, where the loudest voice gets heard.' 42 It depends on the context
in which the problem is set and on the relevant knowledge structure of the
microworld in question.
Different microworlds can be connected with each other in order to
cooperate rather than to compete. This requires shaping a new micro-
world, while however, allowing the old ones to subsist: the components
are, as it were, coexistent with the composed world. In creating micro-
worlds the learning process is cumulative.
Within the connections made between the microworlds a kind of
hierarchy develops: microworlds are constituted, connected and integrated
(to become new microworlds), while the relations of one layer become, as
it were, the thinking object of the next thanks to the active and reflective
engagement of the learner - the same genesis as that of the Van Hiele
levels, as Bauersfeld rightly remarks.
How are Lawler's microworlds and Bauerfeld's domains related to each
other?
One could state that the Bauersfeld's domains may be considered as an
extension of Lawler's. A domain of subjective experiences includes the
totality of subjectively relevant experiences in a specific class of situations,
that is not only the cognitive dimension of knowledge but also emotional
and motor experiences.
On the other hand, in a number of. respects they can be described as
the systems of microworlds as understood above: they are also determined
by the domain specificity of the subject matter, cumulatively ordered and
in principle competitive. They do not allow themselves to be subdivided
into separate domains of lower and higher sorts of learning (knowledge
and metacognitive abilities), or into different experiential fields of know-
ing, feeling, willing - in other words, they are holistic. They can intertwine
with each other in a new domain. The active and reflective engagement of
the learner determines his leanung, in this case the creating of new
domains. It is highly stimulated by social interactions. To quote Bauersfeld:
The subject does not form concepts as internal images or through copying other people's
284 CHAPTER VII
activities. The subject actively constructs meaning and relations through social situations of
interaction and negotiation.43
Altogether, it appears that this model of domains of subjective experi-

ences, which aims at understanding the coming into being, the nature and
the course of learning processes, sheds specific light on learning concepts
such as transfer, abstracting, generalising, visualising etc. In what follows
we will in particular consider a few consequences for instruction.
Firstly, the importance of social interaction has already been discussed.
It highlights the crux of the role of the teacher as mediator where new
domains are constituted and as a stimulator where meanings are conveyed,
engagement is activated and connections are made in interactive instruction.
Secondly, and partly as a consequence of the first point, the formal,
subject area oriented structure of the teaching/learning process is put
sharply into perspective and reduced. There is one more reason for this
within the domains model: only by the intertwining and integration of
domains (into new domains) are abstractions and generalisations made
possible. In terms of instruction theory this means first: constitute rich
context-bound domains, then organise them first locally and then globally
by means of the earlier mentioned active and interactive processes of
reflection (let me use this level theory formulation). Here is a concrete
example taken from initial instruction to illustrate this recommendation:
develop money arithmetic, elementary applied problems, mental arith-
metic, column arithmetic etc. in an optimal way within given contexts and
do not restrict your activities by the girdle of the stepwise subject area
oriented structure of the world of numbers. Then, at an appropriate
moment, tie the strings between these arithmetic domains.
Thirdly, a conclusion drawn by Bauersfeld from the domain model,
which is of course connected to the previous ones, gencrally runs as
follows: allow informal subjective approaches also within the subject
matter system, and beware of aiming for standard methods, otherwise you
may ruin the fertile soil of learning. Or, formulated in the language of
domains: by repressing the informal element and imposing the formal one,
domains are isolated and cut off from fundamental experiential domains,
and too little opportunity is granted to holistic 'coincidental' learning of
knowledge, abilities, strategies and attitudes.
Fourthly and again closely connected to the preceding points, not only
does Bauersfeld on the grounds of his theory, show a certain reserve
towards the formal structuralist view but also structuralism of the Dienes
persuasion. This kind of instruction can, no doubt, fairly quickly claim
success~ but this is, in fact, an illusion. It is, according to Bauersfeld, sterile
instruction, with no opportunity for interaction and communication, iso-
lated from reality, and therefore from the fundamental domains of sub-
jective experiences.
Fifthly and last among the instructional implications of Bauersfeld's

domains model, which aim specifically at learning difficulties and remedial
instruction. Rather than founding diagnosis and remediation on subject
area logic and mathematics, Bauersfeld concludes:
Investigating relevant subjective experiential domains by means of long term case studies at
preschool age (and after) would lead to more trustworthy appreciations of, for instance,
what conceptual distinctions are also subjectively important, what connections of meanings
are difficult or rather obvious or even self-evident, what kind of experiential domains are
appropriate as up to date foundations and which contextual contradictions could possibly
obstruct their tying up to the mathematical concept.44
The kind of instruction Bauersfeld is aiming at, strongly emphasises:

subjective experiences and the development of comparing and connecting
domains by means of reflection, incited by interactive processes. In brief,
we may rightly conclude that the model of domains of subjective experi-
ences generally leads to realistic mathematics instruction as described in
the preceding chapters.
So far, we have sketched Bauersfeld's attempt at forming an interactional-

ist theory. We should, however, mention that in particular with respect
to interactionism in the teaching/learning process, other theoretically
oriented research is being carried on in the mathematical area. First,
Brousseau's work on the crux of the so-called didactic contract for the
analysis and construction of teaching/learning situations.45 Then, Balacheff
and Laborde's studies, which pay attention to the importance of the pupils'
own productions in a communicative context and to the resulting socio-
cognitive confliCt.46 Finally, Bishop's placing of interaction within the
broader context of the social dimension of mathematics education, with its
cultural, societal, institutional, pedagogical and individual levels and his
call for further development of this area of research in mathematics
instruction.47 Bishop and Goffree also stress the importance of interac-
tivity, and of communication and negotiation in the classroom.
The last paragraph was meant as additional information with regard to
an important aspect of Bauersfeld's and related work.
(3) Lesh's conceptual model·

In studies of Lesh et al. the theoretic construct of 'conceptual model' is
central. In this construct the following components are distinguished:
- a concept is decomposed into subconcepts; for instance, where the

number concept is concerned, this could be the numerosity aspect,
the measuring aspect; the ordinal aspect, the calculating aspect, the
label aspect; or where the concept of fraction is concerned, it could
286 CHAPTER VII
be the operative aspect, the part-whole aspect, the ratio aspect etc. -
or, in general the various structural manifestations of the concept in
the reality: the within concept networks;
- the relation between these within-concepts and those with related
concepts - such as fractions - are related to ratio, division,
geometry, decimals, magnitudes: the between-concept networks;
- the embedding in various systems of representation: concrete mate-
rials, pictures, symbols, real world situations; the system of modeling
processes for problem solving, that is, the way to translate problems
into mathematics, solving within mathematics and feeding back into
the original situations.48
In this way a conceptual model filters the information couched in the
problem and organises and transforms its data. Lesh et al. are not only
concerned with the identification of the subjective conceptual models but
also with the search for the mechanisms that influence their origination
into being. This is, indeed, a typical learning theory concern: not only is
the status quo described but also how to model the students' modeling.
In the affirmative part of the research on conceptual models and on
the corresponding applied mathematical problem-solving processes, the
most striking results on rational numbers can be generally formulated as
follows:
- there is an 'instability of the subjective conceptual models': a minor
change in the problem can have a major impact on performance
with, as a consequence, a major regression in conceptualising in a
(short) period where instruction is not oriented towards the concept
in question;
- the external mode of representation reveals nothing about the degree
of difficulty of a problem: problems which are posed in terms of
concrete material are not necessarily easier than structurally equi-
valent ones which are formulated in the writing of symbols (possibly
surprising for Brunerians);
- representing a problem can be a quite active process in which pupils
alternate between modes of representation (manipulative models,
pictures, symbols, real scripts) and use several ones simultaneously;
- the internal representation influences the external representational
expression and, conversely, the externalisation allows the pupils to
refine the internal representation: a cyclic process of internal and
external structuring;
- pupils are inclined to work straightforwardly towards the precise
answer; there are few instances of estimates or approximations;
- pupils do not care whether different procedures applied to the same
problem lead to different answers (this recalls the 'microworlds' and
'domains of subjective experiences').
All in all Lesh states that pupils can better be characterised as modelers
than as processors. And as far as processing is concerned, it is a process-
ing of the conceptual models themselves rather than that of rough data.
According to Lesh, this is one of the reasons why problem solving and
concept formation should not be considered separately - ' thinking is
domain specific, says Lesh.
Passing from these theoretic facts to the constructive part of his
research, Lesh emphasises the role of the focus on real math, real
situations and real pupils. In brief his choice is a realistic starting point.
Let us quote:
It is not necessarily the case that students first learn an idea, then add some general
problem-solving processes, and finally (if ever) use the idea and processes of real
situations, that is, those in which some knowledge about the situation is needed to supple-
ment the underlying mathematical ideas and processes.
We believe that applications and problem solving should not be reserved for considera-
tion only after learning has occurred; they can and should be used as a context within
which the learning of mathematical ideas takes place.49
Extensive research undertaken by Lesh, Behr, Post, Silver, Landau,

Hamilton, Wachsmuth and others has not yet made plausible that this
starting point yields better instructional results than other systems. One
may even state that a long term· developmental process of realistic
mathematics instruction was not (yet) possible in this broad area within
the various projects. Nonetheless, the results of the affirmative research
as presented above and of the micro-constructive research are highly
valuable.
Lesh also mentions an experiment in computer-based instruction with a
realistic starting point as explained above:
... we have compared groups of students receiving a traditional 'teach first, apply later',
instructional approach to groups receiving a computer-utilities-based 'application first,
conceptualization refinement' approach. The results have shown that, for comparable
amounts of instructional time-on-task, the utilities groups consistently have outperformed
the control groups; and they have done so not only, on 'applications' or 'problem solving'
post-test items, and on items focussing on the meanings of the underlying concepts, but
also on 'computation' items associated with the topics - even though the utilities groups
had no practice at all on the pencil-and-paper computations.50
If, summarising, we compare Lesh's conceptual model view with the the-
oretic framework of progressive mathematisation, we may ascertain a
close agreement with regard to the starting point of the global phenomen-
ological basis, although more strongly than Lesh we emphases the pupils'
own productions, interactive learning (in which we agree with Bauersfeld,
Brousseau etc.) and the importance of teaching paradigms (as does Davis).
Nevertheless, agreement preponderates. Here we should also mention the
important part that Lesh plays in the discussion on subject-area-oriented
versus more general psychology-oriented research and with regard to the
288 CHAPTER VII
issue of various methods of analysis, such as task analysis, analysis of

children's cognitive characteristics, information processing analysis versus
conceptual analysis of mathematical ideas introduced by himself. How-
ever, it would lead us too far away to discuss agreements and disagree-
ments between conceptual and didactic phenomenological analysis. It may
suffice to remark that they complement each other excellently as far as the
first is more research-oriented, whereas the second is based on broad and
profound contemplations from various perspectives and fundamental
thought experiments, and thereby stands at a distance from instructional
practice.
The problem· solving approach in concept formation, adhered to by Lesh

and others, is also shared by Vergnaud, who in this context speaks about
conceptual fields fitting related concepts and relations. 51 Vergnaud's
standpoint is that concepts develop gradually through problem solving
processes; he adheres to the re-invention principle which was mentioned
earlier in connection with Freudenthal's didactical phenomenology. Verg-
naud, however, at variance with Lesh, uses formal mathematical structures
as tools to analyse le;lrning processes, which leads him to statements on
rational numbers such as:
It is true that most general properties of rational number cannot be expressed and
explained unless rational numbers are viewed as pure numbers. This is the case of cross-
multiplying, for instance: a + b - c + d, ad = be, a + c = b + d.
What would it mean to multiply a and d if a were an M.-measure and d an
M2-measure? But it is true and important that understanding multiplicative structures does
not rely upon rational numbers only, but upon linear and n-linear functions and vector
spaces toO.52
In spite of this statement, Vergnaud does not choose a formal point of

view. On the contrary, he turns sharply against structuralism. But by
means of such formally oriented statements he tries to briefly and sharply
analyse and typify the system of concepts and the structural variations in
their applicability in reality. .
Finally, again referring to rational numbers, we mention Regine
Douady's work where the relation between conceptual acquisition and
technical competence was studied.53 She uses the instructional method of
'tool-object didactics' and, related to it, the 'interplay between settings'. In
the tool-object didactics she distinguishes six phases which are passed
through after a set of meaningful problems have seen offered, which
initially cannot cOlVpletely be solved by the pupils. It runs as follows:
1. available knowledge is applied explicitly
2. this newly acquired knowledge implicitly unfolds and
3. is made explicit and locally organised in order to be
4. globally inserted into the knowledge inventory, from which
5. its applicability is exercised, after which,
6. the concept is brought in contact with other concepts in complex

situations.
The 'interplay of settings' means, according to Douady, that a certain
problem can externally be represented multifariously (by numbers, letters,
graphs, geometrically etc.) and that dealing with the problem in various
settings can yield unexpected results, new techniques and, finally, a richer
knowledge in the original setting. This is illustrated by multiplication of
fractions in a long term research project which precisely exemplified what
Lesh calls 'how to model the children's models'.
(4) Final remarks

Our presentation of the work of subject-area-oriented researchers has
shed new light on, and contributed more profound understanding of the
theoretic framework of progressive mathematisation. In a random order
we recall: '
- the metaphoric character of learning;
- the importance of paradigms;
- the crux of interaction;
- the domain sp~cific aspect of knowledge structures, frames, micro-
worlds, conceptual models, domains of subjective experience or
however one wishes to indicate this 'idea';
- the embedding of problem solving into processes of conceptual
acquistion;
- the virtual independence of mutually related knowledge structures;
- the possibility of connecting and integrating them in reflective
processes;
- the interaction between internal and external representations in
problem solving;
- the instability and progressive structuring of conceptual models.
All these ideas and quite a few others can in principle serve to describe in
greater detail and to understand more profoundly the phenomenological
start, the level theory framework and the five tenets of progressive
mathematising.
It is worthwhile observing that subject-area inspired research globally
bears a non-mechanistic and non-structuralist signature, in contradiction
to the general psychological research to be dealt with in the next section.
5.3 The Almost Complete Absence of Instruction Theory Ideas in General

Cognitive Psychological Research
The implications of general psychological research for instruction theory
can be dealt with rather briefly, because most of it is affirmative learning
290 CHAPTER VII
theory rather than constructive instruction theory. Resnick and Ford

express their cognitive psychological view as follows:
Instructional processes cannot be greatly clarified and improved unless we can both look
into the mind and chart changes in capability.54
The primacy of the learning psychology component is above all con-

spicuous in the attitude towards developmental research via teaching
experiments. 55 Macro-teaching experiments with groups of pupils where
the researcher determines the teaching matter sequence are in general not
considered as part of cognitive psychological research - this in contrast
with the activity-psychological work in the Davydov schoo1.56 Micro-
teaching experiments, however, that are thought-oriented rather than
curriculum-oriented, fit fairly well into cognitive psychological research.
They are usually undertaken with individual subjects.
Such a dichotomy of thought- and curriculum-oriented research, how-
ever, is hardly acceptable for subject area-oriented didactic research, as
we noticed earlier. With Davydov and his followers we are inclined to
believe that, in the domain of mathematics instruction, cognitive develop-
ment is for a non-negligible part determined by instruction, which includes
the choice of the teaching matter sequence. For them, and also for us, this
means that instruction too should be an object of research. Therefore the
best and most appreciated instructional courses should be implicated in
developmental research. As long as, for instance, for learning the long
division procedures no new instructional environment is created in which
the pupils can themselves develop the standard algorithm, then according
to the realistic conception, no· conclusions can be drawn of a teaching/
learning theory character about the part played by elementary contexts in
partition and distribution situations for the performance of mental actions,
the enchainment of informal and formal procedures, the meaning of
schematising and shortening in this chain, and so on - this would be our
subject area-oriented didactic reasoning.
(1) Learning-oriented versus teaching-oriented:

background ofa disagreement
Gal'perin distinguishes two kinds of analysis of the teaching/learning
process: the logical and the psychological analysis. The distinction is quite
useful if one tries to understand what is behind attributing various weights
to the learning and the teaching component in research and theory
building.57
So, the cognitive psychological theories in general start from weak
mathematical-logical and powerful psychological structures or thinking
processes, whereas according to the subject area didactic persuasion it is
just the other way round - relatively speaking. 50 In other words: general
cognitive psychology views the mathematical structures primarily within

the subject area systematics. They are abstract in the sense of being
removed from the real manifestations and they are situated on the formal
symbolic level. Although general and comprehensive, as such they are
structurally poor. In particular, most information processing analysis
systems are satisfied with rather simple networks of knowiedge· structures,
where the structural element of mathematics is more conspicuous than the
phenomenological aspect. There is hardly any analysis and research where
the real manifestations of structures and operations serve as source of
concept attainment. In brief, as far as teaching experiments are under-
taken, they are mostly structuralistically organised, and thus grafted onto
rather weak contents structures and rather powerful thinking processes,
which in tum are intended to connect different knowledge structures.
As repeatedly emphasised, according to the didactic view, the mathe-
matical content is not exclusively structured according to the subject area
systematics. The mathematical structures are primarily found in the con-
text of real manifestations. There they are no less general and comprehen-
sive than in the structuralist form but, in addition, their phenomenological
structure is richer. As we noticed above, structuralism is hardly espoused
by those who hold that view. More room is left for design in educational
development than is enjoyed in the cognitive psychological camp, since
one is not locked into in the organisational framework of the teaching
matter according to subject area systematics. Learning long division,
mentioned above, is an example which illustrates the consequences.
(2) Learning-oriented versus teaching-oriented: causes of a disagreement
But why does cognitive psychology lean towards structuralism in contra-

distinction to subject area didactic approaches?
Well, the reasons have partly been pointed out in the discussion on
microworlds and domains of subjective experiences. Roughly stated, there
are two categories of 'model of mind'. According to the first, mind is
unitary and mental operations are essentially domain-independent. Accord-
ing to the second there is, as it were, a 'society of mind'. Kilpatrick says:
The mind is a collection of partially autonomous smaller minds, each specialized to its own
purpose, that operate in parallel rather than sequential fashion. 59
In this kind of model, thinking is domain specific.

Cognitive psychological research prefers the first kind of model while
the second is the choice of subject area-oriented researchers and the-
oricians. The model of the all-purpose mind with its context-independent
mental operations fits smoothly, in particular, into the computer meta-
phoric picture of cognition: the information processing occurs step-by-step
and the information storing takes place at certain places and addresses,
292 CHAPTER VII
just as is the case with digital computers, where the programs are
expressed in high-level language. However, more recently it has been
pointed out from various sides that conventional computers are not such a
good model of cognitive processes (take arithmetic on the one hand and
geometry on the other), probably for the reason the brain operates not so
much sequentially as simultaneously, thus as a network of parallel com-
puters which are more specialised in certain domains than a general-
purpose computer, perhaps something - let's say - like fifth generation
computers. This picture, then, would possibly be a bit more in agreement
with the model of mind prefered by subject area didactics.6o
(3) General cognitive psychological theories and

realistic mathematics instruction
It might seem too far-fetched to reduce the discussed disagreement in
orientation on either learning or teaching exclusively to disagreement on
models of mind. The researcher's or theorician's unsophisticated view on
mathematics might be highly influential too. If this is correct we should not
be surprised that psychologists (as well as most mathematicians) choose a
structuralist approach. But starting from a general cognitive theory, which
might be either an activity theory or a cognitive psychological theory, one
should in principle be able to arrive at structuralist as well as at realistic
developments and actualisations of mathematics instruction. In other
words, in principle no impediments, not to mention obstacles, arise from
these theories - for instance in the case of column arithmetic - in the
way of choosing and investigating applicability more closely.
Take, for instance, Gal'perin's theory of the stepwise building of mental
actions.61 According to this instructional procedure each mental activity
should be prepared by an activity on material or materialised level that
already bears all features basic to the performance of the mental activity.
Thanks to this mirroring of the nuclear elements on the various levels of
performance (material-perceptive-mental) the pupils can orient themselves
from the very beginning completely and concretely towards the arith-
metical activity. Then both in the course of column arithmetic according
to progressive complication and the course according to progressive
schematisation, the performance can take place on different levels. The
difference is that, in the first case the phasing affects every partial instance
separately whereas, in the second, it concerns the totality of the course.
Exactly the same holds for Gal'periil's second parameter: in the first
case shortening takes place in each special instance, in the second
'vertically' across the whole course.
The two other activity parameters, the degrees of generality and of
mastery, tend to be broadened by the realistic approach: not only column
arithmetic but also its applicability is affected.
In Gal'perin's theoretic framework this should not be a disadvantage at

all. Therefore starting from a general instruction theory of the activity
psychology kind, one can arrive at two essentially different teaching
courses. Gal'perin himself would hold logical analysis responsible for this
difference: obviously one can view mathematics in two radically different
ways.62 He would therefore recognise that a general framework for
instruction theory alone does not offer enough points of support for
developing acceptable mathematics instruction.
Indeed, in our example the essence of algorithmising can be found in
the straightforward conveying of insight into the standard procedures, as
well as in the process of schematising and shortening. Gal'perin - unlike
Davydov - leaves this choice to the subject area expert, thereby with-
drawing a fundamental part of organisation of teaching matter from
psychological research. But in his own research he often implicitly takes
the structuralist stand although this is not inherent, as we have shown, to
his theory of instruction.
Mutatis mutandis this also holds for the instructional component of the
information-processing approach. Again, the structuralist design of the
micro-teaching experiments and the clinical investigation is not, or cannot
be, justified within the general theoretic framework, although there would
be every reason for not restricting oneself to the psychological component
of the learning. 'Thought-oriented versus teaching-oriented' is no valid
excuse; indeed, such a separation can hardly be maintained against the
earlier mentioned arguments on subject matter didactics.
From an instruction theory perspective one might regret the lack
of new thrusts supplied by general psychology. As mentioned above,
Davydov is an exception, although even his developmental research,
aiming at the developing of scientific concepts, is rather structuralistically
designed. However, we would be digressing too far here were we to
outline in which direction his orientation to both Bourbaki and Lakatos(!)
is leading.63
(4) Nuances
Here our only intention is to show that general cognitive and activity
psychological theories cannot serve as instruction theories for mathe-
matics. Hardly any rules for developing and actualising instruction can be
borrowed from them - none, at any rate, for realistically oriented mathe-
matics instruction, unless one is satisfied with rules about what should not
be done. As a matter of fact, in this respect and with respect to early
instruction, affirmative cognitive psychological research can teach us
lessons. Striking examples can be found in the studies of Carpenter &
Moser, Riley, Greeno & Heller, and De Corte & Verschaffel.64 From their
research one general positive conclusion for instruction can be drawn,
294 CHAPTER VII
namely that real situations can function excellently at the start of instruc-
tion (developing the number concept). This, then, is exactly the realistic
starting point, which in general is shunned in the micro-teaching experi-
ments of general cognitive psychological research.
5.4 Overview
Let us pass the foregoing as viewed through the framework for instruction
theory of progressive mathematising in review - short references to the
discussed theoriticians and researchers will suffice. By this sketchy review
we will demonstrate that the present chapter was not meant so much to be
a description of numerous frameworks for instruction theory but rather as
a means to deepen various nuclei of the realistic framework as described
here.
Starting points for mathematical instruction were expressis verbis dis-
cussed in the case of Davis' cognitive science approach. They appeared to
be broader than that of structuralistic mathematics instruction.
The framework for Van Hiele's level theory was put into relief against
the background of Dienes' learning cycles, as well as of Piaget's and
Bruner's theories.
In the micro-sphere of mathematising the levels in the learning process
appeared in our sketches of Lawler and Gal'perin.
The phenomenological approach can be deepened through Lesh's
conceptual models and Bauersfeld's domains of subjective experiences,
and by way of contrast, through the work of Gagne and Dienes.
The important part played by situation models (context models) was
recognised in Davis' paradigm teaching strategy, as was that of modes of
representations in Bruner's, Davis', Lesh's and Douady's theories, and the
relation between internal and external representations mainly in Lesh's
theory.
The constructive aspect is present in almost all the theories we dis-
cussed, although the pupils' own productions, such as defined by us as one
of the most powerful means of organisation and reflection, was not (or
almost not) explicitly mentioned by others.
Attention to the interactive aspect was paid in Piaget's (later) work, by
Bauersfeld, Brousseau, Balacheff, Laborde, Bishop and Goffree.
Intertwining of courses is found in the theories of Lesh, Bauersfeld,
Vergnaud and Douady and in a general sense, in cognitive theories.
The more recent didactically oriented theories show a trend towards a
kind of interactive realistic mathematics instruction. The more general
cognitive psychological theories, on the contrary, choose in their micro-
teaching experiments a structuralist mathematics instruction. Although this
is not implied by their general psychological standpoint, their models of
mind, with the computer metaphor, emphasis more strongly psychological
processes than rich content structures. This, then, is one of the reasons
why subject area didacticians react with reserve to the metaphorical use of
the computer for the learning process.
Finally, we point out that the theory of progressive mathematisation as
presented here should properly be viewed in close connectioh with its
operationalisation in the concrete Wiskobas programme covering a large
part of mathematics instruction from ages 4-12. The theoretic framework
is in a sense a composite of partial theories as developed and described
for a number of courses. Or, more to the point: it is an attempt on the
third Van Hiele level to arrive at a global theoretical organisation via local
organisations on the second level which, in tum, came into being by reflec-
tion on developing and actualising mathematics instruction for the primary
school. Certainly more than is the case with many of the cited theoreti-
cians, we have placed ourselves primarily on the level of educational
development, with the emphasis on textbooks. For this reason, our
analysis of the different persuasions was mainly concerned with the
textbooks and manuals available on the educational market, rather than
with material of certain projects or ideas of individual researchers of
theoreticians. In the present chapter, however, this textbook picture was
supplemented by that obtained from more theoretically oriented studies
related to instructional practice, from Gagne to Gal'perin.
5.5 Closure
We started the present study with a sketch of the cube of goals. With
Steiner we believe:
that value and goal orientation should be also important factors of every systems view of
mathematics education commencing with the fact that mathematics itself - like other
sciences - is not a value-free human activity.65
In this goal-space we made a theoretical Lissajous flight in which we

touched all teaching subject faces of the Wiskobas programme. The three
parameters by which this flight of thought was described are Van Hiele's
level theory, Freudenthal's didactical phenomenology and Wiskobas' pro-
gressive mathematisation, operationalised in a concrete programme of
mathematics instruction at the primary school. And we considered this
flight from outside too.
The reason why the goal descriptions were followed by a description of
the framework for instruction theory is found in the great diversity of the
various concrete instructional situations which we described. Their para-
digmatic force was not strong enough to evoke an adequate impression of
the curriculum in its totality. For this reason, we passed in review in this
last chapter the general instructional patterns of the themes and the
curriculum, that is, of Wiskobas' framework for instruction theory. C'Ne
296 CHAPTER VII
say 'general', because we let the 'specific' instruction theories, placed

within the general framework, about for example, the basic facts, column
arithmetic, fractions, area etc. out of view. A detailed study of the
theoretical framework as a whole would take a new volume.) Against this
background the goals themselves might be better understood. In the
chapters on goals' as well as in those on theory we applied the so-called
one-, two- and three-dimensional description, thus 'three dimensions as a
model of goal and theory description in mathematics education'.
1
NOTES
CHAPTER I
I In this connection see:

Huhse K.: Theorie und Praxis der Curriculum-Entwicklung. Ein Bericht aber Wege der
Curriculum-Reform in den USA mit Ausblicken aUf Schweden und England, Berlin
1968.
For an overview of the situation around 1977 see:
Kapur, J. N.: 'New Mathematics movement, is it over?', International Journal of
Mathematics Education in Science and Technology 8 (1977), 259-267.
2 This distinguishing of three directions in mathematics education alongside the existing
pluriform arithmetic instruction connects fairly well with the division made by Dienes and
Williams:
a. the basic-set approach;
b. the arithmetically-oriented approach;
c. the geometrically-oriented approach;
d. the science-oriented approach;
e. the symbol-game-oriented approach;
f. the object-game-oriented approach.
We consider a. and b. to belong to the New Math and the innovative arithmetic instruction;
c. and d. agree in our view with the empirical trend;
e. and f. are in our division related to the structural direction.
These divisions are idealised, pure types: in reality blends will be encountered in which the
various approaches are found in varying proportions.
In this connection see:
Dienes, Z. P. (ed.): Mathematics in primary education, Hamburg 1966.
Williams, J. D. (ed.): Mathematics reform in the primary schoo~ Hamburg 1967.
Achter, V. van: De modernisering van het rekenonderwijs op de basisschool, 's Hertogen-
bosch 1969.
Gelder, L. van, Wijdeveld, E. J., Goffree, F. and Krooshof, G.: Moderne wiskunde ,en het
basisonderwijs, Groningen 1968.
3 The state of affairs in the "New Math" development in the USA is described in a report
by the '~Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences": Overview and analysis of school
mathematics - Grades K-12, Washington 1975.
The most important statement is: "The overwhelming conclusion to be drawn from
these findings is that mathematics teachers and classrooms have changed far less in the
past 15 years than has been supposed." (p., 77)
For the development in the Soviet Union see:
Maslov, G., Kuznetsova, L. and Leont'eva, M.: 'Improving the Teaching of Mathematics',
Soviet Education 19 (1977), 91-107.
4 Melis P.: 'Wiskunde en de basisschool', Persoon en Gemeenschap 28 (1975), p. 228.
Other sounds can be heard from this direction as well.
See, for example, the extensive report from a Belgian pedagogical work:
Vernieuwde wiskunde in de basisschool, Brussels 1976.
5 Biggs, E. E.: 'Forward and Back. Reflections after a decade of discovery mathematics',
Education 3 (1971), p. 84.
297
298 NOTES
6 Here we refer to the total utilities for mathematics education: textbooks, teachers'
manuals and instruction material.
In this respect we mention:
Denken en rekenen, 's Hertogenbosch 1968.
Elementair wiskundig rekenen, Assen 1970.
Ontdek het zelf, Groningen 1970.
Wiskunde voor de basisschool, Alphen aan den Rijn 1971.
Also translations of booklets from the "Nuffield Mathematics Project" and the "Invicta"
instructional material.
7 Boomsma, G.: 'Problemen rond de New Math', Mededelingenblad 4 (1968), p. 1l.
8 Around 1977 modern mathematics textbooks took up less than 10% of the total market
for mathematics including arithmetic.
9 The name for the IOWO (Institute for the Development of Mathematics Education) was
deliberately chosen by H. Freudenthal. The inclusion of the word "curriculum" before
development was rejected, since this does not adequately express what the institute stands
for. Curriculum development in the sense of document development is only a part of the
work that was tackled. The term "educational development" is much more suited to the
efforts of the institute.
Educational development can be divided into:
curriculum development;
- change support;
- research.
All of this took place at the IOWO.
For the term "educational development" see:
Hemphill, l. K.: 'Educational development', The Urban Review 4 (1969), 23-27.
Schultz, R. E.: 'The nature of educational development', Journal of Research and
Development in Education 3 (1970), 39-64.
10 This is the Dr. W. Drees school in Arnhem. For a description of the work see:
Frenay, K.: 'Bericht uit de ontwerpschool', Wiskobas-bulletin 1 (1972),269-273.
II Wiskobas: Matematika, handboek heroriiintering onderwijzers, IOWO publication,
Utrecht 1973.
12 By primary school we refer to the 6-12 age group. The curriculum for mathematics
contains a justification and description of the learning activities for everyday instruction.
These activities can be described extensively in such a curriculum or else contain a short
reference to the relevant sources (books, learning material).
13 long, R. de (ed.): Overzicht van wiskundeonderwijs op de basisschool, IOWO
curriculum development publication 2, Utrecht 1975.
14 By spin-off we mean that a number of publications have yet to be finalised, i.e., edited
for publication including the collection of responses.
These publications are:
long, R. de (ed.): Bussen en blokken (Work sheets for mathematics instruction for primary
schools), IOWO curriculum development publication 3, Utrecht 1976.
long, R. de (ed.): Inter-lokaal (Instruction material for mathematics instruction for primary
schools), IOWO-curriculum development publication 4, Utrecht 1976.
Wijdeveld, E. l.: Vierkubers (A theme for mathematics in the primary school), IOWO
curriculum development publication 5, Utrecht 1977.
long, R. de (ed.): De abacus, IOWO curriculum development publication 6, Utrecht 1977.
Heege, H. ter and Moor, E. de: Oppervlakte (Guide to a theme for the primary school),
IOWO curriculum development publication 7, Utrecht 1977.
Brink, l. van den and Wijdeveld, E. l.: De Kamping, IOWO curriculum development
publication 8, Utrecht 1978.
NOTES 299
Jong, R. de (ed.): Oppervlakte II, IOwa curriculum development publication 9, Utrecht

1978.
Treffers, A. (ed.): Cijferend vermenigvuldigen en delen, IOwa curriculum development
Moor, E. de: Gevarieerd rekenen, IOwa curriculum development publication 11, Utrecht
1979.
15 The material for Dutch television was designed by P. Scholten in co-operation with
others. The series includes:
Tel voor twee, grade two.
Een beetje veel, grade three.
Vier kan 't, grade four.
Kijk op kans, grades five and six.
The theme "Kamping" was designed for NCRV-School radio by J. van den Brink and E.
Wijdeveld, IOWa-curriculum development publication 8, Utrecht 1978.
16 Amongst the literature consulted is:
Slijper, J.: Reuzen en dwergen in het dierenrijk, Leiden 1964.

The following were the articles in De Haagse Post of 1973 which led to the project:
Natura
Linnaeus once said that if an elephant were as strong as a beetle, he would be able to
move mountains. And Linnaeus was a wise man. All the things we read about ants that
can lift 52 times their own weight or snails that can pull 200 times their own weight
must be considered with some reservation.
Such performances depend on nothing but the ratio between length, area and
volume. The larger the animal, the weaker the power of his muscles in proportion to his
weight. For that reason my ten year old son can carry two of his friends on his
shoulders, while I cannot carry two colleagues. Also if snails can pull 200 times their
own weight, I cannot possibly imagine why we have not designed a cart drawn by 25
snails to carry us about, if only for the lack of noise!
A small bird needs up to 30% of its body weight in food per day, a larger bird 10%
and a chicken 4%. A field mouse eats its own weight of food per day, but the smaller
titmouse eats twice its own weight. The smaller the animal, the larger the loss of energy,
the faster the rate of metabolism, the larger the need for food.
Small animals have no time off. They are constantly looking for food, which in turn
costs energy and therefore extra food. On the other hand a crocodile can live on half a
pound of fish or meat per week. He can also fast for a long time. Man is large enough
to be thrifty with his food which leaves him time for other matters. If we were the size
of mice, there would be no culture in spite of our brains. Our entire day would be filled
up with eating, sleeping and taking care of the children.
A reader responded in the following edition of the paper:
Natura Artis Magistra
Since I am a great admirer of your .articles I would allow myself to respond to your
remark: ''the smaller the animal, the greater the loss of energy ..." I have tried to
fathom this, but try as I may, I have not succeeded. I find it most unlikely, this law of
smaller/larger, more so after your illustrations: the chicken is large enough to eat only
4% of its weight. And a human - any hearty eater will be able to manage 4% of his
300 NOTES
weight daily - isn't he a much larger chicken, while the difference in dimensio.ns
between a small croco.dile and a big perso.n is no.t so. big that it can explain the
difference in co.nsumptio.n (croco.dile: half a po.und per week).
Mo.st intriguing is the bird that eats 30%. Has it go.t used to. this because it had little
else to. do., thus speeding up the co.nsumptio.n process? Do.es it no.t have time left to.
devo.te to. culture, ,has this been timed? Is it no.t remarkable that its bill can take such
large mo.rsels that the 30% can be managed in a sho.rt time? Or do.es it eat things that
render o.nly a little nutritio.n to. the bo.dy, so. that it will have to. eat mo.re? Or is its
metabo.lism so. fast because it has no. sto.rage place where fo.o.d can slo.wly be digested?
If it really has to. eat all day to. survive, to. retain sufficient energy, it wo.uld have to. die
at night. Or do.es it also. eat at night?
The jo.urnalist replied:
Imagine an animal as being a cube with edges o.f 2 cm. The area o.f that cube is then 6
X 2 X 2 = 24 cm 2 and the vo.lume 2 X 2 X 2 - 8 cm 3 - a ratio. o.f 3:1. If the cube is
do.ubled to. sides o.f 4 cm, the area beco.mes 6 X 4 X 4 = 96 cm 2 and the vo.lume 4 X 4
X 4 = 64 cm 3, a ratio. o.f 1.5:1.
Therefo.re, the larger the animal, the smaller his surface area, as well as the surface
area o.f his muscles, as co.mpared with co.ntents and weight. The larger the animal
beco.mes, the smaller his muscular capacity in relatio.n to. his o.wn weight. Fo.r example,
a bee can carry 24 times his o.wn weight, but the average human no. mo.re than his o.wn
weight.
The rate o.f metabo.lism alSo. varies with the surface area. Therefo.re we can say that
the smaller the animal, the mo.re lo.ss o.f energy per kg o.f bo.dy weight and the mo.re it
will have to. eat to. retain its temperature. There are a number o.f o.ther facto.rs invo.lved,
the nature o.f the metabo.lism and climate fo.r example, but in general the example o.f the
cube ho.lds true.
To. stay alive the bird will have to. eat 30% o.f his to.tal weight. That will get him
through the night since he will use up little energy while sleeping. During a harsh winter
there are many birds that do. no.t succeed in finding sufficient fo.o.d during the daytime
and hence do. no.t live thro.ugh the night. The essential difference between man and the
croco.dile is that o.ne is a mammal and the o.ther a reptile. Reptiles have a much Io.wer
rate o.f metabo.lism than birds and mammals. That is the reaso.n why croco.diles can fast
mo.re easily.
This discussio.n stimulated the idea o.f designing a theme dealing with these problems. This
is a remarkable example o.f ho.w keen the IOWO designers are to. find usable ideas.
Five phases o.f develo.pment can be distinguished in the "Gulliver" theme: a preparato.ry,
co.nstructio.n, deliberatio.n, revisio.n and fo.llo.w-up phase. During the preparato.ry phase o.ne
o.f the oesigners hit o.n the idea o.f using "Gulliver's Travels" as the scene o.f the instructio.n.
A first draft was designed during the co.nstructio.n phase, tried o.ut and revised.
Co.nstructio.n can mean taking o.ver o.thers' ideas and materials, o.r adapting them o.r
thinking o.ut relatively new ideas. In the last case a lo.ng incubatio.n perio.d (nurturing a
vague idea) is so.metimes fo.llo.wed by a sho.rt illuminative mo.ment (eureka!) and a lengthy
co.nstructio.n process. This was alSo. true fo.r Gulliver. Jo.nathan Swift's bo.o.k appeared to.
ho.ld so. many interesting Po.ints, that it was hard to. make a cho.ice.
The first draft was co.nsiderably lo.nger than the final versio.n. It alSo. included so.me
geo.metry, a number o.f physic~ experiments and an amo.unt o.f bio.lo.gical info.rmatio.n. The
geometry included assignments o.n the relatio.n between quantities in linear enlargement o.f
two. and three dimensio.nal figures and a number o.f applicatio.ns. One o.f the experiments
was to. sho.w that, under certain circumstances, the co.ntent o.f a smaller cube co.o.ls mo.re
NOTES 301
quickly than that of a larger one; another experiment showed that the bearing power of a
thread varies with its thickness, that is, with the area of its cross-section. These were
experiments referring to the relation between skin-area and volume, and muscular strength
and weight respectively. The biological information concerned subjects like food, loss of
energy, and muscular strength. Much deliberation took place during the construction of
both versions.
About""deliberation" Schwab says:
It treats both end and means and must treat them as mutually determining one another.
It must try to identify, with respect to both, what facts may be relevant. It must try to
ascertain the relevant facts in the concrete case.... It must then weigh alternatives and
their costs and consequences against one another and choose, not the right alternatives,
for there is no such thing, but the best one. (Schwab, J. J.: 'The practical: a language for
curriculum', in Levit, M. (ed.) Curriculum, Urbana 1971, p. 328).
The deliberation process lacks the straightforwardness and strictness of a logical structure,
the firmness of a proof, the surveyability of a strategy: it is sometimes compared to the
activity of a jury during a trial. As far as the last comparison is concerned, it can happen
that the design group feels itself to be condemned to carrying out an impossible task - that
of constructing a consistent package from a collection of conflicting suggestions. During the
deliberation, principles are stated (''is this not a misuse of literature and in poor taste?),
convictions are pronounced (too difficult!), experiences are resported (in class ...),
reflections of a mathematical-didactical nature are uttered (how this theme fits into the
total programme), suggestions are offered (the evaluation might be done by letting the
children make a report about the theme, about their experiences, ...), questions are asked
(what do they learn?) and answers are given (yes, but ...). Concrete product goals do not
seem to play a dominating part in the deliberation process, just as they did not in the
construction process. That is, not in the sense of 'what must the pupils be capable of at the
end of this activity'? On the other hand, it might be said that the general goals are of
dominating importance in construction and deliberation since the envisaged processes are
implicitly aimed at pursuing permanently certain general goals and at concretising them in
particular learning activities.
The revision phase should, if possible, provide a definitive version that is suited to
educational practice. For Gulliver this became possible by leaving out a number of strands
in the tale and re-arranging others. Afterward the piece of instruction is fitted into the
larger context of the mathematics programme, whose lines should converge into the theme.
Thus the question arose whether or not the line of the ratio concept connected with
Gulliver, and whether or not the line of the function concept had been correctly drawn. If
not, where should the necessary adjustments in the curriculum programme be placed? So
in the construction of a piece of instruction, the still-developing curriculum around it is
permanently at issue. Broading on the main stream, the macro-process of curriculum
development, in turn brings along its own specific problems of fundamental mathematical-
didactical analysis of a subject area. For this a broad knowledge of mathematics, its
application areas, instruction and the mathematical learning processes is required.
The chain of events as sketched for Gulliver started in the exploratory phase, was
intermixed with several other theme designs, was closed off in the integration phase by the
publication of the theme in an "overview of mathematics for the primary school", and in
the spin-off phase completed by screening it during one of the four-day conferences
mentioned previously. The response was generally positive. Some question marks were put
next to the topic: Can the teacher handle this theme? Shouldn't there be some sort of brief
introductory presentation? How can the biological information be made plausible? There
were also suggestions for applications dealing with evaporation, specific weight, buoyancy,
cooking and melting.
302 NOTES
This gives an idea of the development of a part of the curriculum programme. Left out
were the discussions with children, the experiences with the first version, most of the
responses from the development team and from the macro-development.
The sketch given might even be a distorted general picture. We described the
production of a piece of instruction which was published in a later phase while in other
cases a rough product or even the initial basic idea itself was disseminated in our early
stage, thus enabling all participants to be involved in the development.
To a large degree, development of material takes place along the lines of the phases
mentioned above. Noteworthy is the increase in organisation: first some ideas, then a
structured theme, which finally was fitted into the totality of the developing curriculum.
17 Morley, A.: 'A new development in primary school mathematics. The Dutch Wiskobas
project', Mathematics Teaching, nr. 69 (1975), p. 15.

IS See for example:
Papy, F.: 'Le livre pour enfants dans l'enseignement de la mathematique', in Nico,nr. 18
(1974),73-160.
19 See:
Dienes, Z. P.: Les six etapes du processus d'apprentissage en mathematique, Paris 1970.
20 Adda, J.: 'Difficultes liees it la presentation des questions mathematiques', in
Educational Studies in Mathematics 7 (1976), p. 17.
21 Loc. cit., p. 18.
22 Serious criticism of the "New Math" came from, amongst others:
Kline, M.: Why Johnny can't add. The failure of the New Math, New York 1973.
23 O'Brien, T.: Three informal essays', Educational Studies in Mathematics 7 (1976),
p.95.
24 Loc. cit., p. 96.
25 This quotation is from an address by Hans Freudenthal, given during the awarding of
an honorary doctorate at the University of Amsterdam. See: Euclides 52 (1977), p. 337.
26 The report of the questionnaire, completed in 1969 by 80 arithmetic didacticians at
teacher training colleges, is found in an internal IOWO publication, entitled: Lochem.
Besluiten Wiskobas, internal publication, Utrecht 1971.
27 Dalin, P.: Case studies of educational innovations: Strategies for innovation in education,
Paris, 1973, p. 36.
2S Ibid.
29 A discussion about the suitable strategy was held in the Wiskobas working groups on
the basis of the article mentioned below, which was also the author's starting point for a
lecture given during the first Wiskobas conference in October 1969:
Teunissen, J. M. F.: 'De verbreding van schoolwiskunde in het basisonderwijs', in
Mededelingenblad 4 (1968), 17-30.
30 The approach followed by Wiskobas is described in a special edition of Educational
Studies in Mathematics 7, nr. 3 ("Five years IOWO. On H. Freudenthal's Retirement from
the Directorship of IOWO"): See especially, 'Curriculum development. A strategy', 351-
362.
Paris 1973, p. 36.
32 There are many descriptions of the concept of innovation that, unlike Dalin's, place the
emphasis on "new". Chin and Downey give the following summary of these definitions:
The objective is defined as "new" if something changed in a significant and substantial

respect. No uniform criteria are available to specify new and what is meant by a
significant and substantial respect. A second approach is quantitative, innovations
which are ideas and practices or materials not yet adopted by a specified percentage,
e.g. 10% or less. A third approach is to label a new total package of practice as an
NOTES 303
innovation. For example, in education, a different technology of teaching, as computer

aided instruction, team teaching, or modular scheduling is an innovation. A fourth
approach is in terms of defining an innovation by the critical factor of the effects on
behaviour. A fifth approach defines innovation as "perceived" as new.
In the case of innovation in mathematics education in the primary school, a~ realised by

Wiskobas, there is compliance with each of the definitions. (See: Chin, R. and Downey, L.:
'Changing change: Innovating a discipline', in Travers, R. M. W. (ed.), Second handbook of
research on teaching, Chicago 1973, p. 522.
33 Stenhouse, L.: An introduction to curriculum research and development, London 1975,
p.91.
34 Ibid.
35 For an example of constructive analysis see
Goffree, F.: 'Doorkijkspiegelingen' (,Semi-transparent mirror reflections') (Fifteen reflec-
tions on instruction material), Wiskobas Bulletin 3 (1974),474-495.
36 Sixma, J.: 'Enkele overwegingen t.b.v. het leerplandenken, gei1lustreerd aan het
leesvoorwaardenonderzoek', in Creemers, B. (ed.), Bijdragen tot de onderwijskunde, Den
Bosch 1973,p. 59.
37 Hacker tries to find a solution to this problem in a different teacher training
programme. In the Netherlands voices are also being heard that plead for an extension of
the teacher training programme in the direction of curriculum development. See:
Hacker, H.: Curriculumplanung und Lehrerrolle, Weinheim 1976.
Franssen, H. and Meyer, K.: 'Curriculumontwikkeling in de opleiding aan de Pedagogische
Akademie', PedagogischeStudiifnS4 (1977), 271-279.
38 SeeChapterVp.213.
39 Als Feinziel bezeichnet man jedes Lernziel von Abstraktionsniveau 1, ein Lernziel also,
das den hochsten Grad an Eindeutigkeit und Priizision aufweist, alle Alternativen
ausschliesst und die drei Merkmale Endverhaltensbeschreibung, niihere Bestimmung
des Endverhaltens und Angabe des Beurteilungsmassstabes aufweisen kann." "Als
Grobziel bezeichnet man jedes Lernziel von Abstraktionsniveau 2, ein Lernziel also,
das einen mittleren Grad an Eindeutigkeit und Priizision aufweist, nur einige
Alternativen ausschliesst und eine vage Endverhaltensbeschreibung ohne Angabe des
Beurteilungsmassstabes zeigt." "Als Richtziel schliesslich bezeichnet man jedes Lernziel
von Abstraktionsniveau 3, ein Lernziel also, das den geringsten Grad an Eindeutigkeit
und Priizision aufweist, nur ganz wenige Alternative ausschliesst und mit umfassenden
unspezifischen Begriffen arbeitet. (Moller, c.: Technik der Lernplanung. Methoden und
Probleme der Lernzielerstellung, Weinheim 1970, pp. 49-50).
Paris 1973, p. 216.
41 The example-curriculum of Wiskobas for the first two grades of the elementary school
was designed by J. van den Brink of the IOWO together with the Wiskobas team and the
teachers for grades one and two of the Dr. W. Drees school in Arnhem. J. van Bruggen was
responsible for the grade three programme, H. ter Heege for grade four and L. Streefland
for grades five ahd six.
Along with the primary school group, Wiskobas has collaborators involved in in-service
training, and teacher training, as well as various other activities.
4~ We should mention that the cube image was not found until the eight starting points and
twelve general goals had been formulated and published internally. The six subject areas
completed the image of the objectives cube.
304 NOTES
CHAPTER II
I An extensive reflection concerning the· essence of mathematical activity in general and

within education in particular can be found in:
Freudenthal; H.: Mathematics as an educational task, Dordrecht 1973.
One of Freudenthal's objections to cUI;rent mathematics education is that the activities
within school mathematics often lead their own lonely life and show no resemblance to
the mathematics as acted out by mathematicians in many areas. Does this mean that
Freudenthal wishes to reserve mathematics for professional mathematicians and only
assesses the mathematical value of mathematics education exclusively from the scientific
point of view of mathematics? On the contrary, he sees mathematics as a common human
activity, that it .is an activity for everyone and not just reserved for the professional
mathematician. Hence the title: Mathematics as an educational task. It is in this sense also
that we consider the term mathematical activity. That this activity is not in conflict with
mathematical activity at the highest level is apparent from the summary in sub-section 1.11
Chapter II. The characteristics given agree on many points with those singled out by Polya
for mathematical activities at the level of higher education. See:
Polya, E.: Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning, Vol. I: Induction and Analogy in
Mathematics, Princeton 1967; Vol. II: Patterns of Plausible Inference, Princeton 1968.
Polya, E.: Mathematics Discovery, Vol. I, New York 1962; Mathematics Discovery, Vol. II,
New York 1965.
2 A profile of a subject area by means of "beacons", as given here with combinatorial
problems, was previously given for probability and statistics. See:
Euclides47 (1972),237-333.
3 Melis, J. and Lorme-Bakker, H. de: 'Kleuters en wiskunde', in Wiskobas Bulletin 2
(1973), p. 648.
4 For a description of mathematical problems of this kind, see:
Goffree, F. and .Jansen H. (eds.): 20 gevallen van stagebegeleiding: internal IOWO
publication, Utrecht 1977.
S See:
O'Brien, T. C.: 'Some notes on m~tiplication of whole numbers', Ed,ucational Studies in

Mathematics 3 (1970),63-68.
Jong, R. de (ed.): Overzicht van wiskundeonderwijs'op de basisschool, IOWO curriculum
development publication 2, Utrecht, 1975, page 138 and following. Educational psychol-
ogy backgrounds to the principle of progressive schematization can be found in:
Jong, R. de (ed.): De abacus. An important aid for mathematics instruction in the primary
school, IOWO curriculum development publication 6, Utrecht, 1977, pp. 96-112.
The above mentioned publication contains a summary of:
Bruggen, J. C. van: Leren cijferen bekeken door een leerpsychologische bril, internal IOWO
publication, Utrecht, 1975.
6 Sawyer, W. W.: Wegwijs in de wiskunde, Utrecht 1962, pp. 11-12.
7 For other combinatorial problems see:
Kirsch, A: 'Ein-eindeutige Zuordnungen im 5. Schuljahr: Begriindung des Zahlbegriffs
oder Forderung der KombinationsfahigkeitT, Die Schulwarte 8 (1974), 29-36.
Jacobs, H.: Mathematics: a human endeavour, New York 1970, pp. 310-341.
8 This activity took place at a primary school in Hilversum.
9 Two internal IOWO publications:
Goffree, F.: Kijken, tioen, denken en zien. Analyse van wiskundig-didactisch werk van
studenten P. A, internal IOWO publication 1976.
Goffree, F.: Tel/en. Analyse van wiskundigdidactisch werk van studenten P. A., internal
IOWO publication, Utrecht 1977.
And:
NOTES 305
Goffree, F.: 'Johan, A teacher training freshman studying mathematics and didactics',
Educational Studies in Mathematics 8 (1977), 117-153.
10 The emphasis on the concept of "meaning" is found in:
Swenson, E. J.: Making primary arithmetic meaningful to children, Washington 1961.
Thorn, R: 'Modern mathematics: Does it existT, in Howson, A. G. (ed.), Developments in
mathematical education, Cambridge 1973, pp. 194-213.
II Jong, R de (ed.): Bussen en blokken (Worksheets for mathematics education in- the
primary school), IOWO curriculum development publication 3, Utrecht 1976.
Jong, R de (ed.): Inter-lokaal (working material for mathematics education in the primary
school), IOWO curriculum development pUblication 4, Utrecht 1976.
12 If it is a context problem, for example in the form of a story, the two levels can be
distinguished. In a particular instance the pupil sees that a multiplication must be carried
out to find the solution, but this operation is done by him at a low level of schematisation,
i.e., the application level is relatively high but the operation level low.
In another case the pupil does not recognise the multiplication problem, while he is
capable of performing that operation at a high level of schematisation. In short, it is
meaningful to distinguish between the level of mathematisation and the level of operation if
the learning of the basic operations takes place according to the strategy of progressive
schematisation, as sketched in sub-section 1.6. in Chapter II.
13 For differentiation in general see:
Nijhof, W.: 'Van externe naar interne differentiatieT Pedagogische Studien 53 (1976),
391-405.
Koning, P. de: Interne dijferentiatie: doel en mogelijkheden, APS edition, Amsterdam 1973.
14 The conceptions of T. Ehrenfest-Afanassjewa and D. van Hiele-Geldhof and P. M. van
Hiele are well-known. See:

Ehrenfest-Afanassjewa, T.: Wiskunde. Didactische opstellen, Groningen 1960.
Hiele-Geldhof, D. van: De didaktiek van de meetkunde in de eerste klas van het VHMO.,
Amsterdam n.d.
Hiele, P. M. van: De problematiek van het inzicht, gedemonstreerd aan het inzicht van
schoolkinderen in meetkunde-leerstof, Amsterdam n.d.
The publications mentioned above did have some influence on geometry instruction for the
first year of second3ry school, but the basic ideas of vertical planning in reasoning levels
have not always been satisfactorily worked out in modern text books. See:
Dormolen, J. van: 'Over het leren begrijpen wat een bewijs is', Euclides 50 (1975),
247-253.
This issue of Euclides is a special one devoted to geometry, and gives a good overview of
the state of affairs in primary and secondary education.
15 In this connection see:
Rilde, L. (ed.): The teaching ofprobability and statistics, New York 1970.
Dienes, Z. P.: An experimental study of mathematics learning, London 1963.
16 This quotation is from Barbel Inhelder and was recorded and disseminated by Bruner.
See:
Bruner, J. S.: The process of education, New York 1960.
Bruner, J. S.: Toward a Theory of Instruction, New York, 1966, p. 44.
17 This is most clearly evident in the misuse of the language of sets. See the book review in
the Wiskobas Bulletin 7 (1977-1978).
18 H. Freudenthal in a lecture on the language aspect of mathematics at a conference in
April 1973 in Lochem, later adapted for:
Freudenthal, H.: Weeding and sowing. Preface to a science of mathematical education,
Dordrecht 1978, pp. 233ff.
See also:
Hoffman, N.: 'Pascal's Triangle', The Arithmetic Teacher 21 (1973), 190-199.
306 NOTES
19 An overview of the possibilities of mathematical applications and an extensive list of

references is found in:
Pollak, H. 0.: 'The interaction between mathematics and other school subjects', paper for
the Third International Congress of Mathematics Education, Karlsruhe 1976.
20 For analytical and intuitive reasoning see:
Bruner, J. S.: The process o/education, New York 1960, 55-69.
Fishbein, E.: 'Intuition, structure and heuristic methods in the teaching of mathematics', in
Howson, 10. G. (ed.), Developments in Mathematics Education, Cambridge 1973, pp.
222-233.
21 For these ideas see:
Stenhouse, L.: An introduction to curriculum research and development, London 1975.
In Chapter IV we will again refer to the concept of "teaching without objectives".
22 For the relationship of starting points to objectives see:
Blankertz, H.: Theorien und Modelle der Didaktik, Miinchen 1969.
Meyer, H. L.: Einfiihrung in die Curriculum-Methodologie, Miinchen 1972.
CHAPTER III
I For the topic of goal-means see for example:

MacDonald-Ross, M.: 'Behavioral objectives: A critical review', in Instructional Science 2
(1973),1-52.
Wise, R J.: 'The use of objectives in curriculum planning. A critique of planning by
objectives', Curriculum Theory NetworkS (1976), 280-290.
2 Lists of terms are found in, among others:
McAshan, H. H.: The goals approach to performance objectives, Philadelphia 1974, p. 30.
3 For references concerning the overview in the first sub-section of this chapter we refer
to the relevant sections in the following chapters.
4 Corte, E. de, Geerlings, C. T., Lagerwey, N. A. J., Peters, J. J., and Vandenberghe, R:
Beknopte didaxologie, Groningen 1972, p. 35.
5 Tyler, R W.: Basic principles 0/ curriculum and instruction, Chicago 1970.
6 A typical quote in this connection:
The Mathematics, Architecture and Science Society at Leyden with the device
"Mathematics is the mother of science" awarded gold to a paper in 1797 with the
motto: Knowledge of geometry is the first step toward becoming a reasonable man.
Dapperen, D. van: Vormleer, Amsterdam 1825, p. 34.
7 An extensive profile of these, developments can be found in the classic:

Klein, F. and Schimmack, R: Der Mathematische Unterricht an den H6heren Schulen I,
Leipzig 1907, pp. 71 ff.
B E. W. Beth held an inquiry amongst members of the mathematics working group of the
"Werkgemeenschap tot Vernieuwing van Opvoeding en Onderwijs" where, among others,
the points quoted were enumerated See:
Beth, E. W.: Doel en zin van het meetkundeonderwijs, Euclides 14 (1939),236-244.
Opponents of this type of reflection on objectives as held by Dijksterhuis, H. J. E. Beth and
Verrijp in the 1920-1940 period, include Mannoury and Van Dantzig. Arithmetic
education was ascribed the same formal values. For an overview see:
Turkstra, H. and Timmer, J. K: Rekendidactiek, Groningen-Djakarta 1953.
9 Turkstra, H.: Psychologisch-didaktische problemen bit het onderwijs in de wiskunde aan
de middelbare school, Groningen 1934, p. 19.
NOTES 307
10 Cuypers, K.: Het aankweeken van het wiskundig denken, Antwerpen 1940, p. 29.
II F. (initial only): 'De wiskunde op de MMS', Euclides 14 (1938), p. 31.
12 Cuypers, K.: Het aankweeken van he! wiskundig denken, Antwerpen 1940, p. 193.
13 Turkstra, H.: Psychologisch-didaktische problemen bij het onderWijs in de wiskunde aan
de middelbare school, Groningen 1934, p. 34.
14 Reindersma, W.: Over het inleidend onderwijs in de meetkunde, Groningen - The
Hague 1926,pp.16ff.
15 See the views of Ehrenfest-Afanassjewa in: Kan het wiskunde-onderwijs tot de
opvoeding van het denkvermogen bijdragen?, Purmerend 1951.
16 These are mainly the views of Van Hiele-Geldof and Van Hiele. See:
Hiele, P. M. van: De problematiek van het inzicht, Amsterdam, pp. 88-102.
17 For the views of Kohnstamm on the learning of methods of solution, and Langeveld's
theory on knowledge domains see:
Kohnstamm, Ph.: Keur uit het didactisch werk, Groningen 1952.
Langeveld, M. J.: Inleiding tot de studie der paedagogische psychologie van de middelbare-
schoolleeftijd, Groningen 1954.
18 Sluis, A. van der: 'Computerkunde bij het AVO', Euclides 46 (1970), 81-92.
19 For the meaning of number systems see the theme "The Land of Eight" in Chapter IV.
In short, the notation for the binary system is:
:4 I ~3 I :2 I ~ I I :
'10101' in the decimal system is 21 (1 + 22 + 24)
In the binary systew one has two digits at one's disposal (0 and 1). In base 3 system there
are three (0, 1 and 2), and so on.
20 This view is found in:
Beth, E. W.: 'Doel en zin van het meetkunde onderwijs, Euclidps 14 (1939).
21 Goffree, F. and Wijdeveld, E. J.: 'Een praktikum wiskunde', Euclides 44 (1966),
193-219.
22 Much attention to the socialising aspect has been paid by Wiskivon (mathematics in
secondary education). See:
Sweers, W. (ed.): Leerplanontwikkeling onderweg I, IOWO publication, Utrecht 1977.
23 As indicated in Chapter I (see Note 12) this refers to the 6-12 age group. Kindergarten
education has been paid more attention since 1975. See articles by Jeanne de
Gooijer-Quint in the Wiskobas Bulletin.
24 See:
Proeve van een leerplan for het basisonderwijs B: Rekenen, Kohnstamminstitute, Groningen
1968,p.7.
25 Dam, P. R. L. van: Sommetjes in hokjes. Einddoelstellingen van het rekenonderwijs op
de basisschool, CITO publication, Arnhem 1975.
26 The idea is not a new one, and was popular in geometry instruction, searching for a
"definitive" pseudo-deductive treatment. NaIiles include Reindersrna, Wolda, Ehrerifest-
Afanassjewa, Van Hiele-Geldof and Van Hiele. The work of the last two especially was
theoretically based and resulted in a distinction of leanling levels. See:
Hiele, P. M. van: Begrip en inzicht, Werkboek van de wiskundedidaktiek, Purmerend 1973.
27 A very strict vertical planning according to the spiral idea is used by Dienes. See: .
Dienes, Z. P.: Les six etapes duprocessus d'apprentissage en mathematique, Paris 1970.
28 The problems will arise without any doubt, since modern arithmetic and mathematical
methods like 'Elementair Wiskundig Rekenen', 'Hoi, Rekenen', GetaJ in beeld', and 'Taltaal',
'Operatoir Rekenen', 'De Wereld in Getallen', 'Rekenwerk' and 'Rekenen en Wiskunde',
which differ from existing methods in several ways, will probably do well in the coming years.
308 NOTES
29 Kirsch, A.: 'Vorschliige zur Behandlung von Wachstumsprozessen und Exponential-

funktionen im Mittelstufunterricht', Didaktik der Mathematik 4 (1976), 257-285.
30 A treatment of similar ideas is found in a paper by the Schools Council Sixth Form
Mathematics Project in Mathematics Applicable, London 1975.
31 For an extensive profile see:
Moor, E. de and Treffers, A.: 'Het aanvankelijke meetkunde-onderwijs I, II, and III',
Euc/ides50 (1974), 41-61, and 81-99.
32 An extensive analysis of text books of the "New Math" trend is found in Wiskobas
Bulletin 7 (1978), Nr. 4.
33 For an overview see:
the Third Congress on Mathematics Education, Karlsruhe 1976.
34 An extensive reflection on these matters is found in:
'Measurement in School Mathematics', Yearbook of the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics, Reston 1976.
35 For the language aspect of mathematics see:
Brinke, J. S. ten: 'Moedertaalonderwijs en toch geen "Nederlands''', Euclides 45 (1970),
327-336.
36 A clipping from Het Parool May 15th 1973. Articles on population increase are quite
frequent.
37 For an interesting reflection on the grains problem and the use of calculators see:
Papy, G.: 'Schaakbord en zakrekenmachine', Nico, Nr. 20 (1976), 67-80.
For other possibilities in working with a calculator see Blij, F. van der: 'Voor minder dan
twee tientjes rekenpret', Wiskrant, Nr. 9 (1977),10-11.
38 Similar historically coloured reflections on general objectives for mathematics education
in West Germany and Great Britain, respectively, are found in:
Lenne, H.: Analyse der Mathematikdidaktik in Deutschland, Stuttgart 1969.
McNelis, S. and Dunn, J. A.: 'Why teach mathematics?' International Journal of
Mathematical Education in Science and Technology 8 (1977), 175-184.
39 For other reflections on general objectives see:
Bigalke, H.: 'Zur "gesellschaftlichen Relevanz" der Mathematik im Schulunterricht. Aufgabe
und Ziele des Mathematikunterrichts', Zentralblatt fUr Didaktik der Mathematik 8
(1976),25-34.
Braunfeld, P. and Kaufman, B.: 'Mathematical education: A viewpoint', International
Journal ofMathematical Education in Science and Technology 3 (1972), 287-291.
Christiansen, B.: 'Induction and deduction in the learning of mathematics and in
mathematical instruction', Educational Studies in Mathematics 2 (1969), 139-160.
Johnson, D. A. and Rising, G. R: Guidelines for Teaching Mathematics, Belmont 1969.
Kratz, J.: 'Aufgaben und Moglichkeiten des heutigen Mathematikunterrichts an den
allgemeinbildenden Schulen', Zentralblatt fUr Didaktik der Mathematik 6 (1974),
116-120.
Lenne, H.: Analyse der Mathematikdidakiik in Deutschland, Stuttgart 1969.
Servais, W::Objectives de I'enseignement de la mathematique (mimeo), 1975.
Watson, F. R: 'Aims in mathematical education and their implications for the training of
mathematics teachers', International Journal of Mathematics Education in Science and
Technology 2 (1971), 105-119.
Winter, H.: 'Vorstellungen zut Entwicklung von Curricula fiir den Mathematikunterricht in
der Gesamtschule', in Beitriige zum Lernzielproblem, Ratingen 1972.
Winter, H.: 'Allgemeine Lernziele fiir den Mathematikunterricht', Zentralblatt fUr Didaktik
der Mathematik 6 (1974),106-116.
Wittenberg, A. I.: Bildung und Mathematik, Stuttgart 1963.
A more extensive treatment, directed especially to the problems in developing countries,"is
found in:
NOTES 309
d'Ambrosio, U.: 'Overall goals and objectives for mathematical education' (mimeo), 1976;
published in the Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Mathematics
Education, 1977.
CHAPTER IV
I The following is meant to convey some insight into the possible content of a
mathematics curriculum according to Wiskobas. It is no more than a global indication.
From the given starting points and general objectives one can come to a large variety of
choices for text books, themes etc. Some of the arguments for such a choice are of
normative character - something should be so and so - and are derived from a certain
view of man, society and subject area. Other arguments are based on facts - something is
so and so - and stem from data of educational practice, didactics, mathematics and
psychology. Often the choice is made on the basis of vague personal tastes and preferences.
Take the theme "The Land of Eight": Is there an objective (in the sense of "valid for
everyone") criterion for the choice of this theme? How about for "Gulliver" or "Grains on
the Chessboard"? No coercive arguments can be brought forward for the choice of these
themes. They can be made perspicuous or even plausible through the starting points and
general objectives.
In view of this, it is not surprising that there is no consensus, either nationally or
internationally, on the desirability of a number of subjects. The activities within the subject
areas as described here are therefore no common property, although there is agreement on
a number of them. This is not the time or place to describe the procedures followed by
Wiskobas in weighing each of the parts as far as their desirability is concerned. Matters of
deduction, legitimacy and competence are not considered.
The arithmetic system
The arithmetic system is the area that consists mainly of the classical curriculum: counting,
grouping and classifying, adding, subtracting, multiplying in the field of natural numbers,
fractions and decimal numbers; becoming acquainted with the properties of these
operations and their applications.
In mathematics education, arithmetic was given a number of new impulses, especially in
the application area, leading to a more integrated and reality-bound instruction. In a more
technical sense, where the learning of arithmetic skills is concerned, certain new charac-
teristic traits can be distinguished.
We have in mind:
practic6 games for the basic operations;
systematic counting;
calculating with pocket calculators;
calculating on magnitudes, probabilities, slot machines;
open statements with relation symbols like ", <, >;
the various number aspects, counting number, measuring number, numerosity,
reckoning. number and code number, their functions and how they are "operable";
use of the number line, grid and flow chart;
connection to subject areas like mesurement, geometry, functions and probability;
calculating with negative numbers;
generalizing, detection of formulae, and the use of letters;
calculations in other number systems, for the higher grades, thus offering an
overview and review of learned algorithms in the decimal system;
properties of operations in connection with structured reckoning;
varieties of applications of the basic operations, as in counting problems and ratio.
As we have said, an attempt is made to find connections to everyday situations. The
310 NOTES
newspaper, train timetable, sports, and advertisements were proposed. Thus the arithmetic
system offers a greater opening to meaningful reality, more so than was previously the
case.
2 Measuring
In the area of measurement we have to do with magnitudes such as length, weight and time.
Magnitudes can be captured numerically: we can add them, subtract them, multiply and
divide them. Thus the area of a rectangle is found by multiplying length and width, and the
average speed of a vehicle by dividing the covered distance by the time. The resulting units
of measure are the compound units "m X m" (m 2) and "km per hour" (kmlhour). From the
original units, new units are formed by these operations, which in turn are numerically
expressed.
Working with magnitudes leads to operations with numbers. In the traditional
programme much time was devoted to the arithmetic of time, money, length, area, volume
and weight, with the stress on the algorithms of the metric system. Yet this approach to
measurement is unsatisfactory for several reasons. Firstly, working with magnitudes is
in principle independent of the numerical interpretation. We can compare, order and
combine magnitudes without introducing specific units of measure. Secondly, a large
number of mathematical activities is possible in measuring beyond the limits of routine
arithmetic:
developing measuring strategies, e.g. by indirect measuring;
developing measuring units, e.g., for population density, traffic density, etc.
the meaning of precision and imprecision in estimating, measuring, calculating,
rounding-off;
measurements in experiments and projects, making charts and graphic processing of
data;
discovery of relations between magnitudes;
detection of rules, for example the area of a circle;
the integration of mathematics and "science" in themes and projects, for example the
consequence of enlargement of an object for its circumference, area, and volume,
and the biological consequences;
the connection to counting problems, geometry, functions, probability and statistics;
Measurement can also link mathematics to reality.
3 Geometry
Until very recently, geometry was exclusive to secondary education. It was associated with
Euclid and seen as the example of a deductive system. At primary school level there were a
few remnants of elementary geometry such as the calculation of the circumference, area,
and volume of geometrical objects. However, from the nineteen-fifties onwards, the interest
in geometry in the primary school grew almost as fast as the enthusiasm for Euclidian
geometry in secondary education faded. The Arithmetic Teacher contained not one article
on geometry in the 1954-1959 period, only an average of five per year in the next five
years, then ten and in the 1968-1973 period even fifteen per year. Internationally,
however, there is little agreement on geometry programmes for primary education. This is
possibly due to the richness of the area; geometry has many aspects that can be included in
a vertically planned curriculum only with difficulty.
For example:
the form aspect, concerned with the naming, recognition and classification of geo-
metrical objects, the design of patterns, tesselations, projections and intersections;
the constructive aspect: making of grids, working with construction straws, drawing
of patterns and ground plans and constructions with the use of compasses and ruler,
construction of buildings;
the relation aspect: congruence, similarity, parallelism, spatial orientation, views of
buildings, etc;
NOTES 311
the topological aspects: mazes, traversing graphs, deformation of figures;

the calculation aspect: counting problems, calculation with vectors and mappings,
connections to measurement;
the transformation aspect: symmetric figures, strip ornament, stamping, paper-
cutting and folding, properties of translations, rotations and reflections, etc;
the language aspect: geometrical concepts, the description and naming of figures, the
description of ground plans;
the logical aspect: reasoning on the basis of visual evidence withitl a locally
organised system.
Geometrical activities are especially praised for their inviting character, the visual basis
they offer for mathematical activities and the possibilities they provide for an ever-
increasing mathematical organisation of the subject-area.
4 Probability and Statistics
The interest in this subject-area is even more recent than the renew~d interest in geometry.
In a well-known book Primary Mathematics Today, first published in 1970, one will search
in vain for concepts that have a crucial meaning for collecting, ordering and interpreting
numerical data such as average, mode, median, deviation and correlation. Nothing can be
found on sampling and calculating probabilities. On the whole probability and statistics
were absent as a subject-area of modem primary school mathematics until very recently.
The sudden interest, which can be explained by a desire for more applicable mathematics,
as a reaction to the many modernisation attempts in the sixties, is directed at the following
activities:
processing numerical data in pictograms, bar diagrams, line graphs, pie charts or
histograms, where measures like average, median, and mode will be dealt with;
simulation of events using 'dice, coins, spinners, telephone books and random
numbers to determine probabilities qualitatively and quantitatively;
calculations with probabilities (sum-, product- and complement rules), visually
supported by tree diagrams, road diagrams and grids;
probability connected to arithmetic: bingo, fractions, counting problems, percen-
tages and ratio;
sampling to approach a given distribution in the long run and predict real
distributions;
the law of large numbers a priori and empirically;
The subject-area of probability and statistics holds a vast wealth of didactical opportunities
, for understanding reality.
5 Relations and Functions
The title "relations and functions" labels the subject-areas that deal with order-creating and
order-describing .activities. These organising activities have always taken place in initial
arithmetic instruction, albeit in terms of ordering according to alphabet, lexicographic
ordering, arranging in order, linking, cataloguing, grouping, structuring, classifying etc.
Mathematics education has given an extension to these activities in the primary school
which goes far beyond what took place in traditional arithmetic. Attention is directed
mainly to assignments, rules, laws and prescriptions in the form of formulae, flow charts
and arrows that describe or bring about the structures of a mathematical and empirical
reality.
In this connection we mention:
ordering of objects according to certain prescriptions, such as objects according to

weight, events according to time and probabilities according to size;
forming of chains according to certain criteria, such as logi-blocks according to
differences in one property, numbers according to "is three more than", dominoes
via "is larger than";
312 NOTES
sorting of objects - possibly with overlaps - according to characteristics such as

colour, shape, size, number, or according to two or more criteria, where use can be
made of punched cards; looking for criteria for classification, ordering or sorting;
continuation of patterns for numbers, music, ornaments, etc.;
composition of arrow diagrams for certain relations, completing arrow diagrams and
then operating on them;
calculating with slot machines· that deliver a certain output to a given input
according to certain prescriptions involving additions, subtractions, multiplications,
divisions or compositions of them;
the discovery and description of relations between pairs or triples of quantities
within a situation, such as telephone or taxi costs as functions of time, oscillation
times as a function of pendulum length, height of bounce as a function of height of
fall, length of day as a function of calendar date, shipping costs as a function of
weight and distance, etc.
As important as the discovery and the description is the creation of relationship and order.
6 Language and Logic
In the past some people pleaded for a preparation in formal logic as support for mathe-
matics education. However, their pleas was disregarded. Even though the patterns of
formal logic may be suited to determine whether conclusions from certain premises are
correct and to analyse all sorts of reasoning patterns, they offer no clues for the detection
of these premises or offer support to constructive elements of mental strategies. So the plea
in favour of formal logic in secondary education did not stem from the conception of
mathematics as an activity. If, however, logic is taken to be thinking about thinking, the
matter is entirely different. In this kind of exploration we can depart from more complex
mental situations and analyse the effectiveness of the mental strategy and the language that
is used. If the emphasis is placed on language as a means of expressing thought, it is also
referred to as formalisation. If the object of thinking is the construction of mental patterns,
we speak of schematisation. Activities we can list in this respect are:
symbolising;
developing·a language of one's own;
detecting relationships between the vocabulary and syntax of ordinary language,
mathematical language and more formalised language, for example as in the use of
variables; .
translating situations into mathematical terms and vice versa: interpretating mathe-
maticallanguage into everyday terms;
the use of "and", "or", "either-or", "not", "some", "few", "always", "at least", "at
most", etc., visualising statements in which these terms occur, and vice versa: placing
statements next to illustrations;
analysing all kinds of reasoning and mental strategies on the basis of suitable
problems;
"exploration" of paradoxes.
The area of language and logic, with the exception of formal logic, has barely been touched
upon so far.
This was an overview of subject-areas, as sources of multi-dimensional objectives of
mathematics education, as pursued by Wiskobas.
7 See:
Groot, A. D. de: 'Over fundamentele ervaringen: prolegomena tot een analyse van
gesprekken met schakers', Pedagogische Studiifn 51 (1974), p. 332.
8 Popham, W. J., Eisner, E. W., Sullivan, H. J., and Tyler, Z. L.: Instructional objectives,
Chicago 1969,p. 35.
9 Loc. cit., p. 37.
10 Loc. cit., p. 33.
11 Loc. cit., p. 45.
NOTES 313
12 Loc. cit., p. 43.

13 Lic. cit., p. 134.
14 Loc. cit., p. 8.
15 For the use of the terms "introduce to", "equip with", "confront with" and "unfold" see:
Oudkerk Pool, T.: 'Van zaakvak tot wereIdverkenning', Resonans 7 (1975), 183-188.
16 Popham, W. J., Eisner, E. W. et al.: Instructional objectives, Chicago 1969, p. 28.
17 Loc. cit., p. 16.
18 Loc. cit., p. 17.
19 Loc. cit., p. 26.
20 Loc. cit., p. 61.

21 Loc. cit., p. 62.
22 However, the terms are often not interpreted in the same way. This can be
demonstrated by the term "specific". A large number of Dutch speaking authors (De Corte,
Stroomberg, Huber, Pilot and others) use the term "specific" as a synonym for "concrete".
But sometimes the term is reserved for less concrete objectives (Westrhenen), or in
reference to a different dimension and taken as the opposite of general objectives, similarly
to abstract-concrete:
Corte, E. de: Onderwijsdoelstellingen. Bijdrage tot de didaxologische theorievorming en
aanzetten voor het empirisch onderzoek over onderwijsdoelen, Leuven 1973, p. 17.
Stroomberg, H. P.: 'Onderwijsdoelstellingen en doelstellingenonderzoek', Pedagogische
Studien 50 (1973), p. 512.
Huber, F. and Pilot, A.: Specificeren van onderwijsdoelstellingen, Utrecht 1974, p. 17.
Westrhenen, J. van: Aardrijkskundige onderwijsdoelen. Een onderzoek naar de feitelijk
nagestreefde, cognitieve leerdoelen van de aardrijkskunde in het MA VO, HA VO en
VWO, diss. Amsterdam 1976, p. 21.
Beuk, C. H.: 'Clusteranalyse in doelstellingenonderzoek', Pedagogische Studien 53 (1976),
p.457.
23 Gronlund, N. E.: Stating behavioral objectives for classroom instruction, London 1970,
p.53.
Gerlach, V. S. and Sullivan, H. J.: Constructing statements of outcomes, Englewood 1967,
p.5.
Walbesser, H. H.: An evaluation model and its application: Second Report, Washington
1968,p.7.
24 Sullivan, H. J.: 'Objectives, evaluation and improved learner achievement', in Popham,
W. J. (ed.), Instructional Objectives, Washington 1969, p. 83.
25 Eisenberg, T. A.: 'Behaviourism: The bane of school mathematics', International Journal
of Mathematics Education in Science and Technology 6 (1975), p. 164.
26 Klauer includes the concept of probability in the description of an objective: "Lehrziel
ist die Erreichung einer bestimmten Losungswahrscheinlichkeit bei Aufgabenklassen." See:
Klauer, K. J.: Methodik der LehrZieldefinition und Lehrstoffanalyse, Dusseldorf 1974,
p.. 42.
27 It is quite a problem to discover what is the relationship between an objective and the
set of tests by which it can be represented. Roughly speaking, if a formulated objective is
taken as the starting point, the problem arises as to how this objective can be unfolded in
sub-objectives that together cover the total objective, and how to refine these sub-
objectives so that they become susceptible to measuring such that the envisaged thing is
covered by what is actually measured. De Groot refers to this as the coverage problem,
which in his opinion has not been solved by the common methods of measurement. He
draws attention to the importance of students' reporting and to formulations of objectives
like "I have learned that ..." This learning can apply to oneself as well as to the world
around one. De Groot gives an important addition to common methods of measurement,
which can also be applied to mathematics.
Groot, A. D. de: 'Over fundamenteIe ervaringen: Prolegomena tot een analyse van
gesprekken met schakers', Pedagogische Studien 51 (1974),329-349.
If, however, one takes the set of tests generated by a certain concrete product goal as a
314 NOTES
starting point, as Klauer does, then the problem of coverage changes to one of description,
and the question arises as to how to provide a covering description of the set of tests.
Klauer's answer to this problem is not satisfactory. In an unpublished book review on
this matter H. Freudenthal says:
From mathematics the author borrows the idea of describing a learning objective
extensionally, Le., as a set of "Aufgaben", so that a test of the objective is a random
sample from that set. The opposite, and more acceptable, view is the intentional
interpretation of an objective where the intention is conveyed by a set of examples, a
set that only extensionally gives the impression of a random sample. What, from the
extensional point of view, looks like a sample, is intentionally to be considered as a
paradigm. The author's theory concerning learning objectives looks exact, but is so only
at the cost of its operationality. The author has operationalised it only in cases where
the operationalisation is trivial. There is not the slightest evidence that the theory, in a
broader sense, can be operationalised.
28 National Advisory Committee on Mathematical Education: Overview and analysis of

School Mathematics Grades K-12, Washington 1975, p. 51.
29 McAshan, H. H.: The goals approach to performance objectives, Philadelphia 1974, p. 2.
30 Gronlund also makes a two-way division. He speaks of instructional objectives and
behavioural objectives. Terms like knowing, understanding and applying can be used for
"instructional objectives" (McAshan would refer to "goals" here), whereas the learning
products contain terms that indicate observable behaviour (McAshan would speak of
objectives). See:
Gronlund, N. E.: Stating behavioural objectives for classroom instruction, London 1970.
31 Published earlier on this subject:
Treffers, A. and Wijdeveld, E. J.: 'Over operationele doelstellingen', Wiskobas Bulletin 2

(1973),627-636.
A broad treatment of taxonomies can be found in:
Frey, K.: Theorien des Curriculums, Weinheim 1972, pp. 187ff.
Besides the taxonomies of Bloom and Gagne, Wood's and Wilson's are also commonly
used in mathematics education.
32 Statewide Mathematics Advisory Committee: Mathematics framework for California
public schools. Kindergarten through grade eight, Sacramento 1972, p. 109.
33 Eisner, E. W.: 'Emerging models for educational evaluation', School Review 80 (1972),
573-590.
34 Oudkerk Pool, T.: 'Leerdoelen, wat doe ik ermeeT, Onderwijs en Opvoeding 26 (1975),
223-229.
35 Kieviet says:
If I might be allowed to dwell on this point, I wonder whether Eisner does not create a
pseudo-contradiction here. In the case of expressive objectives also, one has definite
intentions with the planned encounters, that is, one has certain products in mind. What
Eisner refers to as expressive objectives, the encounters, are in fact learning activities.
The outcomes can be manifested in the activity itself and in products. That which is
pursued can be formulated beforehand in terms of behaviour.
This interpretation of "expressive objectives" is not correct. In the epilogue of the

discussion Eisner says:
What I would like to describe as an expressive objective is the outcome of an encounter

of learning activity which is planned to provide the student with an opportunity to
personalise learning.
NOTES 315
And:
The risk, therefore, of describing expressive objectives in terms of encounters is one of

confounding them with learning activities. One must therefore either be content with
taking the risk of not describing the objective at all before the encounter or activity but
waiting until after the encounter to describe what has occurred.
A different matter is what Eisner means by the outcomes of "expressive objectives". This is
dealt with in the text.
Eisner, W. W.: 'Epilogue', in Popham, W. J. (ed.), Instructional Objectives, Washington
1969,p.13l.
Kieviet, F. K.: Open and gesloten curricula, Groningen 1976, pp. 1O-1l.
36 Loc. cit., p. 28.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid.
Suppose you take three or four judges and ask them to appraise a product and then you
get some kind of consensus with respect to its value. Now that's different from
describing the characteristics of the behaviour or product that the learner is trying to
produce in the first place. I think that's the distinction we need to make. I think it is an
important one, Howard, and I don't think we have made that kind of distinction. In the
process of writing, in the process of painting, and in the process of researching, ideas
emerge which become leading ideas which then direct the course of action.
39 Bruner, J. S.: Toward a theory of instruction, New York 1966, 72.

The misunderstanding that can arise lies in the fact that the accentuation of the process
side of education need not lead to a process goal description: the use of mathematical
methods can very well be described in terms of products. It was Gagne who reacted to
Bruner's statement "knowing is a process not a product" by saying:
Knowing strategies, then, is not all that is required for thinking; It IS not even a
substantial part of what is needed. To be an effective problem-solver, the individual
must somehow have acquired masses of organized intellectual skills.
According to Gagne's train of thought, emphasising "processes" does not exclude the need
for product goals, but rather indicates the importance of giving a sequence of product
goals. He is especially concerned with equipping for, offering means to, offering thinking-
instruments, while Bruner also has in mind the confrontation with rich learning situations
in the same way as Eisner - learning situations that lead to process goal formulation. Thus
there is a difference between the empirical and structural trend, which in "science" is
exemplified by that between the ESS-project (Elementary Science Study) and the SAPA-
project (Science, A Process Approach). In the one case there is more room for "messing
about" and for initiative on the pupil's part while, in the other case, instruction is more
guided. This problem of processes will be further discussed in the course of this
publication. See:
Shulman, L. S.: 'Psychological controversies in the teaching of science and mathematics', in
Crosswhite, F. J. (ed.), Teaching mathematics: Psychological foundations, Worthington
1973, p. 19.
40 Examples of the mathematical thinking process can be found in:
Krutetskii, V. A.: The psychology of mathematical abilities in schoolchildren, Chicago
1976.
41 Raths, J.: 'Onderwijzen zonder specifieke leerdoelen als uitgangspunt', Onderwijs en
Opvoeding 26 (1975), 211-218.
316 NOTES
42 Stenhouse, L.: An introduction to curriculum research and development, London 1975.

Arnold, W. R: 'Management by learning activities: An alternative to objectives', The
Arithmetic Teacher 25 (1977), 52-56.
43 This interpretation of process goals is in accordance with what is often encountered in
literature on the subject. However, a few other meanings are attributed to the term process
goals.
De Block describes a process goal as follows:
Some goals are pursued to ensure a purposeful course of learning, in other words, to
ensure an effective attainment of the product goals. So for a lesson in creative art one
might first of all playa record to induce a fitting atmosphere - this is a process goal.
In other words, for him process goals are to create the necessary conditions for learning.
See:
Block, A. de: Taxonomie van leerdoelen, Antwerp 1975, p. 128.
Another alternative interpretation is what, in our terminology, could be indicated as
product goals involving the methods of a certain subject area, as in the term ''the process of
science" or ''processes of mathematics". This kind of objective is also sometimes denoted
as a process goal. In fact one uses a characteristic of content - goals related to a methodo-
logical approach - rather than, what is common, a formal criterion. This interpretation is
closely connected to what is posed in Note 39. See:
Bell, A. W.: The learning of general mathematical strategies. A development study of process
attainments in mathematics, including the construction and investigation of a process-
oriented curriculum for the first year of secondary school. Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Nottingham, 1976.
44 Becker, H., Haller, H. D., Stubenrauch, H., and Wilkending, G.: Das Curriculum. Praxis,
Wissenschaft und Politik, Miinchen 1974, p. 27.
45 Goffree, F.: 'Doorkijkspiegelingen' (Semi-transparent mirror reflections) (Fifteen
reflections on teaching learning material), Wiskobas Bulletin 3 (1974),474-495.
46 McAshan, H. H.: The goals approach to performance objectives, Philadelphia 1974, p. 2.
Klauer, K. J.: Methodik der Lehrzieldefinition und Lehrstoffanalyse, Dusseldorf 1974,
p.42.
47 Many of the authors quoted agree on this point: Klauer, McAshan, De Corte and De
Groot. See also Note 49.
48 Wood, R: 'Objectives in the teaching of mathematics', in Ashlock, R B. and Herman,
W. L. (eds.), Current research in elementary school mathematics, New York 1970, pp.
22-45.
Taxonomies that show agreement with Wood's are: "Educational Testing Service"
(USA), "Tlte Indian National Council of Educational Research· Classification" (India), the
classification of ''The Schools Mathematics Study Group" and "The International Study of
Achievements in Mathematics" (Husen, Sweden). Here is a short explanation of Wood's
classification:
Knowledge
the language of mathematics: definitions, notati,ons, concepts;
specific facts;
laws and generalizations.
Skills, such as:

the use of measuring and calculation instruments;
drawing of figures and graphs;
making charts.
NOTES 317
So that besides being able to execute all sorts of manipulations the pupil must also have
certain techniques and algorithms at his disposal.
Comprehension:
being able to transpose data; for example the conversion of data from diagrams,
charts, graphs, into verbal form and vice versa; being able to convert geometric
concepts given in a verbal form into spatial forms;
being able to interprete data: for example the interpretation of graphs, drawing
conclusions from data, the critical examination of reasoning, the distinction between
relevant and less relevant data, the distillation of the essence from an argument or
story;
interpolation and extrapolation; for example giving predictions on the basis of
available data and the filling in of gaps in a series with a certain pattern.
Applying with insight:
application of what has been learned to other situations;
application of what has been learned to relatively new situations;
determination of relations between certain data;
handling solution methods;
drawing conclusions and evaluating.
Inventiveness:
- creative performance.
49 In this connection Franssen says:
Apparently Van Parreren sees a depth structure under what we call the surface
structures. The observable behaviour is determined by this depth structure. Learning is
not in the first place a change in the observable behaviour of performance, it is a
change in the underlying structures of action. The result is not a certain behaviour
but a potential that makes this, but also other, behaviour possible. (Franssen, H.: 'Het
eksakt formuleren van doelstellingen voor het onderwijsleerproces: mogelijkheid en
betekenis', in Creemers, B. (ed.), Bijdragen tot de onderwijskunde. Den Bosch 1973,
p.163.
50 Finch, C.: Walt Disney. From Mickey Mouse to Disneyland, Amsterdam 1975.
51 For this terminology see:
Rasche, H.: 'De functie van doelstellingen in een leerplan', Pedagogische Studien 50
(1973), p. 530.
52 See Notes 39 and 43 and also:
Philp, H.: 'Mathematical education in developing countries; some problems of teaching and
learning', in Howson, A G. (ed.), Developments in mathematical education, Cambridge
1973,pp.154-181.
53 For such a strict approach to product goals see:
Corte, E. de, and Janssens, A: Praktische leidraad voor het formuleren van leerdoelen,
Leuven 1974.
54 The inadequacy of this strict approach is most clearly evident in Klauer. See the
remarks in Note 27.
55 See for example:
Greenberg, H. J.: 'The objectives in mathematics education', The Mathematics Teacher 67
(1974),639-644.
Steiner, H. G.: 'Mathematics curriculum development in the USA A look at the past
twenty years', Zentralblatt flir Didaktik der Mathematik 8 (1976), 136-141.
56 Block, A de: Taxonomie van leerdoelen, Antwerp 1975, p. 163.
318 NOTES
57 See:
Wilson, J. W.: 'Evaluation of learning in secondary school mathematics', in Bloom, B. S.,
Hastings, J. T., and Madaus, G. F. (eds.), Handbook on formative and summative
evaluation of student learning, New York 1971, pp. 643-697.
Freudenthal, H.: 'Lernzielfindung im Mathematikunterricht', Zentralblatt fUr Piidagogik 20
(1974),719-739.
58 This source of misunderstanding is also found in the above mentioned work by Wilson:
placing certain test items under certain categories is, disregarding the actual instruction
given, very arbitrary. Sullivan has also referred to this. See:
Sullivan, H. J.: 'Objectives, evaluation, and improved learner achievement', in Popham, W.
J. (ed.), Instructional objectives, Chicago 1969, p. 94.
59 See for example:
Brink, J. van den: Autobusproblemen, internal IOWO publication.

Brink, J. van den and Wijdeve1d, E.: De kamping, IOWO curriculum development publica-
tion 8, Utrecht 1978.
Wijdeveld, E.: Vierkubers, IOWO curriculum development publication 5, Utrecht 1977.
Goffree, F.: 'Kijk op kans. Proefwerk nieuwe stijl', Wiskobas Bulletin 2 (1973),907-919.
60 Popham, W. J., Eisner, E. W. et al.: Instructional Objectives, Chicago 1969, p. 35.
61 De Block on "expressive objectives":
It is clear that we are concerned here with a description of the learning process, not the
learning objectives. Of course this does not exclude that sometimes we do not know
what the actual result of certain intended objectives will be. Nor does this mean that the
learning process (subject matter, methods and media) is of no importance.... Eisner
does not make sufficient distinction between the learning objectives and the learning
process and thus comes to his highly disputable theses. (Block, A. de: Taxonomie van
leerdoelen, Antwerp 1975, p.lS7.)
62 De Groot does not use the term process goals, but what he says about the subjective
aspect of objectives, the pursuit of general objectives and the fact that the affective domain
is no separate domain, but is of a cognitive nature, fits within the terms of process and
product goals. His ideas on evaluation can therefore well be applied to the evaluation of
process and product goals. We have in mind especially his "student reporting" in the form
of "I have learned that ...". See:
Groot, A. D. de: 'Hoe stelt men eindtermen op?' Universiteit en Hogeschool 20 (1974),
213-233.
gesprekken met schakers', Pedagogische Studien 51 (1974), 329-349.
63 Popham, W. J., Eisner, E. W., et al.: Instructional objectives, Chicago 1969, pp. 130-
131.
64 Block, A. de: Taxonomie van leerdoelen, Antwerp 1975, p. IS 7.
CHAPTER V
I Referred to here are material aids - including written assignments and texts such as the
themes presented - which are supplied to the pupils so that they may carry out learning
activities. They can be accompanied by teachers' manuals. In the text we often use the term
"pieces of mathematics instruction".
2 Baker, E."L.: 'The technology of instructional development', in Travers, R M. W. (ed.),
Second handbook of research on teaching, Chicago 1973, p. 249.
3 The term curriculum development can refer to a wide range of planning, directed
towards instruction as a whole, school programmes, and series of lessons. Here we are
NOTES 319
especially interested in planning lessons by means of learning packages including projects,

themes, partial curricula, such as exemplified in this study.
4 This terminology is found in:
Krathwohl, D. R. and Payne, D. A.: 'Defining and assessing educational objectives', in
Thorndike, R. L. (ed.), Educational measurement, Washington 1971, p. 21. I
5 Teunissen, J. M. F.: 'Handelingsmodellen voor de constructie van onderwijsleer-
systemen', in Creemers, B. (ed.), Bijdragen tot de onderwijskunde, Den Bosch 1973, pp.
65-111.
6 Walker, D. F.: 'Curriculum development in an art project', in Reid, W. A. and Walker, D.
F. (eds.), Case Studies in Curriculum Change, London 1975, p. 99.
7 Loc. cit. p. 95:
In their first few weeks of discussions the Project staff made several decisions that
shaped their subsequent work. They decided to prepare some lessons immediately,
rather than, say, prepare flow charts of the whole Project's work, or write a rationale or
other planning document. Also they decided to do lesson writing outside staff meetings,
working individually or in teams of two, reserving for general discussion only questions
that arose in the outside work. This decision meant that the work would be divided into
two ongoing parts, production of lessons and support materials, and discussions, or as I
later came to call it, deliberation.
8 Loc. cit., p. 108.

9 Loc. cit., p. 133.
10 The working manner followed in the "Kettering Project" described by Walker, is closely
similar to that of Wiskobas. A few people have certain basic ideas on education (the
subject area) and the appointment of the other project members is made on the basis of the
likelihood that they will be able to work as a team within that educational philosophy.
II Loc. cit., p. 133.
12 For the terms integration phase, exploration phase, curriculum, see Sub-section 2 of
Chapter I and Note 12.
13 The framework plans were never published. The six books of 40 pages each served as an
overview for the designers of pieces of mathematics education for the various grades.
14 More about these points can be found in Notes 28, 29 and 30.
IS Bruggen, J. van: 'Abacus en leerpsychologie', in De Abacus, IOWO curriculum develop-

ment publication 6, Utrecht 1977, p. 105.
16 The following can serve as information: The relation "is longer than" is indicated by "t> "
and ''is as long as" by " - " .
A statement about triples of objects (people in this case) such as ... t> ... has the
property: if a t> band b t> c, then a t> c.
This property is called transitivity. It also holds for the relation" - ".
A statement about pairs of the kind: . . . - ... has the property: if a - b, then b - a.
This property is called symmetry. It does not hold in general for tHe relation" t> " between
pairs.
A statement for elements of the kind: . . . -: ... has the property: a-a. This property
is called reflexivity. It does not hold true for" t> "
Relations, in general, can be examined with regard to these properties.
" t>" is transitive, anti-symmetrical and non-reflexive as we· have seen; it is an order
relation.
" - " is transitive, symmetrical and reflexive; it is an equivalence relation.
17 About greetings see:
Ortega y Gasset, J.: De mens en de mensen, The Hague 1958, pp. 195ff.
18 An enquiry was held among some one hundred teachers taking an in-service course. A
large majority reacted favourably to "Freckleham" and said the same for their pupils. In
320 NOTES
less than 10% the reaction was that the problem at issue was unrealistic. Experience has
shown that in a few cases the context story had been somewhat modified. We had expected
teachers to show more reserve towards this kind of theme.
19 Allerdings ist durchaus moglich, Guilford's dreidimensionale Intelligenzfaktoren als
Lehrziele zu betrachten, was beispielsweise auch in der piidagogisch-psychologiaschen
Kreativitiitsforschung geschieht (see also Muhle und Schell 1970).
Dabel ist dann auf vorbildliche Weise das Problem gelost, wie man vom Lehrziel
zum Lehrstoff und zu lehrzielorientierten Testaufgaben gelangen kann.
Ein diesem formal sehr iihnliches Konzept wird weiter unten vorgestellt, wobei die
Lehrziele durch eine Klasse von Testaufgaben definiert und gleichzeitig nach dem
Inhalts- und Verhaltenaspekt (evtl. auch nach dem Produkt-aspekt) bestimmt werden.
(Klauer, K J.: Methodik der Lehrzieldefinition und Lehrstoffanalyse, Dusseldorf 1972,
p.24.)
20 The four dimensions as suggested by De Corte are: subject matter dimension, content-
information dimension, product-information dimension and operation dimension. Klauer
takes De Corte's dimensions one and two together, which in our opinion is meaningful.
Corte, E. de: Onderwijsdoelstellingen. Bijdrage tot de didaxologische theorievorming en
aanzetten voor het empirisch onderzoek over onderwijsdoelen, Leuven 1973, p. 146.
21 Wheeler, D. K: Curriculum Process, London 1967, p.I13.
22 Block, A. de: Taxonomie van leerdoelen, Antwerp 1975, pp. 55ff.
23 Johnson, D. A. and Rising, E. R.: Guidelines for teaching mathematics, Belmont 1969.
Dormolen, J. van: Didactiek van de wiskunde, Utrecht 1974.
24 Pikaart, L. and Travers, K J.: 'Teaching elementary school mathematics: a simplified
model', The Arithmetic Teacher 20 (1973), p. 334.

25 A lesson transcript elucidating the objectives pursued can be found in the following
-IOWO publication of theWiskivon team:
Sweers, W. (ed.): Leerplanontwikkeling onderweg. IOWO publication Utrecht 1977, pp.
12-21.
An idealised or ideal type description of the didactical context can be found in articles by
Dik Oort, among others. His article entitled 'Basje, een jonge onderzoeker', appears in the
first four issues of Wiskobas Bulletin. In a series of dialogues with his father, Basje makes a
number of mathematical discoveries.
In Wiskobas curriculum publications the didactical context is often described in a
somewhat condensed form as was the case for "Freckleham".
In the field of mathematics instruction there are many examples, mainly in the English
literature, of descriptions related to instruction.
26 In the mathematical activity the accent will often be put differently as to the language
aspect, the use of models and concept formation. Thom rather emphasises the requirement
of "meaningfulness" for the mathematical activity. Wiskobas' efforts are marked, among
other things, by a high degree of attention to the meaningful reality that the mathematical
activities should have for the pupils. This appears, among other things, in the construction
of ''worlds'', but "meaningfulness" also always emerges in the theoretical reflections. In his
reflections on didactical phenomenology, Freudenthal stresses the need to depart from
the experiences lived through to arrive at the constitution of mental objects. Van den
Brink, responsible for the Wiskobas programme in the lower grades, often refers in his
papers in Wiskobas Bulletin to "realising" by which he means that the pupils should be able
to imagine a world behind the problems at issue: the problems must be meaningful to them.
In fact what Goffree calls "semi-transparent mirror reflections" with a view to the teacher
can also be applied to pupils: the pupil must be able to "see through" the problem, but also
see his own mirror image in it. The themes included in this study can be taken as examples
of "meaningful" mathematics instruction. Next to the work ~ Thorn we also refer to
NOTES 321
Swenson's book which considers initial instruction in arithmetic from the point of view of
meaningful instruction. She says:
Meaning is experience. Children learn to know and understand what they have
experienced. ... Meaning is context. Children learn best within a rich context of
meanings.... Meaning is intent. Children's purposes and intentions are as important as
adults' purposes and intentions for them.... Meaning is organization. If the results of
learning are to be useful, they must be organized.
See:
Swensen, E. J.: Making primary arithmetic meaningful to children, Washington 1961.
Thorn, R: 'Modern mathematics: Does it exist?', in Howson, A. G. (ed.), Developments in
mathematical education, pp. 194-213.
For examples of meaningful instruction see Wiskobas publications by Van den Brink, De
Gooijer-Quint, Ter Heege, Streefiand, Wijdeveld and others in Wiskobas Bulletin; and as
regards Wiskivon (secondary education), see articles by Van Barneveld, Kindt, Kremers,
De Lange, Sweers, Leenders, Goddijn, Schoemaker, and others in both Wiskobas Bulletin
and Wiskrant.
27 From research by Inhelder, Piaget, Bruner, and others, the designer of "Freckleham"
knew that third graders, generally speaking, are capable of reproducing, completing, and
re-arranging a two-way order. It was not known, however, that children of this age are
capable of constructing a two-way order themselves. See:
Inhelder, B. and Piaget, J.: The early growth of logic in the child. Classification and
seriation, London 1964.
Bruner, J. S., Olver, R, and Greenfield, P. M.: Studies in cognitive growth, New York 1966.
Modgil, S.: Piagetian research. A handbook of recent studies, New York 1974, pp.
137-154.
28 The question of transitivity reasoning has been examined frequently in educational and
developmental psychology. The results are often conflicting. The heart of the problem lies
in the essence of reasoning by transitivity. How does it work? Suppose that for four
individuals A, B, C and D it is known that A is heavier than B, B heavier than C and D is
heavier than C; who is the heaviest; and who is the heaviest in the group A, B, C and D?
And if the relation ''is heavier than" is substituted by "is faster than" or "is older than" or
"is further ahead of" or "is longer than", will this make any difference for the reasoning? If
in the last case the lengths are drawn or represented by straws, will this change matters?
To make clear the problem we will give four illustrations, on the basis of which we will
try to answer these kinds of questions.
- A professor and his grandson are taking a walk in the snow. At an intersection they
see four bicycle tracks. First they walk over them, but later they turn back to find out
in which order the bicycles had passed. Find the original pattern.
The following drawing shows a window with four holes. Find out in which order the
damages occurred.
322 NOTES
- Arrange four individuals a, b, c and d according to weight, on the basis of the

following seesaw positions:
In Greater Freckleham (for example on a ten-by-ten grid) a has more hairs than c; b
more than a and c more than d. Arrange a, b, c and d according to the number of
hairs.
A few remarks may be made on these four isomorphic order problems:
For the first problem: each track can be given a name, for example a, b, c and d, and
the relationship "a was before b" can be recorded as (~). The tracks are related as follows:
(~), (~) and (~). Afterwards they can be placed in one scheme:
By symbolising and visualising the relations in this way, the transitivity of the order relation
is locked up in the linear order.
If we consider the four problems in their mutual relationship again in the opposite
direction, we notice an even more abstract presentation of the same mathematical problem:
the last problem calls for quantitative ordering, as in "Freckleham". The last but one can be
schematised by representing the persons by marbles of various sizes, which allows solving
without reasoning. In the second case we can see the solution, but it is seeing supported by
reasoning. In the first case we must symbolise and reason, while possibly making use of
linear order.
This shows a vertical line that can be drawn from one Freckleham basic problem to
'secondary mathematics instructjon. We could have gone even further backwards. More
"primitive" than the Freckleham problem is ordering linear objects (straws, etc.) based on
activity and observation.
The question is how such problems are solved. Is this done directly via linear order or
indirectly via transitivity reasoning? Inhelder and Piaget suppose that, with the exception of
strongly "visual" cases such as sticks, it is done indirectly. Our experiences confirm these
suppositions. With the first problem even adults also usually follow the difficult route of
reasoning rather than using the linear order.
Tests that seem to prove the opposite, thus indicating that children do not reason
deductively but "see" via the linear order, are based on the relation "is longer than" and
therefore strongly related to the linear order, where transitivity is locked in, which allows
for an immediate conclusion along visual lines.
NOTES 323
Our relation examples are different, which makes the resulting problems much more
difficult: pure deductive reasoning prevails and impedes the use of linear order. The crucial
point is whether one can learn to use linear order as an aid to make the solution of more
difficult problems possible.
Experiences with "Freckleham" and its sequel have given rise to the hypothesis that
linear order does in fact offer an important support for reasoning problems on order
relations and that along these lines pupils are capable of performances that look impossible
by means of transitivity reasoning. The third graders in the Wiskobas design school initially
had great difficulty with transitivity reasoning, but once the linear order was used in
Freckleham and in the following seesaw problems, instruction was seen to progress
reasonably well.
The supposition that linear order and transitivity reasoning should be kept well apart
seems justified. Piaget does so, but other researchers do not. On the other hand we feel
that Piaget has not discerned the connection sufficiently. For instruction it is just the
relationship between linear order and transitivity reasoning that is of importance. The
crucial problem is whether linear order can be used as a thinking model. According to our
present rough information, this is the case, indeed. Compare:
Bryant, P.: Perception and understanding in young children. An experimental approach,
London 1974.
Johnson, M. L.: 'The effects of instruction on length relations, on classification, variation
and transitivity performances of first- and second-grade children, Journal for Research
in Mathematics Education 5 (1975), 115-126.
Smedslund, J.: 'Development of concrete transitivity of length in children', Child
Development 34 (1963),389-405.
Inhelder, B. and Piaget, J.: The early growth of logic in the child. Classification and
See also the articles by Davydov and Levinova in: Parreren, C. F. van and Nelissen, J. M.
C. (eds.): Rekenen, Groningen 1977.
Trabasso, T.: 'Representation, memory and reasoning', in Pick, A. D. (ed.), Minnesota
symposium on child psychology, Vol. 9. 1975.
29 This was established for some 50 teachers in in-service courses, who were presented
with the problem ofthe bicycle tracks in the snow (see Note 28).
30 Frederique Papy, especially, has stimulated the use of arrow-language for young
children. The fact that children must learn to use this language is also noticed in a study by
Wallrabenstein: older children are not capable of filling in arrow-diagrams on their own.
See:
Papy, F.: Graph Games, New York 1971.
Wallrabenstein, H.: 'Development and signification of a geometry test', in Educational
Studies in Mathematics 5 (1974), 81-91.
31 See also Note 18 for this chapter.
32 This became evident at conferences and in-service courses. First of all a number of
teachers and teacher trainers feared that the problem would not appeal to the children; and
secondly they had difficulty in coming to grips with the objectives. At the first in-service
course in Hilversum, it was seen that the instruction progressed poorly because of the lack
of holistic goal description. The first teacher-participants, who had to work without these
descriptions and explanations, were therefore less contented with the theme. Later, when
the theme was disseminated with a three-dimensional goal description attached, this
changed. We learned particularly from conferences that a clear goal description is
considered to be of great importance.
33 See Chapter I, Sub-sections 2.2, 2.3, 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3.
34 See for example:
Stake, R. E.: 'A theoretical statement of responsive evaluation', Studies in Educational
Evaluation 2 (1976), 19-23.
324 NOTES
Parlett, M. and Hamilton, D.: 'Evaluation as illumination', in Tawney, D. (ed.), Curriculum

evaluation today: Trends and implications, London 1976, 84-101.
MacDonald, B.: 'The evaluation of the humanities curriculum project: A holistic approach',
Theory into Practice 10 (1971),163-167.
Rippey, R. M.: 'The nature of transactional evaluation', in Rippey, R. M. (ed.), Studies in
Transactional Evaluation, Berkeley 1973, pp. 8-13.
Ross, L. and Cronbach, L. J. (eds.): 'A review of the Handbook of Evaluation Research',
Proceedings ofthe National Academy of Education 3 (1976), 81-107.
35 Attempts toward "Three-dimensional" educational evaluation within mathematics
education are not known to us, although the USMES-project (Unified Science and
Mathematics for Elementary Schools) does point in this direction. See:
Shapiro, B. J.: The notebook problem. Report on observations of problem solving activity in
USMES and control classrooms, USMES-publication 1972.
Shapiro, B. J.: USMES evaluation .report on classroom structure and interaction patterns,
USMES publication 1974.
See also:
Bell, A. W.: The learning of general mathematical strategies. A development study of
process attainments in mathematics, including the construction and investigation of a
process-oriented curriculum for the first secondary year, unpublished diss. Nottingham
1976.
Heege, H. ter: 'Testing the maturity for learning the algorithm of multiplication',
Educational Studies in Mathematics 9 (1978),75-83.
36 This idea was heard from school guidance counsellors in Arnhem. So-called "Indian
Cards" are also known in mathematics education.
37 See:
Bruggen, J. van: 'Abacus en leerpsychologie', in De abacus, IOWO curriculum develop-
ment publication 6, Utrecht 1977, pp. 96-112.
38 From IOWO circles we refer to:
Freudenthal, H.: Mathematics as an educational task, Dordrecht 1973, vi.
Streefland, L.: Breuk in ontwikkeling. Een orientatie in psychologie, internal IOWO
publication, Utrecht 1977.
Bruggen, J. C. van: Leerpsychologische vergelijkingen. Een literatuurstudie naar het nut van
leerpsychologisch onderzoek voor de leerplanontwikkeling ten dienste van wiskunde
onderwijs, internal IOWO publication, Utrecht 1976.
The international group, presided over by Fishbein, was installed in 1977. This group is
specially concerned with the psychology of mathematics education (PME). The first
meeting was held in Utrecht, August 1977.
CHAPTER VI
1 Brown, M.: Rules without reasons? Some evidence relating to the teaching of routine
skills to low-attainers in mathematics', International Journal of Mathematics Education in
Science and Technology 13 (1982),449-461.
Foxman, D. D. (ed.): Mathematical development, London 1980.
Hart, K. (ed.): Children's understanding of mathematics: 11-16, London 1981. .
2 A somewhat comparable approach has been sketched by Gerd Walther, although the
progressive schematisation is as it were imposed on the learner: the phases follow each
other too rapidly and little is left to the children themselves. Hutton gives the children a full
opportunity for shortening, though there is little information on the phases of the process.
Walther, G.: 'Acquiring mathematical knowledge', Mathematical Teaching, Nr. 101 (1982),
10-12.' .
NOTES 325
Hutton, J.: 'Memoirs of a math teacher 5. Logical reasoning', Mathematics Teaching, Nr Bl

(1977),8-12
3 Engen, H. van and Gibb, E. G.: General mental functions associated with division, Cedar
Falls 1956.
Kratzer, R. O. and Willoughby, S. S.: 'A comparison of initially teaching division employing
the distributive and Greenwood algorithms with the aid of a manipulative material',
Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 4 (1973), 197-205.
Laing, R. A. and Meijer, R. A.: 'Transitional division algorithms', Arithmetic Teacher 29
(1982),10-13.
4 With respect to the problem of attitude compare:
Erlwanger, S. H.: 'Benny's conception of rules and answers in IPI-mathematics', The
Journal of Children 's Mathematical Behavior 1 (1973),7-26.
Erlwanger, S. H.: 'Case studies of children's conceptions of mathematics', The Journal of
Children's Mathematical Behavior! (1975), 157-283.
5 Teule-Sensacq, P. and Vinrich, G.: 'Resolution de problemes de division au cycle
elementaire dans deux types de situations didactiques', Educational Studies in Mathematics
13 (1982), 177-203.
6 Kiihnel, J.: Neubau des Rechenunterricht II, Leipzig: Klinkhardt 1925/5.
7 Plunkett formulates his criticism on the traditional teaching of column arithmetic while
confronting it with his own approach, as follows:
Thus even if the rules can be remembered they are largely without reasons and are not
related to other number knowledge. They are far from aiding the understanding of
numbers; rather they encourage a belief that mathematics is essentially arbitrary.
A person who has to do a lot of such calculations will soon develop methods of a
brevity suited to his needs. Here is a non-standard method for long multiplication:
20 3
10 200 30
8 160 24
-+
414
which shows how much diagrams can help. The important thing is a process which is
intelligible (to the user), rather than one which is standardised or quickest. Plunkett, S.:
'Decomposition and all that rot', Mathematics in SchoolS (1979), p. 3.
8 This appears from various Dutch pieces of research and from practical experiences in
experimental schools. The gain in time is about 50%, though from this number should be
subtracted the attention given to mental, that is to say, flexible and clever, arithmetic (basic
abilities). There are virtually no failures, at least if less abridged algorithms are admitted as
final, in particular in long division. Compare the general exposition in:
Dekker, A., Heege H. ter, and Treffers, A.: Cijferend vermenigvuldigen en delen volgens
Wiskobas, Utrecht 1982.
9 Resnick, L. B. and Ford, W.: The psychology of mathematics for instmction, Hillsdale
1981.
Gagne, R. M.: 'Some issues in the psychology of mathematics instruction', Journal for
Research in Mathematics Education 14 (1983),19-29.
Gal'perin, P. J.: 'Stages in the development of mental acts', in Cole, M. Maltzman, J. (eds.),
Handbook of contemporary soviet psychology, London 1969, 149-173.
326 NOTES
Gal'perin, P. J. and Talyzina, N. F.: 'Die Bildung erster geometrischer Handlungen des
Schiilers', in Gal'perin, P. J. and Leontjew (eds.), Probleme der Lerntheorie, Berlin
1972.
Davydov, V. V.: 'Ueber das Verhiiltnis zwischen den abstrakten und den konkreten
Kentnissen im Unterricht', in Lompscher, J. (ed.), Probleme der Ausbildung geistiger
Handlungen, Berlin 1972.
Davydov, V. V.: 'Logical and psychological problems of elementary mathematics as an
academic subject', in Steffe, L. P. (ed.), Soviet studies in_the psychology of learning and
teaching mathematics, Chicago 1975, pp. 109-207.
10 See Sub-section 5 in Chapter I.
II The orientation points were described by Goffree and Treffers in an internal
publication in 1970 and 1971.
12 In the guidebook for the first in-service training block, the objectives were already
formulated in terms of activities. See:
Smaling, A and Treffers, A: Stadsplan, IOWa publication, Utrecht 1971.
13 Treffers, A: 'De Klok', in Meijer, G. H. (ed.), Matematika, IOWa publication, Utrecht
1973, pp. 7-27.
Treffers, A and Wijdeveld, E.: 'Leerplanologle. Over doelstellingen van het
wiskundeonderwijs', in Wiskobas Bulletin 2 (1973), 983-991.
14 From the moment that the three-dimensional goal description was introduced, the call
for the objectives of mathematics education has been noticeably lacking, while before that
time it was an ever-recurring point of discussion.
15 Treffers, A.: De kiekkas van Wiskobas. Beschouwingen over uitgangspunten en doelstel-
lingen van het aanvangs- en vervolgonderwijs in de wiskunde, IOWa curriculum develop-
ment publication 1, Utrecht 1975.
16 See Bloom, B. S.: Human characteristics and school learning, New York 1976, p. 217.
17 Resnick, L. B. and Ford, W.: The psychology of mathematics for instruction, Hillsdale
1982.
18 Schoenfeld, A H.: 'The wild, wild, wild, wild world of problem solving: A review of
sorts', For the Learning ofMathematics 3 (1983),40-47.
19 Cobb, P. and Steffe, L. P.: 'The constructivist researcher as teacher and model builder',
Journalfor Research in Mathematics Education 14 (1983), 95-101.
Carpay, J. A. M.: 'Westeuropese benadering van onderwijsleerprocessess', in De Corte, E.
(ed.), Onderzoek van onderwijsleerprocessen, 's Gravenhage 1982,28-36.
CHAPTER VII
I AhIfors, L. V. et al.: 'On the mathematics curriculum of the High School',-Mathematics

Teacher 55 (1962), 191-195.
2 Papy, G.: MatMmatique moderne, vo!.1, Bruxelles 1963.
3 Thom, R.: 'Modern mathematics: Does it exist?', in Howson, A G. (ed.), Developments
in rrzathematical education, Cambridge UK, 1973, pp. 194-209.
4 Whitney, H.: 'Are we off the track in teaching mathematical concepts?', in Howson, A.
G. (ed.), Developments in mathematical education, Cambridge 1973, pp. 283-299.
Whitney, H.: 'Taking responsibility in school mathematics education', in Streefland, L. (ed.),
Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference for the Psychology of Mathematics
Education, vol. 2. Utrecht 1985, pp. 123-141.
5 Hilton, P. and Pedersen, J.: Fear no more. An adult approach to Mathematics, Menlo
Park 1983.
Hilton, P.: 'Current trends in mathematics and future trends in Mathematics Education',
For the Learning ofMathematics 4 (1984),2-9.
NOTES 327
Hilton, P.: 'Do we still need to teach fractions?', in Zweng, M. et al. (eds.), Proceedings of
the Fourth International Congress on Mathematics Education, Boston 1983, pp. 37-
41.
6 Lakatos, I.: Proofs and refutations. The logic of mathematical discovery, Cambridge UK,
1977.
7 Freudenthal,H.: Didactical phenomenology of mathematical structures, Do'rdrecht 1983,
p.ix.
8 Freudenthal, H.: Mathematics as an educational task, Dordrecht 1973, p. 121.
9 Hiele, P. M. van: Begrip en inzicht, Purmerend 1973.
Hiele, P. M. van: Structure and insight. A theory of mathematics education, New York
1985.
Hiele-Geldof, D. van and Hiele, P. M. van: English translation of selected writings,
Brooklyn New York, 1984.
10 Hofstadter, D. R.: Godel, Escher, Bach: An eternal golden braid, New York 1979.
11 Kilpatrick, J.: 'Reflection and Recursion', Educational Studies in Mathematics 16
(1985),1-26.
12 Burger, W. F. and Shaughnessy, J. M.: 'Characterizing the van Hiele levels of develop-
ment in geometry', Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 17 (1986), 31-48.
13 Freudenthal, H.: Didactical phenomenology of mathematical structures, Dordrecht
1983, pp. 32-33.
14 Morley, A: 'A new development in primary school mathematics. The Dutch Wiskobas
Project', Mathematics Teaching 69 (1975), 15-18.

15 Heege, H. ter: 'The acquisition of basic multiplication skills', Educational Studies in
Mathematics 16 (1985), 375-389.
16 Brink, J. van den and Streefland, L.: 'Young children (6-8) - Ratio and Proportion',
Streefland, L.: 'Search for the roots of ratio: some thoughts on the long term learning
process. Part I: Reflections on a teaching experiment', Educational Studies in Mathe-
matics 15 (1984), 327-348.
process. Part II: The outline of the long term learning process', Educational Studies in
Mathematics 16 (1985), 75-94.
17 Streefland, L.: How to teach fractions so as to be useful, Utrecht 1984.
18 Heege, H. ter and Moor, E. de: Oppervlakte (1), IOWa curriculum development
Jong, R. de: Oppervlakte (20), IOWa curriculum development publication 9, Utrecht
1979.
19 Goddijn,A: Shadow and depth, Utrecht 1983.
Gravemeijer, K. and Kraemer,J. M.: Met hetoogop ruimte, Tilburg 1985.
Schoemaker, G.: 'Sieh dich ganz im Spiegel', Mathematik lehren 2 (1984), 18-33.
See for information about the Hewet-project:
Lange, J. de and Kindt, M.: 'The Hewet Project - Report on an experiment leading to a
new curriculum for pre-university students', Zentralblatt fUr Didaktik der Mathematik
16 (1984), 74-79.
20 N.C.T.M.: Report on the Second NatioMI Assessment of the National Assessment of
Educational Progress, NAEP, Reston 1980.
21 Whitney, H.: 'Taking responsibility in school mathematics education', in Streefland, L.
(ed.), Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference for the Psychology of Mathematics
Education, vol. 2, Utrecht 1985, p. 191.
22 Thompson, A B.: 'The relationship of teachers' conceptions of mathematics and
mathematics teaching to instructional practice', Educational Studies in Mathematics 15
(1984),105-129.
328 NOTES
23 Cooney, T. J.: 'A beginning teacher's view of problem solving', Journal for Research in
Mathematics Education 16 (1985), 324-336.
Cooney, T. J.: 'The contribution of theory to mathematics teacher education', in Steiner, H.
G. et al. (eds.), Theory of Mathematics Education, Bielefeld 1984, pp. 120-132.
24 Menninger, K.: Zahlwort und Zijfer, band II, Gottingen 1958.
25 Gagne, R M.: The conditions of learning, London 1965, p. 60.
26 Gagne, R M.: 'Some issues in the psychology of mathematics instruction', Journal for
Research in Mathematics Education 14 (1983), 7-19.
27 Dienes, Z. P.: The six stages in the process of learning mathematics, London 1973, p. 9.
28 See also:
Dienes, Z. P.: Building up mathematics, London 1960.
29 Dienes, Z. P.: The stages in the process of learning, London 1973, p. 9.
30 See for example:
Karplus, R, Pulos, S. and Stage, E. K.: Proportional reasoning of early Adolescents, in
Lesh, R and Landau, M. (eds.), Acquisition of Mathematics Concepts and Processes, New
York 1983, p. 81.
31 Bruner, J. S.: Toward a theory of instruction, Cambridge 1966.
Piaget, J.: Comments on mathematical education, in Howson, A. G. (ed.), Developments in
Piaget, J.: Science of education and the psychology of the child, London 1971.
32 Friedman, M.: 'The manipulative material strategy: The latest pied _paper?', Journal for
Khoury, H. A. and Behr, M.: 'Student performance, individual differences and modes of
representation', Journal/or Research in Mathematics Education 13 (1982), 228-235.
Kieren, T. E.: 'Manipulative material in mathematics learning', Journal for Research in
33 -Behr, M. J., Lesh, R, Post, T. R and Silver, E. A.: 'Rational number concepts', in Lesh,
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INDEX
activity: role in mathematics education 60- "Chessboard" see "Grains on the Chess-
61 board"
Adda, Josette 15 clever reckoning: column arithmetic 204-
Adler 148 206
algorithms "The Clock" 212
mathematical material 26,198-210 cognitive psychology 289-294
role in mathematics education 44 column arithmetic
applicability educational psychology 216-217
goal of mathematics education 103-104, mathematical problems 199-210
184 Wiskobas curriculum 225
mathematical rules 66-68 Wiskobas instruction theory 253
arithmetic computers: mathematics instruction 287
column arithmetic 199-210, 216-217, concrete product goals 125-126, 168-
225,253 169
Wiskobas curriculum 223-225 context: Wiskobas instruction theory 255-
Wiskobas instruction theory 253 258
arithmetical goal of mathematics education Cooney, T. J. 265
101-102,184 Cooper, I. 282
arithmetical trend of mathematics teaching counting problems
9,10,16-17 development by Wiskobas project 26
Arnold, W. R. 133 examples 33-36
attitude development through mathematics examples, analysed 37-53
107-108 "Freckleham" project 183
Wiskobas instruction theory 225,259
Baker, E. L. 121, 168-169 Courant 240
Balacheff, N. 285,294 "The Cube" 212
Bauersfeld, H. 279,282-285,287,294 curriculum development
Becker, H. 134 current objectives 83
Behr, M. J. 279,287 early trends 9-10
Biggs, Edith 10 Wiskobas project 10-14
Bishop, A 285, 294
Bloom, B. S. 149,215 Dalin, P. 19,21,24
Boomsma, G. 10 Davis, R. 148, 279, 280-282, 286, 287,
Bouman en Van Zelm 17 294
Bourbaki 293 Davydov, V. V. 210,217,290,293
Brousseau, G. 285,287,294 DeBlock,A 149,154,186
Braunfeld, P. 148 . decimals
Bruner, J. S. 63, 132, 251, 278, 282, 286, Wiskobas curriculum 226-231
294 Wiskobas instruction theory 253
De Corte, E. 84,186,293
calculators: use of pocket calculators 104, DeGroot,AD. 120
231 didactical phenomenology 246-247,257
Canada: mathematics education 240 didactising: Wiskobas instruction theory
Carpenter, T. P. 293 57-59
cartoons see "Land of Eight" Diets and Nauta 17
347
348 INDEX
Dienes, Z. P. 15, 63, 246, 274-276, 279, Functional Arithmetic 17

282,284,294 functions
differentiation: role in mathematics educa- curriculum content 119
tion 61-62 "Freckleham" project 183
Disney, Walt see "Land of Eight"
division Gagne, R. M. 168,252,272-274,294
column arithmetic 199,203-204,205- Gal'perin, P. J. 168, 194, 210, 290, 292-
206 293,294
progressive mathematisation 265-268 geometry
Wiskobas instruction theory 256, 257, curriculum content 119
259 Wiskobas curriculum 232-238
Donady, Regine 288-289, 294 Wiskobas instruction theory 253, 254
dynamics of mathematics 68-70, 107 Glaser 168
Goffree, F. 22,58,135,192,285,294
education: general goal description 119- "Grains on the Chessboard"
124 mathematical problem 26, 76-82
education: mathematics one-dimensional goal theme 94-109,
general goals 8-29,83-90,210 213
one-dimensional goals 28,83-111,208, three-dimensional goal theme 194
213,218-219 Wiskobas instruction theory 255, 259,
three-dimensional goals 89, 167-195, 262
209,214-219 Greeno, J. G. 293
two-dimensional goals 88-89, 119- grids: role in mathematics education 42-
158, 208-209, 213-214, 215, 43
218-219 Guilford 186
educational psychologists 217 "Gulliver"
Eisner, E. W. 119-124, 130-133, 140, mathematical problem 2-7, 26
152,154,157,214-215 mathematical study theme 14-29, 52,
elementary education 58,61,226
foundations for secondary education 96- three-dimensional goal theme 194
98 Wiskobas instruction theory 255, 259,
mathematics teaching see Wiskobas 262
empirical trend of mathematics teaching 10,
14 Hacker, H. 23
empiricism: learning theory 276-278 Hamilton, E. 279,287
"eureka experiences" 61,109, 184 Hatfield 283
expressive objectives 121-124, 129-134 Heller, J. I. 293
Hilton, P. 241,257
Ford, W. 216,290 Hofstadter, D. R. 244
Foundation for Curriculum Development holistic three-dimensional goal description
254 185-195,214
fractions Hull 272
Wiskobas curriculum 226-231
Wiskobas instruction theory 253, 254, innovation
257,268-270 matheIIiatics education 9-11, 16-23
France: mathematics education 10 mathematics education: Wiskobas project
"Freckleham" 19-23
mathematical problem 26, 160-166 Institute for the Development of Mathe-
three-dimensional g.oal theme 167-195, matics Education (IOWa) xiii, 11,
214 13,212,254
Wiskobas instruction theory 259,262 instruction theories 239-296
Freudenthal, H. 17, 65, 241, 242, 246- instructional objectives 120-121, 124-
247,250,257,264,267,288,295 129
INDEX 349
interactive instruction 261-262 Martin 148

one dimensional 242-252 maTHEMAtica 12,212
three-dimensional 264-271 mathematics
two-dimensional 252-264 educational goals
Van Hiele levels 242-246 general 8-29, 83-90, 209-210
Wiskobas instruction theory 261-262 one-dimensional 28, 83-111, 208,
interactive instruction: Wiskobas instruction 213,218-219
theory 261-262 three-dimensional 28, 89, 167-195,
intertwining oflearning strands 262-263 209,214-219
IOWO (Institute for the Development of two-dimensional 28, 88-89, 119-
Mathematics Education) xiii, 11, 13, 158, 208-209, 213-214, 215,
212,254 218-219
isomorphism 46,64 history of mathematics education 91-93,
95,96-97,99
Johnson,D.A. 186 instruction theory 239-296
one-dimensional 242-252
Kaufman, J. 148 three-dimensional 264-271
Kilpatrick, J. 244, 282, 291 two-dimensional 252-264
Kirsch, A. 98 learning theories 273-274, 275-276,
Klauer, K. J. 136,148,186 . 277,278,280-296
Kohnstamm Institute 96 mathematical activity discussed 37-53
Krummheuer, G. 282 mathematical language 64-66
Kiihnel, J. 206 mathematics lesson described 53-59
mathematising
Laborde, C. 285, 294 defined 51-53
Lakatos, I. 241,293 progressive 247-250, 252-255,
Landau, M. 279, 287 260-263,265-270
"Land of Eight" schematic comparison 250-252
mathematical problem 26, 114-118 social relevance 99-100
three-dimensional goal theme 193,194 structural character 63-64
two-dimensional goal theme 119-158, teaching theories 273-274, 275-276,
193,214,215 277,278,280-296
Wiskobas instruction theory 268-270 Wiskobas goals of mathematics education
language 93-94,97,101,109-111
curriculum content 119 Wiskobas pririciples of mathematics
"Freckleham" project 183 . education 59-73
goal of mathematics education 102-103, Mathematics Teacher 240
184 Mathematique modeme, 240
mathematical language 64-66 McAshan,H.H. 127-128,136
Lawler, R. W. 282,283, 294 measurement
)earning theories curriculum content 119
general 271-296 Wiskobas curriculum 231-232
mathematics 273-274, 275-276, 277, Wiskobas instruction theory 254
278,280-296 mechanism: learning theory 272-274
VanHielelevels 242-246 methodological aspects of mathematics
Lesh, R. 279,285-289,294 105-106,184
linear enlargement: "Gulliver" theme 3-7 metric system: Wiskobas instruction theory
logic: 253
::urriculum content 119 models: Wiskobas instruction theory 258-
"Freckleham" project 183 260
long division see division Moller, Christine 23
Morley, Arthur 14,251
Mager, R. F. 148 Moser, J. M. 293
350 INDEX
multiplication: column arithmetic 199-203 number systems 268-270

Wiskobas instruction theory 247-250,
Nason, R. 282 252-255,260-263,265-270
National Assessment of Educational Prog- psychology
ress 256,260 cognitive psychology 289-294
Netherlands: mathematics education 10, educational psychologists 217
12-13,17,18-19,99,261 The Psychology of Mathematics for Instruc-
"New Math" 9,10,16-17,99,226,272 tion 216
number systems see "Land of Eight" pupils
goal importance 155-156
objectives primary education principles 96-98
expressive objectives 121,124, 129- Wiskobas instruction theory 260-262
134
instructional objectives 120-121, 124- Rath, James 133
129 ratios
O'Brien, T. C. 16 Wiskobas curriculum 226
Onderzoek Wiskundeonderwijs en Onder- Wiskobas instruction theory 253, 257,
wijs Computercentrum (OW &OC) 259-260
xiii, 13,212-213,254 reasoning: role in mathematics 68-70,
one-dimensional educational goals 28, 83- 184
111,208,213,218-219 relationships
operationalised product goals 126-127 curriculum content 119
Oudkerk Pool, T. 130 "Freckleham" project 183
OW &OC, University of Utrecht xiii, 13, Resnick, L. B. 216,290
212-213,254 Reynders 17
Riley, M. I. 293
Papert, S. 282 Rising, E. R. 148,186
Papy,Frederique 15,240 "Roads" problems
Pascal triangle 47,65,71 mathematical problems 26,33-36
percentage: Wiskobas instruction theory mathematical problems analysed 37-
253 53
Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich 91 Wiskobas instruction theory 255,259
phenomenology: didactical phenomenology
246-247,257 Sawyer, W. W. 48, 240
Piaget, J. 243,251,276-278,282,294 Schoenfeld, A. H. 216
Pikaart; L. 186,188, 189 secondary education
PISAgoals 129,130-132,133 primary school foundations 96-98
pocket calculators 104,231 progressive mathematisation 254
Pollak, H. O. 240 Silver, E. A. 279,287
Polya, E. 215,240 Skinner 272
Popham, W. J. 119-124, 131, 133, 135, SLO-projects 254
140,148,157,214-215 Snijders 17
Post, T. R. 279,287 statistics: curriculum content 119
primary education Steiner, H. G. 295
foundations for secondary education 96- Stenhouse, L. 21,133
98 Streefland, L. 27
mathematics teaching see Wiskobas structural aspect of mathematics 63-64,
probability: curriculum content 119 105,106,184
process goals 119-158,188 structural teaching of mathematics 9, 10,
product goals 119-158,188 15-16,169
progressive mathematising structuralism: learning theory 274-276
fractions 268-270 Sullivan,H.J. 131,133
long division 265-268 symmetry 45-46
INDEX 351
teachers relationships to other theories 241,247,

role of teachers 21-22 274-276,278,283,294
views on mathematics instruction 264- three-dimensional description 264, 267,
265 268
teaching: mathematics lesson described two-dimensional description 252,260
53-59 Wiskobas context 295
teaching theories Vergnaud, G. 257,288,294
general 271-296 Verschaffel, L. 293
mathematics 273-274, 275-276, 277, vertical instruments: Wiskobas instruction
278,280-296 theory 258-260
Ter Heege, H. 27 vertical planning: role in mathematics educa-
textbooks: general trends 261,263-264 tion 62-63
Thom,R. 240 Voigt, J. 282
Thompson, A. B. 265
Thorndike 272 Wachsmuth 287
three-dimensional educational goals 28,89, Walker, D. F. 169-170,172
167-195,209,214'-219 Wheeler,D.K. 186
Tolman 272 Whitney, H. 241,257
Travers, K. J. 186,188,189 Wilson, J. W. 149
two-dimensional educational goals 28, 88- Winter,H. 257
89, 119-158,208-209,213-214, Wiskivon 13, 99, 254
215,218-219 Wiskobas
Tyler,R. W. 87,131,133 aims of project 19-23,72-73
comparison with other teaching trends
United Kingdom: mathematics education 14-19
10 curriculum programme 26,222-238
United States development of "Freckleham" project 26,
mathematics education 10, 16, 240 170-173
educational goals 126-128 framework for instruction theory 239-
Utrecht University xiii, 13, 212-213, 296
254 goals of mathematics education 93-94,
97,101,109-111,157-158,206-
Van Bruggen,J. 27 210,213-219
VandenBrink,J. 27 history of project 9-14, 211-213
Van Dormolen, J. 186 principles of mathematics education 59-
Van Hiele levels 73
one-dimensional description 242-246, Wiskobas Bulletin 11,12,20,212
247,250,251 Wood,R. 149

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MATHEMATICS EDUCATION LIBRARY

D. REIDEL PUBLISHING COMPANY

Treffers, Adrian, 1935-

(Mathematics education library)

Published by D. Reidel Publishing Company,

Sold and distributed in the U.S.A. and Canada

In all other countries, sold and distributed

All Rights Reserved

No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or

GUIDE TO THE MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL xv

MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER I: "GULLIVER" 1

MATHEMA TICAL MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER II: "COUNTING

CHAPTER II STARTING POINTS 37

MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER III: "GRAINS ON

CHAPTER III ONE-DIMENSIONAL GOAL DESCRIPTION 83

2.3 Preparation for further education 96

MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER IV: "THE LAND

CHAPTER IV TWO-DIMENSIONAL GOAL DESCRIPTION 119

5.1 Possibilities and limitations of two-dimen-

MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER V:

CHAPTER V THREE-DIMENSIONAL GOAL DESCRIPTION 167

MATHEMA TICAL MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER VI:

CHAPTER VI SURVEY AND JUSTIFICATION 211

MATHEMATICAL MATERIAL FOR CHAPTER VII

CHAPTER VII FRAMEWORK FOR INSTRUCTION THEORY 239

5.3 The almost complete absence of instruc-

In Dutch "WISKOBAS" stands for a particular kind of mathematics in the

Designed by L. Streefland and A. Treffers

The "Gulliver" theme considers how linear enlargement influences circum-

The assignment in the following lesson consists of drawing a ground plan

Mildendo The Hague

5. The Food Problem

How should mathematics education goals be described to someone

We wish to give a scientific account of the way in which Wiskobas' goal

1. FROM "NEW MATH" TO WISKOBAS

1.1 Three Trends

The arithmetical trend was characterized by an early introduction of the

The structural trend places the emphasis on mathematical structures,

relations. How this reliance on mathematical science can backfire, appears

In that same year the Commission for Modernization of the Mathematics

Curriculum started the new project named Wiskobas - meaning: mathe-

2. THE HISTORY OF WISKOBAS

The Wiskobas project was executed in three phases:

2.1 The Exploratory Phase

2.2 The Integration Phase

2.3 Spin-off, Further Development and Research

grammes, teacher training colleges, retraining courses for teachers and

3. WISKOBAS BETWEEN FOUR TRENDS

After this summary of the Wiskobas history, a short impression is now

3.1 Wiskobas and The Empirical Trend

Although differences are apparent between the empirical and the

- the attention paid to the measuring aspect of number in early

3.2. Wiskobas and The Structural Trend

She illustrates the pseudo-concrete character of the structural games and

This illustrates an important distinction between Wiskobas and the

3.3 Wiskobas and the Arithmetical Trend

As seen from 'Gulliver' the arithmetical trend can only be viewed in a

As far as innovation in mathematics education is concerned, he comes to