I B.

Com (CA) – II Semester Fundamentals Of Operating Systems

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Fundamentals of Operating Systems

Unit -1 Introduction to Operating System

Introduction to Operating Systems, Role (Functions) of
OperatingSystems,TypesofOperatingSystems,UserInterface,ConceptofProcess
anRunningProgramsbyOS,Files&Folders(Organizing,Attributes,andSharing),
Managing Hardware, PC Operating System, Network (Server) Operating
System, Embedded Operating Systems.
Unit – II Overview of Operating Systems
DOS, Windows NT, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows
2000Server, Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Macintosh Operating Systems,
Android, iOS
Unit -3 Roles/Functions of Operating System
Multi-Processing, Fault Tolerance and Load Balancing, Overview of Data
Safety (RAID), Disk Defragmentation, Backup and Recovery, Security
(Concept of User and Group, File and Folder Permission, Firewall),
Workgroups, Domains, and Active Directory, Overview of Server Roles.
Unit -4 Introduction to Linux Operating System
Introduction to Linux, History of Linux, Strengths and Weaknesses of LINUX,
Features of Linux, LINUX Distributions, Basic Commands of Linux.
Unit- 5
Introduction to Android, History of Android, Design goals, Memory
management, Processor management, device management, file
management, security management User interface.
ReferenceBooks:
1. Peter Norton, “Introduction to Computers”,TMH
2. Understanding Operating Systems By Ann McHoes, Ida M. Flynn
3. Alan Carter, “Windows 2000 MCSE StudySystem”
4. Pfaffenberger, “Linux Commands Instant Reference”, BPBPublication
5. Silberschatz& Galvin, “Operating System Concepts”, Wiley, 5th Ed.
6. Sumitabha Das, “UNIX Concepts and Applications”, THM, 4th Ed.

UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEM
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1. What is Operating System? Explain the functions of OS?

An Operating System is an integrated set of programs used to

manage various resources like CPU, Memory, I/O devices and “Overall
operations” of a computer. It provides an interface to the users to work
with the computer. The main objective of OS is to improve the
performance and efficiency of a computer.
An OS is responsible for smooth and efficient operation of the entire
computer system. The efficiency of OS and performance of computer are
measured in the following terms:
1) Through put – The amount of work that system is able to do
within specific time unit.
2) Turnaround time – The time period between submission of a
program to system and completion of that program.
3) Response time – The time interval between program submission and
1st response produced by the system.
E.g.:- MS-DOS, MS-Windows, UNIX, LINUX, Solaris, etc.

Functions Of Operating System:

An OS performs many functions. These are also called “Roles of OS” some
important functions of an OS are
1) Process Management
2) Memory Management
3) Resource Management
4) I/P Management
5) Security and Data Integrity
6) File Management
7) Error handling
8) Command Interpretation
9) Communication
10) Job Scheduling

1.Process management:-
A process is a program under execution. The main objective of process
management is to manage the processes submitted to the computer to
“Minimize” the Ideal time of the processors. This module is responsible for
creation of a process, deletion of a process, scheduling of system
resources, and communication among processer. The major activities of os
with respect to process management are:

*Creation and Deletion of system processes.

*Suspension and Resuming.
*A mechanism for process synchronization.
*A mechanism for process communication.
*A mechanism for handling the deadlocks.
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A process can be created and executed through the following states.

New state READY state RUNNING state Blocked state

TERMINATED state.

2.Memory Management:-
This module takes care of the main memory opt computer. This main
memory provides storage area that can be accessed directly by the CPU. It
indicates that a program to be executed, it must be in main memory. The
major activities of OS for memory management are:
 Keep track of which part of memory is currently using by which
program.
 It decides which processors are located into memory when memory
is available.
 It allocates and deal locates memory based on the requirement.

3.Resource Management:-
The OS is responsible for allocating memory, CPU time and Input/output
Resources to each pro0grame to be executed. While one program is
executing. The os schedules the resources for other programs also. The os
schedules the resources to make the best use of them.

4.I/O Management:-
The OS also manages the I/O of a computer system. So, data flows
among the computers. Terminates, Printers, etc. The application programs
use the os extensively to handles I/O devices based on the requirement.

5.Security and Data Integrity:-

The Security of an OS protects the resources and information from
unauthorized users. It gives different programs and data separately.
Maintenance of internal clock and log file for all the users protect the
computer system.

6.File Management:-
The file management of OS takes care of file related activities. This
module is responsible for organizing, storing, retrieval (Access), naming,
sharing and protection of files. A computer can store files on the
secondary storage to provide long term storage.
E.g.: Magnetic tapes, Magnetic disc, Optical disc.
The major activities of operating system for file, management are
 The creation and deletion of files.
 The creation and deletion of Directories (folders).
 The support of primitives for manipulating files and directories.
 The mapping of files on to secondary storage.
 The backup of files on permanent storage media.
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7.Error Handling:-
An error may cause malfunctioning of computer system. OS constantly
monitors the computer for detecting the error (observation). So, the users
are free from worry of errors.

8.Command Interpretation:-
This module serves as an interface for the uses to communicate with
the computer. There are two main categories of user interface supported
by os. They are:
 CLI (Command Line Interface).
 GUI (Graphical User Interface).

9.Communication:-
This module is used to provide the communication between the
processors. So, the processors are able to exchange the information. The
user program may be customized to the specifics of the hardware for
communication of processors.

10.Job Scheduling:-
Sometimes multiple jobs may be executed in the computer system.
In this situation, the os decides and maintains the order of jobs to be
executed. Automatic switching from one job to another job can be
maintained by the os. There are some jobs scheduling algorithms to
decide the order.
E.g.:
* FCFS – First come First Serve.
* SJF – Shortest job first.
* Priority.
* Round Robin.

2. Write about various types of Operating Systems? (Classification

of Operating Systems)
The Operating Systems are mainly classified into the following types:
 Single User OS.
 Multi User OS.
 Batch Processing OS.
 Online Processing OS.
 Time Sharing OS.
 Real Time Processing OS.
 Network OS.

a)Single User OS:-

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This type of OS is designed to work only one user at a time with the
computer. In this OS, most of the time the CPU will be idle. This single
user os are of 2 types.
o Single user single tasking os.
E.g.: Ms-DOS.
o Single user multi tasking os.
E.g.: Ms-Windows.
b)Multi User OS:-
In
NOTE : this
Time slice is the period of time to execute by the CPU. type
many users can perform multi programming (Multi-Tasking) at a time. So,
the users can share the resources and peripherals very efficiently.
Mainframe computers, Mini computers are widely using the multi user os.
E.g.: UNIX, LINUX, Windows NT, Solaris, Novel.
c)Batch Processing Systems:-
Sometimes, it is required to process more number of jobs as a batch. For
this purpose, Batch processing systems were developed. The CPU executes
one job after another job without wasting the processors time. A job runs
from beginning to the end without any interrupts from the user. A number of
jobs called a batch and all jobs are waiting in a que for execution. Then, the
computer will process the jobs one by one automatically. Batch processing is
using still in appropriaqte3 situations.
E.g.: Payroll Systems, Mailing labor addresses, etc.
d)Online processing OS:-
The online processing is the direct access method. It is also called
Random Access Processing. The online processing system allows
transactions data to be stored and given under CPU control. Different users
can access the computer system from local or remote terminals.
The Operating System must identify the terminal and check the user
authentication (Illegal, without Vermilion) finally, load any program needed
and log Program = Process = Job off the user at the end.

e)Time Sharing OS:-

This type of operating system allows multiple tasks use the CPU
simultaneously (parallel). Every task is assigned a “time slice”.
Slice=piece.
In this process many users can communicate with the computer
system simultaneously. This indicates that most of the time the CUP is idle
until the user gives the next command. In order to save the wastage of time,
operating system allows the CPU to process more than one job at a time.
The time sharing operating system techniques can be used in single user
systems and multi-user systems.
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Advantages of time sharing systems:-

The time sharing operating systems provide many advantages. Some
important advantages are given below.
 It reduces CPU idle time and increases the processing speed.
 It provides quick response time to interactive programming and
debugging.
 It improves programmer efficiency.
 Multiple programs can work simultaneously.
 It offers good computing facility to small users.
f)Real time processing OS:-
Real time OS respond to input immediately and provide immediate
output. The input data must be processed quickly to produce the results.
The main purpose of real time systems is to control and monitor external
activities with timing constraints (condition). The real; time os is a special
type of multi tasking system.
E.g.: Fighter, Air craft targeting systems, Missile guidance system,
process control system.
g)Network Operating System:-
An operating system which maintains the communication between the
network computers, managing the data traffic and sharing of systems
resources is called network operating system. It is a single and central to
handle all the processing. This stand alone system has the following
disadvantages:-
 It is very difficult for data sharing between the users.
 The computer peripheral devices may be idle for most of the
time.
 To overcome the above disadvantages, the network operating
system was developed. It performs the following tasks.
 Administration of system users.
 Backup file management.
 Prioritizing print jobs on the network.
 Monitoring the security on the network.

3.What are the differences between MS-DOS and MS-Windows?

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MS – DOS MS - WINDOWS
Ms-Windows is GUI (graphical
Ms-Dos is CUI (character user
user interface) operating
interface) operating system.
system.
The users must have minimum The user need not have any
computer knowledge to work computer knowledge to work
with Ms-Dos. with windows operating system.
It is a 16 bit operating system. It is a 32 bit operating system.

It does not support plug and It supports plug and play

play technology. technology.
It does not support multi-
It support multi-tasking.
tasking.
The file name can have only 8 The file name can have
characters almost. maximum of 255 characters.
It does not support built in It support built in networking
networking feature. feature.
It allows increased system
It does not support system security and control by using
security. login passwords and user
names.
It cannot access internet. It can access internet.

It supports only 640 KB of base It supports more than 640 KB of

memory. base memory.
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4.What is embedded operating system? Explain in detail.

Embedded operating system:-

An embedded os is a type of operating system that is built into the
circuitry of an electronic device. Embedded operating systems are most
popular nowadays. They are found in a variety of devices such as
automobiles, Bar codes, Scanners, Cell phones, Medical equipment,
driverless cars, home appliance, PDAS.
The embedded operating systems have been developing by many
companies. The most popular embedded operating systems are –
 Windows XP Embedded.
 Pocket PC OS.
 Symbian.

a)Windows XP Embedded:-
This was developed by Microsoft Company. It is based on the Windows
XP professional operating system. This is the most commonly using
embedded operating system for many electronic devices. It provides “Do-
it-yourself” kit for device manufactures.

b)Pocket PC OS:-
It is a specific type of operating system also developed by Microsoft
Company. It is used as Palm operating system on PDA’s. These devices
are mainly used for business and corporate market rather than consumer.
The latest version provides more security to access the from a business
network. It also gives the ability to the system administrators to manage
and control a personal computer or server via wireless network
connections.

c)Symbian:-
It is found in “smart” cell phones from Nokia and Sony ericssion. It
provides the features such as touch screens, games, multimedia functions
and internet connectivity. The symbian operating system also provides the
options to play the games and view the color web sites. With a full browser
in the high speed mobile network.
There are some other embedded operating systems which are currently
using. They are:-
 Windows CE.NET.
 Palm os.
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Windows CE.NET:-
It is a windows embedded product. But it is not based on the windows
desktop products. It was designed especially for embedded devices as a
real-time operating system. It is a small os, but it support wireless
communication, multimedia and web-browsing. It also allows using Ms-
WORD, Ms-EXECL and Ms-OP. For automotive market, there is a separate
version called “WINDOWS AUTOMOTIVE”.

Palm OS:-
The palm operating system is the standard os for palm brand PDA’s and
also other handheld devices. For several years it was the most popular
embedded os for handheld devices. But, nowadays only palm and Sony
companies making PDA’s with palm os. The palm os is continuously using
in other system along with PDA’s such as cell phones, and other small
devices.

5.What is the process? Explain how the process can be managed

by operating system.

Process:-
A process is a program under execution. All programs can be stored
in hard disk. Whenever, a user want to execute any program then, the
operating system allocates the required resources such as memory, CPU
(processor), I/O Devices and others. Now the program is able to execute
only one process at a time. But, it is also possible to execute more
processes at a time by using “multi processor system”.
A process can have many states when it needs to execute. The states of a
process are shown below:-
 New Born state.
 Ready state.
 Running state.
 Blocked state.
 Terminated state.

a) New Born state:-

Whenever a new process is created, it will goes to “new state” or
“Born state”. If a process in this new state then it will be able to go to
ready state.
b) Ready state:-
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A process in the new state will goes to ready state if the operating
system allocates the required resources. If there are more than one
process to be executed then they must be wait in a “ready queue”.
Now, the operating system selects one process and executes it. This
selection is based on job scheduling algorithm.
c) Running state:-
A process will be moved to running state from the ready state. In
this state, the process is going to be executed to produce the results.
d) Blocked state:-
If any required resources are not available in the running state.
Then, the process must wait until the resource is available. This is
called “Blocked State”.
E.g.: Printer is not available.
e) Terminated state:-
The process will be terminated in two possible conditions. They
are:-
 Normal Termination:- After successful execution of a process,
it will produces the outputs and terminated. This is called
normal termination.
 Abnormal Termination:- Sometimes, the process will be
terminated due to lack of required resources. This is called
abnormal termination.
NOTE:-
The major advantage of process termination is to release
the allocated resources. The process states are shown
below:
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6.Write about the organization and attributes of files and folders.

The organization of files and folders:-
File:
A file is a container which is used to store information. Files are stored
in computers’ memory. Every file must be given its unique name.
Files and made up of two components. They are:
*File name
*File extension
There are some tips for good file management. They are:
*Unique name
*Indicative of contents
*In line with business structure
*Scannable.
The general files a can be structured as follows:-

Fig: file structure

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Folder:-
A folder is a container is which we can put all other files. Folder also
contains sub folders. The operating system like windows help us to manage
and store our files systematically in a folder normally, a folder can be
represented by using the following icon.
All the folders look like same but, different titles. It is very easy to create
folders and sub-folders are MS-Windows operating system.
The organization of files and folders is as follows:-

FFOLDER

Documents

Folder 1 Folder 2 Folder 3

sub folder Sub folder Sub folder Sub folder

1A 1B 3A 3B
(OR) 1

Folders and sub folders can keep our files organized in a logical way. A
good folder structure mimics the way we work. There are some tips for good
folder structure management .They are:-
*create a template
*think of folder names as keywords
*Keep folder names as unique.
*Make a chit sheet
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Attributes of files and folders:-

Attributes are the properties of a file or folder. We can display and set
up these attributes by using the following steps:
Step 1:- Select a file or folder
Step 2:- Right click the mouse pointer and click on “properties” option.
Step 3:- It displays the following attributes.
Attributes:-
Read- only
Hidden
Step 4:-
Click on “advanced” button too set up advanced attributes.
Achieve and index attributes
Folder is ready for archiving.
For fast searching; allow indexing service to index this folder.
Step 5:-
Setup the encryption attributes to the files and folders:-
Compress or encrypt attributes.
Compress contents to save disk space.
Encrypt contents to secure data.

Sharing files and folders:-

It is also possible to share the files and folders in MS Windows operating
system. The process of sharing a folder is given below:-

Step 1:- Select the folder to be shared.

Step 2:- Right click the mouse pointer. It displays many options.

Step 3:- Select security and sharing option. It displays many options.

Step 4:- Select sharing option.

Step 5:- Click on ok button.

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Unit -II
OVER VFIEW OF POPULAR OPERATING SYSTEM
1.DOS- Disc Operating System
DOS was developed some decades ago. DOS stands for (Disc Operating
System) and Still DOS used for various reasons. IBM Company developed
DOS for the first time and called it as “PC DOS”. DOS was become popular in
1980’s.
Later, Microsoft Company also developed DOS called MS-DOS. This
version of DOS was used on millions of IBM compatible PCs.
Disc operating system also suffered from some weakness.
Eg1: It supports only one user at a time.
Eg2: It could run only one program at a time.
Eg3: It had no built in support for networking.
Even though there are many drawbacks with DOS but, still it is used by
many computers. The reasons are its “size” and “simplicity”. it does not
require more memory and powerful computers. So, it is used as embedded of
for some devices.
DOS used command line interface to the users wants to learn dos
commands to work with it.
DOS provides two types of commands such as;-
 Internals commands.
 External commands.
2.Windows XP:-
Windows XP operating system was developed by Microsoft Corporation. It
was released on OCT 2001. In this operating system, the desktop has a more
3 dimensional look with rounded corners and more shadings.
Windows XP is also provides brighter colour features. It is available in
different products such as:-
 Digital media support.
 Advanced networking and communications.
 Advanced mobile computing.
Digital media support:-
Windows XP provides windows media players 9 to play videos and audios
for multimedia projects. It is also used as digital broad cast support to the
users.
Advanced networking and communications:-
Windows XP supports universal plug and play. This enables the computers
to find and use the connected hardware without configuring the system or
install drivers. It also makes use of the Internet connection sharing. So, a
single user a can connect multiple computers to the internet by using a
single connection.
Advanced mobile computing:-
Windows XP OS provides a feature called “automatic configuration”. By using
this feature, we can connect XP based mobile devices such as laptop to the
desktop PC. It is also possible to connect our cellular telephones to the
desktop PC by using windows XP OS.
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3.Windows NT operating system:-

The Windows NT OS was developed by Microsoft Corporation the first version
of Windows NT 32 bit OS was relaxed in1993. Windows NT was originally
designed after ms-dos, but it had become too large to run on PC’s by that
time. So, Microsoft repositioned Windows NT to be a high a end OS for
powerful Workstation and network servers.
The networked computers are classified into 2types. They are:-
*workstations
*Network servers.
So, Microsoft released 2 different products of Windows NT OS they are:-

 Windows NT workstation for workstations.

 Windows NT server for network servers.
Windows NT workstations are used on standalone personal computers. It
also supports networking and we can use as server. Windows NT works
station continues to the desktop computers in large organizations. But it is
replaced by newer versions of windows or Linux.
4.Windows 2000:-
This operating system was developed by Microsoft corporation in the year
2000 server is available in 3 different products. They are
 Server standard edition
 Advanced server
 Data center server
Server standard edition:-
This version is created for average businesses. It is used as a network server.
This version supports up to 2 processors.
Advanced server:-
This is a powerful version of windows 2000 server. It supports for SMP up
to 4 processors. It also supports more RAM. Another advantage is “print
server. So, when one print server fails then, the alternative print server
works.
Data center server:-
This is an optimized server edition. It is used as a scale application
server. It contains server features to work in the network environment. It also
supports for SMP up to 32 processors. This product is combined with the
expensive and powerful servers.
A general term for a specialized data base is “enterprise directory” one
of the many things of windows 2000 server is that it provides “active
directory”. All the 3 server products have the same user interface like
windows 2000 professional.
5.Macintosh OS:-
This OS also called Mac OS. It works only on macintosh computers. It has
a small share but it in Mac OS is the first choice for many multimedia
developers, graphic designers etc. the current version is called Mac OS X.
This version has 4 major releases. They are:-
 Mac OS X Public Beta.
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 Mac OS X 10.0 Cheetah.

 Mac OS X 10.1 Puma.
 Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar.
 Mac OS X 10.3 Panther.
 Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger.
 Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard.
 Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard.
6.Windows Vista OS:-
This operating system was developed by micro soft company. It contains
many advanced features compared to windows XP os. It provides more
secure, more usable, more user friendly and more attractive features .
Features of windows Vista:-
Some important features of windows VISTA operating system are given
below:-
1) New user experience
2) Windows side bar
3) Windows Security
4) Performance center
5) Backup and restore
6) Network map
7) Windows ready boast
8) Windows media center
New user experience:-
Windows VISTA operating system is available in four different levels. They are
basis, windows classic, windows standard and windows aero.
The aero user interface is the top of the all levels. It takes advantage of the
latest computer hardware equipped with graphics. It also supports new
windows driver display model, more stability and smother window handling.
Windows side bar:-
The windows side bar can be displayed on the left side or right side of the
screen. It is associated with many applications called gadgets. They provide
specific information like whether calendar, games, etc.
Windows Security:-
Windows Vista is engineered to be the most secure version of Windows yet.
The new features in Windows Vista help to give the control and confidence
needed to get the most out of our PC.
Windows Vista contains a number of new security features are designed to
make Windows Vista-based PCs more secure and our online experiences
safer. The following improvements are designed:
 A PC protected from viruses, worms, spyware, and other potentially
unwanted software.
 A safer online experience for you and your family.
 An understanding of when your PC is unsafe, and the control and
guidance to help improve your security.
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Performance center:-
This is a new look that gives information on their performance characteristics
of a computers. It also provides trouble shoot performance issues.
Backup and restore:-
This feature makes it possible keep our information safe from user errors,
hardware failures and other issues that can last the data .The system restore
feature can reverse system changes.
Network map:-
This feature displays feature connectivity graphically. By observing the
networking map, we can see which connection is working.
Windows ready boast:-
It is a new feature comes with windows VISTA. With this feature, we can use
USB flash as RAM to extend the system memory. It increases the
performance of a system.
Windows media center:-
For a large number of users, the personal computer becomes a source of
entertainment. the users can enjoy by sitting back with a remote control in
the hand. The windows media center provides us to enjoy live and record TV,
Music, Photo, Videos, Online entertainment on a single device.
7.Windows 7:-
This operating system was developed by Microsoft Company. This is the
advanced version of windows XP OS. There are more no of new
enhancements (Additional features) in windows operating system.
Features of windows 7:-
Some important features supported y windows 7 OS are listed below:-
1) User state migration tool
2) Branch cache
3) Direct Access
4) User account control
5) Windows troubles hooting platform
6) App locker
7) Problem steps recorder

User state migration tool:-

This is a new tool in windows 7. It is an automated installation kit. It
provides and fast and flexible options to migrate user profiles and data
from one operation system is to another operating system.
Branch code:-
It receives the content (data) from remote files and web centers in the
branch location. So, the users can access the information more quickly. The
cache is the smallest and fastest memory device.
Direct access:-
This feature enables remote user’s top access the network any time. They
have an internet connection with out exact step of installing virtual private
networks.
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User account control:-

This feature of windows 7 OS provides more security of it also improves the
total cost of ownership. It enables the OS to be deployed with out
administrative privileges.
Windows troubleshooting platform:-
It reduces calls to the help desk by designating and resulting common issues.
It also provides built in trouble shoots for several problems.
Eg: audio & video problems
Networking problems,…..
App locker:-
It is a flexible and easy administration mechanism. It enables IT
programmers to specify exactly what to run on user desktops.
Problems steps recorder:-
Problems steps recorder in windows 7 OS is a new feature. It enables the
users to record their interactions with an application and provides a detailed
screen display with required information.
8.UNIX OS:-
It is a multi user operating system which supports more no of users at the
same time. A user can also perform multiple tasks at a time. The Unix OS
and its family can be used in the following ways.
1) UNIX for the desktop.
2) UNIX for the servers.

UNIX for the desktop:-

The Unix OS runs on a wide range of computers such as super computers,
notebooks and other types.
The Unix OS is a popular OS for high powered work station. The UNIX OS
requires command line interface, cryptic instructions and many commands
even for a simple task. So, it is not for the fant of heart.
Unix for the servers:-
The UNIX OS is a very popular and frequently chosen OS for the internet host
computers, because the UNIX OS work with so many types of hardware.
In the business world, the UNIX OS is the popular network OS. It manages
large data bases shared by 100s or 1000s of users. Many types of specialized
database software have been developed for the UNIX OS. Its scalability
increases in the industries such insurance, medicine, banking and
manufacturing.
The different versions of UNIX OS have collectivity owned the market for very
large servers in the largest of enterprises.
UNIX OS is also widely used on web servers to support online transactions
and the data bases.
In addition to the above advantages, the UNIX OS also has been the OS since
a long time for the most critical severs of the internet.
Eg: the servers that maintain the list of internet domain names.
[In Ms-word document, you can type a text or you can insert graphic]
1) Define OS and list out its functions
2) Write about DOS
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3) Write about managing the hardware

4) Explain types of OS.
5) Write about CLI and GUI
6) What is UNIX OS explain
7) What is WINDOWS XP? Briefly explain its explain its features
8) What is windows VISTA? Explain its features
9) What is Windows 7? Briefly explain its features
10) Write about network OS and embedded OS
11) Process and process states
9.Windows 9X OS:-
Windows 9x refers three OS they are:-
1) Windows 95
2) Windows 98
3) Windows Me
Windows 95:-
It was released by Microsoft in the year 1995. MS-DOS also included in
this OS. So, no need to install MS-DOS separately. In older versions of
windows such s 3.0, 3.2, Ms- dos was installed separately. Windows 95
contains 16 bit code that enables top run the programs developed for older
versions. Windows 95 OS has several attractions as shown below:-
 The exchange of information with printers, networks and files between
32 bit and 16 bit processors.
 Improved multi tasking compared to previous functions.
 Supports the “plug and play” standard for connecting new hardware.
 Improvements to the GUI
 Windows 95 became more popular with individual users.
Windows 98:-
It is considered as an update to Windows 95. There are no major changes
from Windows 95 to Windows 98. All the features supported by windows 95
also supported by windows 98.
Windows ME:-
This version of windows operating system, was released by Microsoft
corporation in the year 2000. Windows Me stands for “Windows Millennium
edition”. It is the last version in windows 9X family.
The windows me OS provides many advanced features compared to older
versions. Some important features of windows ME are:
 Improved multimedia capabilities.
 Built in support for video editing
 Improved internet features.
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Disadvantages of windows ME:-

 Windows Me still contains a lot of 16 bit codes
 It is not more stable than windows 95 or 98
 It is not more robust than windows 95 or 98
 It causes more frequent crashes.
10.Android OS:-
It is one of the most widely used mobile operating system nowadays .it
is based on Linux OS kernel. It was basically developed by android INC. Later,
it was sold to Google in 2005.
Now-a-days, Google as well as other members of the open hand set alliance
Collaborated on the development of android.
Android was primarily developed for smart phones and tabs. Since,
android is an open source, it has become the fastest growing mobile OS.
Android users downloading more than 11.5 billion apps and games from
Google play store every month.
Features of android OS:-
There are many features provided by android OS some of them are listed
below:-
 Near field communication (NFC).
 Alternative keyboards.
 IR transmission.
 No-touch control.
 Automation.
 Storage and battery swap.
 Custom home screens.
 Widgets.
 Custom rooms.

Near field communication(NFC):-

Most of the android developments support near field communication.
So, it allows electric devices top easily interact across short distances.
Alternative keyboards:-
The android OS supports multiple keyboards and make them easy to install.
The other operating system does not support multiple keyboards directly.
IR Transmission:-
Mobile android OS also supports built in IR transmission. So, it is allows the
users to use their phone as a remote control.
No touch control:-
Android OS supports various apps such as “wave control”. So, the android
users can control their phones with out touch by using gestures only. This
type of feature is very useful especially when we are driving.
Storage and battery swap:-Android mobile phones have unique hardware
capabilities. Google’s operating system makes it possible to remote and
upgrade battery or to replace with a new battery.
Custom home screens:-
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Android OS provides a facility to our phones to customize the home

screens. This capability s provided by “get-Go”. Download a third party
screens such as apex or sliced and we can add our own styles to set up the
home screens.
Widgets:-
The android apps are versatile, but sometimes the users want information at
a glance instead of opening on app and wait for it for load. Android widgets
provide us to display all the features we choose only on the home screen.
Eg ; weather apps, music widgets, productivity tools and many more.
Custom rooms:-
Android OS also supports custom rooms. It is an open source and the
developers considered the current OS and build their own versions. The users
can download and install these versions. It versions provides in effective
“look and feel” to the device.
11.iOS:-
IOS stands for “I phone OS”. It was developed by “apple” organization. This
operating system was originally developed for I phone but it takes it has
been extended to support their apple devices such as (POD) pad and apple
TV. The user interface of IOS is based on the concept of direct manipulation
using multi touch gesture the interface control elements consist of slider,
switches and buttons. The response to user input is immediate.
IOS is derived from mac OS X. So, its interface is UNIX like OS. IOS VIII, IOS
IX, IOS X and other versions are available in the market.
Features of iOS:
i. Home screen
ii. System font
iii. Folders
iv. Notification center
v. Accessibility
vi. Multitasking
vii. Switching applications
viii. Task completion
Home screen:-
The home screen displays application icons and a lock at the bottom. The
user can open the lock and user apps.
System font:-
IOS originally uses Helvetica “as the system font” with the release of I phone
4 and IOS 4, it switched to Helvetica.
Folders:
IOS4 introduced folders. The folders will be created when 2 applications are
in jiggle mode and dragged tighter. To create to it, a title for the folder is
automatically selected based on inside apps.
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Notification center:-
Before IOS file notifications were delivered in a separate window and after
dismissing it could not be visible. In IOS 5, apple introduced notification
center which allows the users to view the history of notification. While
closing, a red, badge appears on the icon. When we open the app, red
badges will be cleared.
Accessibility:-
IOS offers some accessibility features for the users with vision and hearing
disabilities.
Multitasking:-
Multitasking for IOS was first released in JUNE 2010 with IOS 4. Only some
specific devices such as Iphone 4, iphone 3g and ipod touch 3g are able to
multi task.
Switching applications:-
From IOS 4.2 and IOS 6.x double clicking the home button activities the
application pictures a scrollable interface appears from the bottom moving
the contents of the screen up. Now, the users can switch to any application.
Task completion:-
This feature allows apps to continue a certain task after it has been
suspended. Up to IOS 4.0, apps can request for minutes to complete a task in
the back ground. But now, this does not extend to back ground to complete
the task.
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UNIT III
FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

1. MULTI PROCESSING
It is the use of the two or more processors (C.P.Us) within a single
computers system. The multi processor is a within a computer system in
which the resources are shared such as main memory, input and output
devices. Sometimes, this multi processor is also called “tightly coupled
system it states that multiple process can be executed parallel in multi
processing environment there are mainly two types of systems. They are:

*Tightly coupled multi processor system

*Loosely coupled multi processor system

Tightly Coupled Multi Processor System

In this system multiple CPU’s are connected to the bus. All these CPU’s
have
access to a central shared memory. It is shown below.

This type of tightly coupled multi processor system also called SMP
system (Systematic Multi Processing)
Eg: IBM p690 regatta

Loosely coupled, multi processor system:-

This type of system is based on multiple stand alone single or dual

processor systems. The computers are inter-connected via a high speed
communication system. In this environment every processors has its own
dedicated memory.
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The loosely coupled systems coupled also called MPP systems

(Massively Parallel Processing)

Eg: Linux Beowulf.

Flynn’s taxonomy:-
The multi processor systems are classified by Flynn and they are called
Flynn’s taxonomy of computers. They are:
1. SISD
2. SIMD
3. MISD
4. MIMD

SISD:
SISD stands for “single instructions stream single data stream”.
In this computer, one processor sequentially process instructions. Each
instruction processes one data item.
Eg: RISC Computers

SIMD:
SIMD stands for “Single Instruction Stream Multiple Data
Stream”. In this computer, each instruction performs parallel calculations on
multiple data items. SIMD multiprocessing is well suited for parallel
processing or vector processing. It increases the performance of a computer
in terms of time required to complete a task.

MISD:
It stands for “Multiple Instruction Single Data Steam”. It provides
the advantage of “redundancy”. In this multiple processing, units perform
the same operation on the same data. As it provides “fail safe” feature, the
MISD computers are very expensive.
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MIMD:
It stands for “Multiple Instruction Stream, Multiple Data
Stream”. This type of systems is used in parallel execution of multiple
instructions on different sets of data. It is very easy to implement MIMD
multi processing systems.
In these systems, processing is divided in to multiple threads and each
thread has its own hard ware processor stated. One drawback of MIMD
system is issue of deadlock.
2. DATA SAFETY
Data will be stored in the hard disc in a computer system. Most of the
internal parts of a disc are moving to provide the data to the user. So, there
is a high chance of failure of hard disc. Consequently, the data will be lost in
order to overcome this problem, data safety is provides by using RAID
technology.
RAID stands for “Redundant Array of Independent Disc”.
 Fault tolerance
 Striping the data on to multiple discs.
 Migrating the same data to other discs.
 Parity to rebuild the data if one disc fails.
 Hot space is added to the disc array.
 Hot swap.
RAID levels:-
RAID can be classified in to different levels based on its operation. Some
of the most commonly used RAID levels are:
1) RAID 0
2) RAID 1
3) RAID 5
4) RAID 6
5) RAID 10
RAID 0:-
This type of RAID technology is useful when “performance of a
computer is the main factor”. RAID level 0 does not provide any type of
redundancy. So, even if one disc drive fails, our data is at risk.
RAID level o does not provide mirroring and parity. It is shown below :

Chunk 1
Chunk3
Chunk6
chunk 8
Chunk 4
Chunk 2
Chunk 5
Chunk 7
Disc 1 Disc 2
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RAID level 1:
In this RAID level, all data in the drive is duplicated to another drive. It
is very useful where “fault tolerance” is the main factor. The minimum
number of discs is 2 and the maximum no of discs are 32. In this RAID level,
Disc2 does not support for striping and parity. It is shown below:-

Chunk 1 Chunk 1
Chunk 3 Chunk 3
Chunk 6
Chunk 6
Chunk 8 6
Chunk 8 1
3
8

Disc 1 Disc 3

Disc 2

RAID level 5:
It supports “striping“. So, the data is spread across number of discs
used in the array. It also provides clarity for data redundancy.
RAID level 5 is the best cost effective solution for both performance
and redundancy. Striping method always improves the performance and
parity method provides redundancy. RAID level 5 required minimum 3 discs
and maximum 32 discs based on its controller. Data reading rate is much
better than writing rate in RAID level 5.
RAID level 6:
It is very similar to RAID level 5 but one more advantage is included.
The added advantage is that it provides “double parity” to achieve more
redundancy even if two discs will be failed at one time, the data can be
created again.

RAID level 10:

It is the combination of RAID level 1 and RAID level 0. RAID level 10 is
a good solution for both performance of RAID level 0 and redundancy of RAID
level 1. RAID level 1 and RAID level 10 is shown in the following:
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As shown in the above diagram, the data is redundant with a duplicate

in the RAID 1 and also stricken across multiple RAID 1 grows to achieve the
performance. This is the best suitable technology for heavy input and output
usage. It also provides 100% redundancy. It requires minimum 4 disks.
NOTE:
RAID 0 uses “striping” for high performance
RAID 1 uses mirroring for redundancy.
RAID 5 uses “striping and parity” for redundancy
RAID 6 uses striping under “double parity” for redundancy.
RAID 10 provides “performance and redundancy”.

3. DATA SECURITY
Security problem:
Sometimes the data can be damaged by violating the rules. It is also
possible to steal the information intentionally by unauthorized people. Some
of the most types of violations are
 Breach of confidentiality
 Breach of integrity
 Breach of availability
 Theft of service
 Denial of service
Sometimes, the information may be theft by some attacks. The most
common attacks are:
 Managing in which the attacker guessed to be a third
party.
 Reply attack in which repeating a valid transmission.
In order to predicting the attacks from the above situations we have to
provide the security to the systems at 4 levels. They are:
1) Physical level data of security
2) Human level security
3) Operating system level security
4) Network level security
There are some common threats to the modern systems including the
following:
1) Trojan horse
2) Trapdoor
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3) Logic bomb
4) Stack over flow & buffer overflow
5) Viruses
Trojan horse:
It is a programme that securely performs some malicious operations.
Some Trojan horse programs are more dangerous when we open them.
Eg : * long search parts
*login emulator
The solutions for Trojan horse programs are:
 Print out the statistics on log outs
 Press ctrl+Alt+Del to login

A latest version of Trojan horse is a “spy ware” which is a free soft

ware available in the internet.

Trap door:
A trap door is a programme which can be inserted as a security hole in
the system. Later it will access the system. So, this operation can be
performed by hackers. Even backup tapes also contain a copy of cleverly
hidden trap doors.
Logic bomb:
The logic bomb is a programme code which damages data. It was
designed to damage the data but sometimes the data will be lost due to
some events.
Eg;- dead man switch.
This logic bomb was designed to check every day login detail of a
person. If any person don’t login for a long time, then the logic bomb will be
a switched of and opened a security hole and causes other problems.

Stack over flow & buffer over flow:

It is also an old method of attack. It distributes bugs in the system
code. Automatically the buffer is over flown.

Viruses:
It is a program embedded in another programme. It will be distributed
and input other programs in the computer system. Viruses are more likely
infect the entire system than OS. The viruses are delivered to the system in
a virus dropper programme. The common ways to send the Viruses are via
e-mail and unsafe downloads.
Viruses will be distributed in many forms. Some of them are:
 Macro
 Source code
 Encrypted
 Boot
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In 2004, a virus exploited 3 bugs in Microsoft products to infect the

windows servers. One of the lock door programs was “keys stroke logger”.
It is required to provide the security to the data to prevent all the attacks.
Some security mechanisms are:
 User authentication.
 Passwords
 Encrypted passwords
 One time passwords
 Bio metric
4. WORK GROUPS AND DOMAINS
Work groups:
It is a term of micro soft company. They used it for Local Area
network. The computers which are running in the same work groups can
share the files, printers and internet connection. The work groups contain the
following properties:
 Every computer has its own database.
 Net bias protocol is used for name resolution. ‘
 There could be 10-15 systems in a workgroup.
 All computers must be on the same network.
 Work group works in LAN environment.
 All computers must have client OS.

Domains:
A domain is different from work group. In a domain, all the computers
are based on centralized authentications. The properties of a domain also
differ from works groups. The computers in the office and corporate networks
are on domains. The common properties of a domain are:

o Domain shares a centralized database.

o DNS (Domain name system) is used for name resolution.
o There could be unlimited no of computers and users in a domain.
o Different computers may be in different networks.
o Domain works in LAN and also in WAN environment.
o Computers have server OS and also client OS.
There are many advantages with the domain. Some of them are:

 Domain provides user and group based security.

 More security than work groups.
 More scalability.
 More expansibility

Some top level domains were created in the development of internet. Later,
sub domains also created.
5. ACTIVE DIRECTORY
It is a service developed by Micro Soft Company for windows domain
network. Now, it is included in many windows server OS.
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A server running “Active Directory Domain Services” is called a domain

controller. It authenticates al users and computers in a windows domain.
Eg:
When a user logs into a computer, Active directory checks the
password and determines either the user is administrative or normal user. It
also manages and stores the information at domain level.
Active directory uses light weight directory access protocol (LDAP)

Active directory services:-

The active directory services are best known as active directory
domain services. It consists of multiple directory services. The most common
and using active directory services are:
1) Domain service
2) Light weight directory services
3) Certificate services
4) Federation services
5) Right management service
Domain services:-
It is called ADDS (Active Directory Domain Service) and used by every
windows domain. It stores the information about members of the domain
devices, users and verifies the user details.

Light weight directory services:

It is ADLDS and it runs as a service on windows servers. It shares the
code base and provides the same functionally as an API.

Certificate services:
“Active Directory Services Certificate” works on private/public key
information. It can create, validate and revoke public key certificates for
internal use of the origination.
These certificates can be used to encrypt files, emails and network
traffic. The ADCS require ADDS infrastructure.

Federation services:
Active directory federation services are abbreviated as ADFS. It is a
single “sign on” service. With this service, users may use several web
based services or network services. Its purpose is to extend the ADDS. The
federation services were based on the concept of “federation identity”.

Right management services:

This service e is abbreviated as ADRMS. It is a server soft ware for
information. Rights management shopped with windows server. It uses
encryption for limited access to some does like corporate email, MS Word
and web pages.

6. LOAD BALANCING
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An operating system must control the load; otherwise, the performance of

computer will be degrading/ declined.
If many processes are storing on the memory at one time, then some of the
processes will be insufficient for execution. Consequentially, faulting will
occur. This is called “trashing”.
If too few processes are resident on the memory at time, Then all
process are blocked and so much time will be spent in swapping.
This load balancing is shown in the following two methods:
a) Multi programming level
b) Process suspension for load balancing
Multi programming level:
There are more chances for “trashing” in multi programming. It is shown
below.

Multi-programming level

The above diagram shows that when multi programming level increases,
automatically processor utilization reduces. This is due to there is a less
chance to block all the resident processors.
When average resident processors Insufficient, the no of page faults rise
dramatically and processor utilization will be collapsed.
The solution for multi programming level transmitting is available in 5
different manages. They are:-
i. Page fault frequency algorithm.
ii. L=S criterion.
iii. Clock page replacement algorithm.
Page-fault frequency algorithm:
This algorithm is also called as “working set algorithm”. It states that
only the process whose resident set is sufficiently large are allowed to
execute. This policy dynamically determines the no of active programs to
provide the sufficient resident set for each process.
L =S criterion:
This process was suggested by Denning. This technique adjusts the
multi programming level so that the “meantime between page faults =
the mean time required to process a page a fault”. In this approach,
the processor utilization well is max.
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Clock page replacement algorithm:

This algorithm gives us global scope for monitoring the rate of pointer
scan. If the rate is below lower threshold, it indicates that-
* Few page faults are occurring.
* The average no of frames scanned by the pointer is small.

Process suspension:
The load balancing also can be done by process suspension of the
degree of multi programming. It is to be reduced, one or more the currently
resident processes must be suspended. There are 6 possibilities to suspend a
process. They are:-
* Lowest process.
* Faulting process.
* Lost process.
* Process with smallest set.
* Longest process.
* Process with the largest execution window.
In order to balance the load, the policy chosen based on the design in OS
and characteristics of a program to be executed.

7. DEFRAGMENTATION
The process of reducing the amount of fragmentation is known as
“defragmentation process”, it organizes the files physically the mass storage
devices. It also creates larger regions of free spaces using “compaction”.
Some defragmentation utilities try to spaces using keep the smaller files
within a single directory together.
Defragmentation is very useful and relevant to file systems on
electromagnetic disc drives. The defragmentation is explained in the
following is concerns.
1) Causes of defragmentation.
2) Offline defragmentation.
3) User performs an issue.
4) Defragmentation and optimizing.
Causes of defragmentation:
Defragmentation occurs when a file system can’t allocate enough
contiguous space to store a complete file as a single unit. In this case,
defragmentation is required to allocate sufficient space to store the entire
space. There are 3 options since the space is immediately following and is no
longer available. They are:
1) Move the files when it can be created as contiguous file system
in the disk.
2) Move all the files until opens sufficient space to make it
contagious again.
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3) Add a new block of memory somewhere in the disk to provide

sufficient memory.

Offline defragmentation:
The presence of immovable files can lead to defragmentation. These
files can be moved safely when OS is not present.
User and performance issues:
In a wide range of multi user OS, an ordinary user can’t defragment the
small disks. Additionally NTFS file systems are designed to decrease the
livelihood of the system file. In modern systems, hardware such as hard disk,
RAM and cache memory are improved to increase the performance of
defragmentation.
Defragmentation and optimization:
Running most defragment portions and optimizers can increase the Micro
Soft shadow copy services. It is used to delete some of the oldest list of
points. It can be done even the optimizers defragmenters on windows API.
8. FAULT TOLERANCE
The fault tolerance is the ability of the system to deal with mal function. A
fault is system is some deviation from the expected behavior of the system.
The faults will occur due to many factors such as hard ware failures, software
bugs (errors), user and network problems. The faults of a system can be
classified into 3 types they are.
1) Transient faults.
2) Intermittent faults.
3) Permanent faults.
Transient faults:
The transient faults will occur once disappear. Network message does
not reach its destination but, it will reach when it is retransmitted. It is an
example of transient faults.
Intermittent faults:
This type of faults is characterized by a fault occurring and then
vanishing again reoccurring then vanishing this type of faults can be the
most annoying of component faults.
Eg:-loose connection.
Permanent faults:
This permanent fault continues until the faulty component is repaired
and replaced.
Eg:- disk head crashes
Software bugs:
The fault tolerance can be described by the following factors.
1) Approaches to faults.
2) Achieving fault tolerance.
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3) Levels of availability.
Approaches to faults:
When we are designing the systems we must try to minimize the
presence of faults. The fault avoidance is a process through design and
validation steps. This process can include formal validation code inspection,
testing and using robust hardware.

Achieving fault tolerance:

The general procedure to build the fault tolerance system is
“redundancy”. The redundancy may be applied at different levels. The
information redundancy seeks to provide faults tolerance by creating
duplicate copies of data.
Levels of availability:
In designing a fault tolerance system, it is not possible to achieve
100% fault tolerance. Moreover, if we want to get more fault tolerance the
cost of a system will also be more.
In order to design a practical system, the designer must consider the
degree replication needed. The factors to replicate the data are the average
worst case performance with faults. The availability refers the amount of
time that system is functioning. A system that is amiable 99.999% of the
time well experience at most 5.26 minutes of down time per year.

Characteristics of fault tolerance:

The basic characteristics of fault tolerance are:
* No single point of failure.
* Fault isolation to the failing component.
* Fault containment to prevent propagation of the failure.
* Availability of reversion mode.
* Fault tolerant systems are based on the concept of redundancy.
9. BACKUP AND RECOVERY
A back up is a copy of data. This copy can include important parts of the
data base. A backup is a “safeguard” against unexpected data loss and
application errors.
Backups are dividend into “physical backups” and “logical backup”.
The physical backups are the primary concern and they are the copies of the
physical data base files. We can make physical backups by using either
ARMAN (recovery manager) utilities or operating system utilities.
The logical backups contain logical data extracted from the data base. we
can use logical backups to supplement the physical backups . There are
many types of backups available in the system. They are:
1) Inconsistent backups.
2) Whole database backups.
3) Table space backups.
4) Data file backups.
5) RMAN and user managed backups.
6) Control files backups.
Inconsistent backups:
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It is a type of backup in which the files are backed up without all the
changes. This can occur because the data files are modified. The database
running 24 hours a day 7 days a week, then we have no chance to perform
inconsistent backups of the entire database.

Whole data base backup:

In this type of backups, every data file in the data base and also
control file will be backed up. Whole database backup is the most common
backup in the system.
The whole database backup can be taken in either “achieve log” or
“no achieve log” mode. Before performing core data base backup, we must
take care of proper mode. The whole data backup may be consistent or
inconsistent.
Table space backups:
A table space back up is back up of data files that provide the table
space. The table space are either online or offline. The data base is operating
only in “achieve log” mode for table space backup.
Data file backups:
A data file is a copy of single data file. It is not a common backup as
table space backups.
ARMAN and user managed backups:
In this process, there are 2 ways for back up. One is image copies and
the other is backup sets. An image copy is a duplicate of data file or control
file. We can crate image copies of physical files with OS utilities or RMAM to
restore a backup set.
Control files backups:
The backing up of control file is a crucial process in the backup and
recovery. Without a control file, we cannot mount or open the data base. We
can make manual backups of the control files by using the following
methods:

* The RMAN backup current control file.

* The SQL statement “alter database backup control file”.
* The SQL statement “alter database control file to trace”.
Recovery:
To restore a physical backup of a data file on control file is to
reconstruct it and make it available. To recover a restored data file is to
update by applying archived redo logs and online redo logs. The recovery of
data base is performed in the following ways:
1) Media recovery.
2) Tables space point of in time recovery.
3) Data file media recovery.
4) Oracle flash back data base recovery.
5) RMAN restore and recovery.
6) Cache recovery.
7) Transaction recovery.
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Media recovery:
The recovery that takes up backup and redoes the changes is known as
media recovery. It updates a backup to either the current or a specified clear
time. The possible media recovery techniques are:
 Complete recovery.
 Incomplete recovery.
 Data file recovery.
 Block media recovery.

Table space point in time recovery:

It recovers one or more table spaces to a point of time. It is most use
full in the following situations:
 Recover from an erroneous drop.
 Recover a table which was logically corrupted.
 Recover from an incorrect batch job.
Data media recovery:
It s used to recover from, a damaged data file or control file. Media
recovery has the following characteristics:
 Applies changes to restored backup.
 It can use achieved logs and online logs.
 It requires external invocation by the user.
 It does not detect media failure automatically.
RMAN restore and recovery:
The basic RMAN recovery commands are:
The restore command is used to restore the data files from backup sets.

10. OVERVIEW OF SERVER ROLES

Write about the following roles in brief:

 Multi-Processing,
 Fault Tolerance and Load Balancing,
 Data Safety (RAID),
 Disk Defragmentation,
 Backup and Recovery,
 Data Security
 Active Directory Services
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UNIT IV
1. Introduction to Linux
Linux is a UNIX-base operating system. Its original creator was a Finnish
student name “Linus Torvalds”. Although it is being “open source” it has
changed a great deal since its original conception. It is free to download and
use. Any changes to it are open for all to adopt, and as a result it has
developed into a very powerful OS that is rapidly gaining in popularity
worldwide.
In 1991, hardware was expanding rapidly, and DOS was the king of
operating systems. Software development was slower with DOS. Mac OS was
better but much pricier than PCs. UNIX was growing, but expensive to use.
Linus Torvalds was a Helsinki university student who liked playing around
with software and computers. In 1991, he announced the creation of a new
core operating system and named it as Linux. It is now one of the most
useful Operating systems for the PC and suitable for businesses with small IT
budgets. Linux is free to use and install. It is more reliable than almost all
other systems, running for many months and even years without a reboot
being necessary.
2. History of Linux
A brief history of Linux Development:
In 1969, a team of developers of Bell Labs started a project to make
common software for all the computers and named it as 'Unix'. It was simple
and elegant, used 'C' language instead of assembly language and its code
was recyclable. As it was recyclable, a part of its code now commonly called
'kernel'. It was used to develop the operating system and other functions
and could be used on different systems. Also its source code was open
source. Initially, Unix was only found in large organizations like government,
university, or larger financial corporations with mainframes and
minicomputers.
Linux falls under the category of the Layered Architecture OS, consists of
following layers:
 Hardware layer
 Kernel
 Shell/GCC
 Application Software
 Users
These layers are shown in the following diagram:
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Hardware layer – Hardware consists of all peripheral devices (RAM/ HDD/

CPU etc.).
Kernel – Core component of Operating System, for all basic input/output
management it interacts directly with the hardware.
Shell/GCC – An interface between the user & the kernel, hiding the
complexity of the kernel’s functions from users. Takes command from user
and executes kernel’s functions.
Application Software – Utility programs giving user most of the
functionality of an operating system.
Users – System users, who intracts directly with the system and application
software.

Unix Expansion:
In eighties, many organizations like IBM, HP and other companies
started creating their own Unix. It results in a mess of Unix dialects. Then in
1983, Richard Stallman developed GNU project with the goal to make it
freely available Unix like operating system and to be used by everyone. But
his project failed in gaining popularity. Many other Unix like operating system
came into existence but none of them was able to gain popularity.
Evolution of Linux
In 1991, Linus Torvalds a student at the university of Helsinki, Finland,
thought to have a freely available academic version of Unix started writing
its own code. Later this project became the Linux kernel. He wrote this
program especially for his own PC. He did it on MINIX using GNU C compiler.
GNU C compiler is still the main choice to compile Linux code but other
compilers are also used like Intel C compiler.
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He started it just for fun but ended up with such a large project. Firstly
he wanted to name it as 'Freax' but later it became 'Linux'.
He published the Linux kernel under his own license and was restricted to
use as commercially. Linux uses most of its tools from GNU software and are
under GNU copyright. In 1992, he released the kernel under GNU General
Public License.
Linux Today
Today, supercomputers, smart phones, desktop, web servers, tablet,
laptops and home appliances like washing machines, DVD players, routers,
modems, cars, refrigerators, etc use Linux OS.

3. Strengths and weaknesses of Linux

Strengths (Advantages) of LINUX:
The following are the main advantages of Linux OS:
 Cost
 Security
 Choice (Freedom)
 Software
 Hardware

Cost – The most obvious advantage of using Linux is the fact that it is free to
obtain. Linux distribution can be installed on any number of computers,
without paying any fee.
Security – The security aspect of Linux is much stronger than that of
Windows. The Linux operating system has been available since the early
nineties and has managed to stay secure.
Choice (Freedom) – The power of choice is a great Linux advantage.
With Linux, we have the power to control just about every aspect of the
operating system. Two major features we have control of are our desktops
look and feel by way of numerous Window Managers, and the kernel.
Software – There are so many software choices when it comes to doing any
specific task. Regular users and programmers contribute applications all the
time. Sometimes it is a simple modification or feature enhancement of a
already existing piece of software. Sometimes, it is a brand new application.
In addition, software on Linux tends to be packed with more features and
greater usability than software on Windows. Best of all, the vast majority
of Linux software is free and open source.
Hardware – Linux is perfect for those old computers with barely any
processing power or memory we have sitting in our garage or basement
collecting dust. Install Linux and use it as a firewall, a file server, or a backup
server. There are endless possibilities.
Ex: Old 386 or 486 computers with barely any RAM run Linux without any
issue.
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Weaknesses (Disadvantages) of Linux:

The probable weaknesses of Linux OS are listed below:

 Understanding
 Compatibility
 Alternative Programs

Understanding – In order to become familiar with the Linux operating

system, patience as well as a strong learning curve is required. We must
have the desire to read and figure out the things on our own.
Compatibility – Because of its free nature, Linux is sometimes behind the
curve when it comes to brand new hardware compatibility. Though the kernel
contributors and maintainers work hard at keeping the kernel up to
date, Linux does not have as much of a corporate backing as alternative
operating systems. Sometimes we can find third party applications;
sometimes we can’t find the third party applications.
Alternative Programs – Though Linux developers have done a great job at
creating alternatives to popular Windows applications, there are still some
applications that exist on Windows that have no equivalent Linux application.

4. Features of Linux
Important features of Linux Operating System
The following are some of the important features of Linux Operating System:
 Portable
 Open Source
 Multi-User
 Multiprogramming
 Hierarchical File System
 Shell
 Security
 Live CD/USB
 Graphical user interface (X Window System):
 customized keyboards
 Application Support
The above features are described below:
Portable – Portability means software can works on different types of
hardware in the same way. Linux kernel and application programs support
their installation on any kind of hardware platform.
Open Source – Linux source code is freely available and it is community
based development project. Multiple teams can works in collaboration to
enhance the capability of Linux operating system. This Linux OS is
continuously evolving.
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Multi-User – Linux is a multiuser system. It means that multiple users can

access system resources like memory or RAM or application programs at the
same time.
Multiprogramming – Linux is a multiprogramming system. It means that
multiple applications can run at the same time.
Hierarchical File System – Linux provides a standard file structure in which
system files or user files are arranged in hierarchical manner.
Shell – Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to
execute commands. It can be used to do various types of operations, call
application programs etc.
Security – Linux provides user security using authentication features like
password protection or controlled access to specific files or encryption of
data.
Live CD/USB: Almost all Linux distributions have Live CD/USB feature. By
using this feature, user can run the OS without installing it on the system.
Graphical user interface: People think that Linux is a command line OS,
somewhere its true but not necessarily. Linux have packages which can be
installed to make the whole OS as graphics based like Windows.
Supports customized keyboards: Linux is used worldwide and hence
available in multiple languages. So, it supports most of their custom national
keyboards.
Application Support: Linux has its own software repository to download
and install thousands of applications by issuing a command in Linux Terminal
or Shell. Linux can also run Windows applications if needed.

5. Linux Distributions
The most popular Linux Distributions are:
Ubuntu
Linux Mint
openSUSE
Mageia
PC Linux OS
Netrunner
LXLE
Bodhi Linux
elementaryOS
Manjaro Linux
Korora
Arch Linux
Fedora
KaOS
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1. Ubuntu

Ubuntu is a Debian-based distribution that redefined the meaning of

“user-friendly” on Linux. Ubuntu comes in many flavors – we can install any
DE (Desktop Environment) we want, but it also has its own desktop shell
called Unity.
This is the best distribution for beginners and users switching from OS
X and Windows
2. Linux Mint
Linux Mint has been steadily rising in popularity. Today it has its own
desktop environment – Cinnamon, handy system utilities (Update Manager,
Mint Menu, Software Manager…), and comes in several flavors (KDE, XFCE,
Mate). Current stable version is 17.1 (Rebecca). It is an LTS release that will
be supported until 2019.
This is the best distribution for first-time Linux users and everyone who
wants a system that works out-of-the-box.
3. openSUSE
openSUSE is a popular Linux distribution renowned among commercial
and private users alike. It is based on RPM package management system and
has KDE as the main desktop environment, but offers GNOME, XFCE, LXDE,
Mate and others for installation. It offers a complete system management
solution called YaST and comes with enough pre-installed applications.
This is the Best distribution for users who want a stable and reliable
system with great support.
4. Debian
Debian is one of the oldest and best supported Linux distributions.
Technically, it is the grandfather of several other distributions on this list. It is
focused on stability. So, new versions don’t come out often, but when they
do, they’re thoroughly tested. Debian offers an incredible amount of
packages – more than 37000. Almost any software that exists for Linux has a
Debian package. There is a graphical installer to guide through the process.
This is the best distribution for servers, users who want a stable and
secure system, and those who don’t want to update their apps often.
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5. Mageia
Mageia is a distribution created from Mandriva Linux by its former
employees in 2010. It uses the RPM package management system and offers
many desktop environments like KDE, GNOME, LXDE, XFCE, Mate, Cinnamon
and RazorQt. They can be installed either from the Mageia DVD or from the
repositories. Current stable version is Mageia 4. Mageia provides helpful tools
for system setup and customization.
This is the best distribution for users who want to try a new Linux
distribution that is user-friendly and supports many Des.
6. PC Linux OS
PC Linux OS, or PCLOS for short, has a reputation of a simple
distribution that supports a lot of hardware out-of-the-box, including some
old devices. It comes in two lightweight flavors – LXDE and Mate. The
standard KDE desktop called FullMonty, is a customized KDE edition with
many pre-installed applications.
This is the best distribution for beginners who want the newest
software, users who don’t want to spend too much time setting up their
system
7. Netrunner
Netrunner is a Linux distribution created in 2010 that comes in two
editions: Standard and Rolling. It is focused on providing the best KDE
experience and comes with many useful applications pre-installed (Firefox,
Skype, Steam, Gimp…).
This is the best distribution for users who want a simple and beautiful
KDE-only distribution.

8. LXLE
LXLE is a new player on the Linux distribution scene, but it is already
collecting praise and satisfied users. It is a lightweight Ubuntu-based
distribution with LXDE as its main desktop environment. The goal of LXLE is
to ensure a seamless transition to users who are switching from OS X or
Windows by providing different desktop layouts that “mimic” the appearance
of other operating systems. It is optimized for old computers and comes in
both 32- and 64-bit versions.
This is the best distribution for users switching from OS X and
Windows, and those who want to revive their old PCs.
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9. Bodhi Linux
Bodhi Linux offers only a few basic applications by default, and lets the
users choose what they want to install through the AppCenter. Bodhi uses a
lightweight desktop environment not seen in many other distributions. Bodhi
is based on Ubuntu LTS.
This is the best distribution for old computers, users who just want a
basic set of apps.
10. elementaryOS
ElementaryOS is another Ubuntu-based distribution, and it puts
simplicity, beauty and harmonious design above everything else.
ElementaryOS has its own file manager and its own desktop environment
called Pantheon with core components such as dock (floorboard),
application launcher (Slingshot).
This is the Best distribution for old computers, users who want a Linux
distribution that looks like OS X.
11. Manjaro Linux
Manjaro Linux takes the incredible power of Arch Linux. The default DE
is the lightweight, reliable XFCE, but KDE, GNOME and Cinnamon versions
are also available. Manjaro offers automatic hardware detection and driver
support, use of multiple kernels, and its own repositories with tested
software.
This is the best distribution for users who want the latest software.
12. Korora
Korora is based on Fedora, but provides multimedia codecs and third-
party repositories to make the setup process easier for new users. It comes
in GNOME, KDE, Cinnamon, Mate, and XFCE editions with beautiful icons and
a simple desktop layout. The purpose of Korora is to make Fedora more
appealing to a wider audience by including popular applications like Firefox,
VLC, Google Chrome and Dropbox by default. This is the best distribution
for new users who want to try a user-friendly version of Fedora, experienced
users who want multimedia support out-of-the-box.
13. Arch Linux
Arch Linux is a powerful Linux distribution, but with great power comes great
responsibility. Installation and setup of Arch Linux requires relatively
advanced knowledge. Among the best things about this distribution are the
official forums and wiki where we can get help for any kind of problem we
encounter.
This is the best distribution for advanced users, average users who want to
learn more about Linux, users who prefer a minimalist setup.
14. Fedora
Fedora is often referred to as a “bleeding-edge” distribution. It means that it
is focused on innovation and latest technologies. It comes in three main
editions: Workstation, Server and Cloud. The default DE, is GNOME.
Fedora is an RPM distribution with its own repositories. A particularly
important feature is Security-Enhanced (SE) Linux.
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This is the best distribution for advanced users who want to test the latest
software, users who value system security.
15. KaOS
KaOS is a young Linux distribution. The latest stable version from February
2015 brings the newest from KDE – namely, a complete switch to Plasma 5.
Apart from KDE applications, KaOS offers its own software manager called
Octopi and the lightweight QupZilla as the default web browser. KaOS is a
rolling release distribution and it only works on 64-bit systems.
This is the best distribution for average and advanced users who want to test
Plasma 5.
6. Basic Linux Commands

The basic commands of LINUX Operating System are:

• File Handling
• Text Processing
• System Administration
• Process Management
• Archival
• Network
• File Systems
• Advanced Commands

File Handling commands

 mkdir – make directories
Usage: mkdir [OPTION] DIRECTORY...
eg. mkdir prabhat

 ls – list directory contents

Usage: ls [OPTION]... [FILE]...
eg. ls, ls l,
ls prabhat

 cd – changes directories
Usage: cd [DIRECTORY]
eg. cd prabhat

 pwd - print name of current working directory

Usage: pwd

 vim – Vi Improved, a programmers text editor

Usage: vim [OPTION] [file]...
eg. vim file1.txt

 cp – copy files and directories

Usage: cp [OPTION]... SOURCE DEST
eg. cp sample.txt sample_copy.txt
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cp sample_copy.txt target_dir

  mv – move (rename) files

Usage: mv [OPTION]... SOURCE DEST
eg. mv source.txt target_dir
mv old.txt new.txt

 rm remove files or directories

Usage: rm [OPTION]... FILE...
eg. rm file1.txt , rm rf
some_dir

 find – search for files in a directory hierarchy

Usage: find [OPTION] [path] [pattern]
eg. find file1.txt, find name
file1.txt

 history – prints recently used commands

Usage: history
Pattern
A Pattern is an expression that describes a set of
strings which is used to give a concise description
of a set, without having to list all elements.
eg. ab*cd matches anything that starts with ab and
ends with cd etc.

Text Processing Commands

 ls *.txt – prints all text files

 cat – concatenate files and print on the standard output

Usage: cat [OPTION] [FILE]...
eg. cat file1.txt file2.txt
cat n
file1.txt

 echo – display a line of text

Usage: echo [OPTION] [string] ...
eg. echo I love India
echo $HOME

 grep print lines matching a pattern

Usage: grep [OPTION] PATTERN [FILE]...
eg. grep i
apple sample.txt
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 wc - print the number of newlines, words, and bytes in files

Usage: wc [OPTION]... [FILE]...
eg. wc file1.txt
wc L
file1.txt

 sort – sort lines of text files

Usage: sort [OPTION]... [FILE]...
eg. sort file1.txt
sort r
file1.txt

Linux File Permissions Commands

• 3 types of file permissions – read, write, execute
• 10 bit format from 'ls l' command
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
file type owner group others
eg. drwxrwrmeans
owner has all three permissions,
group has read and write, others have only read
permission
 read permission – 4, write – 2, execute 1
eg. rwxrwr=
764
673 = rwrwxwx

System Administration Commands

 chmod – change file access permissions
Usage: chmod [OPTION] [MODE] [FILE]
eg. chmod 744 calculate.sh

 chown – change file owner and group

Usage: chown [OPTION]... OWNER[:[GROUP]] FILE...
eg. chown remo myfile.txt

 su – change user ID or become superuser

Usage: su [OPTION] [LOGIN]
eg. su remo, su

 passwd – update a user’s authentication tokens(s)

Usage: passwd [OPTION]
eg. Passwd

 who – show who is logged on

Usage: who [OPTION]
eg. who ,
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who b
who q

Process Management Commands

 ps – report a snapshot of the current processes

Usage: ps [OPTION]
eg. ps, ps el

 kill – to kill a process(using signal mechanism)

Usage: kill [OPTION] pid
eg. kill 9
2275

Archival Commands

 tar – to archive a file

Usage: tar [OPTION] DEST SOURCE
eg. tar cvf /home/archive.tar /home/original
tar xvf /home/archive.tar

 zip – package and compress (archive) files

Usage: zip [OPTION] DEST SOURSE
eg. zip original.zip original

 unzip – list, test and extract compressed files in a ZIP archive

Usage: unzip filename
eg. unzip original.zip

Network Commands
 ssh – SSH client (remote login program)
“ssh is a program for logging into a remote machine and for
executing commands on a remote machine”
Usage: ssh [options] [user]@hostname
eg. ssh X
[email protected]

 scp – secure copy (remote file copy program)

“scp copies files between hosts on a network”
Usage: scp [options] [[user]@host1:file1] [[user]@host2:file2]
eg. scp file1.txt [email protected]:~/Desktop/

File Systems Commands

 fdisk – partition manipulator
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eg. sudo fdisk l

 mount – mount a file system

Usage: mount t
type device dir
eg. mount /dev/sda5 /media/target

 umount – unmount file systems

Usage: umount [OPTIONS] dir | device...
eg. umount /media/target

 du – estimate file space usage

Usage: du [OPTION]... [FILE]...
eg. du
 df – report filesystem disk space usage
Usage: df [OPTION]... [FILE]...
eg. df

 quota – display disk usage and limits

Usage: quota [OPTION]
eg. quota v

Advanced Commands
 reboot – reboot the system
Usage: reboot [OPTION]
eg. Reboot

 poweroff – power off the system

Usage: poweroff [OPTION]
eg. Poweroff
Note:
Suggested Materials for Linux Commands
• The UNIX Programming Environment by Kernighan and Pike
(PrenticeHall)
• Your UNIX: The Ultimate Guide by Sumitabha Das
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UNIT- V
1. Introduction to Android

World is contracting with the growth of mobile phone technology. As the

number of users is increasing day by day, facilities are also increasing.
Starting with simple regular handsets which were used just for making phone
calls, mobiles have changed our lives and have become part of it. Now they
are not used just for making calls but they have innumerable uses and can
be used as a Camera , Music player, Tablet PC, T.V. , Web browser etc . And
with the new technologies, new software and operating systems are
required.
What is Android
Operating Systems have developed a lot in last 15
years. Starting from black and white phones to recent
smart phones or mini computers, mobile OS has come far
away. Especially for smart phones, Mobile OS has greatly
evolved from Palm OS in 1996 to Windows pocket PC in
2000 then to Blackberry OS and Android.
One of the most widely used mobile OS these days
is ANDROID. Android is a software bunch comprising not only operating
system but also middleware and key applications. Android Inc was founded in
Palo Alto of California, U.S. by Andy Rubin, Rich miner, Nick sears and Chris
White in 2003. Later Android Inc. was acquired by Google in 2005. After
original release there have been number of updates in the original version of
Android.
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2. Features & Specifications

Android is a powerful Operating System supporting a large number of
applications in Smart Phones. These applications make life more comfortable
and advanced for the users. Hardwares that support Android are mainly
based on ARM architecture platform. Some of the current features and
specifications of android are:

Android comes with an

Android market which is an
online software store. It was
developed by Google. It allows
Android users to select, and
download applications
developed by third party
developers and use them.
There are around 2.0 lack+
games, application and
widgets available on the
market for users.

Android applications are

written in java programming
language. Android is available
as open source for developers
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to develop applications which can be further used for selling in android

market. There are around 200000 applications developed for android with
over 3 billion+ downloads. Android relies on Linux version 2.6 for core
system services such as security, memory management, process
management, network stack, and driver model. For software development,
Android provides Android SDK (Software development kit). Read more
about open source software.

Applications
These are the basics of Android applications:
•Android applications are composed of one or more application components
(activities, services, content providers, and broadcast receivers)
•Each component performs a different role in the overall application
behavior, and each one can be activated individually (even by other
applications)
•The manifest file must declare all components in the application and should
also declare all application requirements, such as the minimum version of
Android required and any hardware configurations required
•Non-code application resources (images, strings, layout files, etc.) should
include alternatives for different device configurations (such as different
strings for different languages)
3. History of Android and various versions of Android OS
The word Android is nearly becoming a household name. Android is a
mobile operating system designed to counter the problem of handling
networks and the wireless devices. Various versions of this operating system
have come into the market since its inception in 2008. There were two Pre-
commercial Android release between 2007 and 2008 called
Android Alpha and Beta. Android beta was released on 5 November 2007, a
date popularly celebrated as Android’s “birthday.
Each version of Android since 1.5 has been developed with a specific
codename which are chosen alphabetically, and have thus far all been
dessert items (sweet/sugary foods). Some codenames are associated with
more than one version number, while others are limited to only a specific
one. Here is a brief history of the Android Operating System, version and
features. The versions of Android OS are listed below:
 Android 1.0
 Android 1.1
 Android 1.5 Cupcake
 Android 1.6 Donut
 Android 2.0/2.1 Éclair
 Android 2.2 Froyo
 Android 2.3 Gingerbread
 Android 3.0 Honeycomb
 Android 4.0 IceCream Sandwich
 Android 4.1 Jelly Bean
 Android 4.4 KitKat
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 Android 5.0 Lollipop

 Android 6.0 Marshmallow (late 2015)
 Android X.X Nougat (2016)

Android 1.0
This was where the dream began, this was the first commercial version
of Android and it was released in September 2008. It opened up the Android
market and people started recognizing this new operating system. The first
commercially available Android device was the HTC Dream. Gmail
synchronization with the Gmail applications, calendar sync, contacts sync,
Google maps, SMS, MMS, IM support, media player, YouTube player, Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth support. Notifications also appear in the Status bar, with options to
set ringtone.

Android 1.1
Released on 9th February 2009. This Android version didn’t have an
official name but was internally called “Petit Four“ This update didn’t
really bring many new features to the previous version, it only changed the
Android API, resolved bugs and glitches with an improved overall
performance.
Android 1.5 Cupcake
Released 30th April 2009, this was the first version that officially got a
codename based on a dessert item (“Cupcake“). The major features of this
OS included widget support, soft keyboard with text prediction. Cupcake also
delivered video watching and recording capabilities, the uploading of videos
to YouTube and Picasa, Stereo Bluetooth (aka A2DP) support that allows
wireless music streaming to compatible headphones or speakers.
Android 1.6 Donut
Donut brought more major features enhancements the biggest of
which was Google Maps with turn-by-turn navigation and an expanded
gesture framework. searching and ability to view app screenshots in Android
Market got easier and Android Market became a friendly place to shop for
apps. Other added features include , text-to-speech apps and Updated
technology support for CDMA/EVDO (802.1x, VPN)
Android 2.0/2.1 Éclair
Released 26th October 2009, the OS got better enhancements such as
support for multiple accounts, better Google maps navigation, new camera
features, such that allows phones take pictures with flash support, digital
zoom, scene mode, , multiple resolution and screen sizes. It also got a new UI
and a Microsoft Exchange email support, with combined inbox to browse
email from multiple accounts in one page. The 2.1 version came in January
2010 with just an update to the UI and minor adjustments to the API and bug
fix
Android 2.2 Froyo
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Released 20th May 2010, Froyo came with a general improvement in

performance of the OS with speed improvements and JIT implementation
which was an additional application for speed improvements. The two key
feature of this OS were USB tethering and Wi-Fi hotspot functionality plus
other features such as Support for installing applications to the expandable
memory, support for high display and screen resolutions and an option to
disable data access over mobile network.
Android 2.3 Gingerbread
Gingerbread was released 6th December 2010 and came with hi-tech
support features which got the attention of many Android users. It supports
NFC (Near Field Communications) technology that allows one make mobile
payment, native VoIP/SIP, video call support and the overall UI was updated
with increased simplicity, speed.
Some other features of this OS included multiple camera support for
both rear and front facing camera, improved power management, improved
copy/paste functionality and a Download Manager. In December 2010 and
January 2011 (version 2.3.1 and 2.3.2) were released which fixed bugs and
got an overall improvement.
Android 3.0 Honeycomb
Android 3.0 (Honey Comb) was introduced on February 22, 2011.
Finally we got an arrival of the first OS optimized for tablet support. The first
device featuring this version was the Motorola Xoom tablet. It contained an
interface with holographic & virtual support, multiple browser tabs, Google
talk, private browsing and hardware acceleration. Tapping Recent
Applications in the System Bar allows users to see snapshots of the tasks
underway and quickly jump from one application to another.
Android 4.0 IceCream Sandwich
The IceCream Sandwich was released to the public on October 19,
2011. It allowed users to use multitasking apps, new lock screen actions,
easy folder creation, Google chrome, built-in photo editor. This version
introduced numerous new features such as ability to access applications
directly from lock screen, Face Unlock, ability to shut down applications that
are using data in the background, Wi-Fi Direct, video recording at 1080p for
stock Android devices, screenshot capture, better camera performance,
smoother screen rotation and a whole lot of improved functionalities.
Android 4.1 Jelly Bean
Google announced Android 4.1 (Jelly Bean) at the Google
I/O conference on 27 June 2012 and later released to the on 9 July 2012. This
Android version owns 34.4% of the overall Android market share and the
main features include multi-user support, Google Now, smoother UI,
enhanced accessibility, offline voice dictation. Improved voice search and
camera application, ability to turn off app-specific notifications, expandable
notifications, automatic re-arrangement and resizing of apps and widgets on
home screens were also added features to the OS.
Higher versions of the Jelly Bean OS were also release to enhance
performance and fix bugs in previous versions. While the 4.2.2
version allowed wireless charging, ability to swipe directly to camera and
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showed percentage and estimated time remaining in active downloads,

the 4.3 Jelly Bean version which was released on 24 July 2013 had more
security and performance enhancement, Bluetooth low energy support (BLE),
ability to create restricted profiles and a 4K resolution support.
Android 4.4 KitKat
This is the latest version of the Android OS. Google thought it to be
named as “Key Lime Pie” but later decided to name it after a popular
chocolate bar KitKat. The main features of this OS include a new
translucent system UI, enhanced notification access, social media
integration, app preview, screen recording. KitKat has lots of optimizations
for performance on devices with lower specifications, with 512 MB of RAM as
a recommended minimum.

Android 5.0 Lollipop

Google released Android 5.0 Lollipop with
the Nexus 6 and Nexus 9. It is the first time
Google has provided developer beta
previews of the software, so that the apps
we all love can be ready when the new
version drops.
There were big changes under the
hood as well, and new API changes in addition to forward-facing features like
a new interface. Google has updated its own Nexus 5, Nexus 4 and Nexus 7
to Lollipop.
Android 6.0 Marshmallow (late 2015)
Google released Android 6.0 Marshmallow with the
Nexus 6P and the Nexus 5X. Along with some visual
changes — like a new launcher and refined notification
panel — we saw a couple under the hood changes and new
features.
Android 6.0 gave us better control over permissions,
allowing you to control what parts of your data apps can
access, rather than approve it by simply installing the app
in the first place.

Android X.X Nougat (2016)

In March 2016 (March!!!), Google surprised pretty
much everyone by releasing the N Developer Preview a
full month and a half ahead of the yearly Google I/O
developer conference. This gives app developers the
opportunity to taste the next major flavor of Android .On
June 30, Google gave us the nickname: Nougat.
New in this iteration — so far — is the long-awaited
native support for multi-window, so apps can live side by
side. Google is also adding in direct-reply notifications and bundled
notifications.
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Things are broken. Things are unfinished. This is very bleeding edge.
It's also very, very cool.

4. Goals or objective of Android operating system

These design principles were developed by and for the Android User
Experience Team to keep users' best interests in mind. For Android
developers and designers, they continue to underlie the more detailed
design guidelines for different types of devices.
Consider these principles as you apply your own creativity and design
thinking. Deviate with purpose.
The goals of designing Android OS are mainly classified in to three
different categories. They are:
 Enchant Me
 Simplify My Life
 Make Me Amazing

Enchant Me

 Delight me in surprising ways

A beautiful surface, a carefully-placed animation, or a well-timed sound
effect is a joy to experience. Subtle effects contribute to a feeling of
effortlessness and a sense that a powerful force is at hand.

 Real objects are more fun than buttons and menus

Allow people to directly touch and manipulate objects in your app. It
reduces the cognitive effort needed to perform a task while making it more
emotionally satisfying.

 Let me make it mine

People love to add personal touches because it helps them feel at home
and in control. Provide sensible, beautiful defaults, but also consider fun,
optional customizations that don't hinder primary tasks.

 Get to know me
Learn peoples' preferences over time. Rather than asking them to make
the same choices over and over, place previous choices within easy reach.

Simplify My Life

 Keep it brief
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Use short phrases with simple words. People are likely to skip sentences if
they're long.

 Pictures are faster than words

Consider using pictures to explain ideas. They get people's attention and
can be much more efficient than words.

 Decide for me but let me have the final say

Take your best guess and act rather than asking first. Too many choices
and decisions make people unhappy. Just in case you get it wrong, allow for
'undo'.

 Only show what I need when I need it

People get overwhelmed when they see too much at once. Break tasks
and information into small, digestible chunks. Hide options that aren't
essential at the moment, and teach people as they go.

 I should always know where I am

Give people confidence that they know their way around. Make places in
your app look distinct and use transitions to show relationships among
screens. Provide feedback on tasks in progress.

 Never lose my stuff

Save what people took time to create and let them access it from
anywhere. Remember settings, personal touches, and creations across
phones, tablets, and computers. It makes upgrading the easiest thing in the
world.

If it looks the same, it should act the same

Help people discern functional differences by making them visually distinct
rather than subtle. Avoid modes, which are places that look similar but act
differently on the same input.

 Only interrupt me if it's important

Like a good personal assistant, shield people from unimportant minutiae.
People want to stay focused, and unless it's critical and time-sensitive, an
interruption can be taxing and frustrating.

Make Me Amazing

 Give me tricks that work everywhere

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People feel great when they figure things out for themselves. Make your
app easier to learn by leveraging visual patterns and muscle memory from
other Android apps. For example, the swipe gesture may be a good
navigational shortcut.

 It's not my fault

Be gentle in how you prompt people to make corrections. They want to
feel smart when they use your app. If something goes wrong, give clear
recovery instructions but spare them the technical details. If you can fix it
behind the scenes, even better.


 Sprinkle encouragement
Break complex tasks into smaller steps that can be easily accomplished.
Give feedback on actions, even if it's just a subtle glow.

 Do the heavy lifting for me

Make novices feel like experts by enabling them to do things they never
thought they could. For example, shortcuts that combine multiple photo
effects can make amateur photographs look amazing in only a few steps.

 Make important things fast

Not all actions are equal. Decide what's most important in your app and
make it easy to find and fast to use, like the shutter button in a camera, or
the pause button in a music player.

5. Memory Management in Android

Android is a Linux based OS with 2.6.x kernel, stripped down to handle

most tasks pretty well. It uses native open source C libraries that have
powered Linux machines for years. All the basic OS operations like I/O,
memory management, and so on, are handled by the native stripped-down
Linux kernel.
How to use memory for each application
Android’s process and memory management is a little unusual. Like
Java and .NET, Android uses its own run time and virtual machine to manage
application memory. Unlike either of these frameworks, the Android run time
also manages the process lifetimes. Android ensures application
responsiveness by stopping and killing processes as necessary to free
resources for higher-priority applications.
Each Android application runs in a separate process within its own
Dalvik instance, relinquishing all responsibility for memory and process
management to the Android run time, which stops and kills processes as
necessary to manage resources.
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Dalvik and the Android run time sit on top of a Linux kernel that
handles low-level hardware interaction including drivers and memory
management, while a set of APIs provides access to all of the under- lying
services, features, and hardware.
Dalvik Virtual Machine Dalvik is a register-based virtual machine that’s
been optimized to ensure that a device can run multiple instances efficiently.
It relies on the Linux kernel for threading and low-level memory
management.
The Dalvik Virtual Machine
One of the key elements of Android is the Dalvik virtual machine.
Rather than use a traditional Java virtual machine (VM) such as Java ME (Java
Mobile Edition), Android uses its own custom VM designed to ensure that
multiple instances run efficiently on a single device.
The Dalvik VM uses the device’s underlying Linux kernel to handle low-
level functionality including security, threading, and process and memory
management.
All Android hardware and system service access is managed using Dalvik as
a middle tier. By using a VM to host application execution, developers have
an abstraction layer that ensures they never have to worry about a particular
hardware implementation.
The Dalvik VM executes Dalvik executable files, a format optimized to
ensure minimal memory foot- print. The .dex executables are created by
transforming Java language compiled classes using the tools supplied within
the SDK.
Understanding Application Priority and Process States
The order in which processes are killed to reclaim resources is
determined by the priority of the hosted applications. An application’s
priority is equal to its highest-priority component.
Where two applications have the same priority, the process that has
been at a lower priority longest will be killed first. Process priority is also
affected by inter-process dependencies; if an application has a dependency
on a Service or Content Provider supplied by a second application, the
secondary application will have
at least as high a priority as the
application it supports.
All Android applications
will remain running and in
memory until the system needs its
resources for other applications.
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It is important to structure our application correctly to ensure that its

priority is appropriate for the work it’s doing. If you don’t, your application
could be killed while it’s in the middle of something important.
The following list details each of the application states shown in
Figure , explaining how the state is determined by the application
components comprising it:

Active Processes
Active (foreground) processes are those hosting applications with
components currently interacting with the user. These are the processes
Android is trying to keep responsive by reclaiming resources. There are
generally very few of these processes, and they will be killed only as a last
resort.
Active processes include:
 Activities in an “active” state; that is, they are in the foreground and
responding to user events. You will explore Activity states in greater
detail later in this chapter.
 Activities, Services, or Broadcast Receivers that are currently executing
an on Receive event handler.
 Services that are executing an onStart, onCreate, or onDestroy event
handler.
Visible Processes:
Visible Processes visible, but inactive processes are those hosting “visible”
Activities. As the name suggests, visible Activities are visible, but they aren’t
in the foreground or responding to user events. This happens when an
Activity is only partially obscured (by a non-full-screen or transparent
Activity). There are generally very few visible processes, and they’ll only be
killed in extreme circumstances to allow active processes to continue.
Started Service Processes:
Processes hosting Services that have been started. Services support
ongoing processing that should continue without a visible interface. Because
Services don’t interact directly with the user, they receive a slightly lower
priority than visible Activities. They are still considered to be foreground
processes and won’t be killed unless resources are needed for active or
visible processes.
Background Processes
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Processes hosting Activities that aren’t visible and that don’t have any
Services that have been started are considered background processes. There
will generally be a large number of background processes that Android will
kill using a last-seen-first-killed pat- tern to obtain resources for foreground
processes.
Empty Processes
To improve overall system performance, Android often retains
applications in memory after they have reached the end of their lifetimes.
Android maintains this cache to improve the start-up time of applications
when they’re re-launched. These processes are rou- tinely killed as required.
How to use memory efficiently
Android manages opened applications which are running in the
background, so officially you shouldn’t care about that. This means that it
closes the applications when the system needs more memory. However,
most android users are not very satisfied with how it does its things because
sometimes it leaves too many processes running which causes sluggishness’
in everyday performance. We can use advanced task killer/task
managerand it does its job very well.

6. Android Manages Processes (OR) Process Management

Windows allows desktop apps to remain running whether they’re visible or

not, while Apple’s iOS only allows apps to perform a few limited tasks in the
background. Android sits somewhere in between — apps running in the
foreground are prioritized, but apps have much more freedom to run in the
background than they do on iOS.
We’ll take a look at exactly how Android is managing the apps and
processes running on your phone or tablet, demystifying what’s going on in
the background.
The Process Lifecycle Hierarchy
A process on Android can be in one of five different states at any given time,
from most important to least important:
1. Foreground process: The app you’re using is considered the
foreground process. Other processes can also be considered foreground
processes — for example, if they’re interacting with the process that’s
currently in the foreground. There are only a few foreground processes at
any given time.
2. Visible process: A visible process isn’t in the foreground, but is still
affecting what you see on your screen. For example, the foreground
process may be a dialog that allows you to see an app behind it — the
app visible in the background would be a visible process.
3. Service process: A service process isn’t tied to any app that’s visible
on your screen. However, it’s doing something in the background, such
as playing music or downloading data in the background. For example, if
you start playing music and switch to another app, the music-playing is in
the background is being handled by a service process.
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4. Background process: Background processes are not currently visible

to the user. They have no impact on the experience of using the phone.
At any given time, many background processes are currently running. You
can think of these background processes as “paused” apps. They’re kept
in memory so you can quickly resume using them when you go back to
them, but they aren’t using valuable CPU time or other non-memory
resources.
5. Empty process: An empty process doesn’t contain any app data
anymore. It may be kept around for caching purposes to speed up app
launches later, or the system may kill it as necessary.
For example, let’s say we turn on our phone and open a music app.
While we use it, the music app will be a foreground process. When we
start playing music and leave the music app, the music will continue
playing as a service process.
Android Automatically Manages Processes
Android does a good job of automatically managing these processes,
which is why you don’t need a task killer on Android.
When Android needs more system resources, it will start killing the
least important processes first. Android will start to kill empty and
background processes to free up memory if you’re running low. If you need
more memory — for example, if you’re playing a particularly demanding
game on a device without much RAM, Android will then start to kill service
processes, so your streaming music and file downloads may stop.
In most cases, Android does this all without you needing to worry about
it. Android intelligently uses your device’s RAM for caching apps and other
data, because there’s no point in leaving your RAM empty.
Of course, Android provides apps with so much flexibility that they
have room to misbehave. For example, a poorly coded app could start a
service process that remains running in the background all the time, using up
all your CPU time and dramatically decreasing your battery life.
One interesting thing you’ll notice in antivirus apps like Avast! for
Android is that the antivirus app uses a notification icon. if you try to disable
the notification icon, Avast! will recommend against it. By having a visible
notification icon, Avast! makes itself higher-priority app, preventing Android
from considering it a background app and killing it.
7. Device management for Android.
“Mobile Device Manager Plus” enables system administrators to
manage mobile Android devices running version 2.2 and above. In the era of
smart phones and tablets, Android device management is no longer a
challenging task. This Android mobile device management (MDM) software
empowers administrators to monitor, manage, audit, and secure corporate
data on those devices. It also offers advanced controls and enhanced
Android MDM capabilities for Samsung SAFE and KNOX devices.
Device enrollment in Android OS:
 Over-the-air (OTA) device enrollment.
 Register devices based on ownership.
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Authenticate enrollment with a one-time pass-code and/or the user's

Active Directory credentials.
 Enroll multiple devices for the same user.
 Enroll in bulk with Samsung KNOX enrollment and Android Near Field
Communication (NFC) enrollment techniques.
Profile management for Android OS:
 Create and enforce policies and restrictions.
 Configure Active Directory policy settings to access enterprise
resources.
 Restrict the use of camera, bluetooth, browser, and more for increased
security.
 Segregate Android devices based on whether they are corporate or
BYOD, and apply appropriate policies and restrictions.
App management for Android OS:
 Manage and distribute both in-house and Play Store apps.
 Fetch reports to monitor the status of apps installed on the device.
 Publish apps in an app catalog for users to choose and install the one
they need themselves.
 Separate blacklisted and white listed of apps More

8. Security management in Android OS

Android Security
Android is a Linux kernel mobile platform. Android runs on a wide
range of devices, from mobile smart phones and tablets, to set-top boxes.
The Android mobile operating system is dependent upon the mobile device’s
processer capabilities for its performance.
Security is a major part of any Android device. Android was created with
openness in mind, and is conducive to the use of third-party applications and
cloud-based services. Android seeks to be a secure and usable operating
system for mobile platforms.

Android's Five Key Security Features:

1. Security at the operating system level through the Linux kernel.

2. Mandatory application sandbox.
3. Secure inter process communication.
4. Application signing.
5. Application-defined and user-granted permissions.

Android Security: System-Level Security Features

The Linux kernel provides Android with a set of security measures. It
grants the operating system a user-based permissions model, process
isolation, a secure mechanism for IPC, and the ability to remove any
unnecessary or potentially insecure parts of the kernel. It further works to
prevent multiple system users from accessing each other’s resources and
exhausting them.
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Android Application Security Features

This user-based protection allows Android to create an “Application
Sandbox.” Each Android app is assigned a unique user ID, and each runs as a
separate process. Therefore, each application is enforced at the process level
through the Linux kernel, which does not allow applications to interact with
one another, and gives them only limited access to the Android operating
system.
Android Application Security Scans
When building and testing the security of Android apps, developers should
follow Android security best practices and keep the following in mind when
performing security tests:
 Inbound SMS listeners (command and control)
 Unsafe file creation
 Improper database storage
 Unsafe use of shared preferences
 Storage of sensitive data on mass storage device
 Content provider SQL injection
 APN or proxy modification

Top 10 security tips

1. Disable app downloads from unknown sources
The easiest way to get infected with malware on an Android phone or
tablet is to start installing apps from outside the official Google Play app
store. In the Settings menu of any standard Android device is a check box
that enables and disables installing ‘unofficial’ apps. An Android that keeps
itself legit is far safer.
2. Upgrade to Android 3.0 or above
The first version of Android to incorporate file system encryption was
Android 3.0, almost three years into the system’s life. Devices that do not
use any kind of data encryption are all the more susceptible to damaging
data loss.
3. Download an anti-malware app
Now that Android malware and viruses are a widely-recognized part of
the smart phone world, there are many solutions to combat them. Most of
the big antivirus (AV) companies have their own Android anti-malware apps,
including Kaspersky, AVG, Avast and Norton. Recommended free Android AV
apps include Lookout and TrustGo.
4. Do not connect to unsecured, unknown Wi-Fi networks
An unsecured Wi-FI network can seem like a cheeky goldmine of free
internet, but if you’re using an outdated version of Android in particular, it
could prove dangerous. Imposter Wi-Fi networks can be used to stage a
‘middleman’ attack, where any inputted data can be intercepted by a third
party – including passwords and personal details, such as credit card
numbers.
5. Install a remote wipe/lock app
If an Android device is lost or stolen, it is sensible to have a way
to wipe or lock it. There are apps available from Google Play that will do just
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that, reacting to either a command from a web interface or via text. Popular
remote wipe and lock apps include Cerberus and Avast Mobile Security.
6. Keep all sensitive data behind an extra encryption layer
Keeping sensitive information logged in a generic note on a phone or
tablet is a bad idea. There are plenty of apps that will store information
behind a double wall of password protection and encryption. Top picks
include mSecure and File Hide Expert.
7. Be aware of SMS threats
Premium SMS threats are partly responsible for the surge in Android
malware. The Bad threat, which was brought to light earlier this year, can
send premium rate SMS texts, install other malicious apps and execute other
code. If there is mysterious activity on a phone bill, check it is not down to
this type of attack.
8. Use the Chrome browser
Since Android 4.1 was introduced, phones and tablets have come with
the stock Android browser as well as Chrome installed as standard. Chrome is
marginally more secure than the stock version, having been subject to fewer
publicized insecurities in recent months. It is also likely that Chrome for
Android is being more keenly worked on, its pre-installed status marking it
out as the future default browser for Android.
9. Put a lock on your lock screen
Simple but necessary, anyone with a concern about Android security
should put some lock screen protection on their phone. Virtually all Androids
come with optional security measures pre-installed, accessed in the security
submenu of settings.
10. Stolen phone? Check out Plan B
Many have done it – had a phone lost or stolen just before planning to
buy phone insurance or install a phone tracker. There is one last point of call.
Try to install Plan B to the phone from the Google Play website and, if
successful, it will automatically send the location of the device to the Gmail
account linked to it.
9. Android File and Directory Structure

Most people are familiar with the file layout on Windows and are happy
navigating the Windows file System. Windows uses a drive letter for each
physical drive/partition.
e.g. C: drive
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Although Windows shows a disk icon the disks could be partitions of a

single physical disk, each disk partition has a root directory which contains
files and folders (directories).
The root of the C drive is C:\ , F drive is F:\ etc
Android uses the Linux file system structure which has a single root.
Physical disks and partitions appear under the root as a directory
(folder), and do not have a drive letter as in Windows.
Android doesn’t appear to come with a default file manager, and so we
will need to install a file manager App like “ES file manager” to locate and
manage files and directories.
An android file system will look like this:

Note: Image is only a partial screen shot using ES file manager

What you are seeing looks like a list of folders/directories, but all of
them are actually partitions. The file manager doesn’t differentiate between
a partition and a directory. Most of the partitions are not normally visible on
our android tablet.
We will see a folder called sdcard which again is actually a partition.
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The sdcard partition is the main storage area for user data and
files. It also contains App settings and data.
The sdcard partition exists even though you may not have an external
sdcard.
It is called as the”internal partition”.
We can also transfer files between our device and a PC using this method.
Android File Associations:
 Android will use an App to open a particular file type. Suppose, if we
try to open a pdf file it will normally use Adobe reader to open the file.
 To open a file we will normally need to locate the file using a file
manager.
 Just press the file to open it.
 If the file type doesn’t already have an App associated with it you
should be prompted to choose between the available Apps.
 The option to use that App sets it as the default App.
 If we set it as the default App you will not be prompted again unless
you remove the association
 To remove an association you need to remove it from the App itself.
So if the pdf files open with adobe reader and you want to change that:
1. Go to Settings>Apps>Select Adobe reader,
2. Then go to the Launch by default section
3. and Clear defaults
The next time you try to open a pdf file you will be promoted to choose an
App.
Android File Managers
If you search the Google play store you will find many file managers.
Which App is the most suitable depends on what you want to do. You should
bear in mind that more features/functionality isn’t always better.
File managers like ESF have lots of functionality including:
 Built in FTP client
 Task Manager
 Cloud storage client
 etc
However for many this is a bit of an overkill, and so you might consider
installing one of the simpler file managers like file manager and Astro file
manager.
See my tutorial using the Astro file manager.
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File Downloads
When you download a file using Google chrome or another browser App it is
stored in the download directory.
You can access the directory contents through a shortcut in the Apps folder
(if provided).
You can also use a file manager to locate it the folder called download. It is
under your primary storage (called sdcard)

Managing Files on Android

Another way of managing your files is by using the file manager apps
available in app markets. ES File Explorer is the best of the bunch in Google
Play. With more than 300 million global downloads and a fiery, hot rating of
4.5, this amazing app is one of best, if not the best, resource management
tools on Android market. Packed with wealth of file management features, ES
File Explorer makes file management as easy as managing your files on
desktop with its explorer window for copy, paste, delete, and move
operations, a sidebar for accessing your favorite folders and other dazzling
features. Furthermore, this app also allows you to remotely manage files on
your phone from your computer.