Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.

S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [1] Electrostatics

ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics deals with the behavior of electric charges at rest.
Frictional electricity
It has been found that any substance if rubbed with some other substance acquires an attractive property.
The bodies are then said to have become electrified or they are said to acquire electric charge. For eg; when
a glass rod is rubbed with silk or an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, they acquire this attractive property.
The phenomenon of acquiring electric charges by friction is called frictional electrification and
the bodies are said to possess frictional electricity.
For eg; Take a plastic ruler or comb and rub it with dry hair or a piece of wool and bring it near small
pieces of paper. Then the paper pieces will get attracted towards the ruler or comb. This is because the plastic
ruler and comb got electrified due to friction with dry hair.
# Note: 1. Good conductors like copper cannot be charged by friction because any charge produced on it can
easily flow through the rod through our body and to the ground.
2. Insulators like plastic, ebonite, glass etc can be easily charged by friction because the charges will
stay on them.
3. Electrostatic experiments cannot be performed in moist climate because moist air is slightly conducting.
So the static charges will get conducted away from the charged body.

NB: How is frictional electrification caused?

The number of protons inside the nucleus of an atom is equal to the number of electrons outside the
nucleus. When a body is rubbed with another, due to friction, some electrons from one body gets transferred to
the other body. The body, which loses electrons, will become positively charged and which gains electrons
becomes negatively charged. The two bodies thus acquire opposite charges and they are equal in magnitude.
This is the reason for frictional electricity.

Electric Charge
It is found experimentally that the charges are of two types: 1.Positive charge 2.Negative charge
The unit of charge is coulomb (C). The names of positive and negative charges are purely conventional.
Note:
Positively charged body means deficiency of electrons in the body from its neutral state and a negatively
charged body means excess of electrons.
Gold-Leaf electroscope
A simple apparatus to detect charge on a body is called a gold-leaf electroscope.
Apparatus
It consists of a vertical metal rod placed in a box. Two thin gold leaves are attached to its bottom end as
shown in figure.

Working
When a charged object touches the metal knob at the top of the rod, charge flows on to the leaves and
they diverge. The degree of divergence is an indicator of the amount of charge.
Conductors and Insulators
Conductors are those substances which allow passage of electricity through them.
Insulators are those substances which do not allow passage of electricity through them.
Earthing (or) Grounding
When a charged body is brought in contact with earth, all the excess charge pass to the earth through the
connecting conductor. This process of sharing the charges with the earth is called grounding or earthing.
Earthingprovides protection to electrical circuits and appliances.
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [2] Electrostatics
Charging by Induction
A body can be charged in different ways1)Charging by friction 2)Charging by conduction 3)Charging by
induction
Charging by friction
When two bodies are rubbed each other, electrons in one body (in which electrons are held lesstightly) trans-
ferred to second body (in which electrons are held more tightly)
Explanation
When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, some of the electrons from the glass are transferred to silk. Hence
glass rod gets +ve charge and silk gets -ve charge.
A
Charging by conduction
Charging a body with actual contact of another body is called charging by conduction. B
Explanation: If a neutral conducting body (A) is brought in contact with positively
charged conducting body (B), the neutral body gets positively charged.
Charging by induction
The phenomenon by which a neutral body gets charged by the presence of neighboring charged body is
called electrostatic induction.
Explanation
Step I : Place two metal spheres on an insulating stand and bring in contact as shown in figure (a).
Step II: Bring a positively charged rod near to these spheres. The free electrons in the spheres are attracted
towards the
rod. Hence, one side of the sphere becomes negative and second side becomes positive as shown in the
figure (b).
Step III: Separate the spheres by a small distance by keeping the rod near to sphere A. The two spheres are
found to be oppositely charged as shown in figure (c).
Step IV: Remove the rod, the charge on spheres rearrange themselves as shown in figure (d).

In this process, equal and opposite charges are de- veloped on each sphere.
How can you charge a metal sphere positively without touching it?
Place the uncharged metallic sphere on an insulating stand. Bring a negatively charged rod close to the
metallicsphereas shown in figure (b). Due to the attraction of rod electrons are piling up at the rear end and
positive charge at farther end. Connect the sphere to the earth (earthed) when the sphere is earthed,
electrons flow from the ground to the sphere and neutralize the positive charge.
Disconnect the sphere from ground and then remove rod from it. The negative charge uniformly
distribute over the sphere.
NB Properties of electric charges.
1.Electric charges are of two kinds – positive and negative.
2.Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
3.The two kinds of charges ie +ve and – ve are really opposite. The combination of a charge +q with –q
results in a net charge equal to zero.
**4.Charge is quantised: Millikan showed that all electric charges in nature exist either as a basic chargeor
as some integral multiple of this charge. The basic charge is equal to electronic charge e = 1.602 x 10 –19 C.
Thus charge exists in discrete packets or charge is said to be quantised. According to quantisation of
electric charge, charge of a body is an integral multiple of a basic charge, which is the electronic
charge.
ie charge on a body, q   ne ; where, n is an integer and e is the electronic charge.
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [3] Electrostatics
**5.Charge is conserved: It means that total charge of an isolated system remains constant. It also implies
that electric charges can neither be created nor destroyed. If an object loses some charge, an equal amount
of charge appears somewhere else.
6.Charge is a scalar quantity.
7. Additivity of charge: The total charge on a surface is the algebraic sum of individual charges present on
that surface. If q1, q2, q3 ............., qn are the charges on a surface, then total or net charge,
q = q1 + q2 + q3 + .............+ qn

Q1 A conductor has a negative charge of 4.8 x 10-17C. Determine the number of excess electrons in the
conductor. [300]
Q2. A polythylene piece rubbed with wool is found to have a negative charge of 3x10-7C(a) Estimate the
number of electrons transferred from which to which? (b) Is there a transfer of mass from wool to
polethylene?
NB Point charges.
If an electric charge is confined to an extremely small volume, it is called a point charge. Physically, all
charged bodies whose dimensions are very small compared to the distance between them are referred to as
point charges. Any charge whose dimensions are very small compared to its distance from a point
where its effect are to be analysed is also called a point charge.

NB Coulomb’s law or inverse square law.

Coulomb’s law or inverse square law states that the force between two stationary electric charges is
directly proportional to the product of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r, then the force between them,
q 1q 2
Then F
r2
q1 r q2
1 q 1q 2
F ; where 0 is the permittivity of free space, whose value = 8.854x10 C /Nm2.r is the
–12 2
4  0 r 2
permittivity of the medium in which the charges are placed, relative to the permittivity of free space and is
called relative permittivity or dielectric constant whose value is 1 for free space.
1
Now, value of 4  = 9x109 Nm2/ C2.
0

Therefore; Force between two charges in free space = 9  109 q 1 q 2 N.

r2
If q1=q2=1C and r = 1m, then F= 9x109 N. So we can define the unit of charge – coulomb as follows:
One coulomb is that charge which when placed in free space at a distance of one metre from an
equal and similar charge repels with a force of 9x109 N.

Note: 1.Charge on one electron, e= –1.6 x10 –19 C .1C= e / (1.6 x10 –19) = 6.2 x1018 e.
ie 1C= charge on 6.2 x1018 electrons.
2.Coulomb’s law holds good only for point charges in free space.
3.The direction of force is always along the line joining the two-point charges q1 and q2. Hence this force is called
central force.

Coulomb’s law in vector form.


If F12 is the force on q1 due to q2 and r21 is the unit vector pointing from q2 towards q1,then
 1 q1 q 2 
F12  r21 .................(1)
4  0 r 2
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [4] Electrostatics
 1 q1 q 2  
Similarly 21  4 
F 2
r12 ..............(2) ; where F is the force on q by charge q and r is the unit
0 r
21 2 1 12

   
vector pointing from q to q . Since r12 = - r21 F12   F21
1 2

(1) and (2) represents Coulomb’s law in vector from.

Q3. What is the force between two small charged spheres having charges of 2 x 10-7C and 2 x 10-7C
placed 30cm apart in air? [6 x 10-3N]
Q4. Suppose you have two small point objects separated by a distance of 1 cm. Each object has a diameter
of 1 x 10-3 cm. One object has an excess of 3 x 1010 electrons and other has an excess of 2 x 1010 electrons
on it. What is the electrostatic force that they exert on each other? [1.38 x 10-3N]

Relative permittivity
Relative permittivity of a medium is defined as the ratio between permittivity  of the medium to
the permittivity 0 of free space.

ie  r   or permittivity of medium,    0  r
0

Comparison of electric force with gravitational force.

1.Gravitational force is always attractive whereas electric force is attractive as well as repulsive.
2.Electric force is much stronger than gravitational force.
Eg. The ratio of electric and gravitational force between electron and a proton separated by a distance r is
given by
G m p me
Fe r2

Fg 1 q1 q 2 E

20 r

i.e. E

20

4  0 r2

Substuting values of , G, me and mp, Fe/Fg = 2.4 x1039.  Fe >>>Fg

Superposition principle.
Superposition principle states that if a number of charges are interacting, the total force on a
charge is the vector sum of the individual forces exerted on it by all other charges.
If F1, F2, F3,…… are the forces acting on a charge q due to charges q1,q2,q3………, then the net
force F acting on q due to all the charges, F = F1 + F2 + F3 +…………..

Electric Field
The space surrounding a charge where its effect can be felt is called electric field.
An electric charge placed at any point in an electric field will experience a force of electrical origin.

Suppose a test charge q placed at a point in an electric field experiences an electric force F , then electric

 F
field strength or intensity at that point is given by, E  Lt ............................(1)
q 0 q

Thus electric field intensity can be defined as the force per unit positive charge placed at a given
point.
F
Now (1) can be written as E 
q
Note: 1. The electric field intensity E is a vector whose direction is the direction of the force F experienced by
the +ve charge placed at that point.
2.The unit of electric field is N/C or V/m. [newton/coulomb or volt/metre.]
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [5] Electrostatics
2
M LT
3.Dimension of electric field =  M L T 3 I 1
IT
Electric field due to a point charge.
To find the electric field E at a point P due to a charge q, let us assume a unit positive test charge at P.
1 q 1
Then the force experienced by the test charge, F  4   r 2 ; where r is the distance of point p from
0

charge q.
F F 1 q 1 q
Then electric field, E  q  1  4   r 2 E 
4  0 r 2
0

 
q r
In vector form, E  
4  0 r 2 where r is a unit vector..

Note: If q is +ve, the electric field points radially +

outwards and if q is –ve, it points radially inwards.
The field is spherically symmetric as it has same magnitude in
all directions for same value of r.

Q5. At a certain point in space an electron which has a mass of 9.11 x 10-31 kg, experiences a force of
3.2 x 10-19 N in the + X direction. What is the electric field at this point.? [2 N/C]

Q6.Calculate the electric field intensity due to a point charge 20 C at a point distant 40 cm from the
charge? [1.125 x 106NC-1.]
Q7.Two spheres having charges +10  C and +40  C are placed 12 cm apart. Find the position of the point
where the intensity is zero? [0.08m from +40  C]

Electric dipole
An electric dipole is a system consisting of two equal and opposite charges separated by a small
distance. p
-q +q

The strength of the dipole is expressed in terms of a quantity known as dipole moment p .
Dipole moment is defined as the product of one of the charges and the distance between the
charges(dipole length).
Its direction is from negative charge to positive charge. Dipole moment p  q (2 ) ; where 2 is the
dipole length. The unit of dipole moment is coulomb – metre [C m]

Torque acting on a dipole placed in a uniform electric field.

Consider an electric dipole AB of moment p  q (2 ) placed in a uniform electric field E. Let the
dipole make an angle with the field direction. Then the two charges will experience equal and opposite
forces qE and thus form a couple.
The torque  on the dipole will try to make the dipole in a line with the field. qE
Thus torque = one of the forces x perpendicular distance between them. E
ie  = qE x AC
B
But from figure; AC  2  sin  
 = qE x 2  sin 
A
ie   q (2 ) E sin 
C
But q (2) = p; the dipole moment.
   qE
   p E sin  OR   p  E
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [6] Electrostatics
Now if = 90°, torque = maximum
 Maximum torque max = pE.

**Note: If the dipole is placed in a uniform electric field, it will experience a torque. Here the net
transalatory force acting on the dipole is zero. But if the dipole is placed in a non – uniform electric
field, the forces acting on the charges +q and –q will be different. Hence the dipole will experience
both translatory force and torque and hence will move sideway in addition to rotational motion .
NB: Electric field at a point on the axis of an electric dipole. (End on position)
Consider a point P on the axial line of an electric dipole of moment p  q (2 ) at a distance r from the
center of the dipole AB.
A B E2 P E1
-q O +q r

1 q
Then electric field at P due to +q; E1  4   2 along BP produced.
0 (r   )

1 q
The electric field at P due to –q; E 2  4   2 along PB.
0 (r   )
Then the resultant field at P is given by E = E1 - E2 along AP produced.

1 q 1 q q  1 1 
E      
4   0  r   2 4  0  r    2 4   0   r   2 r  
   2


q (2) 2 r i.e. E 
2p r
i.e. E 
4  0 (r 2   2 )2 4  0 (r 2   2 )2 ; along AP. {here q(2  )  p ,dipole
moment }
Now for a short dipole, r >>>  Therefore  2 can be neglected being small.

2pr 2p
E  i. e. E 
4  0 r 4 4  0 r 3 acting along AP..

This is the expression for the electric field at a point on the axis of a short dipole.

NB Electric field at a point on the perpendicular bisector of an electric dipole [equatorial line or broad side on
position]
A line perpendicular to the axis of the dipole and passing through its center is called the equatorial line
or perpendicular bisector of an electric dipole. E1
Let P be a point on the perpendicular bisector of a dipole
of moment p  q (2 ) at a distance r from its center..
 P
Q
1 q
Then the electric field at P due to +q, E1  4   2 2 along BP
0 (r   )
E2 r r2  2
1 q
Electric field at P due to –q , E 2  4  2 2 along PA.
0 (r   )

-q +q
A   B
Here magnitudes of E1 and E2 are same. Resolving E1 and E2 into components, the Y components will
cancel each other while the X components will add to get the resultant electric field E.
Let  be the angle between E and E1, then E = E1cos + E2cos i.e, E = (E1 + E2) cos
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [7] Electrostatics

cos  
But from figure,
r  2
2

2 q  q (2 )
E  
Substuting in (1), 
4  0 r 2   2  2
r 
1
2 2
 
4  0 r 2
 
3
2 2

p
E  3


4  0 r 2   2  2 along PQ

Now for a short dipole, r >>>> 

p
 E
4  0 r 3
The direction of electric field is from positive charge to negative charge.

Q8. Two charges +15  C and -15  C are separated by a distance of 1  m. What is the dipole moment?
[15 x 10-12Cm]
Q9. An electric dipole consists of two charges +10  C and -10  C separated by a distance of 5 mm.
Calculate the electric field at a point on the axial line at a distance of 10 cm from the centre of the dipole.
[9 x105N/C]
Q10. An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite charges +150  C and -150  C separated by a
distance of 10cm. Calculate the electric field due to the dipole at a distance of 15 cm from each charge.
[4 x107N/C]

Electric lines of force OR Electric field lines. –— introduced by Michael Faraday.

An electric line of force is the path along which a unit positive charge would move, if it is free to do so.
The tangent at any point on the line of force will give the direction of electric intensity at that point.
Properties:
1. A line of force will start from a positive charge and end in negative charge.
2. Two lines of force will never intersect. If they intersect, two tangents could be drawn to the lines of
force at the common point. This means that there could be two directions for electric intensity at that
point, which is impossible.
3. The density or closeness of lines of force gives the strength of electric field at various regions.
4. In a uniform electric field, lines of force are parallel to each other.
Work done in rotating a dipole in a uniform electric field. OR Potential energy of a dipole.
Consider a dipole of moment p placed in a uniform electric field of intensity E at an angle . Then,
Torque acting on the dipole,  = pE sin.
Now let the dipole be turned through an angle d against the torque. Then work done, dw = pE sin d.
Therefore, work done in rotating the dipole from 1 to2;
2

 p E sin  d  p E  cos 
2
W dw  1 i. e. W  p E cos 1  cos  2
1

This work done is stored in the dipole as potential energy.

Electric flux. E
Electric flux through a surface is the number of electric lines of force passing normally through
the surface. The flux through an area is given by the product of the electric field and the component of
area perpendicular to the field.
 
ie electric flux through a surface is given by  E  E S ; where S is the area of the surface and E is the
electric field on the surface. S is a vector whose direction is normal to S. If  is the angle between the
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [8] Electrostatics
direction of E and the normal to the surface, E =E S cos.
Electric flux is a scalar quantity. Unit: newton metre2 / coulomb [Nm2/C]
In case of a closed surface, if the lines of force are outward, the flux is taken as +ve and if lines of force are
inward, the flux is negative.

+
+ve flux –ve flux.

If the electric field over a surface is not uniform, then the flux through the surface is given by E = E · ds;
where E is the electric field over an infinitesimal area ds of the surface.
Thus electric flux through a surface is the surface integral of the electric intensity over it.
The flux through a surface is maximum when surface is perpendicular to the field and minimum (zero)
when the surface is parallel to the field.

Gauss’s theorem.
1
Gauss’s theorem states that “ the net electric flux over a closed surface is  times the net charge
0

enclosed by the surface”. If S is a closed surface and q is the total charge enclosed by it, then Gauss’s
q
E   E  ds 
theorem may be expressed as 0
The surface over which we calculate the flux is called Gaussian surface.

APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S THEOREM

1. Electric intensity or electric field due to an infinite plane sheet of charge.
Consider a thin, infinite plane sheet of charge of charge density  coulomb/m2. The electric field E is
perpendicular to the sheet everywhere. The electric field has same magnitude at equal distance from the
surface but points in opposite directions on either side of the sheet. The field points away from the plane.
Imagine a cylindrical surface of cross-sectional area S passing normally through the sheet. Let P1 and
P2 be two points on either side of the sheet and along the axis of the cylinder, at equal distances from the
sheet. The electric fields at P1 and P2 are same in magnitude. Hence total area of Gaussian surface = 2S. [the
curved surface area of the cylinder is not considered since E is parallel to the area]
E · ds = 2 E S ....................... (1)
Also charge density  = q/S
q = S ......................... (2)
S
q S E
Now by Gauss’s theorem,  E  ds  E
0
S
Substuting from (1) and (2), 2 E S  
0

S 
i. e. E 
Field due to a plane sheet of charge, E  2 0
2 S 0

Hence E is independent of the distance of the point from the infinite sheet of charge.
R
Electric field due to a uniformly charged spherical shell.
A spherical shell is a hollow sphere of small thickness. O r E
Consider a spherical shell of radius R with its center at the origin.
Let a charge q be given to the shell. It gets distributed over the
shell uniformly. Let the charge density of the surface be.
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [9] Electrostatics
2
Then total charge, q = 4R . .................. (1)
Here the electric field is acting radially outwards.
Case 1. Field at a point outside the shell.
Consider a point P outside the shell at a distance r form the center of the shell. Let E be the electric field at P.
Now imagine a spherical surface of radius r and center coinciding with the center of the shell as the Gaussian
surface.
 
Then  E  ds   E  ds  E ds.
But for Gaussian surface, ds = 4r2.
 E · ds = 4r2 E
q
But by Gauss’s theorem, E  ds 
0

q q
 4  r 2 E  or E 
0 4  0 r 2

Substuting the value of q from (1),

4  R2 R2
E ie E
4  0 r2 r2 0
Case 2. Field at a point on the surface of the shell.

For a point on the surface of the shell, r = R. Then field E
0
Case 3. Field at a point inside the shell.
For a point inside the shell, the Gaussian surface lies inside the shell and hence encloses no charge.
Therefore E · ds = 0.
E = 0 since ds 0.
ie the field inside a uniformly charged spherical shell is always zero.
This is true for a shell of any shape or size. This disappearance of electric field inside a cavity in a
conductor is called electrostatic shielding.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
Electric field due to an infinitely long straight charged wire.
Consider an infinitely long straight charged wire of linear charge
density (charge per unit length). To find the electric field at a point P
at a distance r from the wire, consider a Gaussian cylinder of radius r and
length h coaxial with the wire. Now the point P is on the radial surface of
the cylinder. The electric field E at P is radially outward. E
h r
Now the electric flux through the curved surface,
E = E x area of the curved surface.
ie E = E x 2rh.
Flux through the two end surfaces = 0.
Total flux through the Gaussian cylinder, E = E x 2rh.....................(1)

Charge enclosed by the Gaussian cylinder, q = h

Now by Gauss’s theorem,  h ........................(2)

E 
0

h
From (1) and (2), E x 2rh.  
0


E 
2  0 r
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [10] Electrostatics

Q11. A point charge 10-7C is situated at the centre of a cube of 1 m side. Calculate the electric flux
through its surface. [1.13 x 104Nm2C-1]
Q12. A 20 cm diameter loop is rotated in a uniform electric field until the position of maximum electric
flux is found. The flux in this position is found to be 1.3 x 105 Nm2/C. Calculate the field strength?
[4.14 x 106 N/C]
Q13. The total electric flux through a closed surface in the shape of a cylinder is 5.60 x 10 4 Nm2/C.
Calculate the net charge within the cylinder? [4.96 x 10-7C]

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL OR ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL

**NB Potential Difference (pd)

+q B A
Consider an isolated point charge +q at O in free space. Let A and B be two points in the electric field due to
this charge. Let a unit positive charge be placed at A. It experiences a force of repulsion.
Now let the unit positive charge be moved from A to B without acceleration against this force. For
this, work has to be done against the force of repulsion. Let this work be denoted by WAB. This is called the
potential difference between the two points A and B.
Thus potential difference between two points in an electric field may be defined as the amount
of work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to the other without acceleration against
electrical forces.
ie VB –VA = WAB; where VA and VB are the potentials at A and B respectively. WAB will be +ve, 0 or –ve
according as the potential at B is greater than, equal to or less than the potential at A. The unit of pd is volt.
The pd between two points is one volt if one joule of work is done in moving one coulomb of
charge from one point to another without acceleration against electrical forces.

NB Electric potential (V)

The potential at a point far away from the charge producing the field is taken as zero. So in the above
figure, if A is at infinity, VA = 0. WAB = VB.
Here WAB is the work done in moving a unit positive charge from infinity to the point B and VB is the
potential at B. Thus electric potential at a point is defined as the work done in moving a unit +ve
charge from infinity to that point without acceleration against electric forces.
This work done is stored in the unit +ve charge as the potential energy of the charge.

Note: 1.Electric potential is denoted by the letter V and is a scalar quantity.

2.The electric potential is measured by V = W/q ie work done per unit charge.
3.Unit of potential is J/C or volt (V)
4.Dimension of potential = ML2T–3I–1.
5. Also, pd can be expressed as VB –VA= WAB/q; if we are moving a charge q instead of unit charge.
Relation connecting electric field and electric potential.
Consider two close points A and B in the electric field
due to a small charge +q, separated by a distance dr. Let dV be the pd between A and B. This means that
dV is the work done in moving a unit positive charge from A to B. dr
ie dV = E(–dr ) {because W = F x S}
+q B A
dV dV
or E   dr Here is called potential gradient, which shows the rate of change of potential with
dr
distance.
Thus electric field is equal to negative gradient of electric potential.

##Note: 1.If V is the pd between two plates kept at a distance d apart, then the electric field between them,
E = V/d. or pd, V=Ed.
2.The work done in moving a charge q between two points in an electric field is given by W=qV;
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [11] Electrostatics
where V is the pd between the two points. This work done is stored as electric potential energy.
3.If m is the mass of the particle or charge q and v is the velocity acquired by it in a pd V, then qV = ½ mv2.

Electron volt (eV)

One electron volt is the energy acquired be an electronic charge when it is accelerated through a pd of one
volt. 1eV = 1.602 x 10–19 J

NB Electric potential due to a point charge. dr

Consider two points A and B in the electric field E due to +q B A
a point charge +q. Let a unit positive charge be moved from A to B.
Since electric field is negative gradient of electric potential,
dV
E  The workdone in moving the unit positive charge from A to B, dV = – E dr..
dr
Therefore the total work done in moving the unit +ve charge from infinity toa point P, distant r from q , ie
the potential at P is given by,
r
V=  dV    E dr ..............(1)


q
The electric field E at a distance r from a point charge +q is given by E  4   r 2 ........................(2)
0

From (1) and (2);

r r
q  q 2
V   dr  r dr

4  0 r2 4  0 

r
q  1 q
i.e. V    r   4   r
4  0   0

q
V 
So for any point at a distance r from a point charge q, the electric potential, 4  0 r
Thus the potential due to a point charge varies inversely as the distance.

Electric potential due to an electric dipole. P

Let P be a point at a distance r form the center of a dipole AB
of moment p  q (2) . Let line OP makes an angle  with the dipole.
1 q r
Now potential at P due to +q, V1  r2
4   0 BP r1
C
1 q
Potential at P due to –q V2  4   AP 
-q +q
0
   B
A
 Net potential at P, V  V1  V2
D
1 q 1 q  1 q
1 
Therefore V  4   BP  4   AP 
 BP  AP 
0 0 4  0
But BP CP = r –  cos  and AP  DP = r +  cos

q  1 1  q  r   cos   r   cos  
V      
4  0   r   cos    r   cos    4  0  r 2   2 cos 2  
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [12] Electrostatics

1 q (2) cos  p cos 

V  V
4  0 (r 2   2 cos 2 ) 4  0 (r 2   2 cos 2 )

p cos
V
Since p  q (2 ) and  <<<r ;
2 2
4  0 r 2
Case 1. If point p is on the axis of dipole, then Case 2. If A is on the equatorial line of dipole,
=0. then  =90°.
p cos0 p p cos90
V  V  0
4  0 r 2
4  0 r 2 4  0 r2

Equipotential surface.
If the potential remains same at every point on a surface, it is called an equipotential surface.
No work is to be done in moving a charge from one point to another along the equipotential surface.
Electric field will be perpendicular to the equipotential surface.
Eg: 1. Surface of a charged conductor. 2. All points equidistant from a point charge.

Q14. The work done to carry 1  C from one point to another in an electric field is 1 mJ. What is the
potential difference between the two points? [103V]
Q15. Calculate the work done in carrying a charge 3 x 10 C from a point at a distance 1.2 m from a charge
-6

of 0.48 x 10-6C in air to a point 0.2 m from it? [5.4 x 10-2J]

Q16. To carry a charge of 2 x 10-3 C from a point where the potential is - 5 V to another point where the
potential is V, the workdone is 0.5 J. What is the value of V? [245 V]
Q17. Calculate the electric potential due to a point charge - 15  C at a point distant 9 cm from the charge.
[-1.5 x 105V]
Q18. Two point charges - 4  C and 2  C are separated by a distance of 1m. Find the point at which the
electric potential due to the charges is zero. [0.667 m from -4  C]

CAPACITANCE
Capacitance of a conductor is its ability to store electric charges. If electric charges are given to
a conductor, its potential rises. The potential V of a conductor is directly proportional to its charge q.
ie q V
Or q = C V ; where C is called the capacity or capacitance of the conductor.
Thus the capacitance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the charge to the potential
through which the conductor rises.
q
ie C  . If V = 1 volt, C = q. Thus capacitance of a conductor may be defined as the
V
charge required to raise its potential by unity.
Unit of capacitance is coulomb/ volt or farad ( F )
The capacitance of a conductor is one farad if a charge of one coulomb is sufficient to raise its
potential through one volt.

Note: A farad is a large unit. So for convenience, we use micro farad (F) ie 10 –6 F, nano farad (nF) 10 –9 F,
pico farad (pF) 10 –12 F etc.
Capacitance of a spherical conductor.
Consider a charged spherical conductor of radius r and carrying a charge q, kept isolated from the
influence of other charged bodies.
q
Then the potential at any point on the surface of the spherical conductor, V  4  r
0
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [13] Electrostatics

 Capacitance C  q  q
 4  0 r
V q
4  0 r
If the sphere is kept in a medium of dielectric constant r , then C = 40r r .

Capacitor or condenser
An arrangement by which the capacity of a conductor is increased is called a capacitor or electrical con-
denser.
Thus capacitor is an electrical device for storing quantities of electricity.
A capacitor consists of two conductors – one of them is charged and the other usually connected to earth.
Actually, two conductors kept a distance apart with a dielectric or air in between them forms a capacitor.
For a capacitor, C= q/V.
So a capacitor has a capacity of one farad if a charge of one coulomb flows from one conductor to the
other when the pd between the conductors is one volt.

Principle of a capacitor.
Imagine a plate A, which is +vely, charged. If charge on plate is q and its
potential is V, then C = q/V.Now let another plate B be brought near A.
Then –ve charge will be induced on that side of B which is near to A and
+ve charge on the other side of B. If B is earthed, these +ve charges will
flow to earth. Consequently the potential at A decreases and its capacitance
increases.This is because, with the presence of B, the amount of work done
in bringing a unit +ve charge from infinity to A decreases as there will be a A B
force of repulsion due to A and a force of attraction due to B.
Thus, the resultant force of repulsion on a unit +ve charge is reduced. So the amount of work is less and
potential at A decreases. Therefore, capacity of A increases.
Thus if an earthed conductor is placed near a charged conductor, the capacitance of the charged
conductor is considerably increased. This is the principle of a capacitor.

Note: Commonly used capacitors: 1) Parallel plate capacitor, 2).Cylindrical capacitor and 3) Spherical capacitor.
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two similar, large, flat conducting +q -q
plates arranged parallel to each other with a small distance d between them.
Let A be the area of each plate. Let plate P1, be charged +q and P2 be d
charged –q. The electric field is uniform between the plates.
q P1 P2
Its capacity, C  ; where V is the pd between the plates.
V
If is the charge density on one plate, q =  A.
But  = 0E .
 q = 0 E A  = q/A  q = A
Also V = E d; where E is the electric field between the plates. Also E . S = q/0
  E = q/S = 
q  A 0 A 0
 C  0 i. e C
Ed d d
Hence the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor increases with increase in area and decreases
with separation between plate’s increases.
If the space between the plates is filled with a medium of dielectric constant r ,
0  r A
C
Capacity d
**Note: Consider a parallel plate capacitor having n plates each of area A and arranged at equal distance d
from one another. If alternate plates are connected together, then these n plates form (n –1) capacitors
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [14] Electrostatics
connected in parallel.
Hence effective capacitance  0 ( n  1) A  0  r ( n  1) A
C 
d d
Effect of dielectric on capacitors.
1. A dielectric medium increases the capacitance by r times.
2.It avoids the electric discharge between the plates.
3. The dielectric prevents the two plates coming into contact and keeps the plates very close together.

NB Capacitors in Series.
Consider three capacitors of capacitance C1,C2 and C3 connected in series.In series combination, each
capacitor is charged with the same charge while they will be raised through different potentials in accordance
with their capacities.
If V1,V2 and V3 are the pd’s of capacitors respectively, A
V= V1+V2+V3; where V = pd between the three capacitors. +q

q q q C1 V1
Now 1 CV  ; V 2  ; V 3  -q
1 C2 C3
B
+q
q
Also V  ; where C is called equivalent or V C2 V2
C
-q
effective capacitance.
C
q q q q +q
   
C C1 C 2 C 3 C3 V3
-q
1 1 1 1 D
i. e   
C C1 C 2 C 3
Here C = effective or equivalent capacitance of the combination.

+q1 C1 -q1
NB Capacitors in parallel
Consider three capacitors of capacitance C1,C2 and C3 +q2 -q2
connected in parallel. Let V be the pd applied. Then all the C2
capacitors will have the same pd, V. Let Q1, Q2 andQ3 be -q3
+q3
the charges acquired by the capacitors. C3
Then total charge, Q = Q1+Q2 +Q3
Q = (C1+C2 +C3) V.
Now if the three capacitors are replaced by a capacitor of V
capacitance C, then Q = C V.
 C V = (C1+C2 +C3) V.
or C= C1+ C2 + C3.
Here, C is the effective or equivalent capacitance of the combination.

NB Energy of a capacitor.
The energy of a charged capacitor is the amount of work done in charging it. This work done will
be stored in the capacitor as potential energy.
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C, charged to a pd V by giving a charge Q to it from a battery. Let
q be the charge at any instant and V be the potential.
q
Then V 
C
Let an additional charge dq be supplied to the capacitor by the battery.
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [15] Electrostatics
Then Work done, dW = V dq.
Q Q
q 1
The total work done in charging the capacitor from 0 to Q, W   dw   C dq  C  q dq
0 0

Q2
i. e W  This work done is stored as potential energy in the capacitor..
2C
2
Energy of a capacitor, U  Q ...................(1)
2C
C2 V2 1
But Q = C V. Therefore, U   C V 2 ................................(2)
2C 2
1
Q V2
2 1
Also C = Q/ V. Therefore U   Q V ..............................(3)
V 2

Q2 1 1
Thus energy of a capacitor, U   C V2  Q V .
2C 2 2
Note: Energy of a capacitor (Graphical Method). V
In case of a capacitor, charge Q  V . So a graph drawn connencting
Q and V is as shown.
The area under the curve give the energy of the capacitor. Q
1 1
Therefore, energy, E  base  altitude  Q V
2 2

## Energy density of a capacitor.

Energy stored per unit volume of the medium between the plates of a capacitor is called energy
density of the capacitor.
Consider a parallel plate capacitor of charge density and capacitance C. Then charge, q =A and
0 A
capacitance C .
d
2
E E 1 CV2 1 0 A V 2 1 V 1
Therefore, Energy density =     0    0 E 2
V Ad 2 Ad 2 d Ad 2  d  2

NB Van de Graff Generator. metal shell

In 1931, Van de Graff designed an electrostatic generator P2
capable of producing pd of 6 to 10 million volts. Such pd was CC2
2
then made use of to accelerate charged particles so as to carry
out nuclear reactions.
The generator is based on the principle that if a charged
insulating belt insulating
conductor is brought into internal contact with a hollow stand
conductor, all of its charge gets transferred to the hollow
conductor, irrespective of its own potential. P1 Battery
C1
The generator consists of a large spherical metal shell (a few
metres in radius) mounted on a tall insulating stand above the motor
ground. A long narrow belt made of an insulating material is
C - lower comb
wound around two pulleys P1 and P2. P1 is at the center of the C1 - upper comb PP1 -- first pulley
second pulley
2 2
shell and P2 is at the ground level. The belt is made to rotate
Vinodkumar M, St. Aloysius H.S.S, Elthuruth, Thrissur [16] Electrostatics

using motor and continuously carries +ve charges. These +ve

charges are sprayed out by a brush B1 (spray brush). Another brush B2 (collecting comb) at top carries these
+ve charges from belt to the conducting shell, where they spread out uniformly. As the belt rotates, charge will
accumulate on the shell. Hence the potential of the shell increases and a high voltage difference can be built
up.
If potential goes beyond a maximum value, insulation of air breaks down and sphere gets discharged.
To avoid this, Van de Graff generator is usually kept in an enclosure filled with nitrogen at high pressure.
Note: This generator does not generate charge but separates and accumulates charge.

Conductors and insulators.

Conductors allow flow of electric charges through them. Eg: copper, silver, iron etc.
Insulators do not allow flow of charges through them. Eg: paper, mica, wax, glass etc.
When a conductor is charged, the charges will be uniformly distributed over its surface.

Dielectrics.
Dielectrics are substances, which do not conduct electricity but transmits electrical influence.
In some dielectrics, in the absence of an external field, the centers of +ve and –ve charges of each
molecule coincide. They are called non – polar dielectrics. They have zero dipole moment in their normal
states.
Eg: H2, N2, O2, CO2 etc.
In some dielectrics, the two centers of charges do not coincide in normal state due to the asymmetric
shape of the molecule. They are called polar dielectrics. They have permanent dipole moment.
Eg: H2O, NH3, HCl etc.
When a non – polar dielectric is placed in an external electric field, the centers of +ve and –ve charge of
each atom gets slightly separated. Then each molecule is said to possess an induced dipole moment. This is
known as dielectric polarization.

Behavior of conductor in an electric field.

When a conductor is placed in an electric field,
1) Inside the conductor or at the interior of the conductor, both electric field and net charge are zero.
2) Just outside the conductor, electric field is r to the conductor surface.
3) Charges will reside only on the surface of the conductor and are uniformly distributed on its surface.

Q19. Two conductors have net charges of +20.0  C. If the potential difference between the conductors
is 20.0 V, calculate the capacitance of the system. [10-6F]
Q20. A liquid drop has a capacitance of 2 pF. (i) Calculate its radius. (ii) If its potential is 100 V, what is
the charge on the drop? [18 x 10-3 m, 2 x 10-10 C]
Q21. A parallel plate capacitor has an area of 4.00 x 10 m and a plate separation of 2.00 mm. (i)
-4 2

Calculate its capacitance. (ii) If the plate separation is increased to 3.00 mm, find the capacitance. (iii) If
the space between the plates is filled with a medium of dielectric constant 6.7, calculate the capacitance
in the second case. [1.77x 10-12F; 1.18 x 10-12F; 7.90 x 10-12F]
Q22. The energy of a capacitor is 0.2 J. If its capacitance is 2  F, calculate, (i) the charge on the
vapacitor and (ii) the potential difference between the plates. [0.89 x 10-3 C; 449.4 V]

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