3.

Thermal comforts in building and Air conditioning of buildings

3.1 Thermal comforts in building

3.1.1 What is Thermal Comfort?

Thermal comfort is defined as: "that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment."
So the term "thermal comfort" describes a person’s psychological state of mind and is usually referred to in
terms of whether someone is feeling too hot or too cold.
Thermal comfort is very difficult to define because you need to take into account a range of environmental
and personal factors when deciding what will make people feel comfortable. These factors make up what is
known as the "human thermal environment".
The best that you can realistically hope to achieve is a thermal environment that satisfies the majority of
people in the workplace, or put more simply, "reasonable comfort". Though there is no absolute rule, 80% of
occupants might be considered a reasonable limit for the minimum number of people who should be
thermally comfortable in an environment.
So, thermal comfort is not measured by air temperature, but by the number of employees complaining of
thermal discomfort. To better understand why air temperature alone is not a valid indicator of thermal
comfort, see the six basic factors.

3.1.2 Why is thermal comfort important?

Because thermal comfort is psychological, it may affect our overall morale. Worker complaints may
increase, productivity may fall and in some cases people may refuse to work in a particular environment.
Some aspects of the thermal environment, such as air temperature, radiant heat, humidity and air movement,
may also contribute to the symptoms of sick building syndrome.

3.1.3 The Six Basic Factors

The most commonly used indicator of thermal comfort is air temperature - it is easy to use and most people
can relate to it. But although it is an important indicator to take into account, air temperature alone is neither
a valid nor an accurate indicator of thermal comfort or thermal stress. Air temperature should always be
considered in relation to other environmental and personal factors.
The six factors affecting thermal comfort are both environmental and personal. These factors may be
independent of each other, but together contribute to a worker’s thermal comfort.

3.1.3.1 Environmental factors

1. Air temperature
This is the temperature of the air surrounding the body. It is usually given in degrees Celsius (°C).

2. Radiant temperature
Thermal radiation is the heat that radiates from a warm object. Radiant heat may be present if there are heat
sources in an environment.
Radiant temperature has a greater influence than air temperature on how we lose or gain heat to the
environment. Our skin absorbs almost as much radiant energy as a matt black object, although this may be
reduced by wearing reflective clothing.
Examples of radiant heat sources include: the sun; fire; electric fires; furnaces; steam rollers; ovens; walls in
kilns; cooker; dryers; hot surfaces and machinery, molten metals etc.

3. Air velocity
This describes the speed of air moving across the worker and may help cool the worker if it is cooler than the
environment.
Air velocity is an important factor in thermal comfort because people are sensitive to it.
Still or stagnant air in indoor environments that are artificially heated may cause people to feel stuffy. It may
also lead to a build-up in odour.
Moving air in warm or humid conditions can increase heat loss through convection without any change in air
temperature.
Small air movement in cool or cold environment may be perceived as draught. If the air temperature is less
than skin temperature, it will significantly increase convective heat loss.
Physical activity also increases air movement, so air velocity may be corrected to account for a person’s
level of physical activity.

4. Humidity
If water is heated and it evaporates to the surrounding environment, the resulting amount of water in the air
will provide humidity.
Relative humidity is the ratio between the actual amount of water vapour in the air and the maximum amount
of water vapour that the air can hold at that air temperature.
Relative humidity between 40% and 70% does not have a major impact on thermal comfort. In some offices,
humidity is usually kept between 40-70% because of computers. However, in workplaces which are not air
conditioned, or where the climatic conditions outdoors may influence the indoor thermal environment,
relative humidity may be higher than 70% on warm or hot humid days. Humidity in indoor environments can
vary greatly, and may be dependent of whether there are drying processes (paper mills, laundry etc) where
steam is given off.
High humidity environments have a lot of vapour in the air, which prevents the evaporation of sweat from
the skin. In hot environments, humidity is important because less sweat evaporates when humidity is high
(80%+). The evaporation of sweat is the main method of heat loss in humans.
When vapour-impermeable Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is worn, the humidity inside the garment
increases as the wearer sweats because the sweat cannot evaporate. If an employee is wearing this type of
PPE (e.g. asbestos or chemical protection suits, etc.) the humidity within the microclimate of the garment
may be high.

3.1.3.2 Personal factors

1. Clothing insulation
Clothing, by its very nature, interferes with our ability to lose heat to the environment. Thermal comfort is
very much dependant on the insulating effect of clothing on the wearer.

Wearing too much clothing or personal protective equipment (PPE) may be a primary cause of heat stress
even if the environment is not considered warm or hot. If clothing does not provide enough insulation, the
wearer may be at risk from cold injuries such as frost bite or hypothermia in cold conditions.

Clothing is both a potential cause of thermal discomfort as well as a control for it as we adapt to the climate
in which we live and play. You may add layers of clothing if you feel cold, or remove layers of clothing if
you feel warm. However, some businesses remove the ability of their employees to make reasonable
adaptations to their clothing.

It is important to identify how the clothing may contribute to thermal comfort or discomfort. It may also be
necessary to evaluate the level of protection that any PPE is providing - can there be less, or other, PPE
used?

2. Work rate / metabolic heat

The work or metabolic rate is essential for a thermal risk assessment. It describes the heat that we produce
inside our bodies as we carry out physical activity.
The more physical work we do, the more heat we produce. The more heat we produce, the more heat needs
to be lost so we don’t overheat. The impact of metabolic rate on thermal comfort is critical.

When considering these factors, it is also essential to consider a person’s own physical characteristics.

A person’s physical characteristics should always be borne in mind when considering their thermal comfort,
as factors such as their size and weight, age, fitness level and sex can all have an impact on how they feel,
even if other factors such as air temperature, humidity and air velocity are all constant.

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3.1.4 Thermal comfort checklist
Use the table below to help you identify whether there may be a risk of thermal discomfort to your workers.
Please note that this is a basic checklist and does not replace an adequate thermal comfort risk assessment.
Read the descriptions for each thermal comfort factor, and answer YES or NO. If you have two or more
"YES" answers, there may be a risk of thermal discomfort and you may need to carry out a more detailed
risk assessment.

Sl No. Factor / Description YES/NO

1 Air temperature
 -Does the air feel warm or hot?
 -Does the temperature in the workplace fluctuate during a normal working
day?
 -Does the temperature in the workplace change a lot during hot or cold
seasonal variations?

2 Radiant temperature
 -Is there a heat source in the environment?
 -Is there any equipment that produces steam?
 -Is the workplace affected by external weather conditions?
 -Are your workers wearing PPE that is vapour impermeable?
 -Do your workers complain that the air is too dry?
 -Do your workers complain that the air is too humid?

3 Air movement
 -Is cold or warm air blowing directly into the workspace?
 -Are workers complaining of draught?

4 Metabolic rate
 -Is work rate moderate to intensive in warm or hot conditions?
 -Are workers sedentary in cool or cold environments?

5 PPE
 -Is PPE being worn that protects against harmful toxins, chemicals,
asbestos, flame extreme heat, etc.?
 -Can workers make individual alterations to their clothing in response to
the thermal environment?

What your workers think

 -Do your workers think that there is a thermal comfort problem?
3.1.5 Controlling Thermal Comfort
There are a number of ways that you can manage thermal comfort in the workplace:

1. Administrative controls
Administrative controls include planning and rescheduling work times and practices and rest schedules. For
example, scheduling "hot" work for cooler times of the day or giving workers flexible hours to help avoid the
worst effect of working in high temperatures. Administrative controls are generally of a short term,
temporary nature and are also widely recognised as being more expensive and less cost-effective than
engineering controls in the long-term.

2. Engineering controls
These should be the first choice to reduce or eliminate the hazard. Although the initial cost of engineering
controls seems high, it has been found that the implementation cost is often offset by the resulting
improvements to production and decrease in down time, with reduced absenteeism and improved motivation.

It is important to stress that any practical solution to controlling thermal comfort is likely to require a
combination of different options alongside consultation between PCBUs, workers and their representatives.

3. Heating
Many types of heating systems are available:
 Hot air based heating systems
 Water based central heating systems using radiators
 Combined heat and ventilation systems using air conditioning systems
 Electrical heating systems using electrical heaters
 Under-floor heating systems using either electrical coils or heated fluids
 Overhead heating systems.
Most of these systems are useful. However, the beneficial effects may be in some situations restricted to the
immediate locality of the heat source.

4. Air movement
There are many methods for increasing air movement. Small "personal" fans can provide a refreshing
movement of air on the face. Larger oscillating fans can provide a swirling air movement, though some
people may find this draughty. There may also be noise problems.

Large diameter fans suspended from the ceiling can provide a swirling air movement that is effective over a
wide area. Exhaust fans, mounted in the roofs and walls, are useful for removing heated air; however, while
improving general air movement, they may have little effect on thermal comfort.

5. Air conditioning
This can range from small units that lower the air temperature but do not control humidity levels or air
movement, to large units that can cope with extreme conditions as well as humidity and air movement. When
air conditioning systems are used, care should be taken to ensure uniform air distribution throughout the
workplace, otherwise some workers may complain of feeling cold while others are feeling hot.
Air conditioning units should be operated as per the manufacturer’s instructions.

6. Evaporative cooling
Evaporative coolers produce a moderate reduction in air temperature and increase humidity. They operate by
passing hot air over water-saturated pads and the water evaporation effect reduces the air temperature.
 7. Thermal insulation
There are many different types of thermal insulation materials, eg loose fills, rock wool and boards. The
material acts as a barrier, which slows heat flow in the summer and heat loss in the winter, but it is only
effective where there is a temperature difference between the inside and the outside of the building or
between two areas inside a building.

3.1.6 General Methods of Thermal Insulation

Apart from providing thermal insulating material on walls, roofs, doors, etc., thermal insulation can also be
achieved by the following methods:

1. Heat insulation by orientation

The orientation of a building with respect to the sun has a very important bearing on its thermal behavior.
For optimum orientation, there are usually conflicting requirements. Minimum transfer of solar heat is
desired during the day in summer, while maximum heating of rooms by solar heat is required during
winter.

2. Heat insulation by shading

While shading of roof brings down the surface temperature, it is very difficult to achieve this effect in
practice, especially when the altitude angle of the sun is quite high during the period of peak heat gain in
afternoons, between 11.00h and 15.00h. Raising the parapet walls can help only when the altitude angle
of the sun is low, but the cost may not be commensurate with the effect obtained.

3. Heat insulation by proper height of ceiling

While the surface temperature of the ceiling does not vary with its height, the intensity of long wave
radiation, emitted by the ceiling decreases as it travels downwards. The effect of vertical gradient of
radiation intensity is not significant beyond 1 to 1.3m. Hence it should be adequate to provide ceiling at a
height of about 1 to 1.3m above the occupant.

3.1.7 Thermal Insulation of Roofs:

Insulation Standards: IS: 3792-1966 recommends that no roof should have an overall thermal transmittance
of more than 2.00 kcal m² h deg C.
Methods: Heat gain through roofs may be reduced by adopting the following methods:
1. Application of heat insulating materials. Heat insulating materials may be applied externally or
internally to the roofs. In case of external application, heat insulating material may be laid over the
roof but below a water proof course. In case of internal application, heat insulating material may be
fixed by adhesive or otherwise on the underside of roofs from within the rooms. False ceiling of
insulating material may be provided below the roof with air gaps in between, as shown in Fig.
2. For flat roofs, external insulation may also be done by arranging asbestos cement sheets or corrugated
iron sheets on bricks as shown in Fig.
3. Shining and reflecting materials may be fixed on the top of the roof.
4. Roofs may be flooded with water in the form of sprays or otherwise. Loss due to evaporation may be
compensated by makeup arrangements.
5. Roof may be white-washed before on-set of each summer.
6. Top exposed surface of roof may be covered by 2.5cm thick layer of coconut pitch cement concrete.
Such a concrete is prepared by mixing coconut pitch with cement and water. After laying, it is
covered with an impermeable layer and then allowed to dry for 20 to 30 days.
3.1.8 Thermal Insulation of Exposed Walls:

Insulation Standards: IS: 3792-1966 recommends that no exposed wall should have an overall thermal
transmittance of more than 2.2 kcal m² h deg C.

Methods: Heat insulation of exposed walls may be achieved by the following ways:

 The thickness of wall may be increased.

 Cavity wall construction may be adopted, for external walls.
 The wall may be constructed out of suitable heat insulating material provided structural requirements
are met.
 Heat insulating materials may be fixed on the inside or outside of the exposed wall, in such a way
that the value of overall thermal transmittance is brought within a desired limits. In the case of
external application, overall water-proofing is essential.
 Light-coloured white-wash or distemper may be applied on the exposed side of the side.
3.1.9 Thermal Insulation of Exposed Doors and Windows:

In dealing with heat insulation of exposed windows and doors, suitable methods should be adopted to reduce:

a. Reduction of incidence of solar heat: This may be achieved by any one of the following means:
i. External shading, such as louvered shutters, sun breakers chhajjas, and
ii. Internal shading, such a curtains and venetian blinds.

b. Reduction of heat transmission: Where glazed windows and doors are provided, reduction of heat
transmission may be achieved by providing insulating glass or double glass with air space or by any
other suitable means.