http://psychology.about.com/od/leadership/p/leadtheories.

htm

http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/leadership_theories.htm
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/leadership-theories.html
http://managementhelp.org/blogs/leadership/2010/04/21/leadership-theories/

"Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making something
extraordinary happen" - Alan Keith of Genentech

Leadership can be termed as the most relevant aspect of all the organizational aspects and the
exact definition of leadership can depend upon the situation. The various leadership theories are
produced by students taking into consideration the situation, behavior, power, charisma,
intelligence and function. Let us take a look at the leadership theories and models. Read more on
effective leadership.

Leadership Theories

Great Man Theories

One of the leadership theories that often figures in various leadership books the Great Man
theory states that there are two basic assumptions; that leaders are born and not made, and the
second assumption is that great leaders will come up when there is a need.

This theory was developed from an early research which included the study of great leaders. The
early leaders came from the privileged class and held hereditary titles. Very few people from the
lower class had the opportunity to take a lead. The Great Man theory was based on the idea that
whenever there is a need of leadership, a Great Man would arise and solve the problems. When
the Great Man theory was proposed, most of the leaders were males and therefore, the gender
issues were not negotiable. Even the researchers were male, which was the reason for the name
of the theory being 'Great Man Theory'.

Trait Theories
One of the important leadership theories in education, traits theory of leadership assumes that
leaders have inherited traits in them which make these people suitable for leadership. Many say
that leaders are people who can fully express themselves while others cannot, and this is what
makes them different from other people. A leader has the right combination of traits which
makes him a good leader. Read more on leadership and management.

When this theory was pronounced, it was based on the study of the characteristics of successful
leaders. The researchers also made an assumption that if people found these leadership traits,
they would also become leaders. While researching, certain traits and characteristics were listed.
John Gardner researched many leaders of north America and listed the attributes and
characteristics of leaders. These traits are as follows:

 Intelligence and judgments based on actions

 Physical stamina and a vital driving force
 Task competency
  Better understanding of the followers and their demands
 Avidness to accept responsibilities
 Ability to deal with people
 Capability to motivate people
 Trustworthy
 Conclusiveness
 Flexibility

These are some of the few qualities and attributes of a leadership. When this theory was
researched earlier, researchers believed that a leader has all the the listed traits in him/her. The
meaning of this theory is that the same leadership attributes are applicable for leadership on a
battlefield and the leadership in a school. However, if a person has some of these traits and not
all, then it is not possible for him to be a leader! Apart from this question, there was again the
problem of gender in a leadership. Even if you make an exhaustive list of leadership traits, these
attributes are defined taking into consideration a male leader. This gave rise to the new
leadership theory called the behavioral theory.

Behavioral Theories
After the trait theory, the researchers started exploring the behavior of the leaders and made
assumptions that the traits and the leadership qualities are not inherited, they can be learned and
mastered by any person. Thus, this theory meant that leaders are not born, leaders can be made
and so it became a famous management leadership theory and practice. In the behavior theory,
you need to assess a successful leader along with the actions of that particular leader. As a
successful leader is assessed, a leader with failure is also assessed, therefore, a second aspect of
this theory was built. Apart from the leadership theories and styles which were pronounced
earlier, the basic leadership ideas remained the same. While researching, patterns of behavior
were found and according to these patterns, leadership styles were created. Here are the four
styles of leadership based on the behavioral theory:

Concern for People

As the name suggests, this style of leadership reflects the characteristics of the leaders who
aimed upon solving the problems of their followers and look after their needs, development and
problems. The leader who has the concern of people as his priority will always strive for the
betterment of his people or followers.

Concern of Task
The leader with the concern of task is more focused on his achievements and level of
productivity. Also, the concern of task style reflects the ability to organize people and arrange
activities, in order to meet the desired objectives and goals.

Directive Leadership
This leadership style includes the characteristics of leaders with the ability to be decisive and
expect the followers to act according to his decision.

Participative Leadership
Unlike directive leadership, in participative leadership, the leader and his followers take a
decision by sharing the views and decisions together.

Situational Leadership Theories

One of the relatively lesser known leadership theories is the situational leadership theory. The
researchers found that leaders emerged as a result of different situations. Therefore, the
researchers assumed that leadership qualities were developed depending on the situation.
However, there are people who believe that there are different styles of leadership which changes
the situation. There are three basic things in a situational leadership; the foremost thing is that the
relationship between the followers and the leader must be healthy. The followers must like the
leader and support him/her in his goals. The second thing is that the task which is to be
accomplished must be known, and the leader should set the goals as per the task to be done.
Along with the tasks to be accomplished, the methods and standards to accomplish the task must
also be specified in details, as this will make an impact on the followers. The third thing that is
important is that the organization must confer the responsibilities of the task upon the leader, as
this will strengthen the position of the leader. Read more on leadership theories: pros and cons.

Transactional Leadership Theories

As the name suggests, this leadership theory is dependent on the fact that one thing is traded for
the other thing. The transactional leader knows what he wants from the work and ensures that his
followers perform well for giving the expected output. When the expected output is
accomplished by the people of the organization, the leader must exchange rewards and make
future promises for the people's efforts. Also, the leader must see to it that the immediate self-
interests of the people are met with proper work done. This means that the needs of the people
must be catered to by the leader along with the fact that his work is getting done. Read more on
qualities of a good leader .

Transformational Theories
In the transformational theory of leadership, the assumption is that people are inspired from the
leader and the leader must have passion about his leadership. This is a great way of putting in
enthusiasm and energy in the followers to get the work done. In short, the people are encouraged,
and converted into potential followers. Read more on transformational leadership.

Read more on the following:

 Team Leadership
 Strategic Leadership
 Leadership Qualities

This was all about the various leadership theories. Thus, this indicates that there are no simple
answers to the question 'what makes a leader more effective?' The style adopted by the leader
must fit into the expectations of the followers, no matter what style or theory is utilized to do so.

Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership
theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent
theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels. While many
different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types:
1. "Great Man" Theories:

Great Man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are
born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise
to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was
thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

2. Trait Theories:

Similar in some ways to "Great Man" theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain
qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify
particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. If particular traits are key
features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not
leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.

3. Contingency Theories:

Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that
might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to
this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of
variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers and aspects of the situation.

4. Situational Theories:

Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational
variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-
making.

5. Behavioral Theories:

Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born.
Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders not on mental
qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through
teaching and observation.

6. Participative Theories:

Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input
of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group
members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making
process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of
others.

7. Management Theories:
Management theories (also known as "Transactional theories") focus on the role of supervision,
organization and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and
punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful,
they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

8. Relationship Theories:

Relationship theories (also known as "Transformational theories") focus upon the connections
formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by
helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. These leaders are
focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her
potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.

There is a wide and ever growing variety of theories to explain the concept and practice of
leadership.  I will provide a brief overview of the more dominant or better known theories. I
hope that others will share their thoughts on whether this list neglects any theories of note.  In the
future we can discuss some of the emerging leadership theories/approaches such as adaptive,
authentic, and appreciative. It is important to note that this submission attempts to provide an
overview of leadership theories versus models. I view models as attempts to functionalize the
more theoretical aspects of leadership and make them easier to put into play by organizations and
consultants.  This is, in and of itself, an important activity.

Most theories view leadership as grounded in one or more of the following three perspectives:
leadership as a process or relationship, leadership as a combination of traits or personality
characteristics, or leadership as certain behaviors or, as they are more commonly referred to,
leadership skills. In virtually all of the more dominant theories there exist the notions that, at
least to some degree, leadership is a process that involves influence with a group of people
toward the realization of goals.  I will say on the front end that, in my opinion, leadership is a
dynamic and complex process, and that much of what is written these days tends to over-simplify
this process.  My goal here is to provide an overview that keeps things simple, without crossing
into over-simplification, and for the most part refraining from any critiquing of the various
theories.  I will leave that to my fellow bloggers for now.

Trait Theory

This theory postulates that people are either born or not born with the qualities that predispose
them to success in leadership roles.  That is, that certain inherited qualities, such as personality
and cognitive ability, are what underlie effective leadership.  There have been hundreds of
studies to determine the most important leadership traits, and while there is always going to be
some disagreement, intelligence, sociability, and drive (aka determination) are consistently cited
as key qualities.

Skills Theory
This theory states that learned knowledge and acquired skills/abilities are significant factors in
the practice of effective leadership.  Skills theory by no means disavows the connection between
inherited traits and the capacity to be an effective leader – it simply argues that learned skills, a
developed style, and acquired knowledge, are the real keys to leadership performance.  It is of
course the belief that skills theory is true that warrants all the effort and resources devoted to
leadership training and development

Situational Theory

This theory suggests that different situations require different styles of leadership.  That is, to be
effective in leadership requires the ability to adapt or adjust one’s style to the circumstances of
the situation.  The primary factors that determine how to adapt are an assessment of the
competence and commitment of a leader’s followers.  The assessment of these factors determines
if a leader should use a more directive or supportive style.

Contingency Theory

This theory states that a leader’s effectiveness is contingent on how well the leader’s style
matches a specific setting or situation.  And how, you may ask, is this different from situational
theory?  In situational the focus is on adapting to the situation, whereas contingency states that
effective leadership depends on the degree of fit between a leader’s qualities and style and that of
a specific situation or context.

Path-Goal Theory

This theory is about how leaders motivate followers to accomplish identified objectives.  It
postulates that effective leaders have the ability to improve the motivation of followers by
clarifying the paths and removing obstacles to high performance and desired objectives.  The
underlying beliefs of path-goal theory (grounded in expectancy theory) are that people will be
more focused and motivated if they believe they are capable of high performance, believe their
effort will result in desired outcomes, and believe their work is worthwhile.

Transformational Theory

This theory states that leadership is the process by which a person engages with others and is
able to create a connection that results in increased motivation and morality in both followers
and leaders.  It is often likened to the theory of charismatic leadership that espouses that leaders
with certain qualities, such as confidence, extroversion, and clearly stated values, are best able to
motivate followers.  The key in transformational leadership is for the leader to be attentive to the
needs and motives of followers in an attempt to help them reach their maximum potential.  In
addition, transformational leadership typically describes how leaders can initiate, develop, and
implement important changes in an organization.  This theory is often discussed in contrast with
transactional leadership.

Transactional Theory
This is a theory that focuses on the exchanges that take place between leaders and followers.  It
is based in the notion that a leader’s job is to create structures that make it abundantly clear what
is expected of his/her followers and also the consequences (i.e. rewards and punishments) for
meeting or not meeting these expectations.  This theory is often likened to the concept and
practice of management and continues to be an extremely common component of many
leadership models and organizational structures.

Servant Leadership Theory

This conceptualization of leadership reflects a philosophy that leaders should be servants first. It
suggests that leaders must place the needs of followers, customers, and the community ahead of
their own interests in order to be effective.  The idea of servant leadership has a significant
amount of popularity within leadership circles – but it is difficult to describe it as a theory
inasmuch as a set of beliefs and values that leaders are encouraged to embrace.

Closing Comments and Questions

I have a bias toward trait, skills, and transformational theories.  I am a psychologist and there is
no doubt in my mind that people are born with certain qualities.  But I am equally sure
innate traits inevitably become fully interwoven with a person’s acquired knowledge and skills. 
And I lean toward transformational theory because of how it views the practice of leadership as,
more than anything else, relational interaction.

So how can these theories apply to one’s work?  Well, in my work, if I am hired to help an
organization select a leader via an assessment process, some of the theories become readily
apparent.  To start, it is important that the first step in the assessment is a meeting in which the
client clarifies the qualities needed for the specific role and paint a picture for me of the
organizational culture.  By doing this I am able to be look for those qualities, skills, knowledge,
to assure finding someone that is a good fit for the job and the culture (Contingency Theory). 
The assessment process includes tools to measure personality, cognitive abilities, and drive (Trait
Theory), adaptability (Situational Theory), and sociability (Transformational Theory).  It also
involves, through interviews and work simulations, an evaluation of a person’s work-related
skills and knowledge of the business (Skills Theory).

Principles of Leadership

This section describes why leaders exist and what knowledge, skills, and abilities are important
to manage learning. We know, to begin, that leaders exist because man is a social creature. The
leader in our society is responsible for the essential tasks in the collections of groups that make
up civilization.

In most traditional or conventional training events, because of a lack of systematic programming,

most of the emphasis is focused on attempts to change people's perception. Little time is usually
allocated for practice and even less to measure changes in performance during the training
situation. The White Stag method puts a strong emphasis on individual and group participation
and practice long to ensure sufficient habit-formation during the training situation. We also
systematically evaluate the participants, staff, and the overall program. We take a direct approach
to leadership development.

Leadership and Leaders: the Direct Approach

The leader is the central person who guides the group toward its
goal. No single trait has been found which separates leaders from
non-leaders; nonetheless, leaders usually have more drive and
determination and probably a greater concentration of positive
qualities than non-leaders.

Research over many years, some of which formed the basis for the
original conceptualization of the White Stag program, has revealed
that leaders commonly share a definite set of skills, or
competencies. We do not believe in "born leaders;" we believe the
leadership is a skill, ability, or competency that can be acquired. In
White Stag, our functional definition of competence is: knowledge,
understanding, way of thinking, skills and disposition. Our program
is designed to affect all of these qualities.

The idea of born-leaders has become outdated. The founder of

White Stag, Béla Bánáthy, in his research for his Master's thesis on
Final candidate graduation leadership, compiled a list of over 80 behaviors that authorities in
ceremony in the dining hall the field described as "leadership." The key notion here is that these
area at Pico Blanco Scout
behaviors are skills that can be learned.
Reservation.
For many years, leadership in traditional Boy Scout of America
junior leader training programs was referred to only indirectly, by
example and inference.

White Stag does not depend on happenstance or luck for leadership training to take place. This
"indirect" way of training for leadership is what the White Stag method challenges and
transforms into a "direct approach." The skills of leadership are specifically described.

Defining Leadership Objectively

The direct approach is oriented toward a specific leadership behavior which is clearly and
objectively defined. The elements of leadership behavior are isolated as specific learnings which
are systematically programmed into a long-term developmental process.

The direct approach ensures that appropriate and sufficient time is given the development of
leadership skills, to bring about the desired change in behavior and to achieve leadership
competence.
The SECOND concept is that, rather than being some nebulous characteristic which one has to
be born with, leadership can be defined as a set of competencies which can be learned. Some
eighty aspects of knowledge, skills, and attitudes have been taken into account in our research
which have been clustered into competencies. To sum it up. an
understanding of the concepts described here has helped us to
bring into focus that the acquisition of leadership competencies
should occur by plan and design, rather than by accident. Although
leaders may emerge - as they do today - as by-products of group
processes, this is neither an economical nor an effective way of
developing leadership. Based on the concepts described above, in
our experimental program:

Specific competencies of leadership--relevant to Scouting--have

been identified...

The Leadership Curriculum

Bánáthy condensed his 80 descriptors into eleven competencies

that now comprise the curriculum of White Stag Leadership
Development. Much research has been done since then to
supplement, amend, and above all, keep the knowledge base
current.

The eleven competencies are part of the overall leadership Scouts cool off after a
development design. The framework of competencies provides a strenuous day of hiking.
consistent reference base for all members as they gain increased
knowledge. Instead of learning greater and greater numbers of
competencies, members reach higher "plateaus" of knowledge within the existing schema. The
objectives within each competency will eventually be so discrete that selective groups of
objectives may be chosen by the manager of learning that reflect exactly the needs of the
learners.

Knowledge of or the ability to manage the learning of any or several of these competencies does
not a leader make. What makes a leader is the degree to which the competency is an integral
characteristic of an individual and the degree to which it influences the individual's behavior (and
by inference, his values).

A competency of primary significance is communication, or "Getting and Giving Information."

Nothing else can happen until communication, on one or more levels, has been established.
Identification of and with group norms and group goals leads to the maintenance of group
membership; the ability to call on group members' knowledge, skills and abilities insures that the
task can be tackled. "Knowing the Needs and Characteristics of the Group," and "Knowing and
Using Group Resources" are the next most important.
The need among program participants for them to learn more about these competencies is made
plain to them in a number of ways. Specific learning activities are conceived and executed that
draw their attention to the group dynamic and the role of leadership among them.

One of the most important talents a leader needs is empathy; that is, an appreciation for and
understanding of others' needs. (Empathy includes both the ability to uncover needs and
sensitivity to those needs.) The empathic leader is one with the group, is helpful; he is willing to
face problems, and has at his disposal a variety of problem-solving tools.

Some other behaviors that indicate positive qualities of leadership are cheerfulness, enthusiasm,
alertness, integrated character, deliberate will control, risk-taking, and absence of suspicious
anxiety.

Leadership can be developed by acquiring the competencies described below.

Leadership Can be Learned

Leadership competencies cannot be acquired in a few training sessions or in a single training

course, but only as the result of a long-range development process over a number of years.
Leadership development must begin during the formative years of youth, and is a life-long
process that never ends.

The acquisition of leadership competencies occurs by plan and design.

[It is a] process with a purpose. It is a process of the learner moving from a state wherein he
cannot yet perform as the described purpose of the training to a state where he can demonstrate
such performance. This move is what training is about. Training is the making of specific
arrangements in the environment of the learner which provide him with experiences by which he
can confront and master the learning task, by which he can be transformed to the state where he
can perform as desired.

Leadership development cannot be perceived as a single training course or as a one-shot event,

but must be a continuous seqence of closely chained and systematically organized learning and
experience-building opportunities.

Developmental psychologists postulate that each child passes through a series of specific stages;
White Stag addresses each youth in terms appropriate to his particular stage of development and
levels of need. The program is structured in three tiers, or "phases," each designed to meet the
needs of developing adolescents. (Refer to Chapter 4 - "Organizational Structure" for more
information.)

We understand that organized learning opportunities like the White Stag program are not for
every youth, and that many youth grow into fine, mature adults and leaders in their communities
without participating in organized youth groups.
However, participants in the White Stag program strongly feel that the program helps young
people realize their full potential, assists them in developing positive concepts of self esteem, self
evaluation, and the ability to get along with others in the widest variety of situations. The White
Stag program plants a seed in some who then grow it themselves; others return to partake again
and again of the distinctive spirit which nurtures growth, that is marrow to the bone of White
Stag.

Growth in leadership capacity does not happen in isolation as a member or learner in the
program. The support and understanding of peers and adults in the youths' home environment is
critically important. The opportunity to apply what he has learned, to experiment, is essential if
the leadership competencies are to be transferred out of the White Stag program. It is at home, in
the school, in their church or temple, in the community, and at work while helping others grow,
that the youth applies the leadership competencies and captures the White Stag Spirit.

The Focus is on the Learner

We have shifted our attention from instruction to learning. This does not mean that we minimize
the importance of instruction or the role of the instructor.

The significance of instruction is not questioned here at all. The point that is made here is that
the learning task is the nucleus around which to design instruction. The role and function of
instruction should be viewed in its proper relationship to learning. It should be planned for and
provided for accordingly. Instruction is a means to an end and not an end in itself. Its function is
to facilitate learning.

The effectiveness of the program is not measured by the effort made by the instructor but by the
amount of learning achieved by the learner.

Leadership is a Property of the Group

Leadership is a combination of three dynamic factors: the group, the environment, and the task.
More than one member of the group will perform leadership functions. Several members may
contribute to goal achievements, depending on the requirements of the situation and the
resources it offers, including the people, time, and material available. The task in which the
group is engaged also affects the type of leadership needed. Leadership, therefore, may be
looked upon as the property of the group.

What is a Group?

The group is "an assemblage of persons or objects gathered or located together; an

aggregation."We believe that when two or more people gather for the purpose of accomplishing
a task, leadership emerges. This is the concept of leadership with which we concern ourselves in
White Stag. It is vital in all cultures that groups are able to work together to achieve the
maximum benefit for society.

How do Groups Come About?

The most basic and obvious group is our family.

Leaders are needed in all circumstances, even for the most routine tasks, in the most common affairs of
every day...In the family the leadership function of a parent is most basic. There is scarcely any
leadership role in society which would be of greater significance than parenthood.

With the many challenges facing society today, it is abundantly clear that many families lack
leadership.

Beyond the family, people band themselves together for numerous reasons. Some involve simple
interpersonal relations such as neighbors organized to form a neighborhood association. Others
may involve quite complex interrelationships, such as a large integrated manufacturing
enterprise. In each case the group has been organized to meet a need that is recognized by or is
common to all the members of the group.

About Leaders

What constitutes leadership? How can a leader be recognized? Leadership in most dictionaries is
simply the "capacity or ability to lead." In White Stag, we argue that it is not quite so simple or
that obvious.

The Leader's Function

Some groups persist and prosper and some blow up or wither away. Those that prosper are
characterized by having a leader, someone who functions in two ways.

 The leader helps the group meet the needs of the individuals.
 No two members join for exactly the same reason. The leader helps knit the individuals into a
cooperating group. The leader helps them all to see a common reason, a common goal that is
mutually desired, and he delegates responsibilities among the individuals so they can see how
their efforts will lead toward reaching the goal.
 The leader helps the group realize the purpose for which it was created. The leader helps the
group:
o Define the purposes for which it exists.
o Keep its activity within the defined purposes and goals.
o Find alternative ways of attaining their goal.
o Grow to a more progressive organization in its own eyes.
o Clarify the responsibilities of its officers and members to carry out the program.
o Evaluate itself--why it exists, where it is headed, how much progress it is making.

Simply put, leadership is...

...influencing the group to accomplish a mutually agreed-upon task while advancing the group's integrity
and morale.

In the language of an eleven-year old, it's "getting the job done and keeping the group together."
The group remains in existence only as long as these two needs are being fulfilled. The leader is
not the same as the boss. The following poem says it well.

The Leader

The boss drives group members; the leader coaches them.

The boss depends upon authority; the leader on good will.
The boss inspires fear; the leader inspires enthusiasm.
The boss says "I"; the leader says "we."
The boss assigns the task, the leader sets the pace.
The boss says, "Get there on time"; the leader gets there ahead of time.
The boss fixes the blame for the breakdown; the leader fixes the breakdown.
The boss knows how it is done; the leader shows how.
The boss makes work a drudgery; the leader makes it a game.
The boss says, "Go"; the leader says, "Let's go."

--Author unknown

A Leader's Key Functions

The leader accepts three key functions in his role:

 Authority: the right to make decisions.

 Responsibility: assignment for achieving a goal.
 Accountability: acceptance of success or failure.

You may at times be asked to accept a leadership position but are granted only two of these three
responsibilities. If this happens, watch out. When you do not possess any one of the three
functions, just imagine you are sitting on a three-legged stool--and you've just had one of the legs
broken off from under you. You know what's going to happen next.

What the Leader Must Know

What must you, as the leader, know to be able to help the group? You must know:

 The members and be interested in their welfare.

 Their hopes, ambitions, abilities, limitations and prejudices.
 The things the members want to learn, or at least where and how to get the knowledge, such as
woodcraft skills.
 How to motivate members to want to learn new skills and gain new attitudes. Without
motivation no learning takes place and without learning the member stagnates and
consequently finds no satisfaction from being a part of the group.
 How to establish communication between the members of the group.
 How to conduct or supervise meetings, discussions, and informal activities. Within White Stag,
these include campfires, singing, Sunday services, troop leader councils, work parties and so
 forth. Common experiences that the group enjoys or that they are proud of help weld the group
together.
 How to assess his own effectiveness, how to get the group to evaluate itself, its goals and its
progress toward them. This in turn becomes a powerful motivating force for further learning.

Can a Group Have Several Leaders?

This leadership capability is usually assumed by the world at large to rest in a designated
individual. He or she, in modern democratic social structures, typically governs with the consent
of the governed for a specified period of weeks, months or years.

In White Stag we implicitly include as a leader any member of the group who possesses the
knowledge, skill, and ability needed by group members to help the group achieve cooperative
results. While there is usually a designated leader--someone appointed or elected to that role--for
our purposes a leader is someone who is exerting more influence on the group than anyone else
at that moment.

At any specific moment, one person is exercising more influence than anyone else on the group
and therefore by definition is the leader. This functional take on leadership assumes that different
leaders exercise different roles in keeping the group moving towards its purpose. The leader of
the moment does not automatically usurp the responsibility and authority of any designated
leader, although in certain crisis situations this may in fact take place.

The leader of the moment is usually fulfilling only one of the many functions necessary to the
group's continued success. The leadership control of the group continues to rest with the person
selected to function in most of the required roles. Some leaders excel in several leadership
functions and neglect others. Those women and men who are recognized and acclaimed as
outstanding leaders have cultivated excellent skill in many areas, are in effect multi-disciplinary
leaders.

To give you a practical example, take a group of Scouts on a hike. The Patrol Leader is the
designated individual in charge. But perhaps one of the members had just been hiking in the
same area last week. That person then might assume temporary leadership in guiding the group
towards its campsite over the next ridge. If, during the hike, a Scout falls and sprains his ankle,
yet another Scout with superior skills in first aid may assume leadership in treating and
managing the care of the injured Scout. Everyone, including the designated leader, willingly
takes direction from another member of the group who demonstrates the leadership skills
necessary in the moment.

Some might say that map reading and first aid are practical skills and not a demonstration of
leadership. True for only a moment. For the Scout familiar with the terrain, or the knowledgeable
first aider, what must each be able to do to persuade the others that he really knows what he's
talking about? If either is non-communicative, uncertain, cannot articulate a plan, does not
demonstrate resourcefulness, fails to be sensitive to group members' needs--then they fail as
leaders. To implement the practical skill in a group setting requires something more, which we
conceive of as a specific set of leadership skills.
The real measure of leadership excellence is evident when members of the group talk in terms of
"we" instead of "I". They are identifying their personal goals as the group's goals and feel they
belong to the very best group.

Know yourself and seek improvement Develop

This principle of leadership should be developed by the use of leadership traits. Evaluate yourself by
using the leadership traits and determine your strengths and weaknesses. Work to improve your
weaknesses and utilize your strengths. With a knowledge of yourself, and your experience and
knowledge of group behavior, you can determine the best way to deal with any given situation. With some
Marines, and in certain situations, the firm, hard stand may be most effective; however, in other situations,
the "big brother" approach may work better. You can improve yourself in many ways. Self-improvement
can be achieved by reading and observing. Ask your friends and seniors for an honest evaluation of your
leadership ability. This will help you to identify your weaknesses and strengths.

1. Make an honest evaluation of yourself to determine your strong and weak personal qualities. Strive to
overcome the weak ones and further strengthen those in which you are strong.

2. Seek the honest opinions of your friends or superiors to show you how to improve your leadership
ability.

3. Learn by studying the causes for the success or the failure of other leaders.

4. Develop a genuine interest in people; acquire an understanding of human nature.

5. Master the art of effective writing and speech.

6. Have a definite goal and a definite plan to attain your goal.

Be technically and tactically proficient Develop

Before you can lead, you must be able to do the job. The first principle is to know your job. As a Marine,
you must demonstrate your ability to accomplish the mission, and to do this you must be capable of
answering questions and demonstrating competence in your MOS. Respect is the reward of the Marine
who shows competence. Tactical and technical competence can be learned from books and from on the
job training.

1. Seek a well rounded military education by attending service schools; doing daily independent reading
and research; taking correspondence courses from MCI, colleges, or correspondence schools; and
seeking off-duty education.

2. Seek out and associate with capable leaders. Observe and study their actions.

3. Broaden your knowledge through association with members of other branches of the U. S. armed
services.

4. Seek opportunities to apply knowledge through the exercise of command. Good leadership is acquired
only through practice.

5. Prepare yourself for the job of leader at the next higher rank.
Know your Marines and look out for their welfare Develop  

This is one of the most important of the principles. You should know your Marines and how they react to
different situations. This knowledge can save lives. A Marine who is nervous and lacks self confidence
should never be put in a situation where an important, instant decision must be made. Knowledge of your
Marines' personalities will enable you, as the leader, to decide how to best handle each Marine and
determine when close supervision is needed.

1.Put your Marines' welfare before your own--correct grievances and remove discontent.

2. See the members of your unit and let them see you so that every Marine may know you and feel that
you know them. Be approachable.

3. Get to know and understand the Marines under your command.

4. Let them see that you are determined that they be fully prepared for battle.

5. Concern yourself with the living conditions of the members of your unit.

6. Help your Marines get needed support from available personal services.

7. Protect the health of your unit by active supervision of hygiene and sanitation.

8. Determine what your unit's mental attitude is; keep in touch with their thoughts.

9. Ensure fair and equal distribution of rewards.

10. Encourage individual development.

11. Provide sufficient recreational time and insist on participation.

12. Share the hardships of your Marines so you can better understand their reactions

Keep your Marines informed Develop

Marines by nature are inquisitive. To promote efficiency and morale, a leader should inform the Marines in
his unit of all happenings and give reasons why things are to be done. This, of course, is done when time
and security permit. Informing your Marines of the situation makes them feel that they are a part of the
team and not just a cog in a wheel. Informed Marines perform better and, if knowledgeable of the
situation, can carry on without your personal supervision. The key to giving out information is to be sure
that the Marines have enough information to do their job intelligently and to inspire their initiative,
enthusiasm, loyalty, and convictions.

1. Whenever possible, explain why tasks must be done and how you intend to do them.

2. Assure yourself, by frequent inspections, that immediate subordinates are passing on necessary
information.

3. Be alert to detect the spread of rumors. Stop rumors by replacing them with the truth.
4. Build morale and esprit de corps by publicizing information concerning successes of your unit.

5. Keep your unit informed about current legislation and regulations affecting their pay, promotion,
privileges, and other benefits.

Set the example Develop  

As a Marine progresses through the ranks by promotion, all too often he/she takes on the attitude of "do
as I say, not as I do." Nothing turns Marines off faster! As a Marine leader your duty is to set the
standards for your Marines by personal example. Your appearance, attitude, physical fitness, and
personal example are all watched by the Marines in your unit. If your personal standards are high, then
you can rightfully demand the same of your Marines. If your personal standards are not high you are
setting a double standard for your Marines, and you will rapidly lose their respect and confidence.
Remember your Marines reflect your image! Leadership is taught by example.

1. Show your Marines that you are willing to do the same things you ask them to do.

2. Be physically fit, well groomed, and correctly dressed.

3. Maintain an optimistic outlook. Develop the will to win by capitalizing on your unit's abilities. The more
difficult the situation is, the better your chance is to display an attitude of calmness and confidence.

4. Conduct yourself so that your personal habits are not open to criticism.

5. Exercise initiative and promote the spirit of initiative in your Marines.

6. Avoid showing favoritism to any subordinate.

7. Share danger and hardship with your Marines to demonstrate your willingness to assume your share of
the difficulties.

8. By your performance, develop the thought within your Marines that you are the best Marine for the
position you hold.

9. Delegate authority and avoid over-supervision in order to develop leadership among subordinates.

Ensure the task is understood, supervised, and accomplished Develop  

This principle is necessary in the exercise of command. Before you can expect your Marines to perform,
they must know first what is expected of them. You must communicate your instructions in a clear,
concise manner. Talk at a level that your Marines are sure to understand, but not at a level so low that
would insult their intelligence. Before your Marines start a task, allow them a chance to ask questions or
seek advice. Supervision is essential. Without supervision you cannot know if the assigned task is being
properly accomplished. Over supervision is viewed by subordinates as harassment and effectively stops
their initiative. Allow subordinates to use their own techniques, and then periodically check their progress.

1. Ensure that the need for an order exists before issuing the order.

2. Use the established chain of command.

3. Through study and practice, issue clear, concise, and positive orders.
4. Encourage subordinates to ask questions concerning any point in your orders or directives they do not
understand.

5. Question your Marines to determine if there is any doubt or misunderstanding in regard to the task to
be accomplished.

6. Supervise the execution of your orders.

7. Make sure your Marines have the resources needed to accomplish the mission.

8. Vary your supervisory routine and the points which you emphasize during inspections.

9. Exercise care and thought in supervision. Over supervision hurts initiative and creates resentment;
under supervision will not get the job done.

Train your Marines as a team

Develop

Every waking hour Marines should be trained and schooled, challenged and tested, corrected and
encouraged with perfection and teamwork as a goal. When not at war, Marines are judged in peacetime
roles: perfection in drill, dress, bearing and demeanor; shooting; self-improvement; and most importantly,
performance. No excuse can be made for the failure of leaders to train their Marines to the highest state
of physical condition and to instruct them to be the very best in the profession of arms. Train with a
purpose and emphasize the essential element of teamwork.

The sharing of hardships, dangers, and hard work strengthens a unit and reduces problems, it develops
teamwork, improves morale and esprit and molds a feeling of unbounded loyalty and this is the basis for
what makes men fight in combat; it is the foundation for bravery, for advancing under fire. Troops don't
complain of tough training; they seek it and brag about it.

Teamwork is the key to successful operations. Teamwork is essential from the smallest unit to the entire
Marine Corps. As a Marine officer, you must insist on teamwork from your Marines. Train, play, and
operate as a team. Be sure that each Marine knows his/her position and responsibilities within the team
framework.

When team spirit is in evidence, the most difficult tasks become much easier to accomplish. Teamwork is
a two-way street. Individual Marines give their best, and in return the team provides the Marine with
security, recognition, and a sense of accomplishment.

1. Train, study and train, prepare, and train thoroughly, endlessly.

2. Strive to maintain individual stability and unit integrity; keep the same squad leader and fire team
leaders as long as possible if they're getting the job done. Needless transfers disrupt teamwork.

3. Emphasize use of the "buddy" system.

4. Encourage unit participation in recreational and military events.

5. Never publicly blame an individual for the team's failure nor praise one individual for the team's
success.
6. Provide the best available facilities for unit training and make maximum use of teamwork.

7. Ensure that all training is meaningful, and that its purpose is clear to all members of the command.

8. Acquaint each Marine of your unit with the capabilities and limitations of all other units, thereby
developing mutual trust and understanding.

9. Ensure that each junior leader understands the mechanics of tactical control for the unit.

10. Base team training on realistic, current, and probable conditions.

11. Insist that every Marine understands the functions of the other members of the team and how the
team functions as a part of the unit.

12. Seek opportunities to train with other units.

13. Whenever possible, train competitively.

Make sound and timely decisions Develop

The leader must be able to rapidly estimate a situation and make a sound decision based on that
estimation. Hesitation or a reluctance to make a decision leads subordinates to lose confidence in your
abilities as a leader. Loss of confidence in turn creates confusion and hesitation within the unit.

Once you make a decision and discover it is the wrong one, don't hesitate to revise your decision.
Marines respect the leader who corrects mistakes immediately instead of trying to bluff through a poor
decision.

1. Develop a logical and orderly thought process by practicing objective estimates of the situation.

2. When time and situation permit, plan for every possible event that can reasonably be foreseen.

3. Consider the advice and suggestions of your subordinates whenever possible before making decisions.

4. Announce decisions in time to allow subordinates to make necessary plans.

5. Encourage subordinates to estimate and make plans at the same time you do.

6. Make sure your Marines are familiar with your policies and plans.

7. Consider the effects of your decisions on all members of your unit.

Develop a sense of responsibility among your subordinates Develop

Another way to show your Marines that you are interested in their welfare is to give them the opportunity
for professional development. Assigning tasks and delegating the authority to accomplish tasks promotes
mutual confidence and respect between the leader and subordinates. It also encourages the subordinates
to exercise initiative and to give wholehearted cooperation in the accomplishment of unit tasks. When you
properly delegate authority, you demonstrate faith in your Marines and increase their desire for greater
responsibilities. If you fail to delegate authority, you indicate a lack of leadership, and your subordinates
may take it to be a lack of trust in their abilities
1. Operate through the chain of command.

2. Provide clear, well thought directions. Tell your subordinates what to do, not how to do it. Hold them
responsible for results, although overall responsibility remains yours. Delegate enough authority to them
to enable them to accomplish the task.

3. Give your Marines frequent opportunities to perform duties usually performed by the next higher ranks.

4. Be quick to recognize your subordinates' accomplishments when they demonstrate initiative and
resourcefulness.

5. Correct errors in judgment and initiative in a way which will encourage the Marine to try harder. Avoid
public criticism or condemnation.

6. Give advice and assistance freely when it is requested by your subordinates.

7. Let your Marines know that you will accept honest errors without punishment in return; teach from
these mistakes by critique and constructive guidance.

8. Resist the urge to micro-manage; don't give restrictive guidance which destroys initiative, drive,
innovation, enthusiasm; creates boredom; and increases workload of seniors.

9. Assign your Marines to positions in accordance with demonstrated or potential ability.

10. Be prompt and fair in backing subordinates. Until convinced otherwise, have faith in each subordinate.

11. Accept responsibility willingly and insist that your subordinates live by the same standard.

Employ your command in accordance with its capabilities Develop

Successful completion of a task depends upon how well you know your unit's capabilities. If the task
assigned is one that your unit has not been trained to do, failure is very likely to result. Failures lower your
unit's morale and self esteem. You wouldn't send a cook section to "PM" a vehicle nor would you send
three Marines to do the job of ten. Seek out challenging tasks for your unit, but be sure that your unit is
prepared for and has the ability to successfully complete the mission.

1. Do not volunteer your unit for tasks it is not capable of completing. Not only will the unit fail, but your
Marines will think you are seeking personal glory.

2. Keep yourself informed as to the operational effectiveness of your command.

3. Be sure that tasks assigned to subordinates are reasonable. Do not hesitate to demand their utmost in
an emergency.

4. Analyze all assigned tasks. If the means at your disposal are inadequate, inform your immediate
supervisor and request the necessary support.

5. Assign tasks equally among your Marines.

6. Use the full capabilities of your unit before requesting assistance.

Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions Develop

For professional development, you must actively seek out challenging assignments. You must use
initiative and sound judgment when trying to accomplish jobs that are not required by your grade. Seeking
responsibilities also means that you take responsibility for your actions. You are responsible for all your
unit does or fails to do. Regardless of the actions of your subordinates, the responsibility for decisions and
their application falls on you. You must issue all orders in your name. Stick by your convictions and do
what you think is right, but accept justified and constructive criticism. Never remove or demote a
subordinate for a failure that is the result of your own mistake.

1. Learn the duties of your immediate senior, and be prepared to accept the responsibilities of these
duties.

2. Seek different leadership positions that will give you experience in accepting responsibility in different
fields.

3. Take every opportunity that offers increased responsibility.

4. Perform every act, large or small, to the best of your ability. Your reward will be increased opportunity
to perform bigger and more important tasks.

5. Stand up for what you think is right; have the courage of your convictions.

6. Carefully evaluate a subordinate's failure before taking action. Make sure the apparent shortcomings
are not due to an error on your part. Consider the Marines that are available, salvage a Marine if possible,
and replace a Marine when necessary.

7. In the absence of orders, take the initiative to perform the actions you believe your senior would direct
you to perform if he/she were present.

eadership Theories
An overview in everyday language

OK. Why a page on leadership theories? After all, I said that I would help you learn the easy
way, and that I would make learning to be a leader a practical process.

Yes, that’s true. But it will help if you can refer to some of the key theories of leadership, and
their assumptions and implications, as you learn the practical things.

My approach to leadership theory is to give you some pointers on this page, and then (as I
develop the pages – please be patient) the chance to link into some more detail. If you want to
learn more you can then read the original work and even buy the book (t-shirt, baseball hat, etc,
if they are available).

The choice is yours. So, here we go.

1. Naturalistic theories
Naturalistic theories of leadership were the first to develop. They were built on the idea that
leaders were born, not made.

The earliest naturalistic theory was not really a theory as such, just a set of beliefs and
assumptions. Every so often a society or culture threw up a great person who provided
outstanding leadership. Just think of these examples:

 Jesus Christ, the Messiah promised to the Jews.

 King Arthur, a king who will unite Britain, defeat its foes and return when needed.
 William Wallace, the liberator of Scotland against the English.
 Abraham Lincoln, Who ended slavery in the USA.

 Ghandi, the peace maker who held together the fragile alliance in India at the time of
independence.

At the time that people believed this explanation of leadership, in most societies the great leader
was normally a man. One example of an exception was Boudicca, the queen of the Icene in
ancient Britain.

The belief or assumption was that such greatness could not have been learned but was inherent,
part of their genetic make up. It was probably hereditary (or so it was believed)! This is one
reason why ruling or aristocratic families emerged.

As the scientific method began to be applied to psychology, the study of human behaviour, a new
naturalistic approach to leadership theories emerged – trait theory.

The trait theory of leadership still assumes that leaders are born, not made. But it sought to
identify those personality traits associated with the best leaders, to help understand leadership
and to identify people who, ahving the same traits, could (it was assumend) make good leaders.
Trait theory still has its adherents. Some psychometric instruments used in the recruitment of
leaders were built on the idea of inherent or “built in” traits.

2. Functional leadership theories

Functional leadership theories are based on very different assumptions. They focus on what leaders
actually do. That is, their actions or functions.
One of the best known and most influential of functional theories of leadership, used in many
leadership training programmes, is John Adair's "Action-Centred Leadership".

From here it is a short leap to the belief that if one person can do something, then others can
learn to do it. We are now in the world of leaders being made, not born. And we open up the
possibility of leadership development and planned leadership training.

This question of whether leaders are born or made is part of the whole question of whether
human behaviour is due to nature or nurture .

Functional theories of leadership are developed by studying successful leaders and identifying
the actions and behaviours they show. Large studies with lost of data make it possible to
correlate the actions with the successful results.

3. Situational leadership theories

Functional leadership is all very well but it doesn’t help us to deal with changes, different
situations and the nature of the people being led.

Situational theories of leadership were developed to find good ways of adapting leadership
actions to meet the needs of different situations and circumstances.

One classic situational model of leadership ( Hersey & Blanchard ) is concerned with identifying
the ability (or competence) and willingness (commitment or motivation) of those being led, and
then determining the best style of leadership to follow. Other approaches (eg, Lewin,
Tannenbaum & Schmidt ) suggest of continuums of leadership style.

Leadership style here refers to the broad approach adopted by a leader. A leader's style of
leadership is often based on a leader’s own beliefs, personality, experiences, working
environment and the situation at the time. Some leaders work within one leadership style. Others
are more flexible and can adapt their style of leadership to meet the needs of different situations.

4. Autocratic vs Participative leadership theories

These theories of leadership developed out of the concept of leadership style. However, they
focus very much on the balance of power between the leader and the followers.

Autocratic leaders tend to make decisions and impose them on others. They often believe that
they are best placed to make the decisions, that others should accept their authority. Some such
leaders have certain personality traits, such as a need to be in control of situations. Autocratic
leadership is suited to certain situations, such as emergencies or time critical circumstances. But
they don’t tend to nurture other people or get the best results from followers who are capable and
motivated.

Participative leaders consult others and involve them in the decision making process. They may
make the final decision but in consulting others they are demonstrating consideration, respect for
others and the ability to listen. The assumption behind this approach is that it tends to be
appreciated by followers who return the favour by being loyal and committed. Participative
leadership also develops other people and builds support for the overall direction, leading to a
shared vision and common goals.

Participative leaders often also adopt a facilitative leadership style. That is, they empower and
encourage others to take make decisions, take action and act with authority, normally within
defined boundaries.

5. Transactional vs Transformational leadership theories

Another way of looking at leadership approaches is to do with the type of work and the
relationship between the leader and the follower.

Transactional leadership theory is based on transactions or exchanges between the leader and the
follower. It assumes that the working relationship is one where the leader issues the work,
praises or criticises, rewards or punishes.

The follower has little responsibility, other than doing as they are required, correctly. All works
well if both leader and follower carry out their part in the transactions as expected.

This approach is more often seen in low skilled jobs, where procedures are clearly defined or
where there is little change.

Transformational leadership theory is all about change. Transformational leaders inspire others
to follow a vision. They create opportunities for people to show flair and to take responsibility
for new ideas.

They are often very extravert, charismatic and strategic. They see the big picture rather than the
detail. They inspire great loyalty, providing they succeed. If they fail, or are seen to be
hypocritical, the followers may well become disillusioned or cynical.

Transformational leadership is more appropriate in fast changing situations, where people have
high levels of skill and where the leader can afford to get involved in the detail.

6. Moral leadership

Moral approaches to leadership emphasise the role of the leader in various moralistic positions,
such as:

 making the world a better place

 treating people well
 caring for the environment
 religious beliefs
 being true to, and acting consistently with, one’s vision.
Various leadership writers have included moral elements in their work. They tend to suggest that
leaders are more likely to be successful if they have a positive impact on others - rather than lead
others just to benefit themselves.

Politicians and religious leaders, in particular, are expected to be moral leaders, partly because
they address the issues above or adopt a moralistic platform.

Business leaders are perhaps expected to be less moralistic. However, when they do truly act for the
good of others in general, and not just themselves and their shareholders, they tend to be highly
regarded.

Related to moralistic leadership is the idea of leadership ethics, which are largely to do with the
relationship between the leader and their followers.

In conclusion …

There, it wasn’t so bad after all - was it. Please use the links to look at these leadership theories
in more detail and even to get hold of original material by the creators of these theories.

Total Quality Management (TQM) is a concept introduced by business and industry to establish
standards and techniques that ensure the quality of products leaving and reaching firms through
continuous actions rather than through one final inspection. It relies on the experiences,
expertise, and commitment of all members of an organization to improve the processes by which
customers are served. To operationalize this concept in educational institutions, a number of
implementation models and strategies have been developed. This ERIC DIGEST focuses on
some of those methods of implementation and their applicability to vocational education, and
describes the benefits that can be realized by adopting a quality improvement process.

PHILOSOPHY

Three quality theorists whose work has most influenced the quality planning processes initiated
by U.S. businesses are W. Edwards Deming, Joseph M. Juran, and Philip B. Crosby, Sr. The
theories of each of these individuals have a common theme--participatory management that
involves input, problem solving, and decision making by all members of an organization and its
customers (Spanbauer and Hillman 1987):
--Deming promotes the role of management as one of facilitating workers to do their best by
removing barriers that prevent high quality work and by involving workers in decision making.
He emphasizes process improvement as crucial to product improvement.

--Juran suggests that management problems are related to human element errors. He promotes
management training in quality concepts and the use of quality circles to improve employee
communication across levels. His focus is on understanding customer needs.

--Crosby promotes a "prevention" process wherein requirements for quality conformance are
jointly written by managers and workers and address the needs of the customer. He promotes a
"zero defects" standard in which the cost of nonconformance to the standard is eliminated.

Although each of these theorists focuses on a specific theme, all of the theories are reflected in a
general way in Crosby's model, which presents four pillars that support the quality process in any
organization (ibid., pp. 25-26):

--Management Participation and Attitude. The new concept of quality must be introduced and
supported by management.

--Professional Quality Management. Quality councils, established throughout the organization,

are crucial to management of quality.

--Employee Participation. Employees must be given comprehensive training about quality

concepts so that they will commit to the concept.

--Recognition. Reinforcements for employee efforts and achievements should be planned and
offered at different levels through the organization.

These pillars to support the quality improvement process reflect a philosophy that places
customer satisfaction as the organization's primary goal, with the word "customer" referring to
internal customers (workers in other departments who are dependent on receiving high quality
work to do their jobs successfully) as well as to external customers (the ultimate users of the
product or service) (Crumrine and Runnels 1991).

TQM requires a change of attitude on the part of an organization's management and staff wherein
all workers are encouraged, empowered, and committed to seek out improvements in process,
products, and services and to accept responsibility for solving problems as they arise. It promotes
the use of interdisciplinary teams of workers who must work cooperatively and collaboratively to
achieve common objectives and requires the backing of management as evidenced by allocation
of time for team meetings and the identification of areas for staff development.

MODELS OF IMPLEMENTATION

Although the TQM philosophy is sound, implementation success is varied depending upon the
strategies employed to achieve the organization's goals of quality improvement. Several
implementation models are described by Seymour and Collett (1992): the "cascade" or "trickle
down" model, the "infection" or "bubble up" model, and the "loose-tight" model.

The "cascade" model involves educating and training senior officers of an organization in TQM
principles. These officers then develop a vision and plan for the organization that they pass down
to division and unit officers, who also receive training in TQM and subsequently implement the
agreed-upon plan. Although this model creates movement and a sense of purpose, its weakness is
that it suggests (or leads others to decide) that there is one right way of doing things, which is
counter to the TQM philosophy.

The "infection" or "bubble up" model does not rely on top-level commitment but uses voluntary
pilot programs to demonstrate success and then promotes the TQM philosophy through the
organization by reference to those programs. This approach encourages individual initiative;
however, it often lacks the commitment and leadership from senior officers that is so important
to successful implementation.

The "loose-tight" model is an approach in which senior officers function as facilitators as well as
leaders. The officers demonstrate commitment and engage in detailed and comprehensive
planning that involves employees, often assembled in teams, to execute quality improvement
procedures. This model combines the strengths of the "cascading" and "infection" models.

In analyzing these models for their applicability in institutions of higher education, Seymour and
Collett (1992) point out the varying levels of visibility among the three approaches to
implementation. Although their comments are directed to postsecondary institutions, they can be
correlated with similar characteristics evident in secondary schools. Seymour and Collett suggest
that the high-visibility "cascade" model may be more appropriate at smaller institutions where
everything tends to be highly visible. Large campuses, however, are fragmented into specialized
academic disciplines and autonomous centers and research units; therefore, they may opt for the
low-key visibility more common with the "infection" model. The "loose-tight" model, which
combines low-key and high visibility, may be most appropriate for a number of institutions that
have a more "middle of the road" approach to TQM. Whichever implementation model is
employed, it should be appropriately linked to the "institution's mission, its culture, its strengths
and weaknesses, its opportunities and threats, and the number and location of change agents and
would-be champions" (ibid., p. 9).

IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES

Actual implementation of a quality improvement approach to operations requires movement

from the philosophical concept of TQM to a strategic framework for implementation. According
to McCormack (1992), when TQM efforts do not meet expectations, it is often because of poor
tactics and lack of a strategic framework.

Crumrine and Runnels (1991) offer a model for implementing TQM in a vocational-technical
school or similar institution that identifies five phases or categories for implementation and the
tasks associated with each category:
1. Commitment. Investigate, evaluate, adopt, and obtain commitment to TQM.

2. Organizational Development. Integrate TQM into key management processes; educate, train,
and offer support to employees.

3. Customer Focus. Determine work teams; analyze customers, products/services.

4. Process Orientation. Identify, standardize, and improve process control.

5. Continuous Improvement. Develop method for identifying opportunities and integrating the
improvement process into daily operations.

Sutcliffe and Pollock (1992) allude to similar strategies as they discuss the implementation of
TQM in institutions of higher education. They suggest that "implementation begins with the
drawing up of a quality policy statement and the establishment of an organisational framework
for both managing and encouraging the involvement of all parties in attaining quality through
teamwork" (p. 24). They recommend that all workers throughout the institution be trained in
quality assurance methods, problem-solving techniques, and communication and that evaluation
occur at all levels and include the customers' perceptions as well.

BEST PRACTICES

Improving the quality of products and services is crucial to the public education system. George
Westinghouse Vocational and Technical High School in New York City has realized positive
results from its quality improvement program, the Westinghouse Education Quality Initiative.
Westinghouse is an inner-city school with a high transfer rate, an aging faculty, and a diverse
student population (74 percent Black, 23 percent Hispanic, and 25 percent female), which is
represented by a large number of single-parent, low income families. By adopting the TQM
message and applying teamwork to resolve such problems as low staff morale, low student
performance, class cutting, and student failure, Westinghouse was able to achieve the following
outcomes: Westinghouse students have become more involved in the school, the dropout rate has
declined, membership in the PTA has grown, and faculty are more involved in unpaid, after-
school brainstorming sessions (Schargel 1991).

One strategy Westinghouse has initiated to realize these outcomes is interdepartmental meetings
where staff work together to resolve problems and integrate new programs. In the vocational and
technical departments, for example, teachers have collaborated to redesign the ninth-grade
program (where most student dropout occurs) so that entering freshmen are paired with senior
mentors for shop classes. "In the program's pilot year, 28 freshmen who participated in the
program received grades of 85 or better. Of an equal number of students not in the program, only
14 scored 85 or better" (Schargel 1991, p. 77).

The work at George Westinghouse Vocational and Technical High School demonstrates the
application of total quality management concepts to vocational education in secondary schools.
However, studies show that "the most comprehensive TQM efforts are found at community
colleges and smaller, private institutions" (Seymour and Collett 1991, p. 3). The units most
commonly targeted in the colleges' initial TQM efforts are the registrar's office, student affairs,
and certain academic units~schools of business and engineering, continuing education, and
graduate school. This may be because these units have identifiable processes, established
boundaries, and ongoing contact with industry and other extra-campus constituencies, which
facilitates strategic planning.

BENEFITS OF IMPLEMENTING TQM

Many of the benefits of implementing a Total Quality Management philosophy in vocational

education programs are the result of attitude change and teamwork. This is true at Ohio's Edison
State Community College, where initial efforts to adopt quality management focused on cultural
change and getting "everyone to buy into a mentality that saw students, co-workers, supervisors
and employees as valuable human beings who deserved the best possible service" (Yowell 1992,
p. 2). Sutcliffe and Pollock (1992) promote the use of interdisciplinary, cross-functional teams
and cite the benefits by pointing out that with good facilitation, these teams can result in
"improved communications, increased involvement, improved quality and efficiency in a general
context, and increased potential for productivity" (p. 22). These and other examples presented in
the literature suggest that educational institutions, as well as business and industry, can benefit
by adopting Total Quality Management principles as they strive to improve the quality and cost
effectiveness of their operations.

http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-3/total.htm

The “Body of Knowledge” for Total Quality Management embraces:

 The concepts of Total Quality;

 Application of the concepts of Total Quality to:
o products and services
o processes
o people
 through the provision of appropriate
o values, policies and objective
o planning
o processes and measurement
o leadership, training and motivation
o organisation

Total Quality is a way of life. Total Quality is not a programme with a defined end point. A total
Quality strategy will be effective only through long-term commitment and dedicated application
by executive management and all employees. It requires the consistent application of the
appropriate human and technical processes, tools and techniques.

Concepts:
Definition

The Institute of Management Services defines Total Quality Management as:

"A strategy for improving business performance through the commitment and involvement of all
employees to fully satisfying agreed customer requirements, at the optimum overall costs,
through the continuous improvement of the products and services, business processes and people
involved."

The concept of Total Quality Management can be expressed as “Achieving success through
delighting our customers”.

Customers being the internal user, the external customer or end-user, together with the other
stakeholders, i.e.

 shareholders
 employees
 suppliers

It also requires consideration of the environmental needs of the community.

Key concepts of Total Quality

Total Quality Management is a strategy for business success, based on the following concepts:

Total Quality means:

 achieving strategic goals through customer focus and continuous improvement

 delighting the customer, satisfying needs and expectations
 anticipating the needs of the market
 understanding and managing customer expectations
 understanding the aims and capabilities of the your own organisation
 all employees taking ownership of the products and services delivered

Total Quality requires:

 management leadership and long term commitment

 managers to act as role models who lead and empower change
 a management culture of partnership, learning together, guidance and support for employees
 clearly defined business objectives communicated by managers and supervisors, understood
and “owned” by all employees. “Ownership” can be viewed as the “acceptance of
accountability”.
 Encouraging and empowering all employees to adopt “ownership” behaviour. Ownership of
their outputs, ownership of customers problems, ownership of improvement actions.
 A focus on success through people
o solutions by consensus
 o recognition of success
o a “no blame” attitude
o education and training based on defined user needs
o teamwork
o effective communication including listening, providing feedback and provision of visual
communication

Total Quality Management is an organisation wide process based on:

 best use of the resources of the total organisation

 organisational flexibility and response to change
 defined internal and external customer/supplier relationships embracing:
o external customers
o internal customers
o external suppliers
o internal suppliers

bound together in long term business relationships

 measurement of performance. The standard is the “agreed customer requirement”and the

required performance is
o absolute conformance to agreed customer requirements
o customer satisfaction
o process efficiency
o anticipating customer needs and expectations
o delivering products and services that delight customers
o benchmarking - identifying and adopting world-wide best practice
o measuring and monitoring continuous improvement

The focus for Total Quality

is continuous improvement aimed at achieving total “customer delight”, perceived “value for
money” at optimum cost to the organisation. This requires everyone within the organisation to:

 use a defined process for Quality delivery

 continuously identify improvement opportunities
 deliver improvement through structured problem solving
 identify and use error prevention and corrective feedback mechanisms
 focus on Process design, reduction in variability and capability assurance
 develop Cross-Functional Process Management

TQM and BS 5750/ISO 9000/EN 29000

The standard provides a basic guideline for Quality Management and Quality Systems.
TQM and BS 5750/ISO 9000/EN 29000 are complimentary, whereby the Standard provides a
structure which can underpin continuous improvement - the philosophy of TQM.

Part 0 of the Standard refers to Total Quality Management whilst the remainder is concerned
with Quality Assurance.

Traditionally certification has been limited to specific areas for organisation, but recent
development permits Company Wide registration.

This is a logical progression towards Quality Systems and Total Quality Management.

Organisation

Adopting Quality as the fundamental principle by which the organisation will conduct its
business, requires that it organises itself to support this objective. This involves developing an
appropriate organisation structure and a Quality function appropriate to the needs of the
organisation.

Business organisation structure: spans of control, reporting lines, work group missions and
outputs should be reviewed to ensure that these support management leadership, teamworking
and effective communication.

Quality support organisation: the functions of the support organisation might include:

 training of the senior management and other groups of employees in Total Quality
 providing “facilitation” and support in the application of the Total Quality process
 supporting management in the development of strategy, objectives and goals in the respect of
the implementation of the Total Quality process
 co-ordinating the application of the Quality management process and the production of Quality
plans
 establishing and operating cross-functional process management in conjunction with the
individual process owners
 providing direct support for business-wide improvement projects
 tracking cost of Quality
 establishing initial and ongoing Quality training needs, developing training material and training
Quality trainers
 developing specific new processes and process applications to support Total Quality, e.g.:
statistical process control (SPC)
 co-ordinating, where necessary, the development of Quality management systems by
departments, providing a company response to vendor assessments by potential customers
 integrating safety, product liability and consumer considerations into products, services and
business processes

SUMMARY

Total Quality is a customer focused improvement process, a strategy for business success
involving every employee within the organisation.
http://www.managers-net.com/total_quality_management.html

The increasing need for improvement of quality the world over led to the development of quality
systems to take care of all relevant aspects related to and influencing quality starting from
product design and culminating in service to the user. The increase in product complexity and
size of operation, responsibility for product quality is gradually shifted from operator to the
quality control department. Quality is defined as the totality of features and characteristics of a
product or service that bears on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. It is the degree to
which a specific product conforms to a design or specification. Total Quality Management
(TQM) is defined as a quality-centered, customer-focused, fact-based, team-driven, senior-
management-led process to achieve an organization’s strategic imperative through continuous
process improvement. The word “total” in TQM means that everyone in the organization must be
involved in the continuous improvement effort, the word “quality” shows a concern for customer
satisfaction, and the word “management” refers to the people and processes needed to achieve
the quality. TQM is not a program, it is a systematic, integrated, and organizational way-of-life
directed at the continuous improvement of an organization. It is not a management fad; it is a
proven management style used successfully for decades in organizations around the world. TQM
is not an end in itself; it is means to an organizational end. The management is concerned with
profitability, growth and resource generation. But only a few inspectors are responsible for
checking product quality. Customers in recent years have come to expect much higher quality
than ever before. Parameters responsible for product quality and quality concepts need to be
clearly understood by management. If one looks at the concept of Quality and its progress over
the years carefully, it is evident that Quality has always been an important element for the
success of anyorganization . But the initial approach for Quality was concentrated on the final
inspection and accordingly post production adjustment was made. Quality was not viewed as a
responsibility of all employees. Quality function was separated from such areas as planning,
design, production and sales.

Objectives of the Study

The major objectives of the study are to high light the various uses of Total Quality Management
(TQM) as a tool for managerial decision making. Another object is to find out the inherent
constraints in its application followed by an attempt to recommend for the betterment of the
situation. Keeping in mind the above situation, the study would also examine the different
dimensions of TQM and its implementation strategy. The partial objectives of this study are:

i) To get an overall insight and to identify the familiar concepts of TQM

ii)To find out the organizational setup aiding the implementation of TQM

iii)To know the perception of TQM of Bangladeshi Management

iv) To suggest possible ways of transforming corporate culture into TQM

Methodology of the Study

It is a theoretical approach based on desk study, review of related literature and existing stock of
knowledge. This paper is based on secondary and primary information. Available literature
including relevant books and articles on TQM were studied. Some portions of this paper is the
author’s own observations and logical arguments. A perception of Bangladeshi management is
examined by collecting primary information where modern econometrics techniques like “Factor
Analysis:” is used.

Review of Research Studies

Total quality Control Management was developed in the mid 1940s by Dr. W. Edward Deming
who at the time was an advisor in sampling at the Bureau of Census and later became a professor
of statistics at the New York University Graduate School of Business Administration. He had
little success convincing American business to adopt TQM but his management methods did
gain success in Japan. In the 1970s and 1980s, many American companies, including Ford, IBM,
and Xerox, began adopting Dr. Deming’s principles of TQM. This gradually led to their
remaining some of the markets previously lost to the Japanese. Although TQM gained its
performance in the private sector, in recent years it has been adopted by some
publicorganizations. Tools and techniques of TQM are applicable to a wide range of
organizations of all sizes and types such as manufacturing, service, government, military,
contraction, education, small business , healthcare and non profit entities. Mohammad Moqbul
Hossain Bhuiyan and Md. Kamal Uddin had an article on “What Does Total Quality
Management Stand for? Literature Review and Implications for Bangladesh”. They said that
Quality control activities remain with us from thousands of years. Born out of management
practice, the TQM (Total Quality Management] has had a profound and unparalleled impact on
modern business history. However, as a body of practical knowledge, TQM has been largely
theoretical. As a consequence, this important management philosophy has reminded amorphous
and shrouded in considerable conceptual haziness and ambiguity in developing countries like
Bangladesh. Recent theorizing, primarily emphasizing the application of organizational behavior
theories of TQM, has begun to provide grater clarity, but much work remains to be done. This
paper attempts to contribute to this nascent theory-building literature by employing theory from
market process economics, namely, Bangladeshi and evolutionary economics, which explains
how processes of dynamic change, adaptation and learning are driven by entrepreneurial
creativity. We have examined the perception of TQM of Bangladeshi management with the
framework of modern econometrics techniques “Factor analysis”. Drawing on the resource
approach and other theoretical perspectives, this paper has suggested TQM as a potential source
of sustainable competitive advantage. Quality is to be managed, it must first be understood.
Managers must move aggressively to improve their understanding of quality practices and
performance. The findings suggest that most features generally associated with TQM – such as
training, process improvement, and benchmarking – do not generally produce advantage, but that
certain tacit, behavioral, imperfectly imitable features – such as awareness, management
commitment, open culture, employee empowerment, and executive commitment, leadership –
can produce advantage. The authors conclude that these tacit resources, and not TQM tools and
techniques, drive TQM success, and thoseorganizations that acquire them can outperform
competitors with or without the accompanying TQM ideology.Muhammad Ziaulhaq Mamun and
Sharmina Afrin in their study on “Total Quality Management (TQM) Practices of the
Bangladesh and Thai Companies: A Comparative Analysis” mentions that the comparative
analysis of TQM practices between Bangladesh and Thai companies clearly shows planning,
implementation and operational difference, Bangladeshi companies portray TQM vision
consciousness but in many cases they fall victim of treating TQM as a fad rather than an
essential component. The management principles are narrowly viewed, communicated and
understood in Bangladeshi companies even with well-documented procedures and instructions.
All the Bangladeshi companies concerned are well equipped and successful to some extent in
achieving customer satisfaction with regard to product and service quality excellence, but they
lack close working relationships, interest groups and the promoting aspect of working
environment. Bangladeshi firms make a visible effort in empowerment of quality control circles
but apparently follow a comparatively rigid hierarchical structure, but nonetheless are able to
assure quality. In terms oforganization and distribution, all of the concerned companies are
suitably equipped and positioned, but suppliers are not benchmarked with respect to specific
criteria and special quality ratings in terms of product attributes and therefore information
regarding supplier reliability is not available in any objective form. Bangladeshi firms have much
to achieve in the areas of creativity and R&D, and therefore, investment in those areas is
imperative.

Theoretical framework

TQM is a management philosophy that seeks to integrate all organizational functions (marketing,
finance, design, engineering, and production, customer service, etc.) to focus on meeting
customer needs and organizational objectives.TQM views an organization as a collection of
processes. It maintains that organizations must strive to continuously improve these processes by
incorporating the knowledge and experiences of workers. The simple objective of TQM is “Do
the right things, right the first time, every time”. TQM is infinitely variable and adaptable.
Although originally applied to manufacturing operations, and for a number of years only used in
that area, TQM is now becoming recognized as a generic management tool, just as applicable in
service and public sector organizations. There are a number of evolutionary strands, with
different sectors creating their own versions from the common ancestor. TQM is the foundation
for activities, which include: Commitment by senior management and all employees Meeting
customer requirements Reducing development cycle times Just In Time/Demand Flow
Manufacturing Improvement teams Reducing product and service costs Systems to facilitate
improvement Line Management ownership Employee involvement and empowerment
Recognition and celebration Challenging quantified goals and benchmarking Focus on
processes / improvement plans Specific incorporation in strategic planning This shows that TQM
must be practiced in all activities, by all personnel, in Manufacturing, Marketing, Engineering,
R&D, Sales, Purchasing, HR, etc.Key ElementsTo be successful implementing TQM, an
organization must concentrate on the eight key elements: Ethics Integrity Trust Training
Teamwork Leadership Recognition Communication  Principles of TQMThe key principles of
TQM are as following:Management Commitment Plan (drive, direct) Do (deploy, support,
participate) Check (review) Act (recognize, communicate, revise) Employee Empowerment
Training Suggestion scheme Measurement and recognition Excellence teams Fact Based
Decision Making SPC (statistical process control) DOE, FMEA The 7 statistical tools TOPS
(FORD 8D – Team Oriented Problem Solving) Continuous Improvement Systematic
measurement and focus on CONQ Excellence teams Cross-functional process management
Attain, maintain, improve standards Customer Focus Supplier partnership Service relationship
with internal customers Never compromise quality Customer driven standards The Concept of
Continuous Improvement by TQMTQM is mainly concerned with continuous improvement in
all work, from high level strategic planning and decision-making, to detailed execution of work
elements on the shop floor. It stems from the belief that mistakes can be avoided and defects can
be prevented. It leads to continuously improving results, in all aspects of work, as a result of
continuously improving capabilities, people, processes, and technology and machine
capabilities.Continuous improvement must deal not only with improving results, but more
importantly with improving capabilities to produce better results in the future. The five major
areas of focus for capability improvement are demand generation, supply generation, technology,
operations and people capability.A central principle of TQM is that mistakes may be made by
people, but most of them are caused, or at least permitted, by faulty systems and processes. This
means that the root cause of such mistakes can be identified and eliminated, and repetition can be
prevented by changing the process.1There are three major mechanisms of prevention: Preventing
mistakes (defects) from occurring (Mistake – proofing or Poka-Yoke). Where mistakes can’t be
absolutely prevented, detecting them early to prevent them being passed down the value added
chain (Inspection at source or by the next operation). Where mistakes recur, stopping production
until the process can be corrected, to prevent the production of more defects. (Stop in time).
Implementation Principles and ProcessesA preliminary step in TQM implementation is to assess
the organization’s current reality. Relevant preconditions have to do with the organization’s
history, its current needs, precipitating events leading to TQM, and the existing employee quality
of working life. If the current reality does not include important preconditions, TQM
implementation should be delayed until the organization is in a state in which TQM is likely to
succeed.If an organization has a track record of effective responsiveness to the environment, and
if it has been able to successfully change the way it operates when needed, TQM will be easier to
implement. If an organization has been historically reactive and has no skill at improving its
operating systems, there will be both employee skepticism and a lack of skilled change agents. If
this condition prevails, a comprehensive program of management and leadership development
may be instituted. A management audit is a good assessment tool to identify current levels of
organizational functioning and areas in need of change. An organization should be basically
healthy before beginning TQM. If it has significant problems such as a very unstable funding
base, weak administrative systems, lack of managerial skill, or poor employee morale, TQM
would not be appropriate.However, a certain level of stress is probably desirable to initiate TQM.
People need to feel a need for a change. Kanter (1983) addresses this phenomenon be describing
building blocks which are present in effective organizational change. These forces include
departures from tradition, a crisis or galvanizing event, strategic decisions, individual “prime
movers,” and action vehicles. Departures from tradition are activities, usually at lower levels of
the organization, which occur when entrepreneurs move outside the normal ways of operating to
solve a problem. A crisis, if it is not too disabling, can also help create a sense of urgency which
can mobilize people to act. In the case of TQM, this may be a funding cut or threat, or demands
from consumers or other stakeholders for improved quality of service. After a crisis, a leader
may intervene strategically by articulating a new vision of the future to help the organization
deal with it. A plan to implement TQM may be such a strategic decision. Such a leader may then
become a prime mover, who takes charge in championing the new idea and showing others how
it will help them get where they want to go. Finally, action vehicles are needed and mechanisms
or structures to enable the change to occur and become institutionalized.Steps in Managing the
TransitionBeckhard and Pritchard (1992) have outlined the basic steps in managing a transition
to a new system such as TQM: identifying tasks to be done, creating necessary management
structures, developing strategies for building commitment, designing mechanisms to
communicate the change, and assigning resources.Task identification would include a study of
present conditions (assessing current reality, as described above); assessing readiness, such as
through a force field analysis; creating a model of the desired state, in this case, implementation
of TQM; announcing the change goals to the organization; and assigning responsibilities and
resources. This final step would include securing outside consultation and training and assigning
someone within the organization to oversee the effort. This should be a responsibility of top
management. In fact, the next step, designing transition management structures, is also a
responsibility of top management. In fact, Cohen and Brand (1993) and Hyde (1992) assert that
management must be heavily involved as leaders rather than relying on a separate staff person or
function to shepherd the effort. An organization wide steering committee to oversee the effort
may be appropriate. Developing commitment strategies was discussed above in the sections on
resistance and on visionary leadership.6To communicate the change, mechanisms beyond
existing processes will need to be developed. Special all-staff meetings attended by executives,
sometimes designed as input or dialog sessions, may be used to kick off the process, and TQM
newsletters may be an effective ongoing communication tool to keep employees aware of
activities and accomplishments.Management of resources for the change effort is important with
TQM because outside consultants will almost always be required. Choose consultants based on
their prior relevant experience and their commitment to adapting the process to fit unique
organizational needs. While consultants will be invaluable with initial training of staff and TQM
system design, employees (management and others) should be actively involved in TQM
implementation, perhaps after receiving training in change management which they can then
pass on to other employees. A collaborative relationship with consultants and clear role
definitions and specification of activities must be established.

Findings of the Study

Total Quality Management is a system implemented to reduce defects in finished products with
the goal of achieving zero products these systems require timely data on defective products,
rework costs, and the cost of honoring warranty contracts. This in formation is used to help to
redign the product in away that makes it less prove to defect. It may be used to reengineer the
production process to reduce set up time and decrease the potential for error. TQM systems
provide information on non-financial measures such as customer satisfaction, number of since
calls and time to generate reports. Attention to these measures which employees can control
leads to increased profitability.Just in time inventory systems demand for an increased emphasis
on product quality. If products are produced only as they are needed. It is very costly for the
company to have to stop production became of defects or machine breakdown. TQM and just in
time production often aid in effective application of the learn business model. The main purpose
of lean business model is to eliminate waste and strive for continuous improvement which
requires that every manager and employee continuously look to improve operations.Larson
opines that TQM calls for all managers and employees at all stages of operations to strive
towards higher standards and a reduced number of defects.In today’s competitive and
international market place, quality is synonymous with not just product quality but also cost,
delivery and service. In a global market where product life cycle has become short where
customer expectations have increased, the traditional product testing/certification approaches are
not adequate. To compete in international markets, companies in developing countries need a
sound quality management system. With liberalization and international competitiveness, there is
a need to improve the quality of goods manufactured by the industries. Standardization is one of
the important tools for achieving quality up gradation and building a strong quality culture within
the organization. 

 Limitations of the study                              

The study may suffer from some limitations. The most serious limitation encountering the study
is that author has a little practical exposure to the industries and organizations, where the practice
of TQM is in existence. So, in analyzing the data, the author relied mainly on personal inference
and logical conclusions. As the topic is a broad bases -and global issues, hence there may be
some gaps in the prices of information. TQM as a discipline is still evolving. So, this study may
be one of the earlier studies in this area. Consequently, it may suffer from some additional
limitations generally associated with an earlier study. The author pays his gratitude to anyone
endeavoring to make further analysis, improvement or suggestions on the issue.

Conclusions

TQM attempts to have maximum customer satisfaction through providing quality products and
services but uncongenial business environment, high cost of production, increasing prices of
products unfair competition in market are the major constraints in using TQM. Once the business
is profitable, they can develop quality products and services. Absence of breakeven point decline
in demand for products, lack of trained manpower are other limiting factors for such use. We
should try to have market research to satisfy our customers as well as managerial efficiency and
effectiveness sidely side. We should also develop strategic management techniques to stand in
open market economy. Once the strategies are appropriate business can see well and further
enhance the wide are of TQM devices towards the customer’s goals achievement. Academic
research on the holistic approach to TQM is in its primitive stage. So, there is a clear need for
more precise measures of quality. Endeavour has been paid throughout this paper to find out a
comprehensive approach to TQM. The technical tools of quality improvement may be well
developed, but its theory and practice lag far behind. The concept of quality is only dimly
understood by the practicing managers. Links to market share, cost, and profitability are unclear.
Measurement is also complex. Empirical researches on these issues like costs, market share,
prices, profitability, employee turnover, and the like, as dependent variable may be conducted in
the future. Because of the recent trade globalization, developing countries are in crying needs to
increase productivity and elevate the quality of products. More empirical research can be
conducted in future to make quality a vital issues in every sector of the economy. Over the past
few decades, Information Technology (IT) helps TQM organization achieve its goals. Study may
be conducted to reveal the effectiveness of IT application toward quality assurance.

Bibliography
1.             Bester field, Dale H, et al.(2003),Total Quality Management (New York) : Pears
Education  Inc; 3rd Edition2.             Mamun, M.Z. and Afrin, S. (2001). Total Quality
Management (TQM) Practices of the Bangladesh and Thai Companies: A Comparative Analysis,
Journal of Business Administration, Vol. 27, No. 1& 2, January & April.3.             Bhuiyan
M.M.H. and Uddin, M.K. (2007). What Does Total Quality Management Stand for? Literature
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overview.html

Eight elements are key in ensuring the success of TQM in an organization.

Total Quality Management is a management approach that originated in the 1950's and has
steadily become more popular since the early 1980's. Total Quality is a description of the culture,
attitude and organization of a company that strives to provide customers with products and
services that satisfy their needs. The culture requires quality in all aspects of the company's
operations, with processes being done right the first time and defects and waste eradicated from
operations.

To be successful implementing TQM, an organization must concentrate on the eight key

elements:

1. Ethics
2. Integrity
3. Trust
4. Training
5. Teamwork
6. Leadership
 7. Recognition
8. Communication

This paper is meant to describe the eight elements comprising TQM.

Key Elements
TQM has been coined to describe a philosophy that
makes quality the driving force behind leadership,
design, planning, and improvement initiatives. For
this, TQM requires the help of those eight key
elements. These elements can be divided into four
groups according to their function. The groups are:
I. Foundation - It includes: Ethics, Integrity and
Trust.
II. Building Bricks - It includes: Training,
Teamwork and Leadership.
III. Binding Mortar - It includes: Communication.
IV. Roof - It includes: Recognition.

I. Foundation
TQM is built on a foundation of ethics, integrity and
trust. It fosters openness, fairness and sincerity and
allows involvement by everyone. This is the key to
unlocking the ultimate potential of TQM. These three elements move together, however, each
element offers something different to the TQM concept.

1. Ethics - Ethics is the discipline concerned with good and bad in any situation. It is a two-
faceted subject represented by organizational and individual ethics. Organizational ethics
establish a business code of ethics that outlines guidelines that all employees are to adhere to in
the performance of their work. Individual ethics include personal rights or wrongs.

2. Integrity - Integrity implies honesty, morals, values, fairness, and adherence to the facts and
sincerity. The characteristic is what customers (internal or external) expect and deserve to
receive. People see the opposite of integrity as duplicity. TQM will not work in an atmosphere of
duplicity.

3. Trust - Trust is a by-product of integrity and ethical conduct. Without trust, the framework of
TQM cannot be built. Trust fosters full participation of all members. It allows empowerment that
encourages pride ownership and it encourages commitment. It allows decision making at
appropriate levels in the organization, fosters individual risk-taking for continuous improvement
and helps to ensure that measurements focus on improvement of process and are not used to
contend people. Trust is essential to ensure customer satisfaction. So, trust builds the cooperative
environment essential for TQM.
II. Bricks
Basing on the strong foundation of trust, ethics and integrity, bricks are placed to reach the roof
of recognition. It includes:

4. Training - Training is very important for employees to be highly productive. Supervisors are
solely responsible for implementing TQM within their departments, and teaching their
employees the philosophies of TQM. Training that employees require are interpersonal skills, the
ability to function within teams, problem solving, decision making, job management
performance analysis and improvement, business economics and technical skills. During the
creation and formation of TQM, employees are trained so that they can become effective
employees for the company.

5. Teamwork - To become successful in business, teamwork is also a key element of TQM. With
the use of teams, the business will receive quicker and better solutions to problems. Teams also
provide more permanent improvements in processes and operations. In teams, people feel more
comfortable bringing up problems that may occur, and can get help from other workers to find a
solution and put into place. There are mainly three types of teams that TQM organizations adopt:

A. Quality Improvement Teams or Excellence Teams (QITS) - These are temporary teams with
the purpose of dealing with specific problems that often re-occur. These teams are set up for
period of three to twelve months.
B. Problem Solving Teams (PSTs) - These are temporary teams to solve certain problems and
also to identify and overcome causes of problems. They generally last from one week to three
months.
C. Natural Work Teams (NWTs) - These teams consist of small groups of skilled workers who
share tasks and responsibilities. These teams use concepts such as employee involvement teams,
self-managing teams and quality circles. These teams generally work for one to two hours a
week.

6. Leadership - It is possibly the most important element in TQM. It appears everywhere in

organization. Leadership in TQM requires the manager to provide an inspiring vision, make
strategic directions that are understood by all and to instill values that guide subordinates. For
TQM to be successful in the business, the supervisor must be committed in leading his
employees. A supervisor must understand TQM, believe in it and then demonstrate their belief
and commitment through their daily practices of TQM. The supervisor makes sure that
strategies, philosophies, values and goals are transmitted down through out the organization to
provide focus, clarity and direction. A key point is that TQM has to be introduced and led by top
management. Commitment and personal involvement is required from top management in
creating and deploying clear quality values and goals consistent with the objectives of the
company and in creating and deploying well defined systems, methods and performance
measures for achieving those goals.

III. Binding Mortar

7. Communication - It binds everything together. Starting from foundation to roof of the TQM
house, everything is bound by strong mortar of communication. It acts as a vital link between all
elements of TQM. Communication means a common understanding of ideas between the sender
and the receiver. The success of TQM demands communication with and among all the
organization members, suppliers and customers. Supervisors must keep open airways where
employees can send and receive information about the TQM process. Communication coupled
with the sharing of correct information is vital. For communication to be credible the message
must be clear and receiver must interpret in the way the sender intended.

There are different ways of communication such as:

A. Downward communication - This is the dominant form of communication in an organization.
Presentations and discussions basically do it. By this the supervisors are able to make the
employees clear about TQM.
B. Upward communication - By this the lower level of employees are able to provide suggestions
to upper management of the affects of TQM. As employees provide insight and constructive
criticism, supervisors must listen effectively to correct the situation that comes about through the
use of TQM. This forms a level of trust between supervisors and employees. This is also similar
to empowering communication, where supervisors keep open ears and listen to others.
C. Sideways communication - This type of communication is important because it breaks down
barriers between departments. It also allows dealing with customers and suppliers in a more
professional manner.

IV. Roof
8. Recognition - Recognition is the last and final element in the entire system. It should be
provided for both suggestions and achievements for teams as well as individuals. Employees
strive to receive recognition for themselves and their teams. Detecting and recognizing
contributors is the most important job of a supervisor. As people are recognized, there can be
huge changes in self-esteem, productivity, quality and the amount of effort exhorted to the task at
hand. Recognition comes in its best form when it is immediately following an action that an
employee has performed. Recognition comes in different ways, places and time such as,

 Ways - It can be by way of personal letter from top management. Also by award
banquets, plaques, trophies etc.
 Places - Good performers can be recognized in front of departments, on performance
boards and also in front of top management.
 Time - Recognition can given at any time like in staff meeting, annual award banquets,
etc.

Conclusion

We can conclude that these eight elements are key in ensuring the success of TQM in an
organization and that the supervisor is a huge part in developing these elements in the work
place. Without these elements, the business entities cannot be successful TQM implementers. It
is very clear from the above discussion that TQM without involving integrity, ethics and trust
would be a great remiss, in fact it would be incomplete. Training is the key by which the
organization creates a TQM environment. Leadership and teamwork go hand in hand. Lack of
communication between departments, supervisors and employees create a burden on the whole
TQM process. Last but not the least, recognition should be given to people who contributed to
the overall completed task. Hence, lead by example, train employees to provide a quality
product, create an environment where there is no fear to share knowledge, and give credit where
credit is due is the motto of a successful TQM organization.

About The Author

Nayantara Padhi is an HR Executive in an Indian Steel Industry, and is pursuing a Ph.D. on "The
Human Dimension Of TQM". Mr. Padhi has published numerous articles in different national
and international journals, and has completed a P.G. in Industrial Relations And Personnel
Management.

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