Definition of Heat transfer Coefficient (U):

When heat transfer is taking place due to different modes, then the total conductance unit
area to heat flow is called “Heat transfer coefficient”. Units are W/m2 0K or Kcal/hr m2 0K

Problem:
2. Estimate
(i) Thermal resistance and conductance
(ii) Heat flux of a wall. Which is exposed to 400 0C at the inner surface & 50 0C at outer
surface. The K of the wall material is given by K= 0.6+0.015T W/m2 0K Where T is in 0C. Wall
thickness is 25mm.

Given: Inner surface of wall temperature = 400 0C

Outer surface of wall temperature = 50 0C
Wall thickness = 25 mm
To find:
a) Thermal Resistance (Rth)
b) Thermal Conductance (Cth)
c) Heat flux (q)
Property: Thermal Conductivity, K= 0.6+0.015T W/m2 0K
Schematic:

Assumptions:
(1) Steady state heat flux
(2) Unidirectional heat flow
(3) Unit surface area
(4) Thermal conductivity, K is estimated at temperature.
Solution:
Thermal Conductivity, K= 0.6+0.015T W/m2 0K
400+50
At mean temperature T = = 225 0C
2
K at mean temperature K = 0.6+0.015T
= 3.975 W/m2 0K
𝐿 0.25
Rth = 𝐾𝐴 = = 0.0629 0C / W
3.975∗1
1
Cth = 𝑅 = 15.9 W / 0C
𝑡ℎ
𝑄
Heat flux (q) = 𝐴
∆𝑇 350
𝑄 = 𝐾𝐴 ∆𝑥 = 3.975 ∗ 1 ∗ 0.25
= 5565
Heat flux (q) = 5565 W/m2

1
3. A cold storage room is observed to inside. The wall of cold storage room
is made up of brick & thickness is 25cm. to insulate the wall cork is used & the cork is supported
by wooden lining outside it the thickness of cork & wooden lining are 8cm & 4cm respectively.
The cork insulation is provided on the outer side of the wall. The outside ambient temperature is
420C, inside heat transfer coefficient is 150 Kcal/hr m2 0K. Outside heat transfer coefficient is
300 Kcal/hr m2 0K. The thermal conductivities of brick, cork & wood are 7 Kcal/hr m2 0C, 0.6
Kcal/hr m2 0C & 0.9 Kcal/hr m2 0C respectively. The surface area of the wall is 4*6 m2. Estimate
the heat flow rate from outside to inside intermediate temperature & overall heat transfer
coefficient.

Given: Inside temperature of wall Ti = - 3 0C

Wall thickness ∆𝑥 = 0.25 m
Thickness of the cork ∆𝑥1 = 0.08 m
Thickness of the wooden lining ∆𝑥2 = 0.04 m
Outside temperature of the wall To = 42 0C
Inside heat transfer coefficient hi = 150 Kcal/hr m2 0K
Outside heat transfer coefficient ho = 300 Kcal/hr m2 0K.
Thermal conductivity of brick Kb = 7 Kcal/hr m2 0C
Thermal conductivity of cork Kc = 0.6 Kcal/hr m2 0C
Thermal conductivity of wood Kw = 0.9 Kcal/hr m2 0C
Surface area of wall = 4m*6m
To find:
(a) Heat flow rate
(b) Intermediate temperatures
(c) Overall heat transfer coefficient
Schematic:

Assumptions:
(1) Steady state heat flux
(2) Unidirectional heat flow

Solution:
Total heat flow rate:
We know that,
𝑄 𝑄
Ti – T1 = ℎ 1𝐴 =
𝑖 ℎ𝑖 𝐴
𝑄2 𝑄
T1 – T2 = 𝐾 =
1 𝐴1 /𝑥1 𝐾𝑏 𝐴/∆𝑥
𝑄3 𝑄
T2 – T3 = 𝐾 =
2 𝐴2 /𝑥2 𝐾𝑐 𝐴/∆𝑥1
𝑄4 𝑄
T3 – T4 = 𝐾 =
3 𝐴3 /𝑥3 𝐾𝑤 𝐴/∆𝑥2

2
 𝑄 𝑄
T4 – T0 = ℎ 5𝐴 =
𝑜 ℎ𝑜 𝐴
By adding we get,
1 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥1 ∆𝑥2 1
Ti – T0 = 𝑄 [ℎ 𝐴 + + + +ℎ ]
𝑖 𝐾𝑏 𝐴 𝐾 𝐴
𝑐 𝐾𝑤 𝐴 𝑜𝐴
𝑄 1 0.25 0.08 0.09 1
42 – (-3) = 4∗6 [150 + + + + 300 ]
7 0.6 0.9
Q = 4832.38 Kcal/hr
𝑄 4832.38
42 – T1 = = ⇒ T1 = 40.66 0C
ℎ𝐴𝑖 150∗4∗6
4832.38∗0.25
T1 – T2 = ⇒ T2 = 33.47 0C
7∗4∗6
4832.38∗0.08
T2 – T3 = ⇒ T3 = 6.62 0C
0.6∗4∗6
4832.38∗0.09
T3 – T4 = ⇒ T4 = -2.325 0C
0.9∗4∗6
Overall heat transfer coefficient (U):
Q = UA∆𝑇
4832.38
U= = 4.47 Kcal/hr m2 0C
45∗4∗6

General Steady State heat conduction equation in three dimensions (Rectangular

Co-ordinates):

Consider an element of volume dx*dy*dz. Let us assume the thermal conductivities of

the element in x,y & z directions as Kx, Ky & Kz respectively and we assumed that Kx, Ky & Kz
are constants along x,y & z directions respectively.

Analyzing in x-direction:

Let 𝜃𝑥 = Amount of heat per unit time is entering the element along the x- direction at x.
Applying Fourier’s law of heat conduction,
𝜃𝑥 can be written as,
𝜕𝑇
𝜃𝑥 = −𝐾𝑥 (𝑑𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑦) 𝜕𝑥 . . . . . . . . . (1)
Heat leaving the element along the x-direction,
𝜕
𝜃𝑥+𝑑𝑥 = 𝜃𝑥 + 𝜕𝑥 𝜃𝑥 𝑑𝑥 . . . . . . . . . (1a)
Equation (1a) simply states that, heat leaving the element a free travelling a distance dx,
is equal to heat entering the element ‘+’ variation of heat with respect to ‘x’ times dx.

3
 By substituting equation (1) in (1a)

𝜕
𝜃𝑥+𝑑𝑥 = 𝜃𝑥 + 𝜕𝑥 𝜃𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝜃𝑥+𝑑𝑥 = −𝐾𝑥 (𝑑𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑦) 𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑥 (−𝐾𝑥 (𝑑𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑦) 𝜕𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
𝜃𝑥+𝑑𝑥 = −𝐾𝑥 (𝑑𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑦) 𝜕𝑥 − 𝐾𝑥 (𝑑𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑦) 𝜕𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
The net rate of heat toed in the element along x-direction is,
⇒ 𝜃𝑥 − 𝜃𝑥+𝑑𝑥
Substituting for 𝜃𝑥 & 𝜃𝑥+𝑑𝑥 , we get net rate of heat stored along x-direction is,
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇
⇒ − 𝐾𝑥 (𝑑𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑦) + 𝐾𝑥 (𝑑𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑦) + 𝐾𝑥 (𝑑𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑦) 2 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2 𝑇
⇒ 𝐾𝑥 (𝑑𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑦) 𝜕𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 . . . . . . . . . (I)

Analyzing in y-direction:
Let heat entering the element along the y-direction.
Applying Fourier’s law of heat conduction,
𝜃𝑦 can be written as,
𝜕𝑇
𝜃𝑦 = −𝐾𝑦 (𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝜕𝑦 . . . . . . . . . (2)
Heat leaving the element along the y-direction,
𝜕
𝜃𝑦+𝑑𝑦 = 𝜃𝑦 + 𝜕𝑦 𝜃𝑦 𝑑𝑦 . . . . . . . . . (2a)
Equation (2a) simply states that, heat leaving the element a free travelling a distance dy,
is equal to heat entering the element ‘+’ variation of heat with respect to ‘y’ times dy.
By substituting equation (2) in (2a)

𝜕
𝜃𝑦+𝑑𝑦 = 𝜃𝑦 + 𝜕𝑦 𝜃𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝜃𝑦+𝑑𝑦 = −𝐾𝑦 (𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝜕𝑦 + 𝜕𝑥 (−𝐾𝑦 (𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝜕𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
𝜃𝑦+𝑑𝑦 = −𝐾𝑦 (𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝜕𝑦 − 𝐾𝑦 (𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝜕𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
The net rate of heat toed in the element along x-direction is,
⇒ 𝜃𝑦 − 𝜃𝑦+𝑑𝑦
Substituting for 𝜃𝑦 & 𝜃𝑦+𝑑𝑦 , we get net rate of heat stored along x-direction is,
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇
⇒ − 𝐾𝑦 (𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) + 𝐾𝑦 (𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) + 𝐾𝑦 (𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 2 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
𝜕2 𝑇
⇒ 𝐾𝑦 (𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝑑𝑦 . . . . . . . . . (II)
𝜕𝑦 2
Similarly, analyzing along z-direction, the net heat stored in the element can be written as,
𝜕2 𝑇
⇒ 𝐾𝑧 (𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑦) 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 . . . . . . . . . (III)

4
 Let, q is the amount of heat generated within the element per unit volume per unit time.
So, the net heat generated per unit time within the element
⇒ q.dx.dy.dz . . . . . . . . . (IV)
The rat of heat stored in the element is equal to [(I) + (II) + (III) + (IV)]
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
⇒ 𝐾𝑥 (𝑑𝑧 ∗ 𝑑𝑦) 𝜕𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐾𝑦 (𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝜕𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐾𝑧 (𝑑𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑦) 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 + q.dx.dy.dz . . . . . (V)
If the material is isotropic,
Kx = Ky = Kz = K
Then equation (V) can be simplified as,
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞
⇒ K dx.dy.dz {𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 + 𝐾} . . . . . . . . . (VI)
The total heat stored within the material can also be estimated using heat capacity of the
𝜕𝑇
material, if 𝜕𝑥 is the variation in temperature of material per unit time.
𝜕𝑇
Heat stored within the element = m cp 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑇
= (dx.dy.dz) 𝜌 𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑡 . . . . . . . . . (VII)
Equating the equations (VI) & (VII)
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 𝜕𝑇
K dx.dy.dz {𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 + 𝐾} = (dx. dy. dz) 𝜌 𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑡
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 𝜕𝑇
K {𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 + 𝐾} = 𝜌 𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑡
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 𝜌 𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑇
{𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 + 𝐾} = . . . . . . . . (VIII)
𝐾 𝜕𝑡
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
{𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 + 𝐾} = 𝛼 . . . . . . . . (IX)
𝜕𝑡
𝐾
Where 𝛼 = , is called thermal diffusivity of a material and is a thermal property of
𝜌 𝑐𝑝
the material.

Thermal Diffusivity (𝛼):

It is the ratio of thermal conductivity of the material to the heat capacity of the material.
When 𝛼 is large, it implies that the particular material is a good conductor of heat & the
heat storage capacity of the material is very low and it is other way when 𝛼 is small.
The equation (IX) is called “General unsteady state three dimensional heat conduction
equation.”

Case (i):
No internal heat generation, then equation becomes,
𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
{ 2 + 2 + 2}=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
The above equation is known as “Fourier’s equation.”

5
Case (ii):
Steady state heat flow process, then equation becomes,
𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 𝑞
{ 2 + 2 + 2 + }=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝐾
The above equation is known as “Poisson’s equation.”
Case (iii):
No heat generation & steady state heat flow, then equation becomes,
𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇
{ 2 + 2 + 2}=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
The above equation is known as “Laplace equation.’
⇒ ∇2 𝑇 = 0
By multiplying equation (IX) with k on both sides,
𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 𝑞 𝐾 𝜕𝑇
𝐾{ 2 + 2 + 2 + } =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝐾 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
Assuming no internal heat generation & Steady flow process, the equation reduces to,
𝜕2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 𝑞
𝐾{ 2 + 2 + 2 + } = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝐾
Considering heat flow only along x-direction, then above equation reduces to
𝜕 2𝑇
𝐾 2=0
𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝜕𝑇
(𝐾 ) = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑇
(𝐾 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(𝑞) = 0
𝑑𝑥
The above equation says under steady state unidirectional, no-internal heat generation &
change of heat flux is zero.

General Steady State Heat conduction equation in three dimensions (Polar Co-
ordinates):

Consider an element of volume dz, dr & r d𝜃.

Let us assume that, the element under consideration is isotropic,
Kr = K 𝜃 = Kz = K

6
 Let 𝜃𝑟 is the heat entering the element in r-direction (radial direction).
Applying Fourier’s law,
𝜕𝑇
𝜃𝑟 = −𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝜕𝑟
𝜕
𝜃𝑟+𝑑𝑟 = 𝜃𝑟 + 𝜕𝑟 𝜃𝑟 𝑑𝑟

𝜕𝑇 𝜕
𝜃𝑟+𝑑𝑟 = −𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) + 𝜃 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟
𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝜃𝑟+𝑑𝑟 = −𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝜕𝑟 + 𝜕𝑟 (−𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝜕𝑟 ) 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
𝜃𝑟+𝑑𝑟 = −𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝜕𝑟 − 𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝜕𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟
The net heat stored in the r-direction is,
⇒ 𝜃𝑟 − 𝜃𝑟+𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
⇒ − 𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) + 𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) + 𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟2
𝜕2 𝑇
⇒ 𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝑑𝑟 . . . . . . . . (1)
𝜕𝑟2

Let 𝜃𝜃 is the heat entering the element in 𝜃-direction.

Applying Fourier’s law,
𝜕𝑇
𝜃𝜃 = −𝐾(𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝑟𝜕𝜃
𝜕
𝜃𝜃+𝑑𝜃 = 𝜃𝜃 + 𝜕𝜃 𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝜕𝑇 𝜕
𝜃𝜃+𝑑𝜃 = −𝐾(𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) + 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑟𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜃
𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝜃𝜃+𝑑𝜃 = −𝐾(𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝑟𝜕𝜃 + 𝜕𝜃 (−𝐾(𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝑟𝜕𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
𝜃𝜃+𝑑𝜃 = −𝐾(𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝑟𝜕𝜃 − 𝐾(𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑑𝑧)𝑑𝜃 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃2
The net heat stored in the r-direction is,
⇒ 𝜃𝑟 − 𝜃𝜃+𝑑𝜃
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
⇒ − 𝐾(𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) + 𝐾(𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) + 𝐾(𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑑𝑧)𝑑𝜃
𝑟𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝜕𝜃 𝑟2 𝜕𝜃2
𝜕2 𝑇
⇒ 𝐾(𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑑𝑧)𝑑𝜃 . . . . . . . . (2)
𝑟2 𝜕𝜃2
Let 𝜃𝑧 is the amount of heat entering the element in z-direction.
Applying Fourier’s law,
𝜕𝑇
𝜃𝑧 = −𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟)
𝜕𝑧
Heat leaving the element in z-direction
𝜕
𝜃𝑧+𝑑𝑧 = 𝜃𝑧 + 𝜕𝑧 𝜃𝑧 𝑑𝑧

7
 𝜕𝑇 𝜕
𝜃𝑧+𝑑𝑧 = −𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟) + 𝜃 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝜃𝑧+𝑑𝑧 = −𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟) 𝜕𝑧 + 𝜕𝑧 (−𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟) 𝜕𝑧 ) 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
𝜃𝑧+𝑑𝑧 = −𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟) 𝜕𝑧 − 𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟) 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
The net heat stored in the z-direction is,
⇒ 𝜃𝑧 − 𝜃𝑧+𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
⇒ − 𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟) + 𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟) + 𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟) 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧2
𝜕2 𝑇
⇒ 𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟)𝑑𝑧 . . . . . . . . (3)
𝜕𝑧2
Let ‘q’ is internal heat generated with the element per unit volume per unit time
= 𝑞 ∗ (𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟) ∗ 𝑑𝑧 . . . . . . . . (4)
The Total heat generated within the element is,
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
⇒ 𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝜕𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟+𝐾(𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑑𝑧)𝑑𝜃 𝑟 2 𝜕𝜃2
𝜕2 𝑇
+ 𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟)𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑧 2 + 𝑞 ∗ (𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟) ∗ 𝑑𝑧 . . . . . . .(5)
The equation (5) give us the total heat stored in the element but the heat e can be
estimated using the heat capacity of the element.
If 𝜕𝑇 is the temperature variation of the element in an interval 𝜕𝑡. Then the heat stored
in the element can be written as
𝜕𝑇
= m cp 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑇
=𝜌 𝜗 𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑇
= (𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝜌 𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑡 . . . . . . . . . (6)
Equating the equations (5) & (6)
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
⇒ 𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝑑𝑟+𝐾(𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑑𝑧)𝑑𝜃
𝜕𝑟2 𝑟2 𝜕𝜃2
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕𝑇
+ 𝐾(𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟)𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑧 2 + 𝑞 ∗ (𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟) ∗ 𝑑𝑧 = (𝑟𝑑𝜃 ∗ 𝑑𝑟 ∗ 𝑑𝑧) 𝜌 𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑡
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕𝑇
⇒ 𝐾𝑟 +𝐾 2 + 𝐾𝑟
+ 𝑞 ∗ 𝑟 = 𝜌 𝑐𝑝 𝑟
𝜕𝑟2 𝑟2 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧2 𝜕𝑡
1
By dividing the above equation by 𝐾𝑟
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 𝜌 𝑐𝑝 𝜕𝑇
⇒ (𝑟 𝜕𝑟 ) + 𝑟2 𝜕𝜃2 + + =
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑧2 𝐾 𝐾 𝜕𝑡
𝐾
Where 𝛼 = , then above equation can be written as
𝜌 𝑐𝑝
1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 1 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
⇒ ( + 𝑟 2) + 2 2 + + =
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧2 𝐾 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 1 𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
⇒ + + + + = . . . . . . . (7)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟2 𝑟2 𝜕𝜃2 𝜕𝑧2 𝐾 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

8
 The Equation (7) is the three dimensional unsteady state several heat conduction equation
is cylindrical polar co-ordinates.
Assuming unidirectional heat conduction in radial direction, no heat generation
internally, steady heat flow process, then the equation (7) will be reduced to
1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇
+ =0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 2
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇 𝑞
[͏ 𝜕𝜃2 = 0; = 0; = 0]
𝜕𝑧 2 𝐾
Unidirectional steady state heat conduction problems without internal heat
generation:
Case-(i): Plane Wall:
(a) Uniform Thermal Conductivity:
Let A = Area of the wall,
L = Thickness of the wall varing form x=0 to x=L, and
T1 = Initial temperature at x=0,
T2 = final temperature at x=L.
Let us assume that the thermal conductivity of the wall is uniform and independent of
temperature.
By applying Fourier’s law,
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝐾𝐴 𝑑𝑥
𝑄 𝑑𝑥 = −𝐾𝐴𝑑𝑇
By integrating on both sides, we get
𝐿 𝑇
𝑄 ∫𝑥=0 𝑑𝑥 = −𝐾𝐴 ∫𝑇 2 𝑑𝑇
1
𝑄𝐿 = −𝐾𝐴(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑄𝐿 = 𝐾𝐴(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝐾𝐴
𝑄= (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝐿
Writing unidirectional steady state equation for internal heat generation,
1 𝜕𝑇
(𝐾 ) = 0
𝑥 𝜕𝑥
As ‘K’ is uniform, we get
𝜕 2𝑇
=0
𝜕𝑥 2
By integrating the above equation,
𝜕𝑇
= 𝐶 ⇒ 𝜕𝑇 = 𝐶 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥
Again integrating the equation,
T = Cx + D . . . . . . . (1)
The boundary conditions for the problem are,
(i) At x=o, T = T1
(ii) At x=L, T = T2

9
 Substituting the boundary conditions in equation (1),
T1 = D
(𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
T2 = CL+D ⇒ C =
𝐿
Constants are D = T2 , and
(𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
C=
𝐿
Substituting the values of C & D in equation (1), we get
(𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
T= 𝑥 + T1
𝐿
(𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
𝑇 = 𝑇1 − 𝑥 . . . . . . (2)
𝐿
Equation (2) is the temperature distribution equation for plane wall with Uni-directional
heat conduction, steady flow heat flow & no internal heat generation.
Differentiating the Equation (2), we get
(𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
𝑑𝑇 = − 𝑑𝑥
𝐿
𝑑𝑇 (𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
By substituting this equation in Fourier’s law,
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝐾𝐴 𝑑𝑥
(𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
𝑄 = −𝐾𝐴 (− )
𝐿
(𝑇2 −𝑇1 )
𝑄 = 𝐾𝐴 ( )
𝐿
This equation is proved to Heat Transfer Rate.

(b) Varying Thermal Conductivity:

Let the thermal conductivity of the plain wall described in case (i) varies with
temperature according to a relation
K = K0 (1+αT)
By applying Fourier’s law,
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝐾𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑄 𝑑𝑥 = −𝐾0 𝐴𝑑𝑇 (1 + αT)
By integrating on both sides,
𝐿 𝑇2
𝑄 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = −𝐾0 𝐴 ∫ (1 + αT) 𝑑𝑇
𝑥=0 𝑇1
𝑇2
αT2
𝑄𝐿 = −𝐾0 𝐴 [𝑇 + ]
2 𝑇1
α(𝑇2 2 −𝑇1 2 )
𝑄𝐿 = −𝐾0 𝐴 [(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + 2
]

10
 α(𝑇1 2 − 𝑇2 2 )
𝑄𝐿 = 𝐾0 𝐴 [(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) + ]
2
α(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
𝑄𝐿 = 𝐾0 𝐴 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) [1 + ]
2
(𝑇1 +𝑇2 )
Let 𝑇𝑚 = (Where Tm = Mean Temperature of the Plane Wall)
2

𝐾0 𝐴
𝑄= (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) [1 + α 𝑇𝑚 ]
𝐿
𝐾 𝐴
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
Where Km is the mean thermal conductivity. i.e., the thermal conductivity of the
plane wall at mean is given as,
𝐾𝑚 = 𝐾0 [1 + α 𝑇𝑚 ]

Problem:
1. A leading manufacturer of house hold applied proposing an oven design that involves use
of a window separating the oven causing from the room. The composite window is
consists of two high plastics A&B of thickness LA = 2LB and thermal conductivities KA =
0.15 W/m 0K & 0.08 W/m 0K, oven wall and air temperatures are 4000C while the air
temperature TA=250C. Inside convection and radial heat transfer coefficients hi & hr as
well as outside conduction coefficient ho are each 25 W/m 0K. What minimum window
thickness (L= LA+LB) needed to ensure a temperature of 500C at the outer surface of the
wall at this temperature must not be exceeded for safety reason.
Sol:

400−25 375
𝑄= 1 1 𝐿 𝐿 = 1
+ + 𝐵 + 𝐴 𝐴
(0.06+25.83𝐿𝐵 )
30𝐴 25𝐴 0.08𝐴 0.15𝐴
400−50 350
𝑄= 1 𝐿 𝐿 = 1
+ 𝐵 + 𝐴 𝐴
(0.02+25.83𝐿𝐵 )
30𝐴 0.08𝐴 0.15𝐴
By equating the above two terms, we get
375 350
1 = 1
(0.06+25.83𝐿𝐵 ) (0.02+25.83𝐿𝐵 )
𝐴 𝐴
375(0.02+25.83LB) = 350(0.06+25.83LB)
644.58 LB = 13.5
LB = 0.0209 m
LA = 0.04188 m
Wall thickness L = 0.0628 m

11
 At outer surface of the wall:
Qin = Qout
350
Qin =
(0.02+25.83𝐿𝐵 )
Qout = h0 A (T50 – T∞) = 25*5=225

Case (ii):
Hallow cylinders:
Let us assume, a hallow cylinder of length ‘L’ whose inside and outside radii are ri and ro
respectively. Let Ti and To are the temperatures of inner and outer surfaces respectively.

Let the thermal conductivity of the cylinder material is ‘K’

Assumptions:
1) Steady state heat transfer conditions are prevailing.
2) Unidirectional heat transfer (radial direction).
3) No internal heat generation.
4) Thermal conductivity is uniform.

Writing Fourier’s law for heat conduction,

Heat transfer rate will be given by,
𝑑𝑇
Q = -KA
𝑑𝑟
Let us consider the temperature of the cylinder at a radial distance ‘r’ as T.
𝑑𝑇
Qr = -K 2πrL 𝑑𝑟
𝑄𝑟 𝑑𝑟
= −𝑑𝑇
2𝜋𝐿𝐾 𝑟
Integrating on both sides,
𝑄 𝑟
ln 𝑟𝑜 = −(𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 )
2𝜋𝐿𝐾 𝑖
2𝜋𝐿𝐾
𝑄= − 𝑟 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 )
𝑙𝑛 𝑜
𝑟𝑖

If Ti > To, then

2𝜋𝐿𝐾
𝑄= − 𝑟 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑙𝑛 𝑜
𝑟𝑖

Thermal resistance for Conduction through Hallow cylinders:

By comparing with Ohm’s law,
(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑄=
1 𝑟𝑜
2𝜋𝐿𝐾 ln 𝑟𝑖
1 𝑟𝑜
𝑅𝑡ℎ = ln
2𝜋𝐿𝐾 𝑟𝑖

12
Temperature distribution equation for hallow cylinders:
The binding equation for Uni-directional steady state conduction equation, without
internal heat generation cylindrical co-ordinates is,
1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇
+ =0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 2
𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇
+𝑟 2 =0
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕 𝜕𝑇
(𝑟 ) = 0
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
By integrating, we get
𝜕𝑇
𝑟 =𝐶
𝜕𝑟
𝐶
𝜕𝑇 = 𝜕𝑟
𝑟
Again integrating the above equation, we get
𝑇 = 𝐶 ln 𝑟 + 𝐷 . . . . . . . . (1)
(i) At r = ri , T = Ti
(ii) At r = ro , T = To
Substituting in equation (1),
𝑇𝑖 = 𝐶 ln 𝑟𝑖 + 𝐷
𝑇𝑜 = 𝐶 ln 𝑟𝑜 + 𝐷
𝑟𝑖
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 = 𝐶 ln
𝑟𝑜
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑟 =𝐶
ln 𝑟𝑖
𝑜
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑇𝑖 = 𝑟 ln 𝑟𝑖 + 𝐷
ln 𝑟𝑖
𝑜
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
𝐷 = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑟 ln 𝑟𝑖
ln 𝑟𝑖
𝑜
𝑇𝑖 (ln 𝑟𝑖 − ln 𝑟𝑜 ) − (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) ln 𝑟𝑖
𝐷= 𝑟
𝑙𝑛 𝑟𝑖
𝑜
𝑇𝑖 ln 𝑟𝑖 − 𝑇𝑖 ln 𝑟𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 ln 𝑟𝑖 + 𝑇𝑜 ln 𝑟𝑖
𝐷= 𝑟
𝑙𝑛 𝑟𝑖
𝑜
𝑇𝑜 ln 𝑟𝑖 − 𝑇𝑖 ln 𝑟𝑜
𝐷= 𝑟
𝑙𝑛 𝑟𝑖
𝑜

13
 By Substituting the C & D in equation (1),
𝑇 = 𝐶 ln 𝑟 + 𝐷
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑜 ln 𝑟𝑖 − 𝑇𝑖 ln 𝑟𝑜
𝑇= 𝑟𝑖 ln 𝑟 + 𝑟
ln 𝑟 𝑙𝑛 𝑟𝑖
𝑜 𝑜
(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑄 = 2𝜋𝐿𝐾 𝑟
ln 𝑟𝑜
𝑖
(𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟𝑖 )(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑄 = 2𝜋𝐿𝐾 𝑟
(𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟𝑖 ) ∗ ln 𝑜
𝑟𝑖
(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑄 = 𝐾 𝐴𝑚
(𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟𝑖 )
Where Am = The log mean area of the cylinder.
(𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟𝑖 )
𝐴𝑚 = 2𝜋𝐿 𝑟
ln 𝑟𝑜
𝑖
2𝜋𝐿𝑟𝑜 − 2𝜋𝐿𝑟𝑖
𝐴𝑚 =
2𝜋𝐿𝑟
ln 2𝜋𝐿𝑟𝑜
𝑖
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑖
𝐴𝑚 =
𝐴
ln 𝐴𝑜
𝑖
Where A0 = Outside Surface area of the cylinder.
Ai = Inside Surface area of the cylinder.

Overall heat transfer Co-efficient of a hallow cylinders:

Let us consider heat transfer through a hallow cylinder of inside radius (ri) & Outside
radius (ro). Let the length of the cylinder is ‘L’ and a hot fluid at a temperature (Ta) is flowing
through the tube.
Let heat transfer co-efficient between the outer and inner surface of the cylinder is hi and
ho is outside heat transfer co-efficient between outer surface of the cylinder and ambient air
which is at a temperature Ta. Let Ti & To are the temperature of the inner & outer surfaces of the
cylinder.
By applying Electrical Network Analogy,
The three resistances, resistance due to convection inside of the cylinder, resistance due
to conduction to outside of the cylinder and resistance to convection outside of the cylinder are
all acting in series as shown below.

14
 Hence, the resistance offered to the heat transfer is.
1 1 𝑟𝑜 1
∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ = + ln +
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2𝜋𝐾𝐿 𝑟𝑖 ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜
Total heat transfer rate,
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑄=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇∞
𝑄= 1 1 𝑟 1 . . . . . . (a)
+ ln 𝑜 +
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2𝜋𝐾𝐿 𝑟𝑖 ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜

Heat transfer rate can also be written as,

𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴 ⧍𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑄 = 𝑈𝐴 (𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇∞ ) . . . . . . (b)
By comparing equations (a) & (b),

𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇∞
𝑈𝐴 (𝑇𝑎 − 𝑇∞ ) = 1 1 𝑟 1
+ ln 𝑜 +
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2𝜋𝐾𝐿 𝑟𝑖 ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜
1
𝑈𝐴 = 1 1 𝑟 1
+ ln 𝑜 +
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2𝜋𝐾𝐿 𝑟𝑖 ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜
1 1 1 𝑟𝑜 1
= + ln + . . . . . . (c)
𝑈𝐴 ℎ 𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2𝜋𝐾𝐿 𝑟𝑖 ℎ 𝑜 𝐴𝑜
As the area of the cylinder varies in radial direction, form inside surface to outside
surface. Therefore the term A in equation (b) as no meaning. Therefore heat transfer rate is given
by,
𝑄 = 𝑈𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ⧍𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 . . . . . . (b1)
𝑄 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ⧍𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 . . . . . . (b2)
In equation (b), the area used is Ai & therefore we call the corresponding overall heat
transfer coefficient (Ui) as overall heat transfer coefficient based on inside surface area.
Similarly, we call U0 in equation (b2) as overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside surface
area.
By replacing UA in equation (c) by UiAi
1 1 1 𝑟𝑜 1
= + ln +
𝑈𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ℎ 𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2𝜋𝐾𝐿 𝑟𝑖 ℎ 𝑜 𝐴𝑜
1
⇒ 𝑈𝑖 = 1 1 𝑟 1
𝐴𝑖 [ℎ 𝐴 +2𝜋𝐾𝐿 ln 𝑟𝑜 +ℎ 𝐴 ]
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑜 𝑜
1
⇒ 𝑈𝑖 = 1 𝑖 ln 𝑜 + 𝐴𝑖 𝑟 𝐴 . . . . . . (d)
[ℎ +2𝜋𝐾𝐿 𝑟 𝑖 ℎ𝑜 𝐴 𝑜
]
𝑖
1
⇒ 𝑈𝑖 = 1 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 . . . . . . (d1)
[ℎ + 𝐾𝑖 ln 𝑟𝑜 +ℎ 𝑟𝑖 ]
𝑖 𝑖 𝑜 𝑜

15
 Similarly, Overall heat transfer co-efficient based on surface area can be obtained as,
1
𝑈𝑜 = 1 1 𝑟 1
𝐴𝑜 [ℎ 𝐴 +2𝜋𝐾𝐿 ln 𝑟𝑜 +ℎ 𝐴 ]
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑜 𝑜
1
⇒ 𝑈𝑖 = 𝐴 𝐴𝑜 𝑟 𝐴𝑜
[ ℎ𝑜 +2𝜋𝐾𝐿 ln 𝑟𝑜 +ℎ 𝐴 ]
𝑖 𝑖 𝑜 𝑜
1
⇒ 𝑈𝑖 = 𝐴 𝑜 𝐴 𝑜 𝑟𝑜 1
. . . . . . (e)
[ℎ 𝐴 + ln + ]
𝑖 𝑖 𝐾 𝑟 𝑖 ℎ𝑜
1
⇒ 𝑈𝑖 = 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 1
. . . . . . (e1)
[ℎ 𝑜𝑟 + 𝐾𝑜 ln 𝑟𝑜 +ℎ ]
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑜

Case (ii) (a):

Hallow cylinder with variable thermal conductivity:
For the cylinder described in Case (ii). Let us assume that its thermal conductivity varies
according to
K = K0 (1+αt)
Assumptions:
1. Uni-directional heat flow (radial direction)
2. Steady state flow
3. No internal generation
According to Fourier’s law,
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝐾𝐴
𝑑𝑟
At a point where radius ‘r’ for the cylinder, heat transfer rate is
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝐾𝑜 (1 + αt) ∗ 2πrL
𝑑𝑟
𝑄
𝑑𝑟 = −𝐾𝑜 2πL(1 + αt) ∗ 𝑑𝑇
r
By integrating between the limit ri to ro & Ti to To
𝑟𝑜 𝑇𝑜
1
𝑄∫ 𝑑𝑟 = −𝐾𝑜 2πL ∫ (1 + αt) ∗ 𝑑𝑇
𝑟𝑖 r 𝑇𝑖

𝑟𝑜 α(To 2 − Ti 2 )
𝑄 ∗ 𝑙𝑛 = −𝐾𝑜 2πL [(To − Ti ) + ( )]
𝑟𝑖 2

α(To + Ti )
⇒ −𝐾𝑜 2πL(To − Ti ) [1 + ( )]
2
2πL α
𝑄 = 𝐾𝑜 𝑟 (Ti − To ) [1 + (2 (To + Ti ))] . . . . . . . (1)
𝑙𝑛 𝑜
𝑟𝑖
(To + Ti )
𝑙𝑒𝑡 2
= Tm , where Tm is the mean temperature of the cylinder then,

16
 2πL
𝑄 = 𝐾𝑜 𝑟 (Ti − To ) [1 + (αTm )]
𝑙𝑛 𝑜
𝑟𝑖

𝑆𝑎𝑦 𝐾𝑜 [1 + (αTm )] = 𝐾𝑚 , where Km is the mean thermal conductivity of the cylinder

estimated at the mean temperature (Tm).
2 𝐾𝑚 πL
𝑄= 𝑟 (Ti − To ) . . . . . . . (1a)
𝑙𝑛 𝑜
𝑟𝑖

Obtaining equation (1) by integrating Fourier’s law, between the limits ri & r where r is
an unknown intermediate radius of the hollow cylinder. Let T is the temperature of the cylinder
at the radius r. Then the heat transfer rate can be written as,
2πL α
𝑄 = 𝐾𝑜 𝑟 (Ti − T) [1 + ( (T + Ti ))] . . . . . . . (2)
𝑙𝑛 2
𝑟𝑖

The heat transfer rates given by equation (1 ) & equation (2) will be the same as it is
assumed to be a steady state heat flow process.
By equating equations (1) & (2), the temperature distribution equation for a hollow
cylinder with variable thermal conductivity for the assumptions mentioned above can be
obtained by,
𝑟
α 𝑙𝑛
𝑟𝑖
(Ti − T) [1 + ( (T + Ti ))] = 𝑟 (Ti − To ) [1 + (αTm )]
2 𝑙𝑛 𝑜
𝑟𝑖
𝑟
α 𝑙𝑛
𝑟
Ti + (Ti − T) [(2 (T + Ti ))] − T = 𝑙𝑛𝑟𝑜𝑖 (Ti − To ) [1 + (αTm )]
𝑟𝑖
𝑟
α 𝑙𝑛
(Ti − T) + [( (Ti 2 − T 2 ))] = 𝑟𝑖
𝑟 (Ti − To ) [1 + (αTm )]
2 𝑙𝑛 𝑜
𝑟𝑖
𝑟
α 𝑙𝑛 α
2 𝑟𝑖
T+2T + 𝑟 (Ti − To ) [1 + (αTm )] − Ti (1 + Ti ) = 0
𝑙𝑛 𝑜 2
𝑟𝑖

Composite Cylinder:
The compound cylinder is a cylinder which is made up of two (or) more materials whose
thermal properties are different.

Equivalent Electrical Circuit:

⧍𝑇
Heat transfer rate =
∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ
1 1 𝑟2 1 𝑟3 1 𝑟4 1
∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ = + ln + ln + ln +
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2𝜋𝐾1 𝐿 𝑟1 2𝜋𝐾2 𝐿 𝑟2 2𝜋𝐾3 𝐿 𝑟3 ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜

17
 Total heat transfer rate is,
(Ti − To )
𝑄=
1 1 𝑟 1 𝑟 1 𝑟 1
+ ln 2 + ln 3 + ln 4 +
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2𝜋𝐾1 𝐿 𝑟1 2𝜋𝐾2 𝐿 𝑟2 2𝜋𝐾3 𝐿 𝑟3 ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜

Overall heat transfer co-efficient based on inside:

𝑄 = 𝑈𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ⧍𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙
(Ti − To )
𝑄= 1
𝑈𝑖 𝐴𝑖
1 1 1 𝑟 1 𝑟 1 𝑟 1
= ℎ 𝐴 + 2𝜋𝐾 𝐿 𝑙𝑛 𝑟2 + 2𝜋𝐾 𝐿 𝑙𝑛 𝑟3 + 2𝜋𝐾 𝐿 𝑙𝑛 𝑟4 + ℎ
𝑈𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 1 1 2 2 3 3 𝑜 𝐴𝑜
1
𝑈𝑖 = 1 𝑟𝑖 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
+ 𝑙𝑛 2 + 𝑖 𝑙𝑛 3 + 𝑖 𝑙𝑛 4 + 𝑖
ℎ𝑖 𝐾 1 𝑟1 𝐾2 𝑟2 𝐾3 𝑟3 ℎ𝑜 𝑟𝑜

Overall heat transfer co-efficient based on outside:

𝑄 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ⧍𝑇𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙
(Ti − To )
𝑄= 1
𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜
1 1 1 𝑟 1 𝑟 1 𝑟 1
= ℎ 𝐴 + 2𝜋𝐾 𝐿 𝑙𝑛 𝑟2 + 2𝜋𝐾 𝐿 𝑙𝑛 𝑟3 + 2𝜋𝐾 𝐿 𝑙𝑛 𝑟4 + ℎ
𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝑖 𝑖 1 1 2 2 3 3 𝑜 𝐴𝑜
1
𝑈𝑜 = 𝑟𝑜 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 1
+ 𝑜 𝑙𝑛 2 + 𝑜 𝑙𝑛 3 + 𝑜 𝑙𝑛 4 +
ℎ𝑖 𝐾1 𝑟1 𝐾2 𝑟2 𝐾3 𝑟3 ℎ𝑜

Problems:
1. A thick wall copper cylinder as on inside radius of 1 cm and outside radius of 2 cm. the
inner and outer surface is held at 3100C and 2900C. Assume K =371.9 (1 – 9.25 * 10-5 *
(T-150). Estimate the rate of heat transfer through the cylinder.
Sol:
Given data:
Inner radius of the cylinder (ri) = 1 cm
Outer radius of the cylinder (ro) = 2 cm
Inside Temperature of the cylinder (Ti) = 3100C
Outside Temperature of the cylinder (To) = 2900C
To find: 1. Heat transfer rate through the cylinder.
Schematic:

Assumptions;
1. Steady state heat flow.
2. Uni=directional heat flow (radial)
3. No internal heat generation
4. Unit length cylinder.

18
Solution:
Ki = 371.9 (1.925*10-5 (310-150)) = 366.39 Kcal/hr m 0K
Ko = 371.9 (1.925*10-5 (290-150)) = 367 Kcal/hr m 0K
𝐾𝑖 +𝐾𝑜
𝐾𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 366.74 Kcal/hr m 0K
2
Heat flow rate is given as,
2𝜋𝐾𝑚 𝐿(𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 )
𝑄= 𝑟
𝑙𝑛 𝑜
𝑟𝑖
2𝜋366.74∗1(310−290) 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑄= 2 = 66487.89
𝑙𝑛 ℎ𝑟
1
Conclusions:
Heat transfer rate from inside to outside through cylinder due to conduction is
Q = 66487.89 Kcal/hr.
2. A hollow cylinder 5cm inner diameter and 10 cm outer diameter as an inner surface
temperature of 2000C and outer surface temperature at 1000C. Determine the temperature
of cylinder at a point half way between the inner & outer surfaces temperature. The
thermal conductivity of the cylinder is 70 W/m 0K. Estimate the heat transfer rate per unit
length of the cylinder.
Given data:
Inner diameter of the cylinder (ri) = 5 cm
Outer diameter of the cylinder (ro) = 10 cm
Inside Temperature of the cylinder (Ti) = 2000C
Outside Temperature of the cylinder (To) = 1000C
To find: 1. Heat transfer rate through the cylinder.
2. Temperature of the cylinder at a half-way.
Schematic:

Assumptions;
1. Steady state heat flow.
2. Uni-directional heat flow (radial)
3. No internal heat generation
4. Unit length of the cylinder.
5. Constant thermal conductivity.
Solution:
Thermal conductivity of the material = K = 70 W/m 0K.
Heat flow rate is given as,
2𝜋𝐾𝐿(𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 )
𝑄= 𝑟
𝑙𝑛 𝑜
𝑟𝑖
2𝜋∗70∗1(200−100) 𝑊
𝑄= 10 = 63453.042
𝑙𝑛 ℎ𝑟
5

19
 Since heat transfer rate is constant through out the cylinder, then
Heat transfer rate formula at mid-way is,
2𝜋𝐾𝐿(𝑇𝑖 −𝑇)
𝑄= 𝑟
𝑙𝑛
𝑟𝑖
2𝜋∗70∗1(200−𝑇)
63453.042 = 7.5
𝑙𝑛
5
200 − 𝑇 = 58.49
T = 141.504 0C

Assignment Problems:
1. A rare window of an automobile is defogged passing warm air at 40o C over its inner
surface the associated convection is 30 W/m 0K. The outer air temperature is 100C and
associated convection is 65 W/m 0K. What are the inner and outer surfaces of the
window? The thickness of window glass is a thermal conductivity of the glass is 0.794
W/m 0K.
2. The wind chill which is experienced on a cold which is related to increased heat transfer
from exposed human skin to the surrounding atmosphere. Consider a layer of fatty tissue
of thick and whose interior surface is maintained at a temperature of 360C, on a calm
day. The convention heat transfer coefficient at the outer skin is 25 W/m 0K. But with
30Km/hr wind speed it reaches to 65 W/m 0K in both the cases. The ambient temperature
is -150C. Find
(a) What is the ratio of heat loss area from the skin for a clam day to that for per unit
windy day.
(b) What will be the skin out surface temperature for the calm day and for the windy day.
(c) What temperature would the air have to assume on a calm day to produce the same
heat loss occurring with the air temperature of -150C on the windy day. Take Kskin =
0.35 W/m 0K.
3. A house has a composite wall of wood, fibers insulation & plaster board as indicated in
the sketch. On a cold winter day, the convention heat transfer coefficient are ho = 60 W/m
0
K & hi = 30 W/m 0K. The total wall surface area is 350 m2. Determine
(a) Thermal resistance of the wall including inside & outside convention effects for the
conditions stated above.
(b) The total heat loss through the wall.
(c) If wind were blowing violently raising in to 300 W/m 0K. Determine the percentage
increase in heat loss.
4. A composite wall of height ‘H’ and of unit length is insulated at its end and is comprised
of 4 different materials as shown. Sketch the thermal circuit of the system.
5. Over a wide range of the thermal conductivities many solids vary according to the
equation K = K0 (1+αT), where K0 is a positive constant and α is a constant that may be

20
 positive or negative. Sketch the temperature distribution corresponding to α>0, α=0 &
α<0.
6. A steam pipe of 0.12 m outside diameter is insulated in 20mm thick layer of calcium
silicate. If inner & outer surfaces of the insulations are at temperatures 8000K & 4900K
respectively. What is the heat per unit length of the pipe. The thermal conductivity for
calcium silicate is 0.13 W/m 0K.

Case (iii):
(a)Hollow Spheres:
Consider a hallow sphere whose inner radius is ri & outer radius ro. let the inside surface
temperature be Ti and the outside surface temperature be To.
Assumptions:
1. Steady state heat conduction.
2. Uni-directional heat flow (radial)
3. No internal heat generation
4. Uniform thermal conductivity of the sphere material.
Let K= thermal conductivity of the sphere.
Applying Fourier’s law of heat conduction for this hallow sphere at a radius ‘r’ from the
centre and considering a thickness of ‘dr’.
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝐾𝐴
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝐾(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) 𝑑𝑟
𝑄 𝑑𝑟
= −𝑑𝑇
4𝜋𝐾 𝑟 2
By integrating between the limits ri & r0 and Ti & To
𝑟𝑜 𝑇𝑜
1
𝑄 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑟 = −4𝜋𝐾 ∫ 𝑑𝑇
𝑟𝑖 𝑟 𝑇𝑖
1 𝑟0 𝑇
𝑄 [− ] = −4𝜋𝐾 [𝑇] 𝑇𝑖 𝑜
𝑟 𝑟𝐼
1 1
𝑄 [− ( − )] = −4𝜋𝐾 [𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 ]
𝑟0 𝑟𝑖
4𝜋𝐾 𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖 [𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 ]
𝑄= (𝑟𝑜 −𝑟𝑖 )
. . . . . . (1)
Thermal resistance for a hollow sphere,
(𝑟 −𝑟 )
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑜 𝑖
4𝜋𝐾 𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖
Equation (1) can be written as,
𝐾√4𝜋𝑟𝑜 √4𝜋𝑟𝑖 [𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 ]
𝑄= (𝑟𝑜 −𝑟𝑖 )

21
 𝐾√𝐴𝑜 𝐴𝑖 [𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 ]
𝑄= (𝑟𝑜 −𝑟𝑖 )
𝐾√𝐴𝑚 [𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 ]
𝑄= (𝑟𝑜 −𝑟𝑖 )
Where Am = Geometric mean area of the sphere.

(b)Temperature distribution equation of hollow sphere:

Binding equation for spheres is given by,
2 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2 𝑇
+ =0
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 2

Multiplying throughout by r2
𝜕 2𝑇 2 𝜕𝑇
𝑟2 2 + 𝑟2 ( )=0
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕 2𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑟 2 2 + 2𝑟 =0
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕 𝜕𝑇
( 𝑟2 ) = 0
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
By integrating the above equation, we get

𝜕 𝜕𝑇
∫ ( 𝑟2 ) = ∫ 0
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝑇
𝑟2 =𝐶
𝜕𝑟
𝐶
𝜕𝑇 = 2 𝜕𝑟
𝑟
By integrating the above equation, we get
𝐶
𝑇 =− +𝐷
𝑟
The boundary conditions are,
(i) At r = ri ⇒ T = Ti
(ii) At r = ro ⇒ T = To
The equations are written as,
𝐶
𝑇𝑖 = − + 𝐷
𝑟𝑖
𝐶
𝑇𝑜 = − + 𝐷
𝑟𝑜
𝐶 𝐶
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 = − +
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑜

22
 𝐶 𝐶
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 = −
𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖

(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖
𝐶 =
(𝑟𝑖 −𝑟𝑜 )
Then equation can be written as,
1 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖
𝑇𝑖 = −
( )+𝐷
𝑟𝑖 (𝑟𝑖 −𝑟𝑜 )
(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )𝑟𝑜
𝑇𝑖 = − ( )+𝐷
(𝑟𝑖 −𝑟𝑜 )
(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )𝑟𝑜
𝐷 = 𝑇𝑖 + ( )
(𝑟𝑖 −𝑟𝑜 )
By substituting the values of C & D in the equation, we get
1 (𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 )𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖 (𝑇 −𝑇 )𝑟
𝑇 = −𝑟( (𝑟𝑖 −𝑟𝑜 )
) + 𝑇𝑖 + ( (𝑟𝑖 −𝑟𝑜 )𝑜 )
𝑖 𝑜
(𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 ) 1
𝑇= 𝑇𝑖 + (𝑟 −𝑟 ) [− 𝑟 (𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖 ) + (𝑟𝑜 )]
𝑖 𝑜
(𝑇 −𝑇 ) 𝑟
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖 + (𝑟𝑖−𝑟𝑜) ∗ [ 𝑟𝑜 [𝑟 − 𝑟𝑖 ]]
𝑖 𝑜

(c)Hollow sphere with variable thermal conductivity:

The temperature distribution equation is given by,
By applying Fourier’s law,
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝐾(4𝜋𝑟 2 )
𝑑𝑟
Substituting the value of K, the equation can be written as
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝐾𝑜 [1 + (αT)] ∗ (4𝜋𝑟 2 )
𝑑𝑟
By rearranging the terms,

𝑟2
𝑄 = −𝐾𝑜 [1 + (αT)] ∗ (4𝜋)𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑟
Integrating between the limits ri & ro,
𝑟𝑜 𝑇𝑜
1
𝑄 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑟 = −4𝜋𝐾𝑜 ∫ [1 + (αT)]𝑑𝑇
𝑟𝑖 𝑟 𝑇𝑖
𝑇𝑜
1 𝑟0 αT 2
𝑄 [− ] = −4𝜋𝐾𝑜 [𝑇 + ]
𝑟 𝑟𝐼 2 𝑇
𝑖

1 1 α(𝑇𝑜 2 − 𝑇𝑖 2 )
𝑄 [− ( − )] = −4𝜋𝐾𝑜 [(𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 ) + ]
𝑟0 𝑟𝑖 2
1 1 (𝑇𝑜 +𝑇𝑖 )
𝑄 [(𝑟 − 𝑟 )] = 4𝜋𝐾𝑜 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 ) [1 + α ] . . . . . . (1)
0 𝑖 2

23
 1 1
𝑄 [( − )] = 4𝜋𝐾𝑜 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 ) [1 + α 𝑇𝑚 ]
𝑟0 𝑟𝑖
1 1
𝑄 [( − )] = 4𝜋𝐾𝑚 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 )
𝑟0 𝑟𝑖
Where Km = Mean thermal conductivity
Tm = Mean temperature
4𝜋𝐾𝑚 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 )𝑟0 𝑟𝑖
𝑄=
(𝑟0 − 𝑟𝑖 )
The above equation gives the heat transfer rate through a hallow sphere with variable
thermal conductivity. Where Km is the mean thermal conductivity of the material.
𝐾𝑚 = 𝐾𝑜 [1 + α 𝑇𝑚 ]

Writing the Fourier’s equation,

𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝐾(4𝜋𝑟 2 )
𝑑𝑟
After rearranging the terms,
𝑟2
𝑄 = −𝐾𝑜 [1 + (αT)] ∗ (4𝜋)𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑟
Integrating the above equation between the limits r & ro and Ti & To , we get
1 1 α
𝑄 [(𝑟 − 𝑟 )] = 4𝜋𝐾𝑜 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑖 ) [1 + (𝑇 + 𝑇𝑖 )] . . . . . . (2)
𝑖 2
By equating the equations (1) & (2), an expressions for thermal distribution can be
obtained.

(d) Composite Spheres:

Consider a composite sphere made up of two different materials (material-1 & material-
2) whose thermal conductivities are K1 & K2. Then heat transfer rate equation is given by

𝑇1 − 𝑇3
𝑄=
∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ
Thermal network is

𝑟2 −𝑟1
𝑅1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑
4𝜋𝐾1 𝑟2 𝑟1
𝑟3 −𝑟2
𝑅2 =
4𝜋𝐾2 𝑟2 𝑟3
From network,
∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 𝑟3 − 𝑟2
∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ = +
4𝜋𝐾1 𝑟2 𝑟1 4𝜋𝐾2 𝑟2 𝑟3

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 Heat transfer rate is given by,
𝑇1 − 𝑇3
𝑄=
𝑟2 − 𝑟1 𝑟 − 𝑟2
[ + 3 ]
4𝜋𝐾1 𝑟2 𝑟1 4𝜋𝐾2 𝑟2 𝑟3
In general, for a system of ‘n’ composite materials for a sphere is given by,
𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑛+1
𝑄= 𝑟 − 𝑟𝑛
∑𝑛𝑛=1 𝑛+1
4𝜋𝐾𝑛 𝑟𝑛+1 𝑟𝑛
For involving of convection also:
The heat transfer rate through a composite sphere considering convection heat transfer at
inside & outside surfaces of the composite sphere.
Electrical circuit:

𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑄=
∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ
∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑜
1 1
𝑅𝑖 = =
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ℎ𝑖 4𝜋𝑟1 2
1 1
𝑅𝑜 = =
ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ℎ𝑜 4𝜋𝑟3 2
1 1 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 𝑟3 − 𝑟2
∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ = + + +
ℎ𝑖 4𝜋𝑟1 2 ℎ𝑜 4𝜋𝑟3 2 4𝜋𝐾1 𝑟2 𝑟1 4𝜋𝐾2 𝑟3 𝑟2
More generally, the heat transfer rate equation through composite sphere having ‘n’
materials and considering inside & outside convection heat transfer effects is given by,

𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑄=
1 1 𝑟𝑛+1 − 𝑟𝑛
+ + ∑𝑛𝑛=1
ℎ𝑖 4𝜋𝑟1 2 ℎ𝑜 4𝜋𝑟3 2 4𝜋𝐾𝑛 𝑟𝑛+1 𝑟𝑛

Problems:
1. The temperature of the inside surface of a hallow silver sphere is 850C & the outside
surface is at 150C. the inside diameter is 5 cm and the outer diameter is 7.5 cm. The value
of K = 425 W/m 0K. Find the rate of heat transfer.
Sol: The heat transfer rate is given as,
4𝜋𝐾 𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖 [𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜 ]
𝑄= (𝑟𝑜 −𝑟𝑖 )
7.5 5
4𝜋∗425∗ 2 ∗2∗[85−15]
𝑄= 7.5−5 = 28.033 𝐾𝑤
( 2 )10−2

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2. A spherical thin wall container is used to store nitrogen at 770K. The container has a diameter
of 0.5m and is covered with an evacuated reflected translation system composite of silica
powder. The insulation of 25mm deep and its K=0.0017 W/m 0K. the outer surface of the
insulation is expose to ambient air at 3000K. The convection co-efficient is known to be 20
W/m 0K of the container. The latent heat of Vaporization of the nitrogen is 2*105 J/kg. Find
what is the rate of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen and what is the boil rate if 770K is the
saturation temperature of liquid nitrogen. Take hfg = 2*105 J/kg.
Sol: Given data:
h0 = 20 W/m 0K
K = 0.0017 W/m 0K
T∞ = 3000K
T0 = 770K
The heat transfer rate is given by,
𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑄=
∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ
∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑜
𝑟𝑖 −𝑟𝑜 0.275−0.25
𝑅𝑖 = 2 = 2 = 17.02 oK/W
𝐾4𝜋𝑟𝑜 0.0017∗4𝜋∗0.275
1 1 1
𝑅𝑜 = ℎ = = = 0.0526oK/W
𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ℎ𝑜 4𝜋𝑟𝑜 2 20∗4𝜋∗0.275
2

∑ 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑜 = 17.0726
Heat transfer rate from ambient air to liquid nitrogen,
300 − 77
𝑄= = 13.06 𝑊
17.0726
𝑄 = ℎ𝑓𝑔 ∗ 𝑚 = 2 ∗ 105 ∗ 𝑚
13.06
𝑚 = 2∗105 = 0.5 ∗ 10−5 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐
= 3.91 *10-3 kg/min
= 5.64 kg/day.
Assignment Problems:
3. A thin electric heater is fitted between two concentric cylinders inner &outer 20 & 40 cm
respectively. The inner cylinder (A) has the thermal conductivity of 0.15 W/m 0K. The
outer cylinder (B) has K=1.5 W/m 0K. And its surface is subjected to convection with a
fluid whose temperature is -15oC & heat transfer co-efficient 50 W/m 0K. There is
negligible thermal contact resistance between the cylinder surface & the heater.
Determine
(a) The electrical power per unit length of the cylinders, i.e., required to maintain outer
surface of the cylinder at 5oC.
(b) What the temperature at the centre of cylinder when the outer surface of cylinder (B)
is at 5oC.

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4. A hollow Al is sphere with the electric heater is used in tests to determine the K of
material. The inner & outer radii of the sphere are 0.15 & 0.18m respectively. The testing
is done under steady state condition with the inner surface of Al maintain at 2500C. In a
particular, a sphere to a thickness of 0.12m. the system is in air for which the air
temperature is 200C. And the convection co-efficient at the outer surface of insulation is
30 W/m 0K. It is dissipated by the heater under steady state condition. What is the K of
insulation.
5. The energy transferred from the interior chamber eye through the corner varies
considerably on where contact lens is born. Treat the eye as a spherical system assume to
be at steady state conditions. The convection co-efficient h0 is unchanged with & without
contact lens place. The corner & the lens cover 1/3 of the sphere surface area. Determine
(a) The heat lost from the interior chamber with & without the contact lens in place.
(b) Discuss the implication of your result.

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