University of the Philippines Diliman

MATHEMATICS 21
Elementary Analysis I
Course Module

Institute of Mathematics
MATHEMATICS 21
Elementary Analysis I
Course Module

Institute of Mathematics
University of the Philippines Diliman
iv

2018
c by the Institute of Mathematics, University of the Philippines Diliman.
All rights reserved.

No part of this document may be distributed in any way, shape, or form, without prior written
permission from the Institute of Mathematics, University of the Philippines Diliman.

Mathematics 21 Module Writers and Editors:

Carlo Francisco Adajar

Michael Baysauli
Katrina Burdeos

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Lawrence Fabrero

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Alip Oropeza

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Contents

1 Limits and Continuity 1

1.1 Limit of a Function: An Intuitive Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 An Intuitive Approach to Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Evaluating Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 Other Techniques in Evaluating Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

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1.2 One-Sided Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

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1.2.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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1.3 Limits Involving Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
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1.3.1 Infinite Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
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1.3.2 Limits at Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
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1.3.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
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1.4 Limit of a Function: The Formal Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

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1.4.1 The Formal Definition of Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

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1.4.2 Proving Limits using the Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

1.4.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
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1.5 Continuity of Functions; The Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

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1.5.1 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.5.2 The Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.5.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.6 Trigonometric Functions: Limits and Continuity;
The Squeeze Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.6.1 The Squeeze Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.6.2 Continuity of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.6.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.7 New Classes of Functions: Limits and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.7.1 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.7.2 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.7.3 Inverse Circular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.7.4 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.7.5 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.7.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

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vi CONTENTS

2 Derivatives and Differentiation 75

2.1 Slopes, the Derivative, and Basic Differentiation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.1.1 The Tangent Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.1.2 Definition of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.1.3 Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.1.4 Techniques of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.1.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.2 The Chain Rule, and more on Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.2.1 The Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.2.2 Derivatives from the Left and from the Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.2.3 Differentiability and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.2.4 Graphical Consequences of Differentiability and Non-differentiability . . . . . 89
2.2.5 Higher Order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.2.6 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.2.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.3 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

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2.3.1 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

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2.3.2 Logarithmic Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

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2.3.3 Derivatives of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.3.4 Derivative of f (x)g(x) , where f (x) > 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
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2.3.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
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2.4 Derivatives of Other New Classes of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

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2.4.1 Derivatives of Inverse Circular Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

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2.4.2 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

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2.4.3 Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

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2.4.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

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2.5 More Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

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2.5.1 Indeterminate Forms of Type and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

0 ∞
2.5.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.5.3 Indeterminate Forms of Type 0 · ∞ and ∞ − ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.5.4 Indeterminate Forms of Type 1∞ , 00 and ∞0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.5.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.6 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.6.1 Rolle’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.6.2 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.6.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.7 Relative Extrema of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.7.1 Relative Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.7.2 Critical Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.7.3 Increasing/Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.7.4 The First Derivative Test for Relative Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.7.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.8 Concavity and the Second Derivative Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
CONTENTS vii

2.8.1 Concavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

2.8.2 Point of Inflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.8.3 The Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.8.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.9 Graph Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.9.1 Graphing Polynomial Funtions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.9.2 Review of Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
2.9.3 Graphing Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.9.4 The Graph of f from the Graph of f 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.9.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

3 Applications of Differentiation 147

3.1 Rectilinear Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.1.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.2 Rates of Change and Related Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.2.1 Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

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3.2.2 Related Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

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3.2.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

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3.3 Local Linear Approximation and Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.3.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.4 Absolute Extrema of a Function on an Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
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3.4.1 Absolute Extrema on Closed and Bounded Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

3.4.2 Absolute Extrema On Open Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
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3.4.3 Optimization: Application of Absolute Extrema on Word Problems . . . . . . 169

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3.4.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

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4 Integration and Its Applications 179

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4.1 Antidifferentiation and Indefinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

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4.1.1 Antiderivatives or Indefinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

4.1.2 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.1.3 Particular Antiderivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.1.4 Rectilinear Motion Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.1.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.2 The Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.2.1 Area of a Plane Region: The Rectangle Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.2.2 The Definite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.2.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4.3 The Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.3.1 First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.3.2 The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.3.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.4 Generalization of the Area of a Plane Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.4.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.5 Arc Length of Plane Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
viii CONTENTS

4.5.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

4.6 Volumes of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.6.1 Volumes of Solids of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.6.2 Volume of Solids by Slicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4.6.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
4.7 Mean Value Theorem for Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
4.7.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

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Chapter 1

Limits and Continuity

1.1 Limit of a Function: An Intuitive Approach

We begin this course with an introduction to the core concept needed in studying calculus: the
limit. We start studying the notion of limits in an informal, intuitive way. We treat limits using

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a descriptive, graphical, and numerical approach. We then develop computational methods in

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evaluating limits of algebraic expressions.

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At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
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• interpret the limit of a function through graphs and tables of values;
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• compute the limit of polynomial and rational functions using limit theorems; and
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• evaluate limits of functions using substitution, cancellation of common factors,

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and rationalization of radical expressions (for indeterminate forms 0/0).

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1.1.1 An Intuitive Approach to Limits

(
3x2 − 4x + 1 3x − 1, x 6= 1
4 f (x) = 3x − 1 4 g(x) = 4 h(x) =
x−1 0, x=1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1

0 1 2 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
−1 −1 −1

Figure 1.1.1: Graphs of y = f (x), y = g(x) and y = h(x) in Illustration 1.1.1.

In this subsection, we use graphs of functions in order to develop an intuitive notion of the basic
concept of limits. We make a distinction between the value of a function at a real number a and

1
2 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

the function’s behavior for values very near a. A function f may be undefined at a, but it can be
described by studying the values of f when x is very close to a, but not equal to a. To illustrate
our point, let us consider the following functions:

Illustration 1.1.1.

1. Let f (x) = 3x − 1 and consider the tables below.

x f (x) x f (x)
0 −1 2 5
0.5 0.5 1.5 3.5
0.9 1.7 1.1 2.3
0.99 1.97 1.001 2.003
0.99999 1.99997 1.00001 2.00003

In the tables above, we evaluated f at values of x very close to 1. Observe that as the values
of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to 2. If we continue

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replacing x with values even closer to 1, the value of f (x) will get even closer to 2.

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3x2 − 4x + 1 (3x − 1)(x − 1)

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2. Let g(x) = = . Note that g(x) is undefined at x = 1. Observe
x−1 x−1
though that if x 6= 1, then g(x) = 3x − 1 = f (x). Thus, g is identical to f except only at
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x = 1. Hence, as in the first item, if x assumes values going closer and closer to 1 but not
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reaching 1, then the values of g(x) go closer and closer to 2.

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(
3x − 1, x 6= 1
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3. Let h(x) = . Here, h(1) = 0. If x 6= 1, then h(x) = f (x) and as in above,

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0, x=1
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h(x) goes closer and closer to 2 as x goes closer and closer to 1. (See Figure 1.1.1 for a
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comparison of f , g and h.)

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In each of the above examples, we saw that as x got closer and closer to a certain number a, the
value of the function approached a particular number. This does not always happen, but in the
case that it does, the number to which the function value gets closer and closer is what we will call
the limit of the function as x approaches a.

Let f be a function defined on some open interval I containing a, except possibly at a. We say
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that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L, where L ∈ , denoted

lim f (x) = L,
x→a

if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as x assumes values going closer and closer to a but
not reaching a.

Remark 1.1.2. Alternatively, lim f (x) = L if we can make f (x) as close to L as we like by taking
x→a
values of x sufficiently close to a (but not necessarily equal to a).
1.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: AN INTUITIVE APPROACH 3

Example 1.1.3. Since the value of 3x − 1 goes closer and closer to 2 as x goes closer and closer
to 1 as shown in Illustration 1.1.1, we now write

lim (3x − 1) = 2.
x→1

Remark 1.1.4. Note that in finding the limit of f (x) as x tends to a, we only need to consider
values of x that are very close to a but not exactly a. This means that the limit may exist even if
there is no function value for f (x) at x = a.

3x2 − 4x + 1
Example 1.1.5. In Illustration 1.1.1, we see that g(x) = is undefined at x = 1.
x−1
However, since x only approaches 1 and is not equal to 1, we conclude that x − 1 6= 0. Hence,

(3x − 1)(x − 1)
lim g(x) = lim = lim (3x − 1) = 2.
x→1 x→1 x−1 x→1

Remark 1.1.6. If lim f (x) and f (a) both exist, their values may not be equal. In other words, it

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x→a

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is possible that f (a) 6= lim f (x).

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x→a

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Example 1.1.7. Recall that (
3x − 1, x 6= 1
h
h(x) =
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0, x=1
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from Illustration 1.1.1. Here, h(1) = 0 but lim h(x) = 2.

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x→1
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Remark 1.1.8. If f (x) does not approach a real number as x tends to a, then we say that the
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limit of f (x) as x approaches a does not exist (dne).

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Example 1.1.9. Let H(x) be defined by

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
1, x≥0
H(x) =
0, x<0

This function is called the Heaviside step function. The graph of the function is given below:

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1

From the graph, we see that there is no particular value to which H(x) approaches as x approaches
0. We cannot say that the limit is 0 because if x approaches 0 through values greater than 0,
the value of H(x) approaches 1. In the same way, we cannot say that the limit is 1 because if x
approaches 0 through values less than 0, the value of H(x) approaches 0. In this case, lim H(x)
x→0
does not exist.
4 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1.1.2 Evaluating Limits

In the previous subsection, we tried to compute the limit of a given function using tables of values.
However, this method only gives us an estimate of the limit, not guaranteeing that the value which
the function seems to approach is indeed the limit. In this section, we will compute limits not by
making tables of values or by graphing, but by applying the theorem below.

Theorem 1.1.10. Let f (x) and g(x) be functions defined on some open interval containing a,
except possibly at a.

1. If lim f (x) exists, then it is unique.

x→a

2. If c ∈ R, then x→a
lim c = c.

3. lim x = a
x→a

4. Suppose lim f (x) = L1 and lim g(x) = L2 where L1 , L2 ∈

x→a x→a
R, and c ∈ R.

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(a) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = L1 ± L2

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x→a

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(b) lim [cf (x)] = cL1
x→a h
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(c) lim [f (x)g(x)] = L1 L2
x→a
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f (x) L1
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(d) lim = , provided that g(x) 6= 0 on some open interval containing a, except
x→a g(x) L2
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possibly at a, and L2 6= 0.
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(e) lim [f (x)]n = (L1 )n for n ∈

x→a
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N, n > 1 and provided that L1 > 0 when n is even.

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n
p
n
(f ) lim f (x) = L1 for n ∈
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x→a

Example 1.1.11. Determine lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1).

x→−1

Solution.
From the theorem above,

lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1) = lim 2x3 − lim 4x2 + lim 1

x→−1 x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
= 2 lim x3 − 4 lim x2 + 1
x→−1 x→−1
= 2(−1)3 − 4(−1)2 + 1
= −5.

(x − 3)(x2 − 2)
Example 1.1.12. Evaluate lim .
x→1 x2 + 1
1.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: AN INTUITIVE APPROACH 5

Solution.
First, note that
lim (x2 + 1) = lim x2 + lim 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 6= 0.
x→1 x→1 x→1
Using the theorem,

(x − 3)(x2 − 2) lim (x − 3)(x2 − 2)

x→1
lim =
x→1 x2 + 1 lim (x2 + 1)
x→1
lim (x − 3) · lim (x2 − 2)
x→1 x→1
=
lim (x2 + 1)
 x→1  
lim x − lim 3 lim x2 − lim 2
x→1 x→1 x→1 x→1
= 2
lim (x + 1)
x→1
(1 − 3)(12 − 2)
=
2
= 1.

ic s
√

at
2x + 5
Example 1.1.13. Evaluate: lim

em
x→2 1 − 3x

Solution.
h
at
First, note that
M

lim (1 − 3x) = lim 1 − lim 3x = 1 − 6 = −5 6= 0.

of

x→2 x→2 x→2

Also,
e
ut

lim (2x + 5) = lim 2x + lim 5 = 4 + 5 = 9 > 0.

x→2 x→2 x→2
tit

Thus, using the theorem,

s
In

√ √ q
√
lim 2x + 5 lim (2x + 5)
2x + 5 x→2 9 3
UP

x→2
lim = = = =− .
x→2 1 − 3x lim 1 − 3x lim 1 − 3x −5 5
x→2 x→2

Theorem 1.1.14. Let f be a polynomial or rational function. If a ∈ dom f , then

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Example 1.1.15. Evaluate lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1).

x→−1

Solution.
Using Theorem 1.1.14,

lim (2x3 − 4x2 + 1) = 2(−1)3 − 4(−1)2 + 1 = −5.

x→−1
6 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

 4
1 − 5x
Example 1.1.16. Evaluate lim .
x→1 1 + 3x2 + 4x4

Solution.
By Theorem 1.1.14,
 4  4
1 − 5x 1 − 5(1) 1
lim = = .
x→1 1 + 3x2 + 4x4 1 + 3(1)2 + 4(1)4 16

1.1.3 Other Techniques in Evaluating Limits

In this part, we shall see that there are functions whose limits cannot be calculated using only the
previous techniques. For instance, Theorems 1.1.10 and 1.1.14 do not apply to
F (x) 3x2 − 4x + 1
lim = lim
x→1 G(x) x→1 x−1
(where F (x) = 3x2 − 4x + 1 and G(x) = x − 1) in Illustration 1.1.1. This is because lim G(x) = 0.
x→1

ic s
F (x)
Now, observe that lim F (x) = 0 = lim G(x). We call the limit lim an indeterminate form.

at
x→1 x→1 x→1 G(x)

em
3x2 − 4x + 1
Such limits may or may not exist. Example 1.1.5 showed us that the limit lim exists,
hx→1 x−1
and is in fact equal to 2. We shall see that limits with indeterminate forms, if they exist, may be
at
determined using algebraic manipulation.
M
of

 
f (x) 0
If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then lim is called an indeterminate form of type .
e

x→a x→a x→a g(x) 0

ut
stit
In

Remark 1.1.17.
f (x)
UP

1. If f (a) = 0 and g(a) = 0, then is undefined at x = a, and NOT indeterminate.

g(x)
f (x)
Remember that the term “indeterminate” only applies to the limit lim , and not the
x→a g(x)
f (a)
function value .
g(a)
2. A limit that is indeterminate of type 00 may exist, and to compute the limit, one may use

cancellation of common factors and rationalization of expressions (if applicable).

x2 + 2x + 1
Example 1.1.18. Evaluate lim .
x→−1 x+1
Solution.
The limit of both the numerator and the denominator as x approaches −1 is 0. Thus, this limit in
its current form is indeterminate of type 00 . However, observe that x + 1 is a common factor of

the numerator and the denominator. Thus, we may simplify the function as
x2 + 2x + 1 (x + 1)2
= = x + 1, when x 6= −1.
x+1 x+1
1.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: AN INTUITIVE APPROACH 7

Therefore, we obtain the limit as follows:

x2 + 2x + 1
lim = lim (x + 1) = 0
x→−1 x+1 x→−1

x2 − 5x + 6
Example 1.1.19. Evaluate lim .
x→2 x2 − 4

Solution.
x2 − 5x + 6 0


Note that lim is an indeterminate form of type 0 . Using the same technique,
x→2 x2 − 4
x2 − 5x + 6 (x − 2)(x − 3) x−3 1
lim = lim = lim =− .
x→2 x2 − 4 x→2 (x − 2)(x + 2) x→2 x + 2 4

x2 − 16
Example 1.1.20. Evaluate lim √ .
x→4 2 − x

ic s
Solution.

at
x2 − 16
√ is an indeterminate form of type 00 . Observe that in its current form, the


Again, lim

em
x→4 2 − x
numerator and denominator do not have common factors. So we multiply the numerator and
h
√
at
denominator by 2 + x to get
M

√ √
x2 − 16 2 + x (x − 4)(x + 4)(2 + x) √
√ · √ = = −(x + 4)(2 + x),
of

2− x 2+ x 4−x
e
ut

when x 6= 4. Thus, we have

tit

x2 − 16 √
s

lim √ = lim −(x + 4)(2 + x) = −32.

In

x→4 2 − x x→4
UP

√
x+5−3
Example 1.1.21. Evaluate lim .
x→4 x−4

Solution.
This limit is also an indeterminate form of type ( 00 ). Similar to the previous example,
√ √
x+5−3 x+5+3 (x + 5) − 9
lim ·√ = lim √
x→4 x−4 x+5+3 x→4 (x − 4)( x + 5 − 3)

x−4
= lim √
x→4 (x − 4)( x + 5 + 3)

1
= lim √
x→4 x+5+3
1
= .
6
8 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1.1.4 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Let f be the function whose graph is shown in the figure below.

0 2 4

Evaluate f (0), f (2), and f (3). Evaluate also lim f (x), lim f (x) and lim f (x).
x→0 x→2 x→3

B. Evaluate the following limits.

ic s
at
1. lim x(x − 2)(x + 2) 3
2z − z 2


em
x→−1 6. lim
z→2 z2 − 4
3x2 + 2x − 1 √
h
2. lim x2 + 3 − 2
at
x→−1 x3 + 1 7. lim
x2 − 1
M

√ x→−1
t−2−4 √ √
3. lim 2x − 6 − x
of

t→18 t − 18 8. lim
x→2 4 − x2
e

2s2 − 7s + 3 p3 − 1
ut

4. lim 9. lim √
s→3 s2 − 4s + 3 2p − 1 − 1
tit

p→1

2x2 − 13x + 20 6x + 3x2

s
In

5. lim 10. lim √

x→4 x3 − 64 p→1 −1 − 3 2x + 5
UP

C. Do as indicated.

1. Find lim f (x) where f (x) = x2 for all x 6= 10 but f (10) = 99.
x→0
x
2. Determine the values of the constants a and b such that lim √ = 1.
x→0 ax + b − 2
1.1. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: AN INTUITIVE APPROACH 9

Supplementary Exercises

A. Evaluate the following limits.

q3 + q2 − q − 1 x3 − x2 − x + 1
1. lim 9. lim
q→−1 q2 − 1 x→−1 x3 − 3x − 2
2y 2 − 3y + 1 t−1
2. lim 10. lim √
2
6t + 3 − 3t
y→1 y3 − 1 t→1
√
6 + x − x2 4x2 + 5x + 9 − 3
3. lim 2 11. lim
x→−2 x − 4x − 12 x→0 x
√ √ √
2− 7−a 8 − x − 1 − 8x
4. lim 12. lim √ √
a→3 2a2 − 3a − 9 x→−1 3 − x − 6x + 10
x3 − x2 − x + 10 (x + t)3 − x3
5. lim 13. lim
x→−2 x2 + 3x + 2 t→0 t
√ √ 1
4
x4 + 1 − x2 + 1 +1
6. lim 14. lim x2 4
x→−1 x2 x→−4 x − 16

s
√

ic
p 1
7+ 3x−3 −1
lim x+t x

at
7. lim 15.
w→8 x−8 t→0 t

em
p √  
9q 2 − 4 − 17 + 12q 4 8
8. lim h 16. lim + 2
q→−1 q 2 + 3q + 2 x→−2 x + 2 x + 2x
at
M

bx2 + 15x + b + 15
B. Find whether there exists a constant b so that lim exists. If it exist,
b→−2 x2 + x − 2
of

determine the value of b and find the limit.

e
ut

C. For each of the following functions below, use a calculator to evaluate f (x) when
tit

x = ±0.1, ±0.001, ±0.000001. Based on your results, what could the value of lim f (x) be?
x→0
s
In

sin x
1. f (x) =
UP

x
1 − cos x
2. f (x) =
x
tan x
3. f (x) =
x
10 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1.2 One-Sided Limits

When we compute the limit of a function f as x approaches a, we observe the behavior of f as x
approaches a from both sides. However, there are instances when the behavior of f as x approaches
a from the right is not the same as its behavior as x approaches a from the left. This may happen
for piecewise functions. Moreover, it is also possible that a function is not defined for some open
interval containing a, but defined only for values greater than a or less than a. In this case, we can
only observe the behavior of f as x approaches a from one side.

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• interpret the one-sided limit of a function through graphs and tables of values;

• evaluate one-sided limits of functions; and

• determine the limit of piecewise functions using one-sided limits.

s
ic
at
Consider the following functions. h em
at
M

Illustration 1.2.1. Let 

3 − 5x2 , x<1
of

f (x) = .
4x − 3, x≥1
e
ut
tit

If x is less than and very close to 1, then f (x) = 3 − 5x2 . If we let x approach 1 through these
values, then f (x) would approach −2. On the other hand, if we let x approach 1 through values
s
In

greater than 1, then we use f (x) = 4x − 3 and f (x) approaches 1. Similar to Example 1.1.9,
UP

lim f (x) does not exist.

x→1

y = 3 − 5x2
y = 4x − 3
1

−1 0 1 2
−1
−2

Figure 1.2.1: Graph of y = f (x) in Illustration 1.2.1

√
Illustration 1.2.2. Let f (x) = x. The domain of f is [0, ∞). So we can only consider values of
x which are greater than 0 if we want to to get the “limit” of f as x goes to 0.
1.2. ONE-SIDED LIMITS 11

√
2 f (x) = x

0 1 2 3 4

Figure 1.2.2: Graph of y = f (x) in Illustration 1.2.2

These cases lead us to what are called one-sided limits.

Let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval (c, a). We say that the limit of
f (x) as x approaches a from the left is L, denoted

lim f (x) = L
x→a−

if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x get closer and closer to a, but are

ic s
less than a.

at
em
Similarly, let f be a function defined at every number in some open interval (a, c). We say that the
limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the right is L, denoted
h
at
M

lim f (x) = L
x→a+
of

if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x get closer and closer to a, but are
e
ut

greater than a.
stit

Remark 1.2.3.
In

1. The conclusions in Theorem 1.1.10 still hold when “x → a” is replaced by “x → a− ” or

UP

“x → a+ ”.

2. We sometimes refer to lim f (x) as the two-sided limit to distinguish it from one-sided limits.
x→a

Example 1.2.4. Let H(x) be defined by


1, x≥0
H(x) = .
0, x<0

(Recall that this is the Heaviside step function.) We easily see that lim H(x) = lim 1 = 1 while
x→0+ x→0+
lim H(x) = lim 0 = 0.
x→0− x→0−

Example 1.2.5. Let 

3 − 5x2 , x<1
f (x) = .
4x − 3, x≥1
12 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

From Illustration 1.2.1, we have

lim f (x) = lim (3 − 5x2 ) = −2,

x→1− x→1−

and
lim f (x) = lim (4x − 3) = 1.
x→1+ x→1+

Suppose a function f satisfies lim f (x) = 0. We shall distinguish between ways by which f
x→a
approaches 0. For example, for f (x) = 2 − x, notice that lim (2 − x) = 0. As x approaches
x→2
2 from the left, f (x) approaches 0 but passes through positive values. On the other hand, if x
approaches 2 from the right, f (x) approaches 0 but passes through negative values:

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1

f (x) 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 −0.001 −0.01 −0.1

Meanwhile, consider g(x) = (2−x)2 . Similarly, lim (2−x)2 = 0, but this time, regardless of whether

s
x→2

ic
x approaches 2 from the left or right, g(x) passes through positive values as it approaches 0:

at
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001
h em 2.01 2.1
at
g(x) 0.01 0.0001 0.000001 0 0.000001 0.0001 0.01
M

We now state the following definition which will be helpful in our computations later.
of
e
ut

Suppose lim f (x) = 0. If f approaches 0 through positive values, we write

x→a
tit

f (x) → 0+ .
s
In

Similarly, if f approaches 0 through negative values, we write

UP

f (x) → 0− .

Remark 1.2.6. If f (x) → 0+ as x → a, and n is even, then

p
lim n f (x) = 0.
x→a
p
If f (x) → 0− as x → a, and n is even, then lim n
f (x) does not exist.
x→a
√
Example 1.2.7. Let f (x) = 2 − x. Note that f (x) → 0+ as x → 2− , so lim 2 − x = 0. On the
√ x→2−
other hand, f (x) → 0− as x → 2+ , so lim 2 − x does not exist.
x→2+
√
Example 1.2.8. Consider g(x) = 2x2 + x − 1.
p p hp √ i
• lim 2x2 + x − 1 = lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) = 0 (−3) · (0− ) = 0+
x→−1− x→−1−
1.2. ONE-SIDED LIMITS 13

p hp √ i
• lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) does not exist (−3) · (0+ ) = 0−
x→−1+

p hq i
• lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) does not exist (0− ) · ( 23 )
1−
x→ 2

p hq i
• lim (2x − 1)(x + 1) = 0 (0+ ) · ( 32 )
1+
x→ 2

Example 1.2.9. Let

 2
x −x−2
, x<0


 x+1


√
f (x) = 4 − x, 0≤x≤4



x2 − 5x + 4, x > 4


Find (a) lim f (x), (b) lim f (x), (c) lim f (x), and (d) lim f (x).
x→−1− x→0− x→0+ x→4+

ic s
at
Solution.

em
To evaluate (a), we need x to be less than −1 but very close to −1, so we use the expression
x2 − x − 2 h
. Thus,
at
x+1
M

(x − 2)(x + 1)
lim f (x) = lim = lim (x − 2) = −3.
of

x→−1− x→−1− x+1 x→−1−

e
ut

For (b), we take x to be less than 0 but very close to zero. By the definition of the function, we
tit

x2 − x − 2
s

should take f (x) = for such values of x. Hence, lim f (x) = −2.
In

x+1 x→0−

√
UP

For (c), lim f (x) = lim 4 − x = 2.

x→0+ x→0+

Finally, for (d), lim f (x) = lim (x2 − 5x + 4) = 0.

x→4+ x→4+

Some limits can be calculated by finding the one-sided limits first. In fact, we have the following
result:

Theorem 1.2.10. lim f (x) = L if and only if lim f (x) = L = lim f (x).
x→a x→a− x→a+

√ √
Example 1.2.11. From Example 1.2.7, since lim 2 − x = 0 and lim 2 − x does not exist,
√ x→2− x→2+
lim 2 − x does not exist.
x→2

Example 1.2.12. If H(x) is the Heaviside step function, then lim H(x) does not exist (see Example
x→0
1.2.4).
14 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Example 1.2.13. Let √

 4 − x, x≤4
f (x) =
x2 − 5x + 4, x>4
Evaluate lim f (x).
x→4

Solution.
Observe that f is defined differently when x < 4 and when x > 4, so we consider one-sided limits.
Since
√
lim f (x) = lim 4 − x = 0,
x→4− x→4−

and
lim f (x) = lim (x2 − 5x + 4) = 0,
x→4+ x→4+

we have lim f (x) = 0.

x→4

t+4

s
Example 1.2.14. Let g(t) = . Evaluate lim g(t).

ic
|t + 4| t→−4

at
em
Solution.
Recall that  h
at
t + 4, if t ≥ −4
|t + 4| = .
M

−(t + 4), if t < −4

of

Therefore,
e

t+4
ut

lim g(t) = lim = lim −1 = −1,

t→−4− t→−4− −(t + 4) t→−4−
tit

and
s

t+4
In

lim g(t) = lim = lim 1 = 1.

t→−4+ t→−4+ t + 4 t→−4+
UP

Hence, lim g(t) does not exist.

t→4

Example 1.2.15. Evaluate: lim [[x]]

x→−2

Solution.
..

.





−3, −3 ≤ x < −2





Note that [[x]] = −2, −2 ≤ x < −1

−1, −1 ≤ x < 0





 ..



.
Thus, lim [[x]] = lim (−3) = −3, while lim [[x]] = lim (−2) = −2, so lim [[x]] does not
x→−2− x→−2− x→−2+ x→−2+ x→−2
exist.


Example 1.2.16. Evaluate: lim s + [[1 − s]]
s→2+
1.2. ONE-SIDED LIMITS 15

Solution.
..




 .

−2, −2 ≤ 1 − s < −1 ⇔ 2 < s ≤ 3

Note that [[1 − s]] =


−1, −1 ≤ 1 − s < 0 ⇔ 1 < s ≤ 2

 .
 .

.


Therefore, lim s + [[1 − s]] = lim (s − 2) = 0.
s→2+ s→2+

[[2x − 1]] − 2x
Example 1.2.17. Evaluate: lim
x→ 21
− 2x + 1

Solution.
..




 .

−1, −1 ≤ 2x − 1 < 0 ⇔ 0 ≤ x < 1

2
Note that [[2x − 1]] = 1


 0, 0 ≤ 2x − 1 < 1 ⇔ 2 ≤ x < 1

s

 .


ic
 ..

at
[[2x − 1]] − 2x −1 − 2x
= −1.

em
So, lim = lim
x→ 1− 2x + 1 x→ 1 − 2x + 1
2 2 h
at
x2 − 2x + 1
Example 1.2.18. Evaluate: lim
M

x→1 x − [[x]]
of

Solution.
e

x2 − 2x + 1 (x − 1)2
ut

• lim = lim =0
tit

x→1− x − [[x]] x→1− x − 0

s

x2 − 2x + 1 (x − 1)2
In

• lim = lim = lim (x − 1) = 0

x→1+ x − [[x]] x→1+ x − 1 x→1+
UP

x2 − 2x + 1
Therefore, lim = 0.
x→1 x − [[x]]
16 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1.2.1 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Evaluate the following limits.

p
1. lim 7x2 − 12x + 5 5. lim [[3x + 1]]
2
x→3− x→ 3
p
2. lim 4x2 − 12x + 9 |4x| − |x − 5|
3 6. lim
x→ 2 x→1 1−x
3. lim [[3x + 1]] 2t + 1
7. lim
2+ 1 |2t2 − 3t − 2|
x→ 3 t→− 2
4. lim [[3x + 1]] x [[x]] − 1
2− 8. lim
x→ 3 x→1− [[x]] − 1

B. Let  2
x −4
x < −1

s
,



ic
 2
x + 2x
g(x) = .

at
x+1
√ , x > −1



em
2x + 3 − 1
h
Evaluate: lim g(x), lim g(x), lim g(x)
at
x→−2 x→−1 x→0
M

C. Given 
of

kx − 3, x ≤ −1
h(x) = ,
e

x2 + k, x > −1
ut
tit

where k is constant. Find k so that lim h(x) exists.

x→−1
s
In

D. Sketch a graph of a function f (x) satisfying all of the following:

UP

• dom f = [−4, 4] • f (4) = 0 • lim f (x) = 4

x→0+
• f (−4) = f (−2) = 3 • lim f (x) = 0
x→−4+
• lim f (x) = −1
• f (0) = 1 • lim f (x) = 1 x→2
x→−2

• f (2) = −1 • lim f (x) = 1 • lim f (x) = 0

x→0− x→4−
1.2. ONE-SIDED LIMITS 17

Supplementary Exercises

A. Evaluate the following limits.

1 − 4x2
s
x2 − 9 7. lim
1. lim 1− |2x2 − 3x + 1| + |2x2 − x|
x→3− x+2 x→ 2

2. lim [[1 − 2x]] [[x]] − 2

x→5−
8. lim
x→2+ [[x]] − x
 
1 1 [[2 − y]]
3. lim − 9. lim
x→2− x [[x]] y→4 [[y + 2]] − y
+

4. lim [[2 + x]] x2 − [[x + 2]] x

x→2 10. lim
x→2 x − [[2x]]
 
1 1 [[x]] + 2
5. lim − 11. lim
x→−2+ [[−x]] |x| x→2 [[x]] − 2
−

|3x + 2| − |x − 2| x2 − 3x + 2
6. lim 12. lim

s
x→2− [[x]] − x

ic
x→0 x

at
B. Let
 2 h em
x + 4x + 3
, x ≤ −1
at


 x2 − x − 2


M

f (x) = [[x + 3]] , −1 < x < 1 .


of

√x − 1,



x≥1
e
ut

Evaluate: lim f (x), lim f (x), lim f (x), lim f (x)

tit

x→−1 x→0 x→1 x→2

s
In

C. Let
UP


 |2x − x2 |

 , x<0


 x
[[x + 3]] − 6

g(x) = , 0≤x<3.

 3 − [[x]]
x2 − 6x + 5


, x≥3


 3
x − 19x − 30

Evaluate: lim g(x), lim g(x), lim g(x)

x→0 x→3 x→5
18 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

D. Let 

a − 3x x < −2


f (x) = ax + 3b −2 ≤ x ≤ 1 ,



4x + b x>1


where a and b are constants. Find a and b so that lim f (x) and lim f (x) both exist.
x→−2 x→1

E. Sketch a graph of a function f (x) satisfying all of the following:

• dom f = [−3, 2) ∪ (2, 5] • lim f (x) = −2 • lim f (x) = 4

x→−3+ x→2+
7
• f (−3) = f (−1) = 1 • lim f (x) = 3
2 • lim f (x) = − x→4
• f (4) = 3 x→−1 2
5
• f (5) = −1 • lim f (x) = 0 • lim f (x) = −
x→2− x→5− 2

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
1.3. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 19

1.3 Limits Involving Infinity

In this section, we consider functions that may increase indefinitely either positively or negatively.
We will also be interested in the behavior of a function as x increases or decreases without bound,
or as we shall say, as x approaches positive infinity or negative infinity.

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• interpret infinite limits and limits at infinity of a function through graphs and
tables of values; and

• evaluate infinite limits and limits at infinity of functions (e.g. rational, radical).

ic s
1.3.1 Infinite Limits

at
em
Let us start with what are called infinite limits.
h
1
at
Illustration 1.3.1. Let f (x) = . Note that f is undefined at x = 0.
x2
M
of

x f (x) x f (x)
e

−1
ut

1 1 1
−0.5
tit

0.5 4 4
0.1 100 −0.1 100
s
In

0.001 1000000 −0.001 1000000

UP

0.00001 10000000000 −0.00001 10000000000

Observe that as the values of x get closer and closer to 0, the values of f (x) become larger and
larger, and that there is no bound to the growth of the values of f (x).

1 1
Figure 1.3.1: Graphs of y = and y = − 2 near x = 0
x2 x
20 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Let f be a function defined on some open interval containing a, except possibly at a.

We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is positive infinity, denoted

lim f (x) = +∞,

x→a

if the value of f (x) increases without bound whenever the values of x get closer and closer to a
(but does not reach a).

Also, we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is negative infinity, denoted

lim f (x) = −∞,

x→a

if the value of f (x) decreases without bound whenever the values of x get closer and closer to a
(but does not reach a).

Remark 1.3.2. The expressions above with “x → a” replaced by “x → a− ” or “x → a+ ” are

similarly defined.

ic s
Example 1.3.3. In Illustration 1.3.1, we have

at
em
1
lim = +∞,
x→0 x2 h
at
and  
1
M

lim − 2 = −∞.
x→0 x
of

Remark 1.3.4. Note that ∞ is not a real number. Thus, if lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞, we do not
x→a
e
ut

mean that the limit exists. Though the limit does not exist, through the symbol we are able to
describe the behavior of f near a: that it increases or decreases indefinitely as x → a.
tit

3x
s

Consider f (x) = . Note that lim 3x = 3 while lim (x − 1) = 0. In this case, lim f (x) does
In

x−1 x→1 x→1 x→1

not exist, but observe that:
UP

• as x → 1− , x − 1 → 0− . Thus, the numerator approaches 3 while the numerical value of the

3x
denominator becomes smaller and smaller. As a result, approaches negative infinity.
x−1
3x
• as x → 1+ , x − 1 → 0+ , so this time, approaches positive infinity.
x−1
In general, we have the following theorem.

Theorem 1.3.5. Let c be a nonzero real number. Suppose lim f (x) = c and lim g(x) = 0.
x→a x→a

1. If c > 0,
f (x)
(a) and g(x) → 0+ as x → a, then lim = +∞.
g(x)
x→a

f (x)
(b) and g(x) → 0− as x → a, then lim = −∞.
x→a g(x)
1.3. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 21

2. If c < 0,
f (x)
(a) and g(x) → 0+ as x → a, then lim = −∞.
g(x)
x→a

f (x)
(b) and g(x) → 0− as x → a, then lim = +∞.
x→a g(x)

5x
Example 1.3.6. Consider: g(x) = .
4 − x2
 
5x −10
• lim = +∞
x→−2 (2 + x)(2 − x)
− (0− )(4)
 
5x −10
• lim = −∞
x→−2 (2 + x)(2 − x)
+ (0+ )(4)
 
5x 10
• lim = +∞
x→2− (2 + x)(2 − x) (4)(0+ )

s
 
5x 10

ic
• lim = −∞
(2 + x)(2 − x) (4)(0− )

at
x→2+

Theorem 1.3.7.
h em
at
M

1. If lim f (x) exists and lim g(x) = ±∞, then lim (f (x) + g(x)) = ±∞.
x→a x→a x→a
of

2. If lim f (x) exists and lim g(x) = ±∞, then lim (f (x) − g(x)) = ∓∞.
e

x→a x→a x→a

ut

3. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = +∞, then lim (f (x) + g(x)) = +∞.
tit

x→a x→a x→a

s
In

4. If lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = −∞, then lim (f (x) − g(x)) = +∞ and
x→a x→a x→a
lim (g(x) − f (x)) = −∞.
UP

x→a

5. Let c ∈ R \ {0}. Suppose x→a

lim f (x) = c and lim g(x) = ±∞. Then
x→a

(a) lim f (x)g(x) = ±∞, if c > 0.

x→a
(b) lim f (x)g(x) = ∓∞, if c < 0.
x→a

 
2
Example 1.3.8. Determine lim x2 − .
x→1− x−1

Solution.
2
Using the above theorem, since lim x2 = 1 and lim = −∞, we have (see Figure 1.3.2)
x→1− x→1− x−1
 
2
lim x2 − = +∞.
x→1− x−1
22 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

The graph of x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of y = f (x) if at least one of the following
is true:

• lim f (x) = −∞ • lim f (x) = −∞

x→a− x→a+

• lim f (x) = +∞ • lim f (x) = +∞

x→a− x→a+

A more detailed discussion of the previous definition will be given in a later chapter.
 
2 2
Example 1.3.9. From the previous example, since lim x − = +∞, the line x = 1 is a
x→1− x−1
2
vertical asymptote of the graph of y = x2 − . (See Figure 1.3.2.)
x−1

x=1

ics
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut

2
tit

Figure 1.3.2: Graph of y = x2 − with vertical asymptote x = 1

x−1
s
In
UP

Notice that in Theorem 1.3.7, nothing is said about lim [f (x) + g(x)], where lim f (x) = +∞ while
x→a x→a
lim g(x) = −∞. In this case, does the limit exist? If it does, is the limit simply equal to zero? The
x→a
answer is no. In fact, this is another indeterminate form: ∞ − ∞. Moreover, in Theorem 1.3.7,
limits of the form c · ∞ where c 6= 0 were dealt with. When c = 0, the limit is also indeterminate.

1. Suppose lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = +∞. Then lim [f (x) − g(x)] is called an indetermi-
x→a x→a x→a
nate form of type ∞ − ∞.

2. Suppose lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = ±∞. Then lim [f (x)g(x)] is called an indeterminate
x→a x→a x→a
form of type 0 · ∞.

 
1 3
Example 1.3.10. Evaluate: lim + 2
x→−1− x + 1 2x + x − 1
1.3. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 23

Solution.
   
1 3 1 3
lim + −
+
x→−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)(x + 1) 0 (−3)(0− )
Thus, the limit is indeterminate of type ∞ − ∞. To compute, we combine the expressions into one:
 
1 3 (2x − 1) + 3
lim + = lim
x→−1− x + 1 (2x − 1)(x + 1) x→−1− (2x − 1)(x + 1)
 
2x + 2 0
= lim
x→−1− (2x − 1)(x + 1) 0
2
= lim
x→−1 2x − 1
−

2
=−
3
 
1 t 8
Example 1.3.11. Evaluate: lim −
t→4+ 4 − t t−1 t+2

ic s
at
Solution.

em
    
1 t 8 1 4 8
lim − h −
t→4 4 − t
+ t−1 t+2 0− 3 6
at
Thus, the limit is indeterminate of type 0 · ∞. To compute, we rewrite the expression as a quotient:
M
of

   
1 t 8 1 t(t + 2) − 8(t − 1)
lim − = lim
t→4+ 4 − t t−1 t+2 t→4+ 4 − t (t − 1)(t + 2)
e
ut

2
   
t − 6t + 8 0
tit

= lim
t→4 + (4 − t)(t − 1)(t + 2) 0
s
In

 
(t − 2)(t − 4)
= lim
t→4 + (4 − t)(t − 1)(t + 2)
UP

 
−(t − 2)
= lim
t→4+ (t − 1)(t + 2)
1
=−
9

1.3.2 Limits at Infinity

We now discuss limits at infinity, that is, the behavior of a function as x increases or decreases
without bound. Let us consider the following illustration.
1
Illustration 1.3.12. Let f (x) = . Observe from the tables below that the values of f (x) get
x
closer and closer to zero as the values of x approach positive infinity, as seen in the left table.
Similarly, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to zero as the values of x approach negative
infinity, as seen in the right table.
24 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

x f (x) x f (x)
1 1 −1 −1
10 0.1 −100 −0.01
1000 0.001 −10000 −0.0001
1000000 0.000001 −10000000 −0.0000001
1000000000 0.000000001 −1000000000 −0.000000001

1
f (x) =
x

s
1

ic
Figure 1.3.3: Graph of y =
x

at
em
Let f be a function defined at every number in some interval (a, ∞). We say that the limit of f (x)
h
at
as x approaches positive infinity is L, denoted
M

lim f (x) = L
of

x→+∞
e
ut

if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x increase without bound.
tit

Similarly, let f be a function defined at every number in some interval (−∞, a). We say that the
s
In

limit of f (x) as x approaches negative infinity is L, denoted

UP

lim f (x) = L
x→−∞

if the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x decrease without bound.

Remark 1.3.13. We have similar notions for the following symbols:

• lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞
x→+∞

• lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞
x→−∞

1 1
Example 1.3.14. In the previous illustration, lim = 0 and lim = 0.
x→+∞ x x→−∞ x

In general, we have the following results.

1.3. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 25

Theorem 1.3.15.

1. lim xn = +∞, if n is even.

x→±∞

2. lim xn = ±∞, if n is odd.

x→±∞

1
3. lim =0
x→±∞ xn

4. Let c ∈ R. Suppose x→+∞

lim f (x) = c and lim g(x) = ±∞. Then
x→+∞

f (x)
lim = 0.
x→+∞ g(x)

Remark 1.3.16. In statement 4 of the previous theorem, “x → +∞” may be replaced by

“x → −∞”, “x → a”, “x → a+ ”, and “x → a− ”. What is important is that the limit of the
numerator exists, while the denominator increases or decreases without bound.

ic s
Example 1.3.17. Evaluate: lim (5x4 − x3 − x + 8)

at
x→+∞

Solution.
em
h
Note that since we are letting x increase without bound, we have x 6= 0. We may then write
at
1 1 8
M

5x4 − x3 − x + 8 = x4 · 5 − − 3 + 4 . By the previous theorem, lim x4 = +∞, while each

x x x x→+∞
of

1 1 8
of , 3 and 4 approach 0, as x → +∞. Statement 4 of Theorem 1.3.7 then implies that
x x x
e
ut

 
1 1 8
tit

4
lim x · 5 − − 3 + 4 = +∞. (+∞)(5 − 0 − 0 + 0)
x→+∞ x x x
s
In
UP

Example 1.3.18. Evaluate: lim (3x5 − x4 + 2x − 4)

x→−∞

Solution.
 
5 4 1 52 4
lim (3x − x + 2x − 4) = lim x · 3 − + 4 − 5 = −∞ (−∞)(3 − 0 + 0 − 0)
x→−∞ x→−∞ x x x

Remark 1.3.19. In general, to find lim f (x) if f is a polynomial function, it suffices to consider
x→±∞
the behavior of the leading term of f (x) as x → +∞ (or as x → −∞).
1
Example 1.3.20. Evaluate: lim
x→−∞ x3 − 4

Solution.
1
Note that lim x3 − 4 = −∞. Thus, lim = 0.
x→−∞ −4
x→−∞ x3
 
2 4
Example 1.3.21. Evaluate: lim 3x + 2x −
x→+∞ x
26 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Solution.
4
Here, since lim (3x2 + 2x) = +∞ and lim = 0, we have
x→+∞ x→+∞ x
 
2 4
lim 3x + 2x − = +∞.
x→+∞ x

3x − 1
Example 1.3.22. Evaluate: lim .
x→+∞ 9x + 3

Solution.
∞
Note that lim (3x − 1) = +∞ and lim (9x + 3) = +∞. Thus, the limit has the form . Does
x→+∞ x→+∞ ∞
this mean that the limit does not exist? Consider the table of values below.
3x−1
x 9x+3
1 0.1666667
10 ≈ 0.311828
100000 ≈ 0.3333311

ic s
1000000000 ≈ 0.3333333

at
3x − 1

em
It seems that as x → +∞, the quotient approaches a particular value: 0.3333333. Let us
9x + 3 h
2
3x − 1 1
at
3
verify this. Using long division, we can write = − . Therefore,
9x + 3 3 3x + 1
M

!
2
3x − 1 1 1 1
of

3
lim = lim − = −0= .
x→+∞ 9x + 3 x→+∞ 3 3x + 1 3 3
e
ut

So the limit exists, but it is not equal to 0.3333333 as we initially guessed—it is equal to 13 .
stit
In

From the above example, we see that if both the numerator and denominator have infinite limits,
then the limit of the quotient may exist. In fact, this is another indeterminate form.
UP

f (x)
Suppose lim f (x) = ∞ and lim g(x) = ∞. Then lim is called an
x→a x→a x→a g(x)
∞
indeterminate form of type ∞ .

Remark 1.3.23. The expression “x → a” may be replaced by “x → a− ”, “x → a+ ”, “x → −∞”

and “x → +∞”.
x3 − 2x2 + 3
Example 1.3.24. Evaluate: lim
x→+∞ 4x4 − x2 + x + 1

Solution.
x3 − 2x2 + 3 ∞
Note that lim 4 2
is an indeterminate form of type . Since we are letting x
x→+∞ 4x − x + x + 1 ∞
approach +∞, we have x 6= 0. Thus, we may divide both numerator and denominator by the
highest power of x in the denominator which is x4 :
1 1 2 3
x3 − 2x2 + 3 x4 x − x2
+ x4 0
lim · 1 = lim 1 1 1 = =0
x→+∞ 4x4 − x2 + x + 1 x→+∞ 4− + + 4
x4 x2 x3 x4
1.3. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 27
√
x2 − 3
Example 1.3.25. Evaluate: lim
x→+∞ x+2
Solution.
∞


This is an indeterminate form of type . To evaluate this, we use the fact that
∞

√ x, if x ≥ 0
x2 = |x| = .
−x, if x < 0
√
Since we are letting x → +∞, we have x > 0 and so, x2 = x. Hence,
√ √ 1
x2 − 3 x 2 − 3 √ x2
lim = lim · 1
x→+∞ x + 2 x→+∞ x + 2 √
2 x
√ √1
x2 − 3 x2
= lim · 1
x→+∞ x + 2
x
q
1 − x32

s
= lim

ic
x→+∞ 1 + 2
x

at
= 1.

em
p
Example 1.3.26. Evaluate: lim ( 9x2 − x + 3x) h
x→−∞
at
Solution.
M

This is an indeterminate form of type ∞ − ∞. We solve

√ it as follows:
of

p
2
p
2
( 9x2 − x − 3x)
lim ( 9x − x + 3x) = lim ( 9x − x + 3x) · √
e

x→−∞ x→−∞ ( 9x2 − x − 3x)

ut

 
−x ∞
tit

= lim √
x→−∞ ( 9x2 − x − 3x) ∞+∞
s
In

√1
−x x2
= lim √ ·
UP

2
x→−∞ ( 9x − x − 3x) √1
x2
1 √
−x −x
= lim √ · since x2 = |x| = −x when x < 0
x→−∞ ( 9x2 − x − 3x) √1
x2
−x
−x
= lim q
x→−∞ 9x2 x 3x
x2
− x2
− −x
1
= lim q
x→−∞
9 − x1 + 3
1
=
6

The line y = L is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of y = f (x) if

lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L.

x→+∞ x→−∞
28 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

(A more detailed discussion of the previous definition will be given in a later section.) Let us
illustrate the above definition with the following examples.
3
Example 1.3.27. Consider lim = 0. Here, the line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote of
x→+∞ x2 −9
3
the graph of y = .
x2 −9
3x − 1 1 1
Example 1.3.28. From a previous example, lim = . The line y = 3 is a horizontal
x→−∞ 9x + 3 3
3x − 1
asymptote of the graph of y = .
9x + 3
p 
2 − x + 3x =
1 1
Example
y 1.3.29. From a previous example, lim 9x . The line y = 6 is a
√ x→−∞ 6
horizontal asymptote of the graph of y = 9x2 − x + 3x.

3 3x−1
y= x2 −9 y= 9x+3
1
y=

s
x 3

ic
at
y=
√
9x2 − x + 3x em
h
at
1
y= 6
M
of
e
ut

Figure 1.3.4: The graphs of some functions with their respective horizontal asymptotes
s tit
In
UP
1.3. LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY 29

1.3.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

Evaluate the following limits.

2
 
x x−2
1. lim 5. lim + 2
1 1 − 3x
−
x→−2− x+2 x +x−2
x→ 3

1 1
 [[x]] − 1
2. lim √ − 6. lim
t→0 t t+3 t x→2+ [[x]] − x

x−2 2x3 − 6x + 5
3. lim √ 7. lim
x→2− 2 − 4x − x2 x→+∞ 4 + 7x − 6x3
 
4 1 1 4z 3 + 5
4. lim − − 8. lim
x→−2− (x + 2)2 (2 − x) (x + 2)2 x z→+∞ 1 − 2z + 3z 2

s
Supplementary Exercises

ic
at
Evaluate the following limits.

2x3 − 5x2
h em x − [[x]]2
 2
at
1. lim 8. lim
M

x→1− x2 − 1 x→1+ x2 − 1
4 − x2
of

2. lim 3
x→2+ 4 − 4x + x2 9. lim
e

x→−∞ x2 −3
ut

2−y
3. lim
tit

y→4 y 2 − 8y + 16 10. lim (3x4 − 3x2 + x + 4)

s

x→−∞
In

 
1 1
4. lim √ −1
t→0 t t+3 3y 2 − 5y + 2
UP

11. lim
y→−∞ 6y 3 − 2y 2 − 1
 
2 1 7s
5. lim + 2 +
s→−1 s2 − 1 s + 3s + 2 s3 + 8
  y 2 + 3y − 8
1 1 12. lim
6. lim 1− √ y→∞ 2 − 5y − 3y 2
t→0+ t 2t + 1
√
[[s]] − 1 2x + x2 − 1
7. lim 13. lim
s→−1 [[s]] + 1 x→+∞ x+3
30 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1.4 Limit of a Function: The Formal Definition

In this section, we give the formal definition of the limit of a function. This involves a more rigorous
approach on showing the limit of a function. We will then establish limits of a function using the
formal definition.

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• describe the limit of a function using the formal definition; and

• illustrate the formal definition of the limit of a function using graphs.

1.4.1 The Formal Definition of Limits

We start this section with the formal definition of the limit of a function. Recall that informally,
we define limit of a function f is the real number L as x approaches a, written lim f (x) = L, if

s
x→a

ic
the values of the function f get closer and closer to L as we allow the values of x to get closer and

at
closer to a. We will make this informal notion of “closer and closer” mathematical precise.

em
Let us consider the next illustration.
h
at
Illustration 1.4.1. Consider the function f (x) = 2x − 1.
M
of

• For which values of x do we have 0 < f (x) < 2?

Answer: For all x in 21 , 32 , or for all x such that 1
< x < 32 .


e

2
ut

• For which values of x do we have 21 < f (x) < 23 ?

tit

Answer: For all x in 34 , 54 , or for all x such that 3

< x < 54 .


s

4
In

• For which values of x do we have 0.98 < f (x) < 1.02?

UP

Answer: For all x in (0.99, 1.01), or for all x such that 0.99 < x < 1.01.

• For which values of x do we have 0.9998 < f (x) < 1.0002?

Answer: For all x in (0.9999, 1.0001), or for all x such that 0.9999 < x < 1.0001.
In general, for any positive number ε, suppose we want to find a range of values for x so that

1 − ε < f (x) < 1 + ε or |f (x) − 1| < ε.

Then we can choose x satisfying

ε ε ε
1− <x<1+ or 0 < |x − 1| < .
2 2 2
Moreover, if ε is very, very close to zero, then the expression

|f (x) − 1| < ε

means that f (x) is very, very close to 1. This happens if we choose x such that
ε
0 < |x − 1| < ,
2
1.4. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: THE FORMAL DEFINITION 31

2 f (x) = 2x − 1

1+ε

(

ε
1 
ε
1−ε

)
|{z}|{z}
δ δ

( )
1 2
1−δ 1+δ
0

Figure 1.4.1: Given ε > 0, what is δ?

that is, if x is chosen to be very, very close to 1.

ic s
The illustration above summarizes to the following problem:

at
em
If ε is any positive number, what should δ be so that
|f (x) − 1| < ε whenever 0 < |x − 1| < δ?
h
at
M

ε
The solution above implies that we may choose δ to be .
2
of
e

Let f (x) be a function defined on some open interval containing a, except possibly at a. The limit
ut

of f (x) as x approaches a is L, written lim f (x) = L, if and only if for every ε > 0 (no matter how
tit

x→a
small) there exists a δ > 0 such that
s
In

|f (x) − L| < ε whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ.

UP

This definition formalizes our intuitive notion of a limit: that lim f (x) = L if f (x) can be made as
x→a
close as possible to L by taking values of x sufficiently close to a (but not equal to a). Recall that:

|f (x) − L| < ε ⇔ −ε < f (x) − L < ε ⇔ L − ε < f (x) < L + ε

0 < |x − a| < δ ⇔ −δ < x − a < δ, x − a 6= 0 ⇔ a − δ < x < a + δ, x 6= a
That is, the absolute value inequalities represent open intervals “centered” at L and at a. The
formal definition then says this: for any open interval Iy centered at L, there is a corresponding
open interval Jx “centered” at a such that whenever x is in Jx (but x 6= a), f (x) is guaranteed to
be in Iy . Because this can be done for any open interval Iy , the interval Iy can be chosen to be as
short as we like.

1.4.2 Proving Limits using the Definition

In the next examples, we illustrate how the definition is used to prove that the limit of a function
is a particular number.
32 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Example 1.4.2. Prove that lim (3x + 2) = 5.

x→1

Solution.
The solution is composed of two parts: the first part is to systematically guess what δ would be
sufficient, and the second part is to verify whether the guessed δ works.

I. Choosing a value for δ. Let ε be a positive number. We want to find a number δ such that

if 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then |(3x + 2) − 5| < ε.

Note that |(3x + 2) − 5| = |3x − 3| = 3|x − 1|. So, we want to satisfy the following:

if 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then 3|x − 1| < ε,

or

if 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then |x − 1| < ε/3.

ic s
ε

at
This suggests that we may take δ = .
3
II. Proof (verification that the chosen δ works).
em
Given any ε > 0, choose δ = ε/3.
h
at
If 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then
M

ε
|(3x + 2) − 5| = |3x − 3| = 3|x − 1| < 3δ = 3 = ε.
of

3
e

That is,
ut
tit

if 0 < |x − 1| < δ, then |(3x + 2) − 5| < ε.

s
In

Therefore, by the definition of a limit,

UP

lim (3x + 2) = 5.
x→1

Example 1.4.3. Prove that lim (5x + 6) = −4.

x→−2

Solution.

I. Choosing a value for δ. Let ε be a given positive number. We want to find a number δ such
that

if 0 < |x − (−2)| = |x + 2| < δ, then |(5x + 6) − (−4)| < ε.

Note that |(5x + 6) − (−4)| = |5x + 10| = 5|x + 2|. So, we want to satisfy the following:

if 0 < |x + 2| < δ, then 5|x + 2| < ε

1.4. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: THE FORMAL DEFINITION 33

or

if 0 < |x + 2| < δ, then |x + 2| < ε/5.

ε
This suggests that we may take δ = .
5
II. Proof (verification that the chosen δ works). Given any ε > 0, choose δ = ε/5.
If 0 < |x + 2| < δ, then
ε
|(5x + 6) − (−4)| = |5x + 10| = 5|x + 2| < 5δ = 5 = ε.
5
That is,

if 0 < |x − (−2)| < δ, then |(5x + 6) − (−4)| < ε.

Therefore, by the definition of a limit,

lim (5x + 6) = −4.

ic s
x→−2

at
Example 1.4.4. Prove that lim (4 − 3x) = 4.
h em
at
x→0
M

Solution.
of

I. Choosing a value for δ. Let ε be a positive number. We want to find a number δ such that
e
ut
tit

if 0 < |x − 0| = |x| < δ, then |(4 − 3x) − 4| < ε.

s
In

Note that |(4 − 3x) − 4| = | − 3x| = 3|x|. So, we want to satisfy the following:
UP

if 0 < |x| < δ, then 3|x| < ε

or

if 0 < |x| < δ, then |x| < ε/3.

ε
This suggests that we may take δ = .
3
II. Proof (verification that the chosen δ works). Given any ε > 0, choose δ = ε/3.
If 0 < |x − 0| < δ, then
ε
|(4 − 3x) − (4)| = 3|x| < 3δ = 3 = ε.
3
That is,

if 0 < |x − 0| < δ, then |(4 − 3x) − 4| < ε.

34 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Therefore, by the definition of a limit,

lim (4 − 3x) = 4.
x→0

Remark 1.4.5. The value of δ is not unique. Note that if a given δ works such that

if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < ε

then we can take any smaller positive δ0 ≤ δ such that

0 < |x − a| < δ0 .

The statement then becomes

if 0 < |x − a| < δ0 ≤ δ, then |f (x) − L| < ε.

ic s
at
Example 1.4.6. Prove that lim (x2 − 1) = 3.
em
x→−2
h
at
Solution.
M

I. Choosing a value for δ. Let ε be a positive number. We want to find a number δ such that
of
e
ut

if 0 < |x − (−2)| = |x + 2| < δ, then |(x2 − 1) − 3| < ε.

tit

Note that |(x2 − 1) − 3| = |x2 − 4| = |x − 2||x + 2|. So, we want to satisfy the following:
s
In
UP

if 0 < |x − (−2)| < δ, then |x − 2||x + 2| < ε.

Since we are just getting the limit of the function for values of x very close to −2, it is safe
to assume that
0 < |x + 2| < 1.

Thus,

−1 < x + 2 < 1 =⇒ −3 < x < −1 =⇒ −5 < x − 2 < −3 < 5 =⇒ |x − 2| < 5.

Summarizing, if |x + 2| < 1, one way to ensure that |(x2 − 1) − 3| <  is to ensure that
|x + 2| < ε/5. Thus, if |x + 2| is less than both 1 and ε/5, then we arrive at the desired
conclusion. This suggests that we may take δ to be the smaller of the two numbers, written
δ = min{1, ε/5}1 .
1
By δ = min{1, ε/5}, we mean that if 1 ≤ ε/5, δ may be chosen to be 1, and when ε/5 < 1, δ may be taken to
be ε/5.
1.4. LIMIT OF A FUNCTION: THE FORMAL DEFINITION 35

II. Proof (verification that the chosen δ works). Given any ε > 0, choose δ = min{1, ε/5}.
If 0 < |x − (−2)| = |x + 2| < δ, then
ε
|(x2 − 1) − 3| = |x2 − 4| = |x − 2||x + 2| < 5δ ≤ 5 = ε.
5
That is,

if 0 < |x − (−2)| < δ, then |(x2 − 1) − 3| < ε.

Therefore, by the definition of a limit,

lim (x2 − 1) = 3.
x→−2

Remark 1.4.7. If lim f (x) = L, observe that in one way or another, the expression |x − a| can
x→a
be factored (but it may not be easy to do so!) from the expression |f (x) − L|. This means that if

ic s
0 < |x − a| < δ, then

at
|f (x) − L| = |x − a||g(x)| < δ|g(x)|

h em
for some function g(x). In this case, if g(x) is a nonzero constant, say g(x) = c, then δ = ε/|c|. If
g(x) is an expression in x, we shall find an upper bound for |g(x)| by restricting values of x to a
at
certain interval about a.
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
36 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1.4.3 Exercises
Supplementary Exercises

A. Prove the following.

1. lim (5x − 3) = −3 4. lim (x2 + 2x − 3) = 0

x→0 x→1
2. lim (2x + 1) = −3 5. lim (2 − x2 ) = 1
x→−2 x→−1

3. lim (5 − 2x) = −1 6. lim (4 − 3x + x2 ) = 8

x→3 x→−1

B. Use the definition of the limit of a function to prove that lim f (x) = −6 if
x→− 43


2
 16x − 9 ,

x 6= − 34
f (x) = 4x + 3 .
2, x= − 34


ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS; THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 37

1.5 Continuity of Functions; The Intermediate Value Theorem

Notice that in the previous sections, to compute the limit of polynomial or rational functions as
x approaches a, we simply calculate the value of the function at a, if possible. We will see later
on that this property is a condition for possession of other “desirable” characteristics. Functions
satisfying that property are said to be continuous at x = a.

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• interpret the continuity of a function at a point using graphs;

• distinguish the types of discontinuity graphically;

• find the possible points of discontinuity of a function;

• identify the type of discontinuity as either removable, jump essential, or infinite

essential;

s
• redefine functions with removable discontinuities;

ic
at
• describe the continuity of a function on an interval;
h em
• evaluate limits and determine continuity of composite functions; and
at
M

• interpret the Intermediate Value Theorem using graphs and real life situations
of
e
ut

1.5.1 Continuity
tit

Continuity at a Point
s
In

A function f is said to be continuous at x = a if the following conditions are all satisfied:

UP

(i) f is defined at x = a

(ii) lim f (x) exists

x→a

(iii) f (a) = lim f (x)

x→a

Otherwise, f is said to be discontinuous at x = a.

Example 1.5.1. Let f (x) = x3 + x2 − 2. Let us examine the continuity of f at x = 1. First of all,
f (1) = 0. Moreover, lim f (x) = 0. Therefore, f is continuous at x = 1.
x→1

x2 − x − 2
Example 1.5.2. Let f (x) = . Since f is not defined at x = 2, f is discontinuous at
x−2
R
x = 2. However, it is continuous at every other a ∈ \ {2}.

Remark 1.5.3. In general, if f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is any element in the
domain of f , then f is continuous at x = a.
38 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Example 1.5.4. Let g be defined by

 2
 x −x−2
, x 6= 2
g(x) = x−2 .
0, x=2


Note that g is defined at x = 2 with g(2) = 0. However,

x2 − x − 2
lim g(x) = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3.
x→2 x→2 x−2 x→2

Since g(2) is not equal to lim g(x), g is discontinuous at x = 2.

x→2

Example 1.5.5. Let h be defined by

s
 2
 x − x − 2 , x 6= 2

ic
at
h(x) = x−2 .

em

3, x=2
h
at
For this function, we have h(2) = 3 = lim h(x). Therefore, h(x) is continuous at x = 2.
M

x→2
of
e

3x2 − 4x + 1
ut

4 f (x) = 3x − 1 4 g(x) =
x−1
tit

3 3
s
In

2 2
1 1
UP

0 1 2 0 1 2 3
−1 −1

3
1
h(x) = 2
x
1
Heaviside function H
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−1 1

−2
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
−3 −1

Figure 1.5.1: The figures above show graphs of various functions. The function whose graph appears
R
on the upper left is continuous at all a ∈ , while the other three graphs are those of functions
that are discontinuous at some a ∈ . R
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS; THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 39

1. If lim f (x) exists but either f (a) is undefined or f (a) 6= lim f (x), then we say that f has a
x→a x→a
removable discontinuity at x = a.

2. If lim f (x) does not exist, then we say that f has an essential discontinuity at x = a.
x→a
Moreover,

(a) if lim f (x) and lim f (x) both exist but are not equal, then f is said to have a jump
x→a− x→a+
essential discontinuity at x = a.
(b) if lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞, or lim f (x) = +∞ or −∞, then f is said to have an infinite
x→a− x→a+
essential discontinuity.

Example 1.5.6. Refer to Figure 1.5.1.

• For f (x) = 3x − 1, note that f (1) = 2 = lim (3x − 1), so f is continuous at x = 1.

s
x→1

ic
3x2 − 4x + 1 3x2 − 4x + 1

at
• For g(x) = , g(1) is undefined but lim = 2, so g has a removable

em
x−1 x→1 x−1
discontinuity at x = 1. h
at
1
• Take h(x) = . Then h is undefined at x = 0, while lim h(x) = −∞ and lim h(x) = +∞.
M

x x→0− x→0+
Thus, h has an infinite essential discontinuity at x = 0.
of

• Finally, for the Heaviside function H, we have H(0) = 1, lim H(x) = 0, and lim H(x) = 1.
e

x→0−
ut

x→0+
Therefore, H has a jump essential discontinuity at x = 0.
s tit

Remark 1.5.7. The discontinuity in statement 1 of Definition 1.5.1 is called removable, because
In

the discontinuity can be “removed” by redefining the value of f at a so that f (a) = lim f (x),
UP

x→a
resulting in a function that is now continuous at x = a. On the other hand, it is not possible to do
this for essential discontinuities.

Example 1.5.8. The function g in Example 1.5.4 has a removable discontinuity at x = 2, since
g(2) = 0 while lim g(x) = 3. However, if we redefine g at x = 2 such that g(2) = 3, then the
x→2
resulting function would be continuous at x = 2.

Example 1.5.9. Determine if the function


4x − 3,
 x<1
f (x) = x−2


2
, x≥1
2x − 5x + 2
is continuous at x = 1 and at x = 2. If discontinuous, classify the type of discontinuity as removable,
jump essential, or infinite essential.

Solution.
40 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

• x = 1:
1−2
(i) f (1) = =1
2−5+2
(ii) lim f (x) = lim (4x − 3) = 4(1) − 3 = 1
x→1− x→1−
x−2 1−2
(iii) lim f (x) = lim = =1
x→1+ x→1− 2x2 − 5x + 2 2−5+2
Thus, lim f (x) = 1 = f (1). Hence, f is continuous at x = 1.
x→1

• x = 2:
x−2
Note that f (x) = for values of x close enough to 2.
2x2 − 5x + 2

(i) f (2) is undefined

x−2 x−2 1 1
(ii) lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim =
x→2 x→2 2x2 − 5x + 2 x→2 (2x − 1)(x − 2) x→2 2x − 1 3
Hence, f has a removable discontinuity at x = 2.

s
Remark 1.5.10. In general, the discontinuities of a given function f may occur at points where

ic
f is undefined or, for the case of piecewise functions, at the endpoints of intervals. Such points are

at
aptly called the possible points of discontinuity of f .
h em R. Then the following are
at
Theorem 1.5.11. Let f and g be continuous at x = a and let c ∈
M

also continuous at x = a:
of

1. f + g f
4. provided that g(a) 6= 0
e

g
ut

2. f − g
tit

3. f g 5. cf
s
In

Similar to limits, we define continuity from the left and continuity from the right.
UP

1. A function f is said to be continuous from the left at x = a if

f (a) = lim f (x).

x→a−

2. A function f is said to be continuous from the right at x = a if

f (a) = lim f (x).

x→a+

√
Example 1.5.12. The function f defined by f (x) = 2 − x is continuous from the left at x = 2
but not from the right at x = 2 (since f is undefined for x > 2).
Example 1.5.13. Let g(x) = [[x]] be the greatest integer function. Then g is continuous from the
right at x = 1, but not continuous from the left at x = 1. In general, if n is any integer, then g is
continuous from the right at x = n, but not continuous from the left at x = n (recall the graph of
g(x) = [[x]]).
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS; THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 41

Continuity on an Interval

We can also consider continuity of functions on intervals. Being continuous on an interval means
that the graph of a function has no “gaps” or “holes” on that interval.
A function f is said to be continuous

1. everywhere if f is continuous at every real number.

2. on (a, b) if f is continuous at every point x in (a, b).

3. on [a, b) if f is continuous on (a, b) and from the right of a.

4. on (a, b] if f is continuous on (a, b) and from the left of b.

5. on [a, b] if f is continuous on (a, b] and on [a, b).

6. on (a, ∞) if f is continuous at all x > a.

7. on [a, ∞) if f is continuous on (a, ∞) and from the right of a.

ic s
8. on (−∞, b) if f is continuous at all x < b.

at
em
9. on (−∞, b] if f is continuous on (−∞, b) and from the left of b.
h
at
M

Remark 1.5.14.
of

1. Polynomial functions are continuous everywhere.

e
ut

2. The absolute value function f (x) = |x| is continuous everywhere.

s tit

3. Rational functions are continuous on their respective domains.

In

√
UP

4. The square root function f (x) = x is continuous on [0, ∞).

5. The greatest integer function f (x) = [[x]] is continuous on [n, n + 1), where n is any integer.

The following theorem allows us to get the limit of a composition of functions provided that certain
conditions are satisfied.

Theorem 1.5.15. If lim g(x) = b and f is continuous at b, then lim f (g(x)) = f (b). In other
x→a x→a
words, if f is continuous at lim g(x),
x→a
 
lim f (g(x)) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a

 
 x−2 
Example 1.5.16. Evaluate: lim  2
 
x→2 x − 4 

Solution.
42 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Since the absolute value function is continuous everywhere, we can apply the previous theorem:
     
 x−2   x − 2   1  1
lim   =  lim 2
 = −  =
x→2  x2 − 4  x→2 x − 4  4 4

Example 1.5.17. Evaluate: lim 3x2

 
1
x→ 3

Solution.
1 1
Since lim 3x2 = and the greatest integer function is continuous at x = , we have
x→
1 3 3
3
 
1
lim 3x2 =
 
= 0.
1
x→ 3 3

s
Theorem 1.5.18. If g is continuous at x = a and f is continuous at g(a), then (f ◦ g)(x) =

ic
at
f (g(x)) is continuous at x = a.

em
√
Example 1.5.19. Determine the largest interval for which h(x) =h x2 − 1 is continuous.
at
Solution.
M

√
Note that if a > 0, the square root function f (x) = x is continuous at x = a. Moreover,
√
of

g(x) = x2 − 1 is continuous everywhere. By the previous theorem, h(x) = x2 − 1 is continuous at

e

all a satisfying a2 − 1 > 0, or for all a in (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞). It is left to the reader to verify that
ut

h is continuous from the left at x = −1 and from the right at x = 1. Therefore, h is continuous on
tit

(−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).

s
In

Example 1.5.20. Determine the values of x where the function

UP

x−2


 , x ≤ −1
 2x + 6
f (x) =
2x2 + x − 6
, x > −1


|2x − 3|


is discontinuous. Classify each discontinuity as removable, jump essential, or infinite essential.

Solution.
The function f is undefined at x = −3 and at x = 32 , and its definition splits at x = −1. Thus, f
R
is continuous at each x ∈ , except possibly at x = −3, −1 and 32 . Moreover, note that
(
2x − 3, 2x − 3 ≥ 0 ⇔ x ≥ 23
|2x − 3| = .
−(2x − 3), 2x − 3 < 0 ⇔ x < 32

• x = −3:

(i) f (−3) is undefined

1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS; THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 43
 
x−2 −5
(ii) lim f (x) = lim = +∞
x→−3− x→−3− 2(x + 3) 2(0− )
 
x−2 −5
(iii) lim f (x) = lim = −∞
x→−3+ x→−3+ 2(x + 3) 2(0+ )
Thus, f has an infinite essential discontinuity at x = −3.

• x = −1:
−1 − 2 3
(i) f (−1) = =−
2(−1) + 6 4
x−2 3
(ii) lim f (x) = lim =−
x→−1− x→−1− 2x + 6 4
2
2x + x − 6 2x2 + x − 6 2−1−6
(iii) lim f (x) = lim = lim = = −1
x→−1+ x→−1+ |2x − 3| x→−1+ −(2x − 3) −(2(−1) − 3)
Thus, f has a jump essential discontinuity at x = −1.

• x = 23 :

ic s
3

at
(i) f 2 is undefined

em
2x2 + x − 6 (2x − 3)(x + 2) 7
(ii) lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim −(x + 2) = −
3−
x→ 2
3−
x→ 2
|2x − 3| x→
3 −
h −(2x − 3) x→
3 − 2
at
2 2
2x2+x−6 (2x − 3)(x + 2) 7
M

(iii) lim f (x) = lim = lim = lim (x + 2) =

3+ 3+ |2x − 3| 3 + 2x − 3 3 − 2
of

x→ 2 x→ 2 x→ 2 x→ 2
e

Thus, f has a jump essential discontinuity at x = 32 .

ut
tit

Example 1.5.21. Determine the values of x where the function

s
In

 1 1
 + , x<0
 x2 − x x

UP


g(x) = [[x − 1]] , 0≤x≤2


 √
x − 2,

x>2

is discontinuous. Classify each discontinuity as removable, jump essential, or infinite essential.

Solution.
Note that between 0 and 2, x − 1 is an integer when x = 1. Thus, the definition of the function
R
splits at x = 0, 1 and 2. Moreover, g is defined at all x ∈ . Thus, g is continuous everywhere
except possibly at 0, 1 and 2.

• x = 0:

(i) g(0) = [[0 − 1]] = −1

 
1 1 1 + (x − 1) 1
(ii) lim g(x) = lim + = lim = lim = −1
x→0 − x→0 − x(x − 1) x x→0 − x(x − 1) x→0 x − 1
−

(iii) lim g(x) = lim [[x − 1]] = lim (−1) = −1

x→0+ x→0+ x→0+
44 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Thus, g is continuous at x = 0.

• x = 1:

(i) g(1) = [[1 − 1]] = 0

(ii) lim g(x) = lim [[x − 1]] = lim (−1) = −1
x→1− x→1− x→1−
(iii) lim g(x) = lim [[x − 1]] = lim 0 = 0
x→1+ x→1+ x→0+

Thus, g has a jump essential discontinuity at x = 1.

• x = 2:

(i) g(2) = [[2 − 1]] = 1

(ii) lim g(x) = lim [[x − 1]] = lim 0 = 0
x→2− x→2− x→2−
√ √

(iii) lim g(x) = lim x − 2 = 0 0+
x→2+ x→2+

ic s
Thus, f has a removable discontinuity at x = 2.

at
1.5.2 The Intermediate Value Theorem h em
at
The next theorem gives an important property of continuous functions. It states that a continuous
M

function f on [a, b] takes on any value between the numbers f (a) and f (b).
of
e

Theorem 1.5.22 (Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)). Let f be continuous on a closed in-
ut

terval [a, b] with f (a) 6= f (b). For every k between f (a) and f (b), there exists c in (a, b) such
tit

that f (c) = k.
s
In
UP

f (b)

k (c, f (c))

a c b

f (a)

Figure 1.5.2: A graphical illustration for IVT

Geometrically, IVT states that if f is continuous on [a, b], then the graph of y = f (x) intersects
any horizontal line y = k between y = f (a) and y = f (b).

Remark 1.5.23.
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS; THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 45

1. The continuity of the function on [a, b] in IVT is required. In general, the theorem is not true
for functions that are discontinuous on [a, b].

2. The c in the conclusion of IVT may not be unique.

x−1
Example 1.5.24. Consider the function f (x) = .
x
1. Verify that the Intermediate Value Theorem holds for f in the interval [1, 3].

1
2. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to justify why there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = ,
3
and find the value of c.

Solution.

1. Since dom f is R \ {0} and f is continuous at every number in its domain, f is continuous on
2
[1, 3]. Moreover, f (1) = 0 and f (3) = , so f (1) 6= f (3). Thus, IVT holds for f in [1, 3].

s
3

ic
at
2
2. IVT guarantees that for every k between 0 and , there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = k.

em
3
1 2 h 1
Since is between 0 and , there exists c ∈ (1, 3) such that f (c) = . We solve for c:
at
3 3 3
M

1
f (c) =
of

3
c−1 1
e

=
ut

c 3
3c − 3 = c
tit

2c = 3
s
In

3
c =
2
UP

3
Thus, the desired c in the interval (1, 3) is c = .
2

Remark 1.5.25. Note that in using IVT (or any theorem), one must first verify that the theorem
holds before stating the conclusion of the theorem. For instance, in IVT, we must first show that the
function f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and that k is between f (a) and f (b) where f (a) 6= f (b)
before we can conclude that there exists c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = k.

The Intermediate Value Theorem can also be used to locate roots of equations, as illustrated in the
next example.

Example 1.5.26. Show that the equation

3x4 − 4x2 + 5x − 1 = 0

has a solution between 0 and 1.

46 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Solution.
Let f (x) = 3x4 −4x2 +5x−1. We wish to find c ∈ (0, 1) such that c is a root of the equation f (x) = 0
(that is, f (c) = 0). We check if IVT applies for f in (0, 1) with k = 0. Note that f is a polynomial
function so f is continuous on [0, 1]. Moreover, we have f (0) = −1 and f (1) = 3 − 4 + 5 − 1 = 3.
Hence, k = 0 is between f (0) and f (1). Therefore, the assumptions of IVT are satisfied, and we can
conclude that there exists c in (0, 1) such that f (c) = 0, that is, the equation 3x4 − 4x2 + 5x − 1 = 0
has at least one root c between 0 and 1.

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
1.5. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS; THE INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM 47

1.5.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Determine if f is continuous at all possible points of discontinuity. Classify each discontinuity

as removable, jump essential, or infinite essential. Redefine f so that it will be continuous at
every point of
removable discontinuity.
1

 , if x < 3
1. f (x) = x
2

 , if 3 ≤ x
9−x



 |x + 3|, if x ≤ 0


2. f (x) = [[2x]] , if 0 < x < 1

 2
x − 5x
, if x ≥ 1



x−5

3x + 3

 , if x < 1
x3√+ 1


3. f (x) = 2 + 2 − x, if 1 ≤ x ≤ 2

ic s


x2 − 6,

 if x > 2

at
em

 x + 2a, if x < −2

h
B. Find all values of a and b such that h(x) = 3ax + b, if − 2 ≤ x ≤ 1 is continuous every-
at

 3x − 2b, if x > 1
M

where.
of

C. Use IVT to prove the following.

e
ut

cos x
1. Show that p(x) = has a solution between 1 and 2.
tit

x
2. The graph of f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + x − 3 intersects the x-axis at least once between 3 and
s
In

4.
UP

Supplementary Exercises

A. Determine if f is continuous at all possible points of discontinuity. Classify each discontinuity

as removable, jump essential, or infinite essential. Redefine f so that it will be continuous at
every point of
removable discontinuity.

 |x + 6|, if x ≤ −1
1. f (x) = x2 − 6x + 9
 , if x > −1
x2 − 3x


x2 + 2x

, if x < 0


x+2


2. f (x) = |x − 1| + 1, if 0 ≤ x < 2



x2 − 2, if x ≥ 2

 2
x −x−2
, if x < 0


x−1

3. f (x) = √

 4 − x, if 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
 2
x − 5x + 4, if x > 4
48 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
 2
x −x−2
, if x < −1


x+2

4. f (x) = [[x]] + 1, if − 1 ≤ x < 1


|x + 2|, if x ≥ 1

 2
x − 3x + 2
, if x < 0


x−1


5. f (x) = [[x]] + [[−x]] , if 0 ≤ x < 2



x2 − 5, if x ≥ 2



 x, if x ≤ 0

 3, if 0 < x ≤ 1
B. Is the function g(x) = 2 continuous on [1, 4]? [0, 4)? (−∞, 0)?

 3 − x , if 1 < x ≤ 4

x − 3, if x > 4

(
x + 2, if x ≤ m
C. Find all values of m such that g(x) = is continuous everywhere.
x2 , if x > m

ic s
D. Use IVT to prove the following.

at
em
1. The equation x5 + 4x3 + 14 − 7x = 0 has at least one real solution.
h
2. Show that f (x) = x4 − 7x2 + x + 4 has at least two real zeros.
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
1.6. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY;THE SQUEEZE THEOREM49

1.6 Trigonometric Functions: Limits and Continuity;

The Squeeze Theorem
In the preceding sections, we considered the behavior of algebraic functions such as polynomial and
rational functions, and those that involve rational exponents and radicals. We now investigate the
limits and continuity of trigonometric functions.

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• interpret the Squeeze Theorem graphically;

• evaluate limits using Squeeze Theorem;

• apply theorems on limits and continuity to trigonometric functions; and

• evaluate limits of trigonometric functions using prescribed theorems

and techniques.

ic s
at
em
1.6.1 The Squeeze Theorem
h
We begin with an important theorem that is helpful in computing limits involving trigonometric
at
M

functions. In fact, this theorem is used in the proofs of other theorems in this section.
of

Theorem 1.6.1 (Squeeze Theorem). Let f (x), g(x) and h(x) be defined on some open interval
e
ut

I containing a except possibly at x = a such that

tit

f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x),

s
In

for all x ∈ I \ {a}. If lim f (x) and lim h(x) exist and are both equal to L ∈ R, then x→a
lim g(x) =
UP

x→a x→a
L.

Remark 1.6.2. With some modifications, “x → a” can be replaced by “x → a− ”, “x → a+ ”,

“x → +∞” and “x → −∞”.

The Squeeze Theorem, sometimes called the Sandwich Theorem, states that if g(x) is “squeezed”
between f (x) and h(x) near a, and if f and h have the same limit at a, then g must have the same
limit at a.
 
2 1
Example 1.6.3. Evaluate: lim x cos
x→0 x

Solution.  
1
Note that we cannot distribute the limit over the product since lim cos does not exist. How-
x→0 x
ever, we do know that for all real numbers x 6= 0,
 
1
−1 ≤ cos ≤ 1.
x
50 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

y = h(x)

y = g(x)

y = f (x)

Figure 1.6.1: An illustration of Squeeze Theorem

Since x2 is nonnegative, we may multiply all sides of the inequality by x2 to obtain

s
ic
 
2 1 2
≤ x2 .

at
−x ≤ x cos
x

Since
hem
at
lim (−x2 ) = lim x2 = 0,
M

x→0 x→0

we conclude by Squeeze Theorem that

of
e

 
1
ut

2
lim x cos = 0.
x→0 x
s tit
In

sin x
UP

Example 1.6.4. Evaluate: lim

x→+∞ x

Solution.
Note that lim sin x does not exist, while lim x = +∞. We will show, however, that the limit
x→+∞ x→+∞
of the quotient exists. Observe that whenever x > 0:

−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
1 sin x 1
− ≤ ≤
x x x
 
1 1 sin x
Now, lim − = 0 = lim . Thus, by Squeeze Theorem, lim = 0.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x

2 [[x]] + 1
Example 1.6.5. Evaluate: lim
x→−∞ x

Solution.
1.6. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY;THE SQUEEZE THEOREM51

Note that lim [[x]] + 1 = −∞, while lim x = −∞. Observe that whenever x < 0:
x→−∞ x→−∞

x−1 ≤ [[x]] x ≤
2x − 2 ≤ 2 [[x]]2x ≤
2x − 1 ≤ 2 [[x]] + 1
2x + 1≤
2x − 1 2 [[x]] + 1
2x + 1
≥ ≥
x x x
! !
2 − x1 1
   
2x − 1 2x + 1 2+ x
Since lim = lim = 2, and lim = lim = 2, we
x→−∞ x x→−∞ 1 x→−∞ x x→−∞ 1
2 [[x]] + 1
get lim = 2 by Squeeze Theorem.
x→+∞ x
We now present the following special trigonometric limits.

Theorem 1.6.6.
sin x 3. lim sin x = 0

ic s
1. lim =1 x→0
x→0 x

at
1 − cos x

em
2. lim =0 4. lim cos x = 1
x→0 x h x→0
at
sin(4x)
Example 1.6.7. Evaluate: lim
M

x→0 x
of

Solution.
e

First of all, note that the argument of sine is 4x, while the denominator is simply x. To compute
ut

the limit, we multiply both the numerator and denominator by 4. We have

stit

sin(4x) 4 4 sin(4x)
In

lim · = lim .
x→0 x 4 x→0 4x
UP

sin(4x)
Note that x → 0 if and only if 4x → 0. Applying the theorem, we have lim = 1, and so,
x→0 4x
4 sin(4x)
lim = 4.
x→0 4x

Remark 1.6.8.
x
1. lim =1
x→0 sin x
x 1 1
This is because lim = lim = = 1.
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x 1
x
x
2. lim 6= 0
x→0 1 − cos x
x 1 1
Similar to the previous item, lim = lim = 6= 0.
x→0 1 − cos x x→0 1 − cos x 0
x
52 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

x2
Example 1.6.9. Evaluate: lim
x→0 sin(3x2 )

Solution.

x2 3x2
 
3 1 1 1
lim · = lim · = (1) =
x→0 sin(3x2 ) 3 x→0 3 sin(3x2 ) 3 3

sin(x2 − 1)
Example 1.6.10. Evaluate: lim
x→−1 x+1

Solution.

sin(x2 − 1) x − 1 sin(x2 − 1)
lim · = lim · (x − 1) = 1(−2) = −2
x→−1 x+1 x − 1 x→−1 x2 − 1

tan x

s
Example 1.6.11. Evaluate: lim

ic
x→0 x

at
em
Solution.

tan x sin x 1
h
at
lim = lim · = 1(1) = 1
x→0 x x→0 x cos x
M
of

sin(3x)
Example 1.6.12. Evaluate: lim
e

x→0 sin(5x)
ut
tit

Solution.
s
In

 
sin(3x) 3x 5 3 sin(3x) 5x 3 3
lim · · = lim · · = (1)(1) =
UP

x→0 sin(5x) 3x 5 x→0 5 3x sin(5x) 5 5

tan(3x)
Example 1.6.13. Evaluate: lim
x→0+ 1 − cos2 (2x)

Solution.

tan(3x) tan(3x)
lim = lim
x→0+ 1 − cos2 (2x) x→0+sin2 (2x)
sin(3x) 3 2 x
= lim · · ·
x→0+ cos(3x) sin2 (2x) 3 2 x
3 sin(3x) 2x 1
= lim · · ·
x→0+ 2 3x  sin(2x)
  cos(3x) sin(2x)
3 1
= +∞ (1)(1)
2 (1)(0+ )
1 − cos x
Example 1.6.14. Evaluate: lim
x→0 x2
1.6. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY;THE SQUEEZE THEOREM53

Solution.
1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1
Note that lim 2
= lim · , and whether one takes the limit as x → 0− or as
x→0 x x→0 x x
x → 0+ , the form is 0 · ∞. We therefore wish to rewrite the function such that the resulting limit
is not indeterminate. The trick is to multiply the numerator and denominator by 1 + cos x:

1 − cos x 1 − cos x 1 + cos x

lim 2
= lim ·
x→0 x x→0 x2 1 + cos x
1 − cos x 2 1
= lim ·
x→0 x2 1 + cos x
sin2 x 1
= lim 2
·
x→0 x 1 + cos x
 2
sin x 1
= lim ·
x→0 x 1 + cos x
 
1
= (1)2
2
1
= .

ic s
2

at
1.6.2 Continuity of Trigonometric Functions h em
at
The next theorem, which is a consequence of the Squeeze Theorem, deals with the continuity of
M

trigonometric functions.
of
e

Theorem 1.6.15.
ut
tit

1. lim cos x = cos a and lim sin x = sin a

x→a x→a
s
In

2. The trigonometric functions are continuous on their respective domains.

UP

Remark 1.6.16. By the previous theorem, we can conclude that if f is a trigonometric function
and a ∈ dom f , then
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a

Example 1.6.17. Evaluate the following limits.

1. limπ tan x
x→ 4

Solution.

π
limπ tan x = tan =1
x→ 4 4

1 − cos x
2. lim
x→π x
Solution.
54 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
   
1 − cos x lim 1 − lim cos x 1 − cos π 2
lim = x→π  x→π  = =
x→π x lim x π π
x→π

3. lim sin x2 − 1


x→1

Solution.
Since the sine function is continuous everywhere and lim (x2 − 1) = 0, we have
x→1
 
2 2


lim sin x − 1 = sin lim (x − 1) = sin 0 = 0.
x→1 x→1

 
1
4. lim cos
x→+∞ x
Solution.
1
Since the cosine function is continuous everywhere and lim = 0, we have

s
x→+∞ x

ic
at
   
1 1
lim cos = cos lim = cos 0 = 1.

em
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
h
at
 
1 − cos x
5. lim tan
M

x→0 x
of

Solution.
1 − cos x
e

Since lim = 0 and the tangent function is continuous at x = 0, we have

ut

x→0 x
tit

   
1 − cos x 1 − cos x
s

lim tan = tan lim = tan 0 = 0.

In

x→0 x x→0 x
UP

6. lim cot x
x→π +

Solution.
If f (x) = cot x, then π ∈
/ dom f , so we cannot use the preceding remark to compute this limit.
cos x
However, we may use the identity cot x = . Since sin x → 0− as x → π from the right, we
sin x
have  
cos x −1
lim cot x = lim = ∞.
x→π + x→π sin x
+ 0−
1.6. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY;THE SQUEEZE THEOREM55

1.6.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Evaluate the following limits.

sin(x2 + x − 2) 6. lim x csc 3x

1. lim x→0
x→1 x−1 7. lim 2x cos(2x) csc(4x)
sin 3x x→0
2. lim
x→0 sin 4x 3y − sin(4y)
x 8. lim
3. lim y→0 y
x→0 tan x
+

1 − cos 5x + tan 3x x2 − 3 sin x

4. lim 9. lim
x→0− sin 2x x→0 x
x tan 5x 3
tan (3x)
5. lim 10. lim
x→0 sin2 2x x→0 3x3

B. Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate the following limits.

ic s
sin x + 3 cos x
 
1

at
1. lim x sin 2. lim
x→0+ x2 x→+∞ x
hem
C. Test the following function for continuity at x = −3, −2, 0, and π:
at
M

x+2

 |x + 5x + 6| , if x < 0


 2
of

f (x) = x csc x
, if 0 < x ≤ π
2
e



ut


 x + π, if x > π
tit

Supplementary Exercises
s
In

A. Evaluate the following limits.

UP

sin4 (2x) sin(sin t)

1. lim 8. lim
x→0 4x4 t→0 t
2 sin x − 1
 
1
2. lim x 1 − cos 9. limπ
x→−∞ x x→ 6x − π
6
sin(4x − 8) cos x − cos 3
3. lim 2 10. lim
x→2 4x − 5x − 6 x→3 x−3
sin(4x) sin πx


4. lim 4 −1
x→0 |x| 11. lim
  x→2 2x − 4
1 π−x
5. lim sin 12. lim
x→0 + x x→π sin x
1 − cos 2x + tan2 x
 
1
6. lim x sin 13. lim
x→+∞ x2 x→0 x sin 2x
t (2x − π) cos x
7. lim π 14. limπ
t→0 cos( − t)
2
x→ 2 1 − sin x
56 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

B. Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate the following limits.

2x3 + 1 + 5 cos x [[2x − 1]]

1. lim 2. lim
x→−∞ 3x3 x→+∞ x

C. Given:  2
x −x−2

 , if x ≤ 0
x2 − 1


f (x) = sin 4x
, if 0 < x ≤ 1
 2 2x



x + 3x − 1, if x > 1
Discuss the continuity of f at x = −1, 0, and 1. Classify each discontinuity as jump essential,
infinite essential, or removable.

D. Miscellaneous Problems.
x+2


2
, if x < 0
 |x + 5x + 6|


1. Let F (x) = sin x , where a is a real number.

s
, if 0 < x ≤ π

ic
3x



at

ax + π, if x > π


em
i. Test f for continuity at x = −3, −2, and 0. Classify each discontinuity as removable,
jump essential or infinite essential.
h
at
ii. Find the value of a that will make f continuous at x = π.
M

iii. If a is not equal to the value in the previous item, identify the type of discontinuity
of

that f has at x = π.
e

2. If 2x ≤ f (x) ≤ 3x2 − 16 for all x ≤ 0, find lim f (x).

ut

x→−2
tit

3. Use the Squeeze Theorem to find lim g(x) given that

x→5
s
In

|g(x) − 8| < 3(x − 5)2 ,

UP

for all x ∈ R \ {5}.

4. Prove that lim f (x) = 0 if and only if lim |f (x)| = 0.
x→0 x→0
5. Let f and g be functions such that |f (x)| ≤ 2 and lim |g(x)| = 0. Use the Squeeze
x→a
Theorem to verify that lim f (x)g(x) = 0.
x→a
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 57

1.7 New Classes of Functions: Limits and Continuity

In this section, we study new classes of functions. We recall inverse functions and in particular,
exponential and logarithmic functions. We also revisit the inverse circular functions. We review
the properties and graphs of these functions.
After, we introduce new types of functions, the hyperbolic functions and inverse hyperbolic func-
tions, and examine their properties and graphs. Our goal is to investigate the limits and continuity
of all aforementioned functions.

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• recall the basic concepts of inverse functions;

• recall the properties and graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions;

• define and identify the properties of the inverse circular functions, the hyperbolic
functions, and the inverse hyperbolic functions;

ic s
• familiarize themselves with the graphs of the inverse circular functions, the hyper-

at
bolic functions, and the inverse hyperbolic functions;

em
• apply theorems on limits and continuity to exponential, logarithmic, inverse
h
at
circular, hyperbolic, and inverse hyperbolic function.
M
of
e

1.7.1 Inverse Functions

ut
tit

Let us revisit the definition of inverse functions and their properties. This will prepare us in our
study of the exponential and logarithmic functions in the next subsection,
s
In

If the functions f and g satisfy

UP

(f ◦ g)(x) = x for all x ∈ dom g, and

(g ◦ f )(x) = x for all x ∈ dom f ,

then we say f and g are inverse functions of each other. We write,

g = f −1 or g = f −1 .

Example 1.7.1. The functions f (x) = −2x + 4 and g(x) = − 12 x + 2 are inverse functions of each
other. Indeed,

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (− 12 x + 2) = −2(− 21 x + 2) + 4 = x, and

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(−2x + 4) = − 12 (−2x + 4) + 2 = x.

Hence, we can write f −1 (x) = 21 x + 2.

We note that not every function has an inverse. We define a class of functions that always possesses
an inverse.
58 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

A function f is a one-to-one function if for all x1 , x2 ∈ dom f with x1 6= x2 , f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).

Remark 1.7.2. (Horizontal Line Test) A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line
intersects its graph more than once.

We present the following important theorem that will guarantee the existence of an inverse.

Theorem 1.7.3. A function f has an inverse if and and only if it is one-to-one.

Example 1.7.4. The function g(x) = x2 is not one-to-one. Indeed, g(1) = g(−1) = 1, so it violates
the definition of one-to-one function. Further, the horizontal line y = 1 intersects the graph of g in
two points. Based on the theorem above, g has no inverse function.

Remark 1.7.5. Let f be a one-to-one function.

1. We have y = f (x) if and only if x = f −1 (y).

s
2. The domains and range of f and f −1 are related. Indeed,

ic
at
em
dom f −1 = ran f and ran f −1 = dom f .
h
3. The graph of f −1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of f about the line y = x.
at
M

4. We have the following cancellation equations:

of

f −1 (f (x)) = x for all x ∈ dom f , f (f −1 (x)) = x for all x ∈ dom f −1 .

e
ut
tit

5. To find the inverse function f −1 , we write y = f (x) and then solve for x in terms of y to obtain
s

x = f −1 (y). Finally, interchange x and y to get y = f −1 (x).

In

4x − 1
UP

Example 1.7.6. Find the inverse of f (x) = .

2x + 3

Solution.
4x − 1
Following the remark above, we write y = . We then solve for x in terms of y. We get
2x + 3
3y + 1 3x + 1
f −1 (y) = x = . Hence, f −1 (x) = .
4 − 2y 4 − 2x

1.7.2 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

In this section, we recall the exponential and logarithmic functions and review their properties.
These functions are important in studying different phenomena in the natural sciences, such as
population growth and decay, radioactive decay, acidity of chemicals and earthquakes.
Let a > 0 and a 6= 1. The exponential function with base a is given by f (x) = ax , where
x∈ .R
Exponential functions can be classified into two types: those with base greater than 1, and those
with base between 0 and 1. The fundamental distinction between the two classes is that if a > 1,
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 59

then p < q implies ap < aq ; whereas if 0 < a < 1, then p < q implies ap > aq . The graphs of these
functions are found in Figure 1.7.1. Note that exponential functions are continuous everywhere.
It is good to remember the graphs of these functions as they serve as visual aids in remembering
their properties, such as their behavior as x → +∞ or as x → −∞, and where the functions are
increasing or decreasing.

f (x) = ax
f (x) = ax 0<a<1
(0, 1) a>1
(0, 1)

Figure 1.7.1: Graphs of Exponential Functions

Remark 1.7.7. Let f (x) = ax with a > 0 and a 6= 1. Then we have the following:

ic s
R and ran f = (0, +∞).

at
1. dom f =

2. f is one-to-one and continuous on R. em

h
at
3. If a > 1, then f is increasing onR, x→+∞
lim ax = +∞ and lim ax = 0.
M

x→−∞

4. If 0 < a < 1, then f is decreasing on R, lim ax = 0 and lim ax = +∞.

of

x→+∞ x→−∞
e
ut

Because the exponential function with base a is one-to-one, it has an inverse function, called the
tit

logarithmic function with base a.

s

Let a > 0 and a 6= 1. The logarithmic function with base a, denoted by loga , is the inverse
In

function of the exponential function with base a; that is,

UP

y = loga x if and only if x = ay .

Hence, the logarithm of x to the base a is the exponent to which a must be raised to obtain x.
Following the inverse relationship of exponentials and logarithms, we have loga (ax ) = x for all
R
x ∈ and aloga x = x for all x > 0.

As with exponential functions, logarithmic functions can be classified into those with base greater
than 1 and those with base between 0 and 1. The graphs of these functions are given in Figure 1.7.2.
Again, note the continuity of these functions on their domains.

Remark 1.7.8. Let f (x) = loga x with a > 0 and a 6= 1. Then we have the following:

1. dom f = (0, +∞) and ran f = R.

2. f is one-to-one and continuous on (0, +∞).
60 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

f (x) = loga x f (x) = loga x

a>1 0<a<1

(1, 0)
(1, 0)

Figure 1.7.2: Graphs of Logarithmic Functions

3. If a > 1, then f is increasing on (0, +∞), lim loga x = +∞ and lim loga x = −∞.
x→+∞ x→0+

4. If 0 < a < 1, then f is decreasing on (0, +∞), lim loga x = −∞ and lim loga x = +∞.
x→+∞ x→0+

Table 1.7.1 gives additional properties of exponentials and logarithms.

s
R R

ic
a, b > 0, r, s ∈ a, b, m, n > 0, a, b 6= 1, c ∈

at
a0 = 1, a1 = a loga 1 = 0

em
ar as = ar+s loga a = 1
ar
h
= ar−s loga mn = loga m + loga n
at
as m
M

(ar )s = ars loga = loga m − loga n

n
of

(ab)x = ax bx log c
a m = c loga m
 a x ax 1
e

= x loga = − loga m
ut

b b m
tit

1 logb m 1
a−r = r loga m = =
a logb a logm a
s
In

Table 1.7.1: Laws of Exponents and Logarithms

UP

Example 1.7.9. Rewrite 22x · 5x as an exponential expression with a single base.

Solution.
By the laws of exponents, we have
22x · 5x = (22 )x · 5x = 4x · 5x = (4 · 5)x = 20x .
272x
Example 1.7.10. Rewrite as an exponential expression in base 3.
(9x+2 )2−x
Solution.
Using laws of exponents, we get
272x (33 )2x (3)6x 2 2
= = = 36x−(8−2x ) = 32x +6x−8 .
(9x+2 )2−x (32 )(2+x)(2−x) (3)2(4−x2 )
Example 1.7.11. Find the exact value of log2 6 − log2 15 + log2 20.

Solution.
Because of the laws of logarithms, we have
6 (6)(20)
log2 6 − log2 15 + log2 20 = log2 + log2 20 = log2 = log2 8 = 3.
15 15
Example 1.7.12. Solve for x: 32 log3 2 − 3x+2 = 2.
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 61

2
32 log3 2 − 3x+2 = 3log3 2 − 32 · 3x = 4 − 9 · 3x .

Therefore, the equation becomes

2 2
4 − 9 · 3x = 2 ⇐⇒ 9 · 3x = 2 ⇐⇒ 3x = ⇐⇒ x = log3 .
9 9
2x + 3x
Example 1.7.13. Evaluate lim .
x→+∞ 6x

Solution.
We recall that lim ax = 0, whenever 0 < a < 1. Thus, we get
x→+∞
 x  x 
2x + 3x 2x 3x
 
1 1
lim = lim + = lim + = 0.
x→+∞ 6x x→+∞ 6x 6x x→+∞ 3 2

In the next chapter, we will compute the derivative of logarithmic functions. In doing so, the
1
existence of lim (1 + h) h is crucial. This limit exists, but advanced concepts beyond the scope
h→0

ic s
of this course are needed to establish this fact rigorously. Instead, we estimate its value to a few
1

at
decimal places by computing (1 + h) h for values of h very near 0. The limit shall be called Euler’s

em
number and denoted by e.
1
h 1
at
h (1 + h) h h (1 + h) h
M

0.5 2.25 -0.5 4

0.1 2.593742460 -0.1 2.867971991
of

0.01 2.704813829 -0.01 2.731999026

e
ut

0.0001 2.718145927 -0.0001 2.718417728

tit

0.00000001 2.718281815 -0.00000001 2.718281842

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
s
In

0+ e− 0− e+
UP

1
Euler’s number e is defined as e = lim (1 + h) h .
h→0

Remark 1.7.14. The number e is irrational, and to the first 15 decimal places,

e = 2.718281828459045 . . . .

1. The natural exponential function is given by f (x) = ex .

2. The natural logarithmic function is given by f (x) = ln x = loge x.

Remark 1.7.15. Let a, b > 0 and a, b 6= 1. Then we have the following:

62 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

1. ln ex = x for all x ∈ R. x
4. ax = eln a = ex ln a = (ex )ln a for all x ∈ R.
2. eln x = x for all x > 0.
logb x ln x
3. ln e = 1. 5. loga x = = for all x > 0.
logb a ln a

Items 4 and 5 in the previous remark show that any exponential or logarithmic function can
be expressed in terms of the natural exponential function or the natural logarithmic function,
respectively.
1
Example 1.7.16. Determine the domain of f (x) = .
1 − ex

Solution.
For the function to be defined, the denominator should not be zero. Now, the denominator is zero
exactly when ex = 1, that is, x = ln 1 = 0. Hence, dom f = \ {0}. R
Example 1.7.17. Express 3x+2 in terms of the natural exponential function.

ic s
at
Solution.

em
Using the remark above, we have
x+2 )
h
at
3x+2 = eln (3 = (ex+2 )ln 3 .
M

Example 1.7.18. Express as a single logarithm: ln 5 + 2 ln 3.

of
e
ut

Solution.
tit

Applying the laws of logarithms, we have

s
In

ln 5 + 2 ln 3 = ln 5 + ln 32 = ln(5)(32 ) = ln 45.
UP

Example 1.7.19. Solve for x: ln(x + 1) − ln(x − 2) = 2.

Solution.  
x+1
We have ln(x + 1) − ln(x − 2) = ln . Thus,
x−2

2e2 + 1
 
x+1 x+1
ln =2 ⇐⇒ = e2 ⇐⇒ x + 1 = e2 x − 2e2 ⇐⇒ x= .
x−2 x−2 e2 − 1

e−x − 2
Example 1.7.20. Evaluate lim .
x→−∞ e−x + 2

Solution.
Recall that since e > 1 we have lim ex = 0. Thus, we have
x→−∞

e−x − 2 e−x − 2 ex 1 − 2ex 1−0

lim = lim · = lim = = 1.
x→−∞ e−x + 2 x→−∞ e−x + 2 ex x→−∞ 1 + 2ex 1+0
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 63

1.7.3 Inverse Circular Functions

We now apply techniques of basic calculus to another familiar class of functions: the inverses of the
circular functions. Recall that the circular functions are periodic; a fortiori they are not one-to-one.
In order to define the inverse of each such function, we restrict the domain of each to a set over
which the corresponding circular function is one-to-one.

1. The inverse sine function, denoted sin−1 , is defined as follows:

y = sin−1 x if and only if x = sin y, y ∈ − π2 , π2 .

 

2. The inverse cosine function, denoted cos−1 , is defined as follows:

y = cos−1 x if and only if x = cos y, y ∈ [0, π] .

3. The inverse tangent function, denoted tan−1 , is defined as follows:

 π π
y = tan−1 x if and only if x = tan y, y ∈ − ,

s
.

ic
2 2

at
em
4. The inverse cotangent function, denoted cot−1 , is defined as follows:
h
y = cot−1 x if and only if x = cot y, y ∈ (0, π) .
at
M

5. The inverse secant function, denoted sec−1 , is defined as follows:

of

h π   3π 
e

y = sec−1 x if and only if x = sec y, y ∈ 0, ∪ π, .

ut

2 2
stit

6. The inverse cosecant function, denoted csc−1 , is defined as follows:

In

 πi  πi
UP

y = csc−1 x if and only if x = csc y, y ∈ −π, − ∪ 0, .

2 2

Example 1.7.21. Evaluate the following.

√ ! √ !
3 3
1. sin−1 3. tan−1 −
2 3
√
√

2. sec−1 − 2 4. csc−1 − 2

Solution. √ !
3 π
√ ! 3. tan−1 − =−
−1 3 π 3 6
1. sin =
2 3
√
3π
√
5π 4. csc−1 − 2 = −
2. sec−1 − 2 = 4
4
64 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Example 1.7.22.
 
−1 9π
1. Evaluate: sin sin .
7
Solution.
    
−1 9π −1 2π 2π
sin sin = sin sin − =− .
7 7 7
  
1
2. Evaluate: sin cos−1 .
4
Solution.
 
1 1
Let k = cos−1 . Then, cos k = where k ∈ ran cos−1 = [0, π] . We may now rewrite the
4 4
given as   
−1 1
sin cos = sin k.
4
Solving for sin k, we have that

s
ic
at
sin2 k = 1 − cos2 k,

and h em
at
p
sin k = 1 − cos2 k
M

r
1
of

= 1−
16
√
e

15
ut

=
4
stit

since sin k ≥ 0 for k ∈ [0, π]. Thus,

In

   √
−1 1 15
UP

sin cos = .
4 4
" √ !#
3
3. Evaluate: sec sin−1 .
5

Solution.
√ ! √
−1 3 3 h π πi
Let k = sin . Then, sin k = where k ∈ ran sin−1 = − , . We may now
5 5 2 2
rewrite the given as
" √ !#
3
sec sin−1 = sec k.
5
√
3
Before solving for sec k, observe that sin k = ≥ 0 indicates that k ∈ [0, π]. Thus,
h π πi h πi 5
k∈ − , ∩ [0, π] = 0, .
2 2 2
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 65

Now, solving for sec k, we have that

sec2 k = 1 + tan2 k,

so that
p
sec k = 1 + tan2 k
r
sin2 k
= 1+
s cos2 k
sin2 k
= 1+
1 − sin2 k
v
u √
2
u 3/5
= 1+
t √
2
1 − 3/5
5
=√
22

ic s
h πi
since sec k > 0 for k ∈ 0, . Thus,

at
2

em
" √ !#
3 5
sec sin−1
h =√
at
5 22
M
of
e
ut

3π
y= 2
tit

π
(1, 2
)
π
y=
s

2
In

(−1, π) f (x) = sec−1 x

f (x) = tan−1 x
UP

π
y= 2
f (x) = sin−1 x
y = − π2
(−1, − π2 ) (1, 0)

π
(1, 2
)

(−1, π)
f (x) = cos−1 x y=π f (x) = csc−1 x
(−1, − π2 )

f (x) = cot−1 x
y = −π
(1, 0)

Figure 1.7.3: Graphs of inverse circular functions

The graphs of the inverse circular functions defined above are shown in Figure 1.7.3. From these
graphs, one can predict the behavior of each inverse circular function and deduce some limit state-
ments involving them.
66 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Example 1.7.23.

1. From the graph of tan−1 x, we can infer the following statements involving limits at infinity:

π π
lim tan−1 x = and lim tan−1 x = − .
x→ +∞ 2 x→ −∞ 2

Similarly, we infer the following from the graphs of sec−1 x and csc−1 x:

π 3π
lim sec−1 x = , lim sec−1 x = ,
x→ +∞ 2 x→ −∞ 2

lim csc−1 x = 0 and, lim csc−1 x = −π.

x→ +∞ x→ −∞

ic s
2. Evaluate: lim π.
x→ +∞
tan−1 x −

at
2
Solution.
Note that as x → +∞, tan−1 x approaches
π π
h em
at
from values less than . Thus,
2 2
M

 
1 1
of

lim −1 π = −∞
x→ +∞ tan x− 2 0−
e
ut

3. Evaluate: lim tan−1 (ex ).

tit

x→ −∞
s
In

Solution.
Observe from the graph of ex that lim ex = 0. Now,
UP

x→ −∞
 
−1 x −1 x
lim tan (e ) = tan lim e
x→ −∞ x→ −∞

= tan−1 (0)
= 0.

Passing the limit to the inner function is permissible in this situation due to the continuity of
tan−1 x at x = 0.

1.7.4 Hyperbolic Functions

We now introduce another new class of functions, arising from the natural exponential function.
They are called hyperbolic functions and have properties very similar to the circular functions.
Each circular function has a hyperbolic analogue, and we will see in Theorems 1.7.25 that identities
involving these new functions will look very much like those involving their corresponding circular
analogues.
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 67

1. The hyperbolic sine function, denoted sinh, is defined by

ex − e−x
sinh x = ,
2
for any x ∈ R.
2. The hyperbolic cosine function, denoted cosh, is defined by

ex + e−x
cosh x = ,
2
for any x ∈ R.
3. The hyperbolic tangent function, denoted tanh, is defined by

ex − e−x
tanh x = ,
ex + e−x
R.

s
for any x ∈

ic
at
4. The hyperbolic cotangent function, denoted coth, is defined by
h
coth x = em
ex + e−x
,
at
ex − e−x
M

for any x 6= 0.
of

5. The hyperbolic secant function, denoted sech, is defined by

e
ut

2
tit

sech x = ,
ex + e−x
s

R.
In

for any x ∈
UP

6. The hyperbolic cosecant function, denoted csch, is defined by

2
csch x = ,
ex − e−x
for any x 6= 0.

Example 1.7.24.
e0 − e−0 1−1
1. sinh 0 = = =0
2 2
1
eln 2 + e− ln 2 eln 2 + eln 2 2+ 1
2 5
2. cosh(ln 2) = = = =
2 2 2 4
1
eln 25 − e− ln 25 eln 25 − eln(1/25) 25 − 25 624 312
3. tanh(2 ln 5) = tanh(ln 25) = ln 25 − ln 25
= = 1 = = .
e +e eln 25 + eln( /25)
1
25 + 25
626 313
68 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

y=1

f (x) = sinh x f (x) = tanh x

f (x) = sech x
(0, 1)
y = −1

f (x) = coth x
f (x) = csch x
y=1

y = −1

(0, 1) f (x) = cosh x

ic s
Figure 1.7.4: Graphs of hyperbolic functions

at
Identities Involving Hyperbolic Functions h em
at
M

Theorem 1.7.25.
1 1 1
of

1. sech x = , csch x = , coth x =

cosh x sinh x tanh x
e
ut

sinh x cosh x
2. tanh x = , coth x =
tit

cosh x sinh x
s

3. cosh x + sinh x = ex
In
UP

4. cosh x − sinh x = e−x

5. cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1

6. 1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x

7. 1 − coth2 x = − csch2 x

8. sinh(x ± y) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y

9. cosh(x ± y) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y

10. sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x

11. cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 1 + 2 sinh2 x = 2 cosh2 x − 1

Proof. We shall prove statements 3, 5 and 8 only.

ex + e−x ex − e−x ex + e−x + ex − e−x
cosh x + sinh x = + = = ex
2 2 2
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 69

cosh2 x − sinh2 x = (cosh x + sinh x)(cosh x − sinh x) = ex · e−x = 1

ex − e−x e + e−y e + e−x e − e−y

  y   x  y 
sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y = +
2 2 2 2
ex+y +e x−y −e−x+y −e −x−y +e x+y −e x−y + e−x+y − e−x−y
=
4
2ex+y − 2e−x−y ex+y − e−(x+y)
= = = sinh(x + y)
4 2

12
Example 1.7.26. If tanh x = , find the values of the other hyperbolic functions of x.
13

Solution.
13
We readily have coth x = . Now, since sech x > 0 for all x, using the identities above we obtain
12

ic s
s  2
12 5

at
p
sech x = 1 − tanh2 x = 1− = .
13 13

13
hem
at
This implies that cosh x = . Using another identity, we get
5
M
of

12 13 12
sinh x = tanh x cosh x = · = .
13 5 5
e
ut

5
tit

Finally, we get csch x = .

12
s
In
UP

Why they are called Hyperbolic Functions

In the same way that points with coordinates (cos t, sin t) are on the unit circle, the points with
coordinates (cosh t, sinh t) are on the unit hyperbola, which has equation x2 − y 2 = 1. In particular,
they are on the right “branch” of the hyperbola. Those on the other branch have coordinates
(− cosh t, sinh t). See Figure 1.7.5.

(cos t, sin t)

(cosh t, sinh t)

x2 − y 2 = 1

x2 + y 2 = 1

Figure 1.7.5: Circular functions versus Hyperbolic functions

70 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Applications of Hyperbolic Functions

As mentioned earlier, hyperbolic functions have several applications, such as understanding the
behavior of hanging cables, electric current, and waves. A telephone or electrical wire suspended
between fixed ends at the same height forms a curve described by a function involving the hyperbolic
cosine function. We clarify that the graph of y = a cosh[b(x − c)] + d is not a parabola, but is
a catenary, from the Latin word catena for chain. In fact, it can be shown that a catenary
always outgrows a parabola having the same vertex and opening in the same direction. Hyperbolic
functions are also used in describing current flow in electrical wires. Similarly, the hyperbolic
tangent function is used in models describing the velocity of (idealized) ocean waves.

1.7.5 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

We recall that the inverse of a function can be defined only when the function is one-to-one. Among
the hyperbolic functions, only the hyperbolic cosine and secant functions are not one-to-one. We
restrict the domain of these functions to [0, +∞), on which the two functions become one-to-one.

ic s
Now, we may define an inverse function for each hyperbolic function. The graphs of the inverse

at
hyperbolic functions, obtained by reflecting about the line y = x the graphs of the corresponding
hyperbolic functions, are given in Figure 1.7.6.
em
h
at
M
of
e
ut
tit

f (x) = tanh−1 x
f (x) = sech−1 x
s
In

f (x) = sinh−1 x
UP

x = −1 x=1 (1, 0)

f (x) = csch−1 x

f (x) = cosh−1 x f (x) = coth−1 x

(1, 0) x = −1 x=1

Figure 1.7.6: Graphs of inverse hyperbolic functions

Since the hyperbolic functions are constructed using exponential functions, we expect that their
inverses can be written in terms of logarithms. In fact, the following hold.
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 71

Theorem 1.7.27.

 √ 
1

x+1

1. sinh−1 x = ln x + x2 + 1 4. coth −1
x = ln
2 x−1
√ !
 √  1 + 1 − x2
2. cosh−1 x = ln x + x2 − 1 5. sech−1 x = ln
x
√ !
1

1+x

−1 1 1 + x2
3. tanh−1 x = ln 6. csch x = ln +
2 1−x x |x|
√
Example 1.7.28. Prove that sinh−1 x = ln(x + x2 + 1).

Proof. Let y = sinh−1 x. Then sinh y = x, and

ey − e−y
x=

s
2

ic
2xey = e2y − 1

at
0 = (ey )2 − 2x (ey ) − 1
y
e =
p
2x ± (−2x)2 − 4(1)(−1)
h em
at
2
M

p
y
e = x ± x2 + 1
of

p  p 
ey = x + x2 + 1, since ey > 0, whereas x − x2 + 1 < 0 .
e
ut

 √ 
Finally, taking the natural logarithm of both sides yields y = ln x + x2 + 1 .
s tit
In

Example 1.7.29. Find the numerical value of the following.

UP

1. cosh−1 1 3. sinh−1 1
   
−1 5 −1 3
2. coth 4. sech
4 5

Solution.
 √ 
1. cosh−1 (1) = ln 1 + 1 − 12 = ln 1 = 0
! !
  5 9
−1 5 1 4 +1 1 4 1
2. coth = ln 5 = ln 1 = ln 9 = ln 3
4 2 4 −1
2 4
2
 √  √

3. sinh−1 (1) = ln 1 + 1 + 12 = ln 1 + 2
 q 
3 2

! !
1 + 1− 4 9
 
3 5 1+
4. sech−1 = ln  3
 = ln 3
5
= ln 5
3 = ln 3
5 5 5 5
72 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Example 1.7.30.

1. Observe from the graph of tanh−1 that the following hold:

lim tanh−1 x = +∞, and lim tanh−1 x = −∞.

x→ 1− x→ 1+

−1
2. Evaluate: lim ecoth x
.
x→ −∞

Solution.
Observe from the graph of ex that lim ex = 0. Furthermore, ex is continuous on R. Thus,
x→ −∞
we have:

coth−1 x
lim coth−1 x
lim e = ex→ −∞
x→ −∞

= e0
= 1.

ics
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
1.7. NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS: LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 73

1.7.6 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Find the exact value.

1. log3 100 − log3 18 − log3 50 csc−1 (−4)

 
4. tan
2. sech(ln 2) 2
3. sinh(3 ln 2 − ln 4) 5. tanh−1 0.5
√ !
2 3
B. Solve for x: cos−1 (x) = tan−1 (0) − sec−1 − .
3

C. Given below is a value of the hyperbolic function of a positive number x. Find the exact
value of the remaining five hyperbolic functions of x.

s
1. sinh x = 2 15

ic
2. cosh x =
8

at
em
D. Evaluate the following limits. h
at
4x + 2 x lim sec−1 (csch x)
M

1. lim 3.
x→−∞ 8x − 2x x→ 0+
of

cosh x
2. lim 4. lim coth−1 x
e

x→+∞ ex x→ 1−
ut
tit

E. Establish the following identities.

s
In

tanh x + tanh y 1 + tanh x

UP

1. tanh(x + y) = 2. e2x =
1 + tanh x tanh y 1 − tanh x
−1
 √ 
2
3. cosh x = ln x + x − 1

F. Do as indicated.

1. Find the domain of

√
i. f (x) = sin(e−x ) ii. g(x) = 2 − 2x
 h 
f (x + h) − f (x) 5 −1
2. If f (x) = 5x ,
show that =5x .
h h
3. Find the exponential function f (x) = Cax whose graphs passes (1, 6) and (3, 24).
1 − e1/x
4. Show that f (x) = is an odd function.
1 − e1/x
74 CHAPTER 1. LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Supplementary Exercises

A. Find the exact value.

1. 22 log2 3 + ln(− ln ee ) − e−2 ln 2 3. cosh(ln 5 + ln 6)

    
−1 1 −1 3
2. tanh(ln 4) 4. sin tan − − sec
4 2

B. Evaluate the following limits.

2ex − 1 3. lim 2 csch

−1
x
1. lim x→0−
x→+∞ ex + 2
sinh x
2. lim 4. lim csc−1 (ln x)
x→+∞ ex x→ 0+

C. Given below is a value of the hyperbolic function of a positive number x. Find the exact

s
value of the remaining five hyperbolic functions of x.

ic
at
em
7 4
1. coth x = 2. sech x =
25 5
h
at
M

D. Establish the following identities.

of

1. cosh 3x = 4 cosh3 x − 3 cosh x

r
e

x 1 + cosh x
ut

2. cosh =
2 2
s tit

E. Do as indicated.
In
UP

1. Show that the horizontal lines y = 1 and y = −1 are asymptotes of y = tanh x and
y = coth x.
2. Show that the graph of y = sech x is asymptotic to the x-axis.
3. If x = ln(sec s + tan s), show that sec s = cosh x.
Chapter 2

Derivatives and Differentiation

2.1 Slopes, the Derivative, and Basic Differentiation Rules

In this section, we extend the notion of a tangent line to a circle to other curves at a point. Recall

ics
from Euclidean Geometry that a line tangent to a circle is a line that intersects the circle at exactly

at
one point. However, in a more general sense, a line tangent to a curve may intersect the curve at

em
points other than the point of tangency.
h
at
M

2.1.1 The Tangent Line

of
e

`
ut

y = f (x)
tit

Given a function f (x), we want to define the equation of P

s

the tangent line ` at a point, say P (x0 , f (x0 )) on the graph

In

of y = f (x).
UP

Figure 2.1.1

To do this, we need to find the slope of this tangent line. Consider another point Q(x1 , f (x1 )) on
←→
the graph of y = f (x). Form the secant line P Q.

←→
Q Then P Q has slope
f (x1 )
y = f (x)
)
∆y f (x1 ) − f (x0 )
P m←→ = .
f (x0 ) | {z }
PQ x1 − x0
∆x
Letting ∆x = x1 − x0 , the above expression is
equivalent to
x0 x1
Figure 2.1.2 f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
m←→ =
PQ
.
∆x

75
76 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

`
y = f (x)
Now, imagine the point Q moving along the curve y = f (x)
P
toward P .

As Q approaches P , the secant line approaches an object in

the plane. This object coincides with the line `.

Figure 2.1.3

We define the slope m of the line ` to be the limit of the slope m← → of the secant line as Q gets
PQ
closer and closer to P and call ` the tangent line to the graph of f at P . We have
m = lim m←→.
PQ
Q→P

Observe that as Q → P , x1 → x0 and so ∆x = x1 − x0 → 0. Hence,

f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
m = lim .
∆x→0 ∆x

ic s
Definition 2.1.1. If the function f is defined on an open interval containing x = x0 , then the

at
tangent line to the graph of f at the point P (x0 , f (x0 )) is the line
1. passing through P whose slope is given by h em
at
f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )
m = lim ,
M

∆x→0 ∆x
of

provided that this limit exists.

e

2. with equation x = x0 if
ut
tit

f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )

lim = +∞ or − ∞ and
s

∆x→0− ∆x
In

f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )

lim = +∞ or − ∞.
∆x
UP

∆x→0+

Otherwise, there is no tangent line to the graph of f at P .

Remark 2.1.2.
1. The slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at P gives us an idea of the “flatness” or
“steepness” of the graph of f at P and whether the graph of f rises or falls at P . See Figure
2.1.4.

2. The tangent line to the graph of a function may intersect the graph at points other than the
point of tangency as shown in Figure 2.1.5.

P
` TL

NL

0
Figure 2.1.5 Figure 2.1.6
0 Figure 2.1.4
2.1. SLOPES, THE DERIVATIVE, AND BASIC DIFFERENTIATION RULES 77

Definition 2.1.3. The normal line to the graph of f at the point P is the line perpendicular to
the tangent line at P . (See Figure 2.1.6.)
1
Example 2.1.4. Give equations of the tangent line and the normal line to the graph of f (x) =
x
at x = 1.

Solution.
Let mT L denote the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) at x = 1. We have
f (1 + ∆x) − f (1)
mT L = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
1
− 1
= lim 1+∆x
∆x→0 ∆x
1 − (1 + ∆x)
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x(1 + ∆x)  
−∆x 0
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x(1 + ∆x) 0
−1
= lim

s
∆x→0 1 + ∆x

ic
= −1

at
em
Thus, the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = x1 at (1, 1) is y − 1 = −(x − 1). Now,
h
since mT L = −1, the slope of the normal line is 1 and hence, the equation of the normal line to the
at
graph of f (x) = x1 at x = 1 is y − 1 = (x − 1), or simply y = x.
M

Example 2.1.5. Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g(x) = x2 + 2 at x = 1 and at
of

x = 2.
e
ut

Solution.
tit

At x = 1 the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g(x) is

s
In

g(1 + ∆x) − g(1)

mT L = lim
∆x
UP

∆x→0
[(1 + ∆x)2 + 2] − (12 + 2)
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
[1 + 2∆x + (∆x)2 + 2] − 3
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
2∆x + (∆x)2
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
∆x(2 + ∆x)
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
= lim (2 + ∆x)
∆x→0
= 2.

On the other hand, at x = 2 the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g(x) is
g(2 + ∆x) − g(2)
mT L = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
[(2 + ∆x)2 + 2] − (22 + 2)
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
78 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

[4 + 4∆x + (∆x)2 + 2] − 6
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
4∆x + (∆x)2
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
= lim (4 + ∆x)
∆x→0
= 4.

In fact, we can compute for the slope of the tangent line to the graph of g(x) for any value of x.
We have
g(x + ∆x) − g(x)
mT L = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
[(x + ∆x)2 + 2] − (x2 + 2)
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x
[x + 2x∆x + (∆x)2 + 2] − (x2 + 2)
2
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x

s
2x∆x + (∆x) 2

ic
= lim

at
∆x→0 ∆x

em
= lim (2x + ∆x)
∆x→0 h
= 2x.
at
M

Using this formula, we see that the slope at x = 1 is 2 · 1 = 2 while the slope at x = 2 is 2 · 2 = 4,
of

which agree with the preceding calculations.

e
ut

2.1.2 Definition of the Derivative

tit

In the previous example, we obtained a function that gives the slope of the tangent line to the
s
In

graph of a function g(x) at any value of x. This function shall be called the derivative of g(x).
UP

Definition 2.1.6. The derivative of a function f (x), denoted f 0 (x), is the function

f (x + ∆x) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim .
∆x→0 ∆x
It is defined at all points x in the domain of f where the limit exists.

Remark 2.1.7.

1. Hence, from the definition, dom f 0 ⊆ dom f since there may be points x0 ∈ dom f at which
f 0 (x0 ) does not exist.

2. The definition also tells us that f 0 (x0 ) is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function
at the point P (x0 , f (x0 )).

3. To get the derivative of f at x = x0 , we use

f (x0 + ∆x) − f (x0 )

f 0 (x0 ) = lim .
∆x→0 ∆x
2.1. SLOPES, THE DERIVATIVE, AND BASIC DIFFERENTIATION RULES 79

Alternatively, by setting ∆x = x − x0 , we have

f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim .
x→x0 x − x0

dy d
4. Other notations: y 0 if y = f (x), , [f (x)] , Dx [f (x)].
dx dx
5. The process of computing the derivative is called differentiation.

Example 2.1.8. If g(x) = x2 + 2, then, following the computations in the previous example, we
have g 0 (x) = 2x.
√
Example 2.1.9. Find the derivative of f (x) = x.

Solution.
Using the definition of the derivative, we have
√ √ √ √ √ √
0 x + ∆x − x x + ∆x − x x + ∆x + x

s
f (x) = lim = lim ·√ √

ic
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x x + ∆x + x

at
(x + ∆x) − x 1 1
√ √ = lim √ √ = √

em
= lim
∆x→0 ∆x( x + ∆x + x) ∆x→0 x + ∆x + x 2 x
h
at
1
Thus, f 0 (x) = √ . Note that dom f = [0, +∞) while dom f 0 = (0, +∞).
M

2 x
of

2.1.3 Differentiability
e
ut

Definition 2.1.10.
tit

1. A function f is said to be differentiable at x = x0 if the derivative f 0 (x0 ) of f at x = x0 exists.

s
In

That is, f is differentiable at x0 if x0 is in the domain of f 0 .

UP

2. A function f is differentiable on (a, b) if f is differentiable at every real number in (a, b).

3. A function f is differentiable everywhere if it is differentiable at every real number.

√ 1 √
Example 2.1.11. From the preceding example, Dx [ x ] = √ and so f (x) = x is differentiable
2 x
at any positive real number x. Also, f is not differentiable at x = 0.

Example 2.1.12. It will be shown later that if f (x) is a polynomial, a rational, or a trigonometric
function, then f (x) is differentiable on its domain.

2.1.4 Techniques of Differentiation

The previous section introduced a method of differentiation using Definition 2.1.6. The drawback
of such a method is that the process involved is tedious, even for the differentiation of relatively
simple functions such as in example 2.1.2. The theorems introduced in this chapter will greatly
simplify the process of finding the derivative of a function, by providing formulas for the derivatives
of algebraic and transcendental functions.
80 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

By the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• compute the derivatives of algebraic functions using power rule, sum/difference

rule, product rule, quotient rule;

• differentiate functions involving trigonometric functions;

• differentiate functions involving logarithmic functions;

• find the derivative using logarithmic differentiation;

• differentiate functions of the form f (x)g(x) ; and

• differentiate functions involving exponential functions.

s
ic
at
Differentiation Rules

h em
The following theorem introduces basic rules in finding the derivative of a function.
at
M
of

Theorem 2.1.13. Let f and g be functions and c ∈ R.

e

R, then f 0(x) = 0.
ut

1. If f (x) = c ∈
tit

Q, then f 0(x) = nxn−1.

s

2. (Power Rule) If f (x) = xn , where n ∈

In

3. If f (x) = c · g(x), then f 0 (x) = c · g 0 (x) if g 0 (x) exists.

UP

4. (Sum Rule) If h(x) = f (x) ± g(x), then h0 (x) = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x), provided both f 0 (x) and
g 0 (x) exist.

5. (Product Rule) If h(x) = f (x)g(x), then h0 (x) = f 0 (x)g(x)+f (x)g 0 (x), provided f 0 (x)
and g 0 (x) both exist.
f (x) g(x)f 0 (x) − f (x)g 0 (x)
6. (Quotient Rule) If h(x) = , where g(x) 6= 0, then h0 (x) = ,
g(x) [g(x)]2
0 0
provided f (x) and g (x) both exist.

Proof. We show the proof of the first two statements only.

c−c 0
1. Dx [c] = lim = lim = lim 0 = 0.
∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0
2.1. SLOPES, THE DERIVATIVE, AND BASIC DIFFERENTIATION RULES 81

2. We make use of the Binomial Theorem1 in the proof of statement 2.

(x + ∆x)n − xn
Dx [xn ] = lim
∆x→0
 ∆x 
n(n−1) n−2
xn + nxn−1 ∆x + 2 x ∆x2 + . . . + nx∆xn−1 + ∆xn − xn
= lim
∆x→0
 ∆x 
n−1 n(n − 1) n−2 n−2 n−1
= lim nx + x ∆x + . . . + nx∆x + ∆x
∆x→0 2
= nxn−1

Example 2.1.14.

1. Dx [x5 ] = 5x5−1 = 5x4

ic s
2. Dx [(2x)5 ] = Dx [32x5 ] = 32 · 5x4 = 160x4 (Note that the derivative is not 5(2x)4 which is 80x4 .)

at
em
d √ d d 4√ d
3. [2x4 − 45 x + 7] = [2x4 ] − [ x] + [7] = 8x3 − 4
· 1
√ + 0 = 8x3 − 2
√ .
dx dx dx 5 dx h 5 2 x 5 x
at
4. If y = (x − 3)(2x2 − 3), then y = 2x3 − 6x2 − 3x + 9 and so y 0 = 6x2 − 12x − 3.
M
of

5. Alternatively, we may also use the Product Rule. Thus,

Dx [(x − 3)(2x2 − 3)] = (1)(2x2 − 3) + (x − 3)(4x) = 2x2 − 3 + 4x2 − 12x = 6x2 − 12x − 3.
e
ut

d √
tit

4
6. [(3x5 + 6x 3 − 2)(4x3 − 5 3 x)]
dx
s

1 √ 4 2
In

= (15x4 + 8x 3 )(4x3 − 5 3 x) + (3x5 + 6x 3 − 2)(12x2 − 5 · 31 x− 3 ).

UP

2x3 − x−3 + 4 (3x − 5)(6x2 + 3x−4 ) − (2x3 − x−3 + 4)(3)

7. If f (x) = , then f 0 (x) = .
3x − 5 (3x − 5)2
√  (2x3 − 4√x − 3x)(8x3 − √1 ) − (2x4 − √x + 2)(6x2 − √2 − 3)
2x4 − x + 2

d 2 x x
8. √ = √ .
dx 2x3 − 4 x − 3x (2x3 − 4 x − 3x)2

Remark 2.1.15.

1. Using items 1 to 4 of Theorem 2.1.13, one can show that the derivative of a polynomial function is
also a polynomial function. This means that a polynomial function is differentiable everywhere.

2. From the first item and the Quotient Rule, one can deduce that a rational function is differen-
tiable on its domain.
!
n n
1 n
xn−k y k
P
Binomial Theorem: If n is a positive integer, then (x + y) =
k=0 k
82 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

At this point, we know how to differentiate polynomial functions, rational functions, and functions
involving radicals. We now present formulas for the derivatives of trigonometric functions.

Theorem 2.1.16.

1. Dx [sin x] = cos x 4. Dx [cot x] = − csc2 x

2. Dx [cos x] = − sin x 5. Dx [sec x] = sec x tan x

3. Dx [tan x] = sec2 x 6. Dx [csc x] = − csc x cot x

Proof. We will prove statement 1 only. Statement 2 can be proved similarly, while items 3–6 can
be proved using items 1 and 2, and the product and quotient rules.
sin(x + ∆x) − sin x
Dx [sin x] = lim
∆x→0 ∆x

ic s
sin x cos(∆x) + cos x sin(∆x) − sin x
= lim

at
∆x→0 ∆x

em
 
sin(∆x) 1 − cos(∆x)
= lim cos x · − sin x ·
∆x ∆x
∆x→0
h
at
= (cos x)(1) − (sin x)(0)
M

= cos x
of
e
ut

Remark 2.1.17.
s tit

1. The formulas in the previous theorems consider trigonometric functions as real–valued functions.
In

Thus, whenever these formulas are applied to problems where trigonometric functions are viewed
UP

as functions on angles, the measure of an angle must be in radians.

2. Observe that the derivative of a trigonometric function is either another trigonometric function
or a product of trigonometric functions. That means that a trigonometric function is differen-
tiable where its derivative is defined. Moreover, observe that the domains of a trigonometric
function and its derivative are the same. Hence, a trigonometric function is differentiable on its
domain.

Example 2.1.18.
d
1. [3 sin x − 7 cos x] = 3 cos x + 7 sin x
dx
2. Dx [sec x csc x] = (sec x tan x)(csc x) + (sec x)(− csc x cot x)
cot x − x (1 + tan x)(− csc2 x − 1) − (cot x − x)(sec2 x)
3. If f (x) = , then f 0 (x) =
1 + tan x (1 + tan x)2
4. Dx [sin(2x)] = Dx [2 sin x cos x] = 2·(cos x·cos x+sin x·(− sin x)) = 2(cos2 x−sin2 x) = 2 cos(2x)
2.1. SLOPES, THE DERIVATIVE, AND BASIC DIFFERENTIATION RULES 83

2.1.5 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
dy
A. Find . There is no need to simplify.
dx

1. y = 2x4 − 3x2 + x − 1 4 − x2
√ 6. y = √
1 8 3 x + tan x
2. y = 6 3 x − 2 + √
x x
√
3. y = x3 cos x cos x + π
7. y =
5 2x − x33
4. y = − sec x csc x
x
 
√ √
2 2 x x
5. y = x − 2 ( 3 x − cos x) 8. y = 5
x x + sin x

B. Miscellaneous Exercises.

1. Determine the equation of the normal line to the graph of g(x) = 2 sin x + tan x at the

ic s
point where x = π3 .

at
2. Find all the points on the graph of y = (x − 2)2 at which the tangent line is perpendicular
to the line with equation 2x − y + 2 = 0. h em
at
M

Supplementary Exercises
dy
of

A. Find . There is no need to simplify.

dx
e
ut

√
1. y = 5 sin x − 2 cot x
tit

2x3 csc x + x − 2
5. y =
2. y = (2x2 + 5x − 2)(3x − 7) (sin x + 1)(x cos x − 1)
s
In

2x + 1 √
3. y = 6. y = (x2 − 2x + 2)(sin x − x)(2 + cos x)
UP

csc x
√
 
x sin x − x 5 1
x3 − x4 + 5x5 (sin x + csc x)


7. y = 2
x − 3
4. y = 5
x cot x − 5 x
7 3
B. Given f (5) = 5 , f 0 (5) = − , g(5) = , and g 0 (5) = −8 , determine
2 2

1. (f − g)0 (5)
 f 0
3. (5)
g
 g 0
2. (f · g)0 (5) 4. (5)
f

C. Miscellaneous Exercises.

1. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = 2x3 + 1 at x = −1.
2. Determine the values of a and b so that the line with equation 2x + y = b is tangent to the
graph of y = ax2 when x = 2.
84 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

2.2 The Chain Rule, and more on Differentiability

The previous section introduced formulas for differentiating a large scope of functions, ranging
from algebraic functions to inverse hyperbolic functions. But there are many types of functions
√
which do not neatly fall into one category. For instance, how can the function f (x) = x2 − 1 be
differentiated? The formulas provided in the previous section do not cover function compositions.
This section provides techniques for differentiation of compositions of functions. We also tackle
the geometric implications of differentiability and non-differentiability, and discuss the notion of a
higher-order derivative.

By the end of this section, the student will be able to

• differentiate using the chain rule;

• differentiate implicitly defined functions of one variable;

• discuss the differentiability and continuity of a function; and

ics
• find higher order derivatives of a function.

at
h em
at
2.2.1 The Chain Rule
M

Recall that in the previous section, to differentiate sin 2x, an identity was used to write it in terms
of

of sin x and cos x. The following theorem allows us to differentiate a given function, a composite
e

function in particular, without having to write it as a product or quotient of basic functions.

ut
s tit

Theorem 2.2.1 (Chain Rule). If the function g is differentiable at x = x0 and the function f
In

is differentiable at g(x0 ), then (f ◦ g)(x) is differentiable at x = x0 and

UP

(f ◦ g)0 (x0 ) = f 0 (g(x0 )) · g 0 (x0 ).

Remark 2.2.2. The chain rule can also be stated in the following manner:
dy dy du
If y = f (u) and u = g(x) , then = · or Dx [f (u)] = f 0 (u)Dx [u] .
dx du dx
Example 2.2.3.

1. Find Dx [(2x)5 ].

Solution.
Note that (2x)5 = (f ◦ g)(x) where f (x) = x5 and g(x) = 2x. We have f 0 (x) = 5x4 and
g 0 (x) = 2. Using chain the rule,

Dx [(2x)5 ] = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) = 5[g(x)]4 · 2 = 10(2x)4 .

√
2. Find h0 (x) if h(x) = x2 − 1.
2.2. THE CHAIN RULE, AND MORE ON DIFFERENTIABILITY 85

Solution.
√ √ 1
Note that x2 − 1 = (f ◦ g)(x) where f (x) = x and g(x) = x2 − 1. We have that f 0 (x) = √
2 x
and g 0 (x) = 2x. Using the chain rule,

1 2x
h0 (x) = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) = √ · 2x = √ .
2 x2 − 1 2 x2 − 1

3. Find Dx [sin(2x)].

Solution.
We have sin(2x) = (f ◦ g)(x) where f (x) = sin x and g(x) = 2x. So, f 0 (x) = cos x and g 0 (x) = 2
and by the chain rule,

Dx [sin(2x)] = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) = (cos[g(x)]) · (2) = 2 cos(2x).

4. Find h0 (x) if h(x) = 2 cos(x2 ).

ic s
Solution.

at
em
Note that h(x) = (f ◦ g)(x) where f (x) = 2 cos x and g(x) = x2 . Now, f 0 (x) = 2(− sin x) =
−2 sin x and g 0 (x) = 2x. Using chain the rule,
h
at
M

h0 (x) = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) = (−2 sin g(x)) · (2x) = −4x sin(x2 ).

of

dy √
5. Find if y = x3 − tan x.
e

dx
ut
tit

Solution.
√
s

u and u = x3 − tan x. Thus,

In

We let y =
UP

dy dy du 1 3x2 − sec2 x
= · = √ · (3x2 − sec2 x) = √ .
dx du dx 2 u 2 x3 − tan x

Remark 2.2.4.

1. The chain rule can also be extended to a finite composition of functions. To illustrate,

(f1 ◦ f2 ◦ f3 ◦ f4 )0 (x) = f10 ((f2 ◦ f3 ◦ f4 )(x)) · f20 ((f3 ◦ f4 )(x)) · f30 (f4 (x)) · f40 (x)

2. When computing derivatives using chain rule, we don’t actually write out the functions f and
g as in the previous examples, but we bear them in mind. It may help to keep in mind:
“The derivative of f (g(x)) is the derivative of the outside function evaluated at the inside func-
tion times the derivative of the inside function.“

Example 2.2.5.

1. Dx [(3x2 − x − 6)27 ] = 27(3x2 − x − 6)26 · Dx [3x2 − x − 6] = 27(3x2 − x − 6)26 · (6x − 1)

86 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

2. If y = (2x − 1)100 (2 − x)200 then

dy
= 100(2x − 1)99 · (2) · (2 − x)200 + (2x − 1)100 · 200(2 − x)199 · (−1)
dx
= (2x − 1)99 (2 − x)199 [200(2 − x) − 200(2x − 1)]
= (2x − 1)99 (2 − x)199 [400 − 200x − 400x + 200)]
= (2x − 1)99 (2 − x)199 (600 − 600x)
= 600(1 − x)(2x − 1)99 (2 − x)199

√ 5 3 5
 
− · 2 + 2)3 · (5x 2 ) − (2x 2 + 2)4 · √1 · 2 + csc x cot x
" 5
#
(2x +
2 2)4 ( 2x csc x) 4(2x 2 2x
3. Dx √ = √
2x − csc x ( 2x − csc x) 2

d d
4. [sec(cos x)] = sec(cos x) tan(cos x) · [cos x] = sec(cos x) tan(cos x) · (− sin x)
dx dx
3 3 3 3 1
5. Dx [cos2 (cot 4x 2 )] = 2 cos(cot 4x 2 ) · (− sin(cot 4x 2 )) · (− csc2 4x 2 ) · (6x 2 )

ic s
2.2.2 Derivatives from the Left and from the Right

at
em
Definition 2.2.6. Let the function f (x) be defined at x = x0 .
h
1. The derivative from the left of f (x) at x = x0 , denoted by f−0 (x0 ), is given by
at
M

f (x) − f (x0 )
f−0 (x0 ) = lim .
of

x→x−
0
x − x0
e
ut

2. The derivative from the right of f (x) at x = x0 , denoted by f+0 (x0 ), is given by
tit

f (x) − f (x0 )
s

f+0 (x0 ) = lim

In

.
x→x+
0
x − x0
UP

Remark 2.2.7.

1. In Definition 2.2.6, it is necessary that the function f is defined at x0 . Otherwise, the limit
expressions do not make sense.

2. The derivative from the left [right] is also referred to as the left-hand derivative [right-hand
derivative], or simply left derivative [right derivative].

3. The function f is differentiable at x = x0 if and only if f−0 (x0 ) and f+0 (x0 ) exist and

f−0 (x0 ) = f+0 (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ).

Example 2.2.8. Determine if f (x) = |x| is differentiable at x = 0.

Solution.
We compute the derivatives from the left and from the right at x = 0.
2.2. THE CHAIN RULE, AND MORE ON DIFFERENTIABILITY 87

f (x) − f (0) f (x) − f (0)

f−0 (0) = lim f+0 (0) = lim
x→0− x x→0+ x
(−x) − 0 x−0
= lim = lim
x→0− x x→0+ x
= −1 = 1

Since f−0 (0) 6= f+0 (0), the function f (x) is not differentiable at x = 0.
(
1 2
Example 2.2.9. Determine if f (x) = 2 x +√24 , x < 4
is differentiable at x = 4.
16 x , x ≥ 4

Solution.
We compute the derivatives from the left and from the right at x = 4.

f (x) − f (4) f (x) − f (4)

f−0 (4) = lim f+0 (4) = lim
x→4− x−4 x→4+ √x − 4
( 12 x2 + 24) − 32 16 x − 32

s
= lim = lim

ic
x→4− x−4 x→4+ x√− 4

at
1 2
2 x − 8 16( x − 2)
= lim = lim

em
x→4− x−4 x→4+ x−4
1 (x + 4)(x − 4) h x−4
= lim = lim 16 √
at
x→4− 2 x−4 x→4+ (x − 4) x + 2
1 16
M

= lim (x + 4) = lim √
x→4− 2 x→4+ x+2
of

= 4 = 4
e

Since f−0 (4) = f+0 (4) = 4, the function f (x) is differentiable at x = 4. Moreover, f 0 (4) = 4.
ut
tit

2.2.3 Differentiability and Continuity

s
In

In applications that we will tackle later, functions that are used to model quantities and relationships
UP

are assumed to be continuous and/or differentiable on certain intervals. The following presents a
link between continuity and differentiability.

Theorem 2.2.10. If f is differentiable at x = x0 , then f is continuous at x = x0 .

Remark 2.2.11.

1. If f is discontinuous at x = x0 , then f is not differentiable at x = x0 .

2. If f is continuous at x = x0 , it does not mean that f is differentiable at x = x0 .

3. If f is not differentiable at x = x0 , it does not mean that f is not continuous at x = x0 .

Example 2.2.12. The function f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0 but is not differentiable at x = 0.

We present a theorem that is especially useful in determining whether a piecewise-defined function

f is differentiable at x = x0 .
88 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

Theorem 2.2.13.

1. If f is continuous at x = x0 from the left and lim f 0 (x) exists, then

x→x−
0

f−0 (x0 ) = lim f 0 (x).

x→x−
0

2. If f is continuous at x = x0 from the right and lim f 0 (x) exists, then

x→x+
0

f+0 (x0 ) = lim f 0 (x).

x→x+
0

Example 2.2.14. Determine if the following function is differentiable at x = −1:

(
x2 , x < −1
f (x) =

s
−1 − 2x , x ≥ −1

ic
at
em
Solution.
First, we check the continuity of f (x) at x = −1. Note that f (−1) = 1 and
h lim f (x) =
x→−1−
at
lim f (x) = 1, and thus, f (x) is continuous at x = −1. Next, we determine the derivative from
M

x→−1+
the left and derivative from the right at x = −1. We obtain
of

(
e

2x , x < −1
ut

f 0 (x) =
−2 , x > −1
s tit

and thus, f−0 (−1) = lim f 0 (x) = 2(−1) = −2, while f+0 (−1) = lim f 0 (x) = −2. Finally, since
In

x→−1− x→−1+
f−0 (−1) = f+0 (−1), f (x) is differentiable at x = −1.
UP

Example 2.2.15. Determine if the following function is differentiable at x = 1:

(
x2 + x + 2 , x ≤ 1
g(x) =
3x , x > 1

Solution.
It can be shown that g is discontinuous at x = 1. However, note that
(
2x + 1 , x < 1
g 0 (x) = ,
3 , x>1

and thus, lim g 0 (x) = 3 and lim g 0 (x) = 3. Although lim g 0 (x) = lim g 0 (x), we cannot
x→1− x→1+ x→1− x→1+
conclude that the function is differentiable at x = 1. (Why?) In fact, g is not differentiable at
x = 1. (Why?)
2.2. THE CHAIN RULE, AND MORE ON DIFFERENTIABILITY 89

2.2.4 Graphical Consequences of Differentiability and Non-differentiability

Geometrically, if f is differentiable at x = x0 , then the graph of f has a non-vertical tangent line
at x = x0 . The following remark gives the most commonly encountered circumstances for which f
fails to be differentiable at a value x = x0 .

Remark 2.2.16. A function f is not differentiable at x = x0 if one of the following is true:

1. f is discontinuous at x = x0 (see Figure 2.2.1)

2. the graph of f has a vertical tangent line at x = x0 (see Figure 2.2.2)

3. the graph of f has no well–defined tangent line at x = x0 , i.e., the graph of f has a corner, edge
or cusp at x = x0 (see Figure 2.2.3).

s
ic
at
em
x0 x0 x0
Figure 2.2.1 Figure 2.2.2
h Figure 2.2.3
at
M

2.2.5 Higher Order Derivatives

of

If the derivative f 0 of a function f is itself differentiable, then the derivative of f 0 is called the
e

second derivative of f and is denoted f 00 . We can continue to obtain the third derivative, f 000 ,
ut

the fourth derivative, f (4) , and even higher derivatives of f as long as we have differentiability.
stit

Definition 2.2.17. The n-th derivative of the function f , denoted by f (n) , is the derivative
In

of the (n − 1)-th derivative of f , that is,

UP

f (n−1) (x + ∆x) − f (n−1) (x)

f (n) (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
Remarks.

1. The n in f (n) is called the order of the derivative.

2. The derivative of a function f is sometimes called the first derivative of f .

3. The function f is sometimes written as f (0) (x).

dn y dn
4. Other notations: Dx n [f (x)] , , [f (x)] , y (n)
dxn dxn
Example 2.2.18.

1. Find f (n) (x) for all n ∈ N where f (x) = x6 − x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 − 4.

Solution.
90 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

We differentiate repeatedly and obtain

f 0 (x) = 6x5 − 4x3 − 9x2 + 4x,

f 00 (x) = 30x4 − 12x2 − 18x + 4,
f 000 (x) = 120x3 − 24x − 18,
f (4) (x) = 360x2 − 24,
f (5) (x) = 720x,
f (6) (x) = 720,
f (n) (x) = 0 for all n ≥ 7.

√
2. Find f (4) (x) if f (x) = 2x − 3.

Solution.
We differentiate repeatedly and obtain
1 1 1
f 0 (x) = (2x − 3)− 2 · (2) = (2x − 3)− 2

s
2

ic
1 3 3
f 00 (x) = − (2x − 3)− 2 · (2) = − (2x − 2)− 2

at
2
3

em
5 5
000
f (x) = (2x − 3)− 2 · (2) = 3 (2x − 2)− 2
2 h
15 7 7
f (4) (x) = − (2x − 3)− 2 · (2) = −15 (2x − 2)− 2
at
2
M

2.2.6 Implicit Differentiation

of
e

Equations in two variables are used to define a function explicitly or implicitly. The equation
ut

y = x2 − 1 defines the function f (x) = x2 − 1 explicitly. On the other hand, the equation y 2 = x + 1
tit

defines two functions of x implicitly, namely:

s
In

√ √
f1 (x) = x + 1 and f2 (x) = − x + 1.
UP

Suppose y = f (x) is a function defined implicitly by the equation x3 − 2xy − 3y − 6 = 0, how do

dy
we find its derivative ?
dx
Solution.
x3 − 6
From x3 − 2xy − 3y − 6 = 0, we can define y explicitly in terms of x as y = . Thus,
2x + 3
dy (2x + 3)(3x2 ) − (x3 − 6)(2) 4x3 + 9x2 + 12
= = .
dx (2x + 3)2 (2x + 3)2

However, suppose a function is defined implictly by a function for which y cannot be isolated easily,
dy
such as x4 y 3 − 7xy = 7 or tan(x2 − 2xy) = y. How do we find ?
dx
dy
To obtain without solving for y explicitly in terms of x, we use the method called implicit
dx
dy
differentiation. To find using implicit differentiation, we
dx
1. think of the variable y as a differentiable function of the variable x,
2.2. THE CHAIN RULE, AND MORE ON DIFFERENTIABILITY 91

2. differentiate both sides of the equation, using the chain rule where necessary, and
dy
3. solve for .
dx
dy
Example 2.2.19. Find .
dx
1. x3 − 2xy − 3y − 6 = 0

Solution.
Dx [x3 − 2xy − 3y − 6] = Dx [0]
 dy  dy
3x2 − 2 1 · y + x · −3· =0
dx dx
dy dy
3x2 − 2y − 2x · −3· =0
dx dx
dy dy
3x2 − 2y = 2x · +3·
dx dx
dy
(2x + 3) = 3x2 − 2y
dx

ic s
dy 3x2 − 2y

at
=
dx 2x + 3

em
x3 −6
3x2 − 2 · 2x+3 2x + 3
= ·
h
2x + 3 2x + 3
at
3x · (2x + 3) − 2(x3 − 6)
2
M

=
(2x + 3)2
of

4x3 + 9x2 + 12
=
e

(2x + 3)2
ut
tit

2. x4 y 3 − 7xy = 7
s
In

Solution.
UP

Dx [x4 y 3 − 7xy] = Dx [7]

dy  dy 
4x3 y 3 + 3x4 y 2 · −7 y+x· =0
dx dx
dy −4x3 y 3 + 7y
=
dx 3x4 y 2 − 7x

3. tan(x2 − 2xy) = y

Solution.

Dx [tan(x2 − 2xy)] = Dx [y]

h  dy i dy
sec2 (x2 − 2xy) · 2x − 2 y + x · =
dx dx
dy 2x sec2 (x2 − 2xy) − 2y sec2 (x2 − 2xy)
=
dx 1 + 2x sec2 (x2 − 2xy)
92 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

d2 y
Example 2.2.20. Determine if xy 2 = y − 2.
dx2
Solution.
dy
We use implicit differentiation to get .
dx

Dx [xy 2 ] = Dx [y − 2]
dy dy
y 2 + x · 2y =
dx dx
dy y2
=
dx 1 − 2xy
Thus,
dy dy
d2 y (1 − 2xy)(2y dx ) − (y 2 )[−2(y + x dx )]
2
= 2
dx (1 − 2xy)
h i h  i
y2 y2
(1 − 2xy) 2y · 1−2xy − (y 2 ) −2 y + x · 1−2xy
= .

s
(1 − 2xy)2

ic
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
2.2. THE CHAIN RULE, AND MORE ON DIFFERENTIABILITY 93

2.2.7 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. The Chain Rule.

dy
1. Find . There is no need to simplify.
dx

a. y = cos 3x d. y = cot4 (5x) 1

2 √ sin x −
b. y = 6x 3h(x2 − x)5 i  
f. y = √+ 1 x2
4 5 cos x
c. y = csc 2x3 + 1

4
e. y = sec cot 3x − 2π
tan 2x

B. Differentiability.

1. Determine if ( 2
3x 3 − 1 , x ≤ 1
f (x) = 3
x −x+2 , x>1
is differentiable at x = 1.

ic s
2. Determine if

at
(
x2 − 4 , x < 3

em
g(x) = √
x−2 , x≥3
h
at
is differentiable at x = 3.
M

3. Determine if
(
of

(x − 1)2 , x ≤ 1
h(x) = √
x−1 , x>1
e
ut

is differentiable at x = 1.
s tit

C. Implicit Differentiation.
In

dy
UP

1. Use implicit differentiation to find . There is need to simplify.

dx
√
a. cos(x2 + y 2 ) = x − y 2 2
b. x3 y 2 = x 3 + y 3 + 1
ds √
2. Find if (3s + t)4 = 3 s − cos t.
dt
D. Higher Order Derivatives.

 √ 
N
1. Find f (n) (x) for all x ∈ if f (x) = 6x5 − 5x4 − 4x3 + 3x2 − 2x + 1.
2. Evaluate Dx2 x 4 − x2

E. Do as indicated.

1. If g(5) = 3, g 0 (5) = 4, f (3) = 5 and f 0 (3) = 6, find (f ◦ g)0 (5) and (g ◦ f )0 (3).
2. Determine the point/s on the graph of xy = (1 − x − y)2 where the tangent line/s is/are
parallel to the x−axis.
3. Determine Dx103 (cos 2x).
4. Find y 00 at the point with coordinate (2, 1) if 2x2 y − 4y 3 = 4.
94 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

Supplementary Exercises

A. The Chain Rule.

dy
1. Find . There is no need to simplify.
dx
√ √
e. y = cos3 [cot (csc x)]
r
a. y = 9 − x2 1 + cot x
3
c. y =
x cos x (1 − x2 )5 cos x
 
1
b. y = tan 3
d. y = sin 2x cos2 3x f. y = √
x 3x3 − tan x

2. Given the following table of values:

x f (x) f 0 (x) g(x) g 0 (x)
2 4 1 3 -2
3 -1 -3 4 -5
4 5 -4 4 1
Evaluate:

ic s
at
a. (f ◦ g)0 (2) b. (g ◦ f )0 (2) c. (g ◦ g)0 (2) d. (f ◦ g ◦ f )0 (2)

B. Differentiability. h em
at
1. Find the values of m and n so that
M

(
x2 , x < 1
of

f (x) =
mx + n , x ≥ 1
e
ut

is differentiable at x = 1.
tit

2. Find all the values of a and b such that

s
In

(
ax + b , x < 2
g(x) =
UP

2x2 − 1 , x ≥ 2
is differentiable at x = 2.

C. Implicit Differentiation.
dy
1. Use implicit differentiation to find . There is need to simplify.
dx
a. 2x sin y = (x + 2y)6 3 3
c. cot4 (xy) = 4x 2 − sin(x 5 + y 3 )
5

√ x4
b. sec(2x − y) − 3 = sin2 y −
4
2. Give the equation of the normal line to the graph of y 3 − xy 2 + cos(xy) = 2 at (0, 1).

D. Higher Order Derivatives.

1. Evaluate Dx3 sin 2x − x3 + cos x2

d2 y
2. Determine if (x + y)3 = xy 2 − 2y.
dx2
2.2. THE CHAIN RULE, AND MORE ON DIFFERENTIABILITY 95

E. Do as indicated.

1. If f (t) = at2 + bt + c , f (1) = 5, f 0 (1) = 3 and f 00 (1) = −4 , find f (3).

2. Determine the values of m and n for the curve x2 y + my 2 = n if the point (1, 1) is on its
graph and the tangent line at this point has equation 4x + 3y − 7 = 0.
d2 y 4
3. If x2 + 9y 2 = 36, show that 2
= − 3.
dx 9y
4. Find equations for the two tangent lines through the origin that are tangent to the curve
x2 − 4x + y 2 + 3 = 0.
5. Let
(
x2 , x ≤ 0
f (x) = .
x3 , x > 0
Show that f 0 (0) exists but f 00 (0) does not.

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
96 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

2.3 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

2.3.1 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
Our goal is to find the derivatives of logarithmic functions. We begin with the natural logarithmic
function and will find later that its derivative appears simplest among all logarithmic functions.
Let x > 0. Then
ln(x + ∆x) − ln x
Dx (ln x) = lim
∆x
∆x→0

1 x + ∆x
= lim ln
∆x→0 ∆x x
 
1 x ∆x
= lim ln 1 +
∆x→0 x ∆x x
" x #
1 ∆x ∆x
= lim ln 1 +
x ∆x→0 x
"  x #
1 ∆x ∆x
= ln lim 1 + , by continuity of ln .

ic s
x ∆x→0 x

at
∆x

em
Let h = . Then h → 0 if and only if ∆x → 0. Thus,
x h
at
 
1 1 1 1
Dx (ln x) = ln lim (1 + h) = ln e = .
h
M

x h→0 x x
Interestingly, the derivative of the ln function, one that cannot be expressed using a finite number
of

of operations (including extraction of nth roots) on polynomials, is a simple algebraic expression.

e
ut

In contrast, the derivatives of circular functions are products of their fellow circular functions.
tit

Now, since any logarithmic function can be expressed as the ln function times a constant, one easily
s
In

obtains its derivative. Indeed,

UP

 
ln x 1 1 1 1
Dx (loga x) = Dx = Dx (ln x) = · = .
ln a ln a ln a x x ln a
Note that the domain of the natural logarithmic function is (0, +∞), so it is an antiderivative of
1
f (x) = on (0, +∞). We wish to find a function F such that F 0 (x) = f (x) on the natural domain
x
R
of f , which is \ {0}. Using the chain rule, we can show that F (x) = ln |x| satisfies this property.

Let x 6= 0. Then |x| > 0, so ln |x| is defined. Moreover,

√ 1 1 2x 1
Dx (ln |x|) = Dx (ln x2 ) = √ · √ · 2x = 2 = .
x2 2 x2 2x x
We summarize the preceding computations into the following theorem.

Theorem 2.3.1.
1
1. Dx (ln x) = for all x > 0.
x
2.3. DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 97

1
2. Dx (loga x) = for all x > 0.
x ln a
1
3. Dx (ln |x|) = for all x 6= 0.
x

dy
Example 2.3.2. Find .
dx
1. y = log2 x

Solution.
dy 1
=
dx x ln 2
2. y = ln(3x2 + 2)

Solution.
dy 1 6x
= 2 · 6x = 2
dx 3x + 2 3x + 2

ic s
at
3. y = ln |7 − cos(2x)|

Solution.
dy 1 2 sin(2x)
h em
at
= · sin(2x) · 2 =
dx 7 − cos(2x) 7 − cos(2x)
M
of

4. y = ln [sin (log5 x)]

e
ut

Solution.
dy 1 1
tit

= · cos (log5 x) ·
dx sin (log5 x) x ln 5
s
In

5. y = x2 log x
UP

Solution.
dy 1 x
= 2x · log x + x2 · = 2x log x +
dx x ln 10 ln 10

2.3.2 Logarithmic Differentiation

Consider the function given by the equation
√
(x2 − 1)3 ( 3 1 + x + x3 )(sec4 x)
y= √ .
( csc x)( x45 )

dy
Suppose you are asked to find . One could imagine the excessive computations that would
dx
be brought about by repeated application of the product, quotient, power and chain rules. We
shall therefore introduce a process called logarithmic differentiation, a technique helpful in
differentiating an expression involving many products and quotients. In using this technique given
an equation in x and y:
98 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

1. Take the absolute value of both sides of the equation and apply properties of the absolute
value.

2. Take the natural logarithm of both sides and apply properties of logarithms to obtain a sum.
dy
3. Take the derivative of both sides implicitly with respect to x and solve for .
dx

Example 2.3.3.
√
3
dy x+1
1. Find if y = √ .
dx csc (x) 1 − x2
5

Solution.
We begin by taking the absolute value of both sides of the equation. Simplifying the result,
we get
 √3

 x+1 
|y| =  √

s
 
csc5 (x) 1 − x2 

ic
at
1
|x + 1| 3
=

em
1
| csc x|5 |1 − x2 | 2h
at
M

Next, we take the natural logarithm of both sides of the function. Using the properties of
of

logarithms, we rewrite the equation as a sum.

e
ut

1
!
|x + 1| 3
ln |y| = ln
tit

1
| csc x|5 |1 − x2 | 2
s
In

1 1
= ln |x + 1| 3 − ln | csc x|5 − ln |1 − x2 | 2
UP

1 1
= ln |x + 1| − 5 ln | csc x| − ln |1 − x2 |
3 2

Finally, we take the derivatives of both sides of the equation implicitly with respect to x and
dy
solve for ,
dx
 
1 1 2
Dx (ln |y|) = Dx ln |x + 1| − 5 ln | csc x| − ln |1 − x |
3 2
1 dy 1 1 5 1 1
· = · ·1− · (− csc x cot x) − · · (−2x)
y dx 3 x+1 csc x 2 1 − x2
 
dy 1 x
=y + 5 cot x +
dx 3(x + 1) 1 − x2
 √3
  
x+1 1 x
= √ + 5 cot x +
csc5 (x) 1 − x2 3(x + 1) 1 − x2
2.3. DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 99
√3
dy x2 tan4 x
2. Find if y = .
dx (2x2 + 1)3 log x
Solution.
Once again, we begin by taking the absolute value of both sides of the equation. This gives
us
2
|x| 3 | tan x|4
|y| = .
|2x2 + 1|3 | log x|

Then, we take the natural logarithm of both sides and rewrite the equation as a sum using the
properties of logarithms to obtain

2
ln |y| = ln |x| + 4 ln | tan x| − 3 ln |2x2 + 1| − ln | log x|.
3

s
dy

ic
Finally, we take the derivative of both sides implicitly with respect to x and solve for ,

at
dx

em
1 dy 2 1 1 1 1 1
· sec2 x − 3 · 2


= · +4· h · (4x) − ·
y dx 3 x tan x 2x + 1 log x x ln 10
√
at
3 2 4
 2

dy x tan x 2 4 sec x 12x 1
M

= + − 2 − .
dx (2x2 + 1)3 log x 3x tan x 2x + 1 (log x)(x ln 10)
of

2.3.3 Derivatives of Exponential Functions

e
ut

Next, we determine the derivatives of exponential functions, which we give in the following theorem.
s tit
In

Theorem 2.3.4.
UP

A. Dx (ax ) = ax ln a (a > 0 and a 6= 1)

B. Dx (ex ) = ex

Proof. Consider the exponential function of base a,

y = ax .

This is equivalent to the logarithmic equation

x = loga y,

and taking the derivative of both sides of the equation implicitly with respect to x, we obtain

Dx (x) = Dx (loga y)
1 dy
1= · .
y ln a dx
100 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

dy
Solving for , we obtain
dx

dy
= y ln a = ax ln a.
dx

dy
This proves the first statement of Theorem 2.3.4. Observe that if a = e, then = ex ln e = ex ,
dx
which proves the second statement of Theorem 2.3.4.

Thus, we obtain a function whose derivative is itself. (Is this the only function with this property?)
Note also that ln a > 0 when a > 1 and ln a < 0 when 0 < a < 1. Because ax > 0 for any x ∈ R,
Dx (ax ) = ax ln a > 0 when a > 1 and Dx (ax ) = ax ln a < 0 when 0 < a < 1. This explains why
f (x) = ax is an increasing function when a > 1 and decreasing when 0 < a < 1.

dy

s
Example 2.3.5. Find .

ic
dx

at
1. y = 4x

Solution.
h em
at
dy
M

= 4x ln 4
dx
of

3
2. y = ex
e
ut

Solution.
tit

dy
s

3
= ex · 3x2
In

dx
UP

3. y = 24x csc(ex )

Solution.
dy
= 24x ln 2 · 4 csc(ex ) + 24x [− csc (ex ) cot (ex ) · ex ]
 
dx

As a consequence also, if r ∈ R and x > 0, then

 
  1
r
Dx (x ) = Dx e r ln x r ln x
=e · r· = xr · rx−1 = rxr−1 .
x

Hence, the power rule holds even for irrational exponents. We state this as a theorem:

Theorem 2.3.6. (Power Rule) If f (x) = xr where r ∈ R, then f 0(x) = rxr−1.

√ √ √
For example, Dx (xπ ) = πxπ−1 and Dx ((cos x) 2) = 2(cos x) 2−1 (− sin x).
2.3. DERIVATIVES OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 101

2.3.4 Derivative of f (x)g(x) , where f (x) > 0

To differentiate expressions of the form f (x)g(x) , we either use logarithmic differentiation or rewrite
f (x)g(x) as eg(x) ln f (x) .
dy
Example 2.3.7. Find .
dx
1. y = xx , x > 0

Solution.
Using logarithmic differentiation, we have
ln y = ln (xx ) (no need to take absolute values since x > 0)
ln y = x ln x
1 dy 1
= 1 · ln x + x ·
y dx x
dy
= y(ln x + 1)
dx

ic s
dy
= xx (ln x + 1)

at
dx

em
Alternatively, we have
y = ex ln x
h
at
 
dy 1
M

x ln x
=e 1 · ln x + x ·
dx x
of

dy
= xx (ln x + 1)
e

dx
ut

2. y = (sin x)cos x , sin x > 0

s tit
In

Solution.
ln y = cos x ln(sin x)
UP

 
1 dy 1
= (− sin x) · ln(sin x) + cos x · · cos x
y dx sin x
cos2 x
 
dy cos x
= (sin x) − sin x ln(sin x) +
dx sin x
102 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

2.3.5 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion
dy
A. Find . Use logarithmic differentiation whenever appropriate.
dx
1. y = log5 (2x5 − 1) sec x 6. y = x2 · 35x−3
 

2. y = cos(ln |4 − x|)
√ 7. ln(x2 + y 2 ) = ex+y − ex−y
3. y = x5 (x2 − 1)4 sin x
xy )
(1 + x − x2 )3 8. ln 2 = (x2 − 1)π + 5(e
4. y = √ √
sec 4x(x − log x)6 9. y = (log4 x)e
x

x2 cot4 x
5. y = √ 2
3
5x − 2(log4 x)10 10. y = (tan 3x)1−x

B. Find the equation of the normal line to the graph of f (x) = 2x log2 x at the point where
x = 1.

ic s
Supplementary Exercises

at
dy

em
A. Find . Use logarithmic differentiation whenever appropriate.
dx h
at
csc(log3 x) 8. y = 2x + 3x − 5x
M

1. y = √
x − ln(5x) 
4 − 14x

of

  9. y = log8
2. sin x2 − y 2 = tan log 1 x 1 − x2


e

4
ut

3. y = logx2 +4 3 10. y = e4x−1 + ln x2 + e

√
tit

esin 2x + ln(1 + x)
4. y = 1 + x − log12 x
2log5 x 11. y =
s

log2 2 − x + log5 (2x + 1)

In

5. y = (x + 2x )sin 5x
2

12. ln |x − cos y| = y 2 + x − 2
UP

6. y x = xy
7. ln(x − y) = (tan x)y 13. x tan y − sin [(x − 1) ln y] = x
2.4. DERIVATIVES OF OTHER NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS 103

2.4 Derivatives of Other New Classes of Functions

2.4.1 Derivatives of Inverse Circular Functions
We now do calculus on these functions. We begin with their derivatives, which we enumerate in
the following theorem.

Theorem 2.4.1.

1 1
1. Dx sin−1 x = √ 4. Dx cot−1 x = −



1 − x2 1 + x2
1 1
5. Dx sec−1 x = √


2. Dx cos−1 x = − √


1 − x2 x x2 − 1
1 1
6. Dx csc−1 x = − √


3. Dx tan−1 x =


1 + x2 x x2 − 1
Proof. We show the proof of statement 1 only. The rest can be proved similarly.

ic s
y = sin−1 x

at
x = sin y
Dx (x) = Dx (sin y) hem
at
dy
1 = cos y ·
M

dx
dy 1
of

=
dx cos y
e

p √ dy
ut

Note that cos y = ± 1 − sin2 y = ± 1 − x2 . Since y ∈ − π2 , π2 , cos y ≥ 0. Therefore,

 
=
dx
tit

1
√ .
s

1 − x2
In
UP

dy
Example 2.4.2. Find .
dx
1. y = sin−1 (3x)

Solution.
dy 1 3
=p · (3) = √
dx 1 − (3x)2 1 − 9x2

2. y = cot−1 (ln x)

Solution.
   
dy 1 1
= − 2
·
dx 1 + (ln x) x
 y
1 2
= log2 (x − y) − csc−1 (3x2 )

3.
5
Solution.
104 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

We perform implicit differentiation.

 y    
1 1 dy 1 dy
ln = · 1−
5 5 dx (x − y) ln 2 dx
 
−1 2

1
− 2 csc 3x · − √ · 6x
3x2 9x4 − 1
 
1 −1 2

6x
− 2 csc 3x · − √
dy (x − y) ln 2 3x 2 9x4 − 1
=  y  
dx 1 1 1
ln +
5 5 (x − y) ln 2

2.4.2 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

Theorem 2.4.3.

1. Dx (sinh x) = cosh x 4. Dx (coth x) = − csch2 x

ic s
2. Dx (cosh x) = sinh x 5. Dx (sech x) = − sech x tanh x

at
em
3. Dx (tanh x) = sech2 x 6. Dx (csch x) = − csch x coth x
h
at
Proof. Again, we shall prove the first statement only.
M
of

ex − e−x dy ex − (e−x ) · (−1) ex + e−x

If y = sinh x = , then = = = cosh x.
e

2 dx 2 2
ut
tit

dy
Example 2.4.4. Find .
s

dx
In

1. y = csch x5 − 2


UP

Solution.
dy
= − csch x5 − 2 coth x5 − 2 · (5x4 )



dx
√
2. y = tanh3


x+3

Solution.
dy √ √ 1
= 3 tanh2 x + 3 · sech2



x+3 · √
dx 2 x+3

3. y = (cosh x)sinh x , cosh x > 0

Solution.
y = esinh x ln(cosh x)
 
dy sinh x ln(cosh x) 1
=e cosh x · ln(cosh x) + sinh x · · sinh x
dx cosh x
2.4. DERIVATIVES OF OTHER NEW CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS 105

2.4.3 Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

We will find that the derivative of each inverse hyperbolic function resembles that of the corre-
sponding inverse circular function. The proofs of the statements in the next theorem are left as
exercises.

Theorem 2.4.5.

1 1
1. Dx (sinh−1 x) = √ 4. Dx (coth−1 x) = , |x| > 1
x2 + 1 1 − x2
1 1
2. Dx (cosh−1 x) = √ 5. Dx (sech−1 x) = − √
x2 −1 x 1 − x2
1 1
3. Dx (tanh−1 x) = , |x| < 1 6. Dx (csch−1 x) = − √
1 − x2 |x| x2 + 1
dy
Example 2.4.6. Find .
dx

ic s
A. y = sinh−1 (1 − x)

at
Solution.
dy 1 −1 em
h
at
=p · (−1) = p
dx 2
(1 − x) + 1 (1 − x)2 + 1
M

 x 
1
of

−1 4 −1
B. y = coth (x ) − sech
4
e
ut

Solution.
tit

 x  
dy 1 3 +

1 1 1
· ·
s

= 4x ln
In

1 − x8
q
dx 1 x

1 2x

4 4
4 1− 4
UP

C. y = log10 cosh−1 (2x)

Solution.
dy 1 1
= −1 ·√ ·2
dx cosh (2x) ln 10 4x2 − 1
106 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

2.4.4 Exercise
Exercises for Discussion
dy
A. Find .
dx
√
1. y = 5cos
−1 x sec−1 (2x ) − e
4. y =
√ [log (3x)] tan−1 x
2. y = cos−1 6
cos x4 + ecot x − 4π 2 5. sin−1 (xy) = cos−1 (x − y)


tan−1 √x
3. y = sec ln csc−1 x 6. y = sin−1 x2



dy
B. Find .
dx

3
1. y = cosh(ln x) 4. y = 10csch(x ) sec−1 (cosh 4x)
√
2. y = tanh3 3 2x
5. cosh(x − y) = log3 x − tanh(x2 + y 2 )
log5 (sech(ex ))

s
√

ic
3. y = 6. sec−1 ( x) = tanh(x2 y) + y sinh 2
sinh (x − tan−1 x)

at
em
dy
C. Find . h
dx
at
M

1. y = cosh−1 x7 sin−1 (ex sinh 3x) + coth−1 (x2 )

4. y = √
of

2. y = tanh−1 (5x2 ) csch−1 (ln x) sech−1 x

√
5. sinh−1 (x + y) = cosh−1 (x − y) + x
e

√
ut

tanh−1 x
3x2 +1
3. y = 6. cosh x = tanh−1 y
tit

1 + sec x2
s
In

Supplementary Exercises
UP

dy
A. Find . There is no need to simplify.
dx

6. y = sinh−1 (ln x) + sin−1 (ln x)

 
−1 x+1
1. y = sin √
2 log5 x √
2. y = tan (sech x) + sech tan−1 x
−1 7. y = +sech(4x−2 −sec−1 ( x))


−1
coth (2x)
3. y = csch(cos−1 (x2 ))
  2
x −1
 8. sec−1 (2y cos x) = xy
2
4. y = tanh log7
x+1 9. 3y = y tanh(x) + 2
e tanh x
5. y = 2 10. 4y = y 2 − cos−1 (x) + 1
x − sech x
2.5. MORE INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 107

2.5 More Indeterminate Forms and L’Hôpital’s Rule

We began this course with the concept of the limit: the behavior of a function as the indepen-
dent variable approaches a certain value, or as it increases or decreases without bound. The new
techniques of differentiation we have learned so far will aid us in evaluating a wider range of lim-
its, including new types of indeterminate forms which we could not previously evaluate with the
techniques learned in Chapter 1.

By the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• evaluate limits with indeterminate form 0/0, ∞/∞ using L’Hôpital’s Rule; and

• evaluate limits with indeterminate forms 0 · ∞, ∞ − ∞, 00 , 1∞ , ∞0 .

0 ∞
2.5.1 Indeterminate Forms of Type and

s
0 ∞

ic
at
With the aid of derivatives, certain limits can be evaluated more conveniently. We first recall

em
some terminology defined in the early part of this course. We also recall here some techniques in
evaluating limits we have previously encountered. h
at
f (x)
M

Definition 2.5.1. The lim is an indeterminate form of type

x→a g(x)
of

0
1. if lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0.
e
ut

0 x→a x→a
tit

∞
2. if lim f (x) and lim g(x) are both +∞ or −∞.
∞ x→a
s

x→a
In

Of course, “x → a” may be replaced by “x → a+ ”, “x → a− ”, “x → +∞” or “x → −∞”.

UP

Example 2.5.2. Evaluate the following limits.

x2 − 3x
 
0
1. lim 2
x→0 2x + x 0

Solution.

x2 − 3x x(x − 3) x−3
lim 2
= lim = lim = −3
x→0 2x + x x→0 x(2x + 1) x→0 2x + 1

 
sin 5x 0
2. lim
x→0 sin 3x 0

Solution.

   
sin 5x sin 5x 3x 5 5 5
lim = lim =1·1· =
x→0 sin 3x x→0 5x sin 3x 3 3 3
108 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

x2 + 3x − 10
 
0
3. lim 2
x→2− x − 4x + 4 0
Solution.

x2 + 3x − 10 (x + 5)(x − 2)
lim = lim
x→2− x2 − 4x + 4 x→2− (x − 2)2
 
x+5 7
= lim
x→2− x − 2 0−
= −∞
 
3x − 1 +∞
4. lim
x→+∞ 7 − 6x −∞
Solution.

1
3x − 1 3x − 1 3 − x1 1

s
x
· =−

ic
lim = lim 1 = lim 7
x→+∞ 7 − 6x x→+∞ 7 − 6x 2
x −6
x→+∞

at
x

2.5.2 L’Hôpital’s Rule

em
h
at
The following theorem tells us how derivatives can be used to evaluate limits that are indeterminate
0 ∞
M

of type or . It is usually referred to as L’Hôpital’s Rule, after the French mathematician

0 ∞
of

Guillaume François Marquis de L’Hôpital.

e
ut

Theorem 2.5.3. Let f and g be functions differentiable on an open interval I containing a

tit

f (x) 0
except possibly at a and g 0 (x) 6= 0 for all x ∈ I \ {a}. If lim is indeterminate of type
s

x→a g(x) 0
In

∞
or , then
UP

∞
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0 ,
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

f 0 (x) f 0 (x)
provided lim 0
exists or lim 0 = ±∞.
x→a g (x) x→a g (x)

Remark 2.5.4. L’Hôpital’s Rule, with suitable modifications, is valid if “x → a” is replaced by

“x → a+ ”, “x → a− ”, “x → +∞” or “x → −∞”.

Example 2.5.5. Evaluate the following limits.

x2 − 3x
 
0
1. lim 2
x→0 2x + x 0
Solution.

Dx x2 − 3x


x2 − 3x 2x − 3
lim 2 = lim 2

= lim = −3
x→0 2x + x x→0 Dx 2x + x x→0 4x + 1
2.5. MORE INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 109
 
sin 5x 0
2. lim
x→0 sin 3x 0

Solution.

sin 5x 5 cos 5x 5
lim = lim =
x→0 sin 3x x→0 3 cos 3x 3

x2 + 3x − 10
 
0
3. lim 2
x→2− x − 4x + 4 0

Solution.

x2 + 3x − 10
 
2x + 3 7
lim 2 = lim

s
x→2− x − 4x + 4 x→2 2x − 4
− 0−

ic
= −∞

at
4. lim
3x − 1

+∞
 hem
at
x→+∞ 7 − 6x −∞
M

Solution.
of
e
ut

3x − 1 3 1
tit

lim = lim =−
x→+∞ 7 − 6x x→+∞ −6 2
s
In

x3 − 3x + 2
 
0
UP

5. lim
x→1 1 − x + ln x 0

Solution.

x3 − 3x + 2 3x2 − 3
 
0
lim = lim
x→1 1 − x + ln x x→1 −1 + 1 0
x
6x
= lim 1
x→1 − 2
x
= −6

 
csc x −∞
6. lim
x→0− 1 − cot x +∞

Solution.
110 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

csc x − csc x cot x

lim = lim
x→0− 1 − cot x x→0− csc2 x
 
− cot x +∞
= lim
x→0− csc x −∞
csc2 x
= lim
x→0− − csc x cot x
 
csc x −∞
= lim
x→0− − cot x +∞
− cot x
= lim
x→0− csc x

Observe that the expression in the last line above is exactly the same as the expression in the
second line. Hence, continued application of L’Hôpital’s Rule here will just lead us to an infinite
string of equations and will not help us evaluate the limit. This example should make you realize

ic s
that L’Hôpital’s Rule is not always helpful. Sometimes, we must fall back to old-fashioned tricks.

at
em
For instance, we evaluate this limit by simply manipulating the given expression to obtain
h
a simpler expression:
at
M
of

1
csc x sin x
e

lim = lim cos x

ut

x→ 0− 1 − cot x x→ 0− 1 −
sin x
tit

1
= lim
s
In

x→ 0− sin x − cos x
= −1
UP

It is imperative to remember the behavior of each function introduced in this course; doing so
will help us in computing new limits. Recalling the graphs of our new functions will be helpful in
remembering their behavior. For instance, using the graph of f (x) = loga x, where 0 < a < 1, one
sees that lim loga x = +∞. Thus, if f (x) approaches 0 through positive values as x approaches
x→0+
k, then
lim loga [f (x)] = lim loga y = +∞.
x→k y→0+

x + sin x
Example 2.5.6. Evaluate: lim
x→+∞ x

Solution.
Note that since x + sin x ≥ x − 1 for any x ∈ R and x→+∞
lim x − 1 = +∞, then lim x + sin x = +∞
x→+∞
∞
as well. Thus, the limit is indeterminate of type .
∞
2.5. MORE INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 111

Dx (x + sin x) 1 + cos x
However, = andlim does not exist since cos x does not ap-
Dx (x) 1 1 + cos x
x→+∞
1
proach any particular value as x → +∞. Neither does 1 + cos x grow without bound. Thus,
L’Hôpital’s Rule does not apply.

We therefore need to employ other techniques. In particular, notice that for any x > 0, the following
hold:
x − 1 ≤ x + sin x ≤ x + 1
x−1 x + sin x x+1
⇔ ≤ ≤
x x x
x−1 x+1 x + sin x
Also, lim = 1 = lim , so by the Squeeze Theorem, lim = 1.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x

2.5.3 Indeterminate Forms of Type 0 · ∞ and ∞ − ∞

Definition 2.5.7.

s
1. The lim f (x)g(x) is an indeterminate form of type 0 · ∞ if either

ic
x→a

at
lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = +∞ or − ∞, or

em
x→a x→a
h
lim f (x) = +∞ or − ∞ and lim g(x) = 0.
at
x→a x→a
M

2. The lim (f (x) + g(x)) is an indeterminate form of type ∞ − ∞ if either

x→a
of

lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = −∞, or

e

x→a x→a
ut
tit

lim f (x) = −∞ and lim g(x) = +∞.

x→a x→a
s
In

0 ∞
Remark 2.5.8. L’Hôpital’s Rule works only for indeterminate forms of type and . Any
0 ∞
UP

other indeterminate form must be expressed equivalently in one of these two forms if we wish to
apply L’Hôpital’s Rule. For the new indeterminate forms described above, these conversions can
be performed as described below.

1. If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = +∞ or −∞, write lim f (x)g(x) as:
x→a x→a x→a

f (x) 0
(a) lim , which is indeterminate of type , or
x→a 1 0
g(x)
g(x) ∞
(b) lim , which is indeterminate of type
x→a 1 ∞
f (x)

and apply L’Hôpital’s Rule.

2. If lim f (x) + g(x) is indeterminate of type ∞ − ∞, rewrite f (x) + g(x) as a single expression to
x→a
0 ∞
obtain an indeterminate form of type or and apply L’Hôpital’s Rule.
0 ∞
Example 2.5.9. Evaluate the following limits.
112 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

1. lim sin−1 (2x) csc x (0 · +∞)

x→0+

Solution.

sin−1 (2x)
 
−1 0
lim sin (2x) csc x = lim
x→0+ x→0+ sin x 0
1
√ · (2)
1 − 4x2
= lim
x→0+ cos x
2
=
1
= 2

2. lim tan θ ln (sin θ) (+∞ · 0)

θ→ π2 −

ics
Solution.

at
lim tan θ ln (sin θ) = lim
ln(sin θ) hem  
0
at
π−
θ→ 2 π−
θ→ 2 cot θ 0
M

1


sin θ cos θ
= lim
of

2
θ→ π2 − − csc θ
e

= lim − sin θ cos θ

ut

θ→ π2 −
tit

= −1(0)
s
In

= 0
UP

   
x 1 1 1
3. lim − −
x→1+ x − 1 ln x 0+ 0+

Solution.

   
x 1 x ln x − (x − 1) 0
lim − = lim
x→1+ x − 1 ln x x→1+ (x − 1) ln x 0
x · x1 + ln x − 1
= lim
x→1+ (x − 1) · 1 + ln x
x
 
ln x 0
= lim
x→1+ 1 − 1 + ln x 0
x
1
x
= lim
x→1+ 12 + 1
x x
1
=
2
2.5. MORE INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 113

2.5.4 Indeterminate Forms of Type 1∞ , 00 and ∞0

Definition 2.5.10. Let f be a nonconstant function. The lim f (x)g(x) is an indeterminate form
x→a
of type

1. 1∞ if lim f (x) = 1 and lim g(x) = +∞ or −∞.

x→a x→a

2. 00 if lim f (x) = 0, through positive values, and lim g(x) = 0.

x→a x→a

3. ∞0 if lim f (x) = +∞ and lim g(x) = 0.

x→a x→a

Remark 2.5.11. If lim f (x)g(x) is indeterminate of type 1∞ , 00 or ∞0 , we write

x→a

lim f (x)g(x) = lim eg(x) ln[f (x)]

x→a x→a

and evaluate lim g(x) ln[f (x)] first. Then, if

x→a

1. lim g(x) ln[f (x)] = L ∈ R, then x→a

lim f (x)g(x) = eL .

ic s
x→a

at
2. lim g(x) ln[f (x)] = +∞, then lim f (x)g(x) = +∞.

em
x→a x→a

3. lim g(x) ln[f (x)] = −∞, then lim f (x)g(x) = 0.

h
at
x→a x→a
M

Example 2.5.12. Evaluate the following limits.

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1. lim xsin x 00


e

x→0+
ut

Solution.
tit

First, write xsin x = esin x ln x . Evaluate first lim sin x ln x.

s
In

x→0+
UP

 
ln x −∞
lim sin x ln x (0 · (−∞)) = lim
x→0+ x→0+ csc x +∞
1
x
= lim
− csc x cot x
x→0+
− sin2 x
 
0
= lim
x→0+ x cos x 0
−2 sin x cos x
= lim
x→0+ x(− sin x) + cos x
= 0

Hence, lim xsin x = e0 = 1.

x→0+

3 2x
 
2. lim 1− (1∞ )
x→+∞ x
Solution.
114 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

3
3 2x
= e2x ln(1− x )


1− x

 
3
  ln 1 −  
3 x 0
lim 2x ln 1 − (+∞ · 0) = lim
x→+∞ x x→+∞ 1 0
2x  
1 3
·
3 x2
1−
= lim x
x→+∞ 1
− 2
2x
−6
= lim
x→+∞ 3
1−
x
= −6

3 2x
 

s
Hence, lim 1− = e−6 .

ic
x→+∞ x

at
hem
at
M
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e
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tit
s
In
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2.5. MORE INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HÔPITAL’S RULE 115

2.5.5 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Evaluate the following limits.

3−x
 p 
1. lim x 11. lim x− x2 − x + 2
x→3 2 − 8 x→+∞
ln x 12. lim (tan x)cos x
2. lim 1 x→ π2 −
+
x→0 e x
sec x
1
3. lim 13. lim x + e2x x
π − 1 + tan x x→0
x→ 2
x
1
4. lim √ 14. x + e2x x
lim
x→−∞ x2 + 1 x→+∞
√
ln (3 + ex ) 15. lim
x
cosh 3x
5. lim x→+∞
x→+∞ 7x  
sin x − x x−1
6. lim 16. lim x ln

s
x3 x→+∞ x+1

ic
x→0
1 − x + ln x

at
sin x + tan x
7. lim 17. lim

em
x→1 1 + cos πx x→0−ex + e−x − 2
1
8. lim x2 e x

cos x
18. lim x − π2
x→0+
h
x→ π2 +
at
−1
9. lim tan (x) ln x
M

x→0− 19. lim logx (x + 10)

  x→+∞
1
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10. lim csc x − 20. lim ln(e3x + 1) − 3x

x→0− x x→+∞
e
ut
tit

B. Do as indicated.
s
In

1. If an electrostatic field E acts on a gaseous polar dielectric, the net dipole moment P per
1
UP

unit volume is P (E) = coth E − . Evaluate lim P (E).

E E→0+
 x
x+m
2. For what values of m is lim = e?
x→+∞ x − m

Supplementary Exercises

A. Evaluate the following limits.

2x3 + x2 + 1 1 − ex
2

1. lim 5. lim
x→−∞ x2 − x x→0 log3 (1 − x)

e2x − 4 2x3 + ln 5x
2. lim 6. lim
x→ln 2 x − ln 2 x→+∞ 7 + ex
cos x
sinh−1 x4


3. limπ
x→ 2 x − π 3


2
7. lim 1
x→+∞ 3x − 1
tanh x
4. lim 8. lim x (ln(−x))
x→0+ sech x − 1 x→0−
116 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

8 x
 
9. lim 1−
2
− 2 16. lim [1 + tan(11x)]cot(2x)
x→0+
x→−∞ 5x 5x
1 4 
2x − 3
2x+1
10. lim 2 − 17. lim
x→3+ x − 9 ln (2x − 5) x→+∞ 2x + 5
11. lim (ln(x + 1) − ln(x − 1))
x→+∞ x3
x3

12. lim cot(3x) ln [1 + tan(5x)] 18. lim
x→0+ x→+∞ x3 + 4
x csch x
13. lim e
x→0
19. lim (2x + 5)csch(2x+4)
14. lim x(ln 2)/(1+ln x) x→−2+
x→∞
√
1 3x 9
  
16 − 8x
15. lim 1+ 20. lim tanh
x→+∞ x x→2− x−2

ic s
at
h em
at
M
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e
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s tit
In
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2.6. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 117

2.6 The Mean Value Theorem

In this section, we discuss one of the most important theorems in calculus, namely, the Mean
Value Theorem. It is used to prove several other theorems including many of the ones that will be
discussed in this course.
At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• interpret Rolle’s Theorem and Mean Value Theorem using graphs

• solve problems by applying Rolle’s Theorem and Mean Value Theorem

2.6.1 Rolle’s Theorem

The following theorem is a specific case of the Mean Value Theorem and it was first proved by the
French Mathematician Michel Rolle in 1691.

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Theorem 2.6.1 (Rolle’s Theorem). Let f be a function such that

(i) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] h em

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(ii) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b) and
M

(iii) f (a) = 0 = f (b).

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Then there exists a number c in the open interval (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
e
ut
tit
s

y y y
In

c
UP

a b
x
a
x
a bx b1 b2

Figure 2.6.1 Figure 2.6.2 Figure 2.6.3

Remarks.
1. Note that condition (iii) of Rolle’s Theorem implies that the line passing through the points
(a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) is horizontal. On the other hand, the conclusion implies that there is
a horizontal tangent line to the graph of f and the point of tangency has x-coordinate lying
between a and b. Refer to Figure 2.6.1.

2. Continuity on [a, b] is important because there are functions that satisfy only conditions (ii) and
(iii) but do not satisfy the conclusion. Refer to Figure 2.6.2 and consider the function on the
interval [a, b1 ]. It may also be the case that the conclusion is satisfied even if one of premises is
not satisfied. Refer to Figure 2.6.2 and consider the function on the interval [a, b2 ].
118 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

3. Notice that f need not be differentiable at the endpoints a and b. Refer to Figure 2.6.1.

4. The number c ∈ (a, b) in the conclusion need not be unique. Refer to Figure 2.6.3.

2.6.2 The Mean Value Theorem

Theorem 2.6.2 (The Mean Value Theorem). Let f be a function such that

(i) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]

(ii) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).

f (b) − f (a)
Then there is a number c on the open interval (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = .
b−a

Remark 2.6.3. The Mean Value Theorem is the generalization of Rolle’s Theorem where the line
`, passing through (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)) is not necessarily horizontal. The conclusion says that
there is a tangent line to the graph of f that is parallel to ` and whose point of tangency has

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x-coordinate between a and b. Refer to Figure 2.6.4 and 2.6.5.

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em
y
y h
at
`
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x
a c b
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c2 b
e

x
a c1
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tit

Figure 2.6.4 Figure 2.6.5

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Example 2.6.4.
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1. Determine if Rolle’s Theorem is applicable to the given functions on the indicated intervals:

(a) f (x) = x3 − 4x2 + 5x − 2 on [1, 2]

Solution.
Note that f (x) is continuous on [1, 2] and differentiable on (1, 2) because it is a polynomial.
Moreover, f (1) = 0 = f (2). Hence Rolle’s Theorem can be applied. We therefore conclude
that there exists a c such that 1 < c < 2 and f 0 (c) = 0. In fact, we can solve for c. Since

f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 8x + 5 = (3x − 5)(x − 1),

then the number c = 53 is in the interval (1, 2) and satisfies f 0 (c) = 0.

(
x2 , x ≤ 21
(b) f (x) = on [0, 1]
x − 1 , x > 12

Solution.
2.6. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 119

Notice that the only possible point of discontinuity of f (x) is at x = 21 . Checking conditions
for continuity at x = 21 , we have
 
1 1 1 1
(i) f = (ii) lim f (x) = lim (x − 1) = − (iii) lim f (x) = lim x2 =
2 4 x→ 1+
x→ 1+ 2 x→ 1−
x→ 1− 4
2 2 2 2

1
Hence, f is not continuous at x = 2 and Rolle’s Theorem cannot be applied.

2. Apply the Mean Value Theorem to f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + x to show that 6x2 + 1 = 6x has at least
one real root between 0 and 1.

Solution.
Note that f 0 (x) = 6x2 − 6x + 1. Since f is a polynomial and f (0) = 0 = f (1), then f satisfies
the assumptions of Rolle’s Theorem on [0, 1]. Hence there is a c ∈ (0, 1) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
This c is a root of the equation 6x2 + 1 = 6x.
x+2 1
3. Let f (x) = . Show that there is a c ∈ (1, 2) such that if f 0 (c) = − .
x+1 6

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Solution.

em
Since −1 ∈
/ [1, 2] and f is a rational function, f is continuous on [1, 2] and differentiable on (1, 2).
h f (2) − f (1) 4 3 1
By the Mean Value Theorem, there is a c ∈ (1, 2) such that f 0 (c) = = − =− .
at
2−1 3 2 6
M

4. Suppose that f (x) is continuous on [6, 15] and differentiable on the interval (6, 15) and f 0 (x) ≤ 10
of

for all x. If f (6) = −2, what is the largest possible value for f (15)?
e
ut

Solution.
tit

Note that f satisfies the hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem. Hence there is a c ∈ (6, 15)
s

such that
In

f (15) − f (6) f (15) + 2

f 0 (c) = = ≤ 10.
UP

15 − 6 9
Therefore, f (15) ≤ 88.
120 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

2.6.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Determine if Rolle’s Theorem applies to the following functions on the given intervals, and if
so, find all values of c satisfying the conclusion of the theorem.

1. f (x) = x2 − x − 2 on [−1, 2] x2 − x − 12
4. f (x) = on [−3, 4]
2. f (x) = x3/4 − 2x1/4 on [0, 4] x−3
3. f (x) = 3 cos2 x on [ π2 , 3π
2 ] 5. f (x) = 1 − |x| on [−1, 1]

B. Determine if the Mean Value Theorem applies to the following functions on the given intervals,
and if so, find all values of c satisfying the conclusion of the theorem.

1. f (x) = x2 + 2x − 1 on [0, 1] 3. f (x) = 3(x − 4)2/3 on [−4, 5]

√
4. f (x) = 1 + cos x on [− π2 , π2 ]

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4
2. f (x) = on [ 25 , 4]

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9 − 2x 5. f (x) = (1 + sin x)2 on [−π, 0]

C. Do as indicated.
h em
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1. Using the function f (x) = x4 − 2x2 + 4x, show that the Rolle’s Theorem confirms there
M

exist x ∈ [−2, 0] such that x is a root of the equation x3 − x + 1 = 0.

of

2. Prove that the equation x3 + 2x + 5 = 0 cannot have more than one real root.
e
ut

3. Let g be a function such that g 0 (x) ≥ −6 for all x ∈ [0, 2]. If g(0) = 0, determine the least
tit

possible value of g(2).

s
In

4. Show that sin b − sin a ≤ b − a whenever b ≥ a. In particular, show that sin x < x for all
x > 0.
UP

5. Let f (x) be differentiable at everywhere and suppose that f (1) = 1, f 0 (x) < 0 on (−∞, 1),
and f 0 (x) = 1 on (1, ∞).
a. Show that f (x) ≥ 1 for all x.
b. Must f 0 (1) = 0? Explain your answer.
6. Suppose two runners in a 100m dash finish a tie. Show that there is at least one instant
during the race where they had the same velocity.

Supplementary Exercises

A. Determine if Rolle’s Theorem applies to the following functions on the given intervals, and if
so, find all values of c satisfying the conclusion of the theorem.

1. f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 on [1, 3] 4. f (x) = |x − 2| − 1 on [1, 3]

(
2. f (x) = sin πx − x2 + 2x on [0, 2] x2 − 4 if x < 1
5. f (x) = on [−2, 58 ]
3. f (x) = sin3 x cos x on [0, 2π] 5x − 8 if 1 ≤ x
2.6. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 121

B. Determine if the Mean Value Theorem applies to the following functions on the given intervals,
and if so, find all values of c satisfying the conclusion of the theorem.

−2 3. f (x) = ex + e4−x on [0, 4]

1. f (x) = on [−2, −1]
3x + 7
4. f (x) = ln 3x on [1, e]
2. f (x) = (2x − 11)−2 on [4, 6] 5. f (x) = csc−1 (x − 1) on [1, 3]

C. Do as indicated.

1. Suppose f (x) is continuous and differentiable everywhere. Suppose also that f (x) has at
least two distinct zeros. Show that f 0 (x) has at least one zero.
2. Use the Mean Value Theorem to show that the graph of f (x) = x5 − 3x3 − x + 5 has a
tangent line on (0, 2) which is parallel to 3x − y = 2.
18
3. Let f (x) = cos(2x) − 5 sin(5x). Show that there exists c ∈ (0, π6 ) such that f 0 (c) = − .
π

s
√ √ y−x

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4. Use the Mean Value Theorem to prove that if 0 < x < y, then y − x < √ . In
2 x

at
particular, show that the geometric mean of x and y is less than their arithmetic mean,

em
√
i.e. xy < 12 (x + y). h
at
5. Suppose f is continuous on an interval I. Use the Mean Value Theorem to show that if
f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ I, then f is constant in I.
M

π
6. Use the previous item to prove the identity sin−1 x + cos−1 x = on [−1, 1].
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2
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ut
stit
In
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122 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

2.7 Relative Extrema of a Function

In this chapter, we wish to analyze a function’s behavior, which is best described using its graph.
We aim to sketch the graph of a function without the help of graphing software. To this end, we
will first develop tools to determine the turning points of the graph of a function.
At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• interpret the notion of increasing functions, decreasing functions, and relative ex-
trema of a function graphically

• determine if a function is increasing or decreasing on an interval using the first

derivative

• find the relative extrema using the First Derivative Test

ic s
2.7.1 Relative Extrema

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Definition 2.7.1.

em
1. A function f is said to have a relative maximum at x = c if there is an open interval I,
h
at
containing c, such that f (x) is defined for all x ∈ I and f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x ∈ I.
M

2. A function f is said to have a relative minimum at x = c if there is an open interval I,

of

containing c, such that f (x) is defined for all x ∈ I and f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x ∈ I.
e
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3. We say f has a relative extremum at x = c if f has either a relative maximum at x = c or a

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relative minimum at x = c.
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4. If f has a relative extremum at x = c, then it is equivalent to saying that (c, f (c)) is a relative
extremum point of f , or f (c) is a relative extremum value of f .
UP

Example 2.7.2. Let f be a function whose graph is illustrated in Figure 2.7.1.

c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 c6
Figure 2.7.1

• f has a relative maximum at x = c3 and at x = c5 .

• f has a relative minimum at x = c4 .

• f has neither a relative maximum at x = c1 nor a relative minimum at x = c6 because there is

no open interval for which the point (c1 , f (c1 )) is the highest, or (c6 , f (c6 )) is the lowest.

• f has no relative minimum at x = c2 because f (c2 ) is not defined.

2.7. RELATIVE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION 123

2.7.2 Critical Numbers

To make it easier to locate the relative extrema of a function, we narrow down our search to a few
candidates.

Definition 2.7.3. A number c ∈ domf is said to be a critical number of f if either f 0 (c) = 0 or

f 0 (x) is undefined at x = c.

Example 2.7.4. Find all the critical numbers of the following functions.
x3
1. f (x) = − 3x
9
Solution.
R. Differentiating f , we get f 0(x) = x3
2 1 1
Note that dom f = − 3 = (x2 − 9) = (x − 3)(x + 3).
3 3
The derivative is always defined and f 0 (x) = 0 when x = 3 or x = −3. Therefore the critical
numbers are 3 and −3.

2. f (x) = x4 + 2x3

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Solution.
R and its derivative is f 0(x) = 4x3 + 6x2 = 2x2(2x + 3). Hence, the critical
em
The domain of f is
3 h
numbers of f are 0 and − .
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2
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x2
3. f (x) =
of

9 − x2
e

Solution.
ut

R \ {±3}. The derivative of f is f 0 (x) =

18x
. Note that f 0 (x) is
tit

Note that dom f =

(9 − x2 )2
s

not defined at x = ±3 but ±3 are not critical numbers of f because ±3 ∈ / domf . Meanwhile,
In

f 0 (x) = 0 when x = 0. Thus, the only critical number of f is 0.

UP

4. f (x) = −x4/3 + 4x1/3

Solution.
First, dom f = R. Differentiating f , we get f 0(x) = − 34 x1/3 + 43 x−2/3 = −4(x
3x
− 1)
2/3
. Note that
f 0 (x) = 0 if and only if x = 1 and that f 0 (x) is undefined at x = 0. Moreover, 0 ∈ domf . Thus,
the critical numbers of f are 0 and 1.

The following theorem tells us that finding the critical numbers of a function takes us one step
closer to finding its relative extremum points.

Theorem 2.7.5. If f has a relative extremum at x = c, then c is a critical number of f .

Illustration 2.7.6.

1. The graph of f (x) = x2 given in Figure 2.7.2 has a relative maximum point at its vertex
(0, 0). Note that f 0 (x) = 2x. Indeed f 0 (0) = 0.
124 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

2. Take f (x) = |x − 1|. From its graph shown in Figure 2.7.3, it is clear that f has a relative
minimum at x = 1. Since the graph has a corner at x = 1, we know that f 0 (1) is undefined.

y = −x2
y = |x − 1|

Figure 2.7.2 Figure 2.7.3

Remark 2.7.7. The preceding theorem says that relative extrema can only be attained at critical
numbers of f , that is, if a is not a critical number, then the point (a, f (a)) is not a relative extremum
point of f . However, these critical numbers are only candidates for relative extrema. If c is a critical
number, f may or may not have a relative extremum at x = c. This will be illustrated in the next
sections.

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2.7.3 Increasing/Decreasing Functions

at
em
Our next goal is to determine when the graph of a function rises or falls. We will see then that this
h
is closely related to finding the relative extremum points of a function.
at
M

Definition 2.7.8. Let f be a function defined on an interval I.

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1. f is said to be (strictly) increasing on I if f (a) < f (b) for all a, b ∈ I such that a < b.
e
ut

2. f is said to be (strictly) decreasing on I if f (a) > f (b) for all a, b ∈ I such that a < b.
tit

Example 2.7.9. Let f be a function whose graph is illustrated in Figure 2.7.1. Then
s
In

• f is decreasing on [c1 , c2 ), [c3 , c4 ] and [c5 , c6 ]. But note that it is incorrect to say f is decreasing
UP

on [c1 , c2 ) ∪ [c3 , c4 ] ∪ [c5 , c6 ].

• f is increasing on (c2 , c3 ] and [c4 , c5 ].

The following theorem gives us an analytical (as opposed to graphical) method of showing that the
function is increasing or decreasing. It should be noted that the Mean Value Theorem is a key in
proving this theorem.

Theorem 2.7.10. Let f be a function that is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and
differentiable on the open interval (a, b).

1. If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is increasing on [a, b].

2. If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is decreasing on [a, b].

3. If f 0 (x) = 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f is constant on [a, b].

Example 2.7.11.
2.7. RELATIVE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION 125

1. The derivative of f (x) = x2 is f 0 (x) = 2x. Note that f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (−∞, 0) and f 0 (x) > 0
for all x ∈ (0, ∞). Indeed, as seen in Figure 2.7.4, the graph of f is decreasing on the interval
(−∞, 0] and is increasing on the interval [0, ∞).

2. If f (x) = x3 , then f 0 (x) = 3x2 which is never negative. Observe the graph of f (x) = x3 in
Figure 2.7.5. Indeed it is always increasing.

y = x2 y = x3

Figure 2.7.4 Figure 2.7.5

2.7.4 The First Derivative Test for Relative Extrema

ic s
Note that if we want to reach the peak of a hill, we first have to climb up a slope and when we

at
finally reach the top, we would go downhill. Analogously, when a continuous function y = f (x)

em
attains a relative extremum, say a relative maximum, the behavior of the graph of f transitions
h
from increasing to decreasing as it proceeds from the left of the point to its right.
at
M

Theorem 2.7.12 (First Derivative Test for Relative Extrema). Let f be a function continuous
of

on the open interval (a, b) which contains the number c. Suppose that f is also differentiable
e

on the interval (a, b), except possibly at c.

ut

1. If f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (c, b), then f has a relative
s tit

maximum at x = c.
In

2. If f 0 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (c, b), then f has a relative
UP

minimum at x = c.

3. If f 0 (x) does not change signs from (a, c) to (c, b), then there is no relative extremum at
x = c.

We will use Theorem 2.7.12 to verify whether a function has relative extrema at its critical numbers.
We enumerate below some suggested steps in finding the relative extrema of a given function.
Locating relative extremum values of a function

• Determine the critical numbers of f .

• Determine the sign of f 0 on the left and right of each critical number. (Note that in creating
the table of signs of f 0 , one should consider all values of x that make f 0 either zero or undefined,
regardless of whether they are critical numbers or not.)

• Conclude accordingly using the First Derivative Test.

126 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

Example 2.7.13. Determine the intervals where the given function is increasing or decreasing and
find all of its relative extrema.
x3
1. f (x) = − 3x
9
Solution.
x2 − 9
From Example 2.7.4.1, we know f 0 (x) = and the critical numbers of f are ±3.
3
−3 3
f 0 (x) + − +
Then f is increasing on (−∞, −3] and on [3, ∞), while it is decreasing on [−3, 3]. By the first
derivative test, (−3, 6) is a relative maximum point of the graph of f and (3, −6) is a relative
minimum point of the graph of f .

2. f (x) = x4 + 2x3

Solution.

s
ic
From Example 2.7.4.2, f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 = 2x2 (2x + 3) and the critical numbers of f are 0 and

at
− 23 .

0
f (x) −
− 32
+
0
+
h em
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Hence f is decreasing on (−∞, − 23 ] and increasing on [− 32 , ∞). Therefore, f has a relative

minimum at x = − 23 . It is good to observe that 0 is a critical number of f yet f does not have
of

a relative extremum at 0.
e
ut

x2
3. f (x) =
tit

9 − x2
s
In

Solution.
18x
From Example 2.7.4.3, f 0 (x) = and the only critical number of f is 0.
UP

(9 − x2 )2

−3 0 3
999

999

f 0 (x) − − + +

The graph of f is decreasing on (−∞, −3) and on (−3, 0]. It is increasing on [0, 3) and on (3, ∞).
Therefore, f has a relative minimum at x = 0.

4. f (x) = −x4/3 + 4x1/3

Solution.
−4(x − 1)
From Example 2.7.4.4, f 0 (x) = and the critical numbers of f are 0 and 1.
3x2/3
0 1
f 0 (x) + + −
Then the graph of f is increasing on (−∞, 1] and decreasing on [1, ∞). We conclude that f has
a relative maximum at x = 1.
2.7. RELATIVE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION 127

x2 + 4x + 3
5. f (x) =
2(x − 1)2
Solution.
−(3x + 5)
Differentiating and simplifying, we get f 0 (x) = . Note that the only critical number
(x − 1)3
5
of f is − . We form the following table:
3

− 53 1

999
f 0 (x) − + −

We conclude that f is increasing on [− 35 , 1); decreasing on the intervals (−∞, − 53 ] and (1, ∞);
and has a relative minimum at x = − 35 . Notice that even if there was a change of sign at x = 1,
we don’t say that f has a relative maximum at x = 1 since f is undefined when x = 1. In the
first place, 1 is not a critical number of f .

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
s
In
UP
128 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

2.7.5 Exercises
Exercises for Disccussion

A. Determine the intervals on which the graph of the following functions is increasing or decreas-
ing. Use the first derivative test to find its relative extremum points.

√
1. f (x) = 1 − 4x − x2 6. f (x) = x+2 3

2. f (x) = x2 (x − 1)3 √
7. f (x) = 2x 3 − x
3. f (x) = x2/3 (x − 1)2 x
8. f (x) = 2 − sin x
x2
4. f (x) = e2x + 16e−x
x2 + 2 9. f (x) =
√ 2
1+ x
5. f (x) = √ 10. f (x) = ln(x2 + 1)
1− x

B. Given the graph of the derivative of f and assuming f is continuous everywhere, find the

ic s
intervals where f is increasing, decreasiing and the x-coordinates of the relative extrema of

at
f.
h em
at
1. 2.
M

2
of

3
e

(0, 2) 1
ut

2
(−2, 0) (2, 0)
tit

−2 −1 1 2 3
s

1
In

−1
UP

−2 −1(−1, 0) 1 2 −2

−1 −3

C. Do as indicated.

R


1
1. Suppose f (x) in increasing on (0, 1]. Show that f is decreasing on .
x2 + 1
2. The population P of a new species of frogs in a conservation facility is modelled by

2500t2
P (t) = 50 + ,
25 + t2
where t is the number of years after the introduction of the new species.
a. How many frogs will populate the area in the long run?
b. Describe the behavior of the population. Is this a good model? Why or why not?
2.7. RELATIVE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION 129

Supplementary Exercises

A. Determine the intervals on which the graph of the following functions is increasing or decreas-
ing. Use the first derivative test to find its relative extremum points.

1. f (x) = 4x3 + 3x2 − 18x

(
x2 − x − 2, if x < 2
6. f (x) =
2. f (x) = x3 − 9x2 + 24x − 16 (x − 2)3 , if x ≥ 2
3. f (x) = x3
− 12x2
+ 21x
2 7. f (x) = sin2 x − 2 cos x
x +4 √
4. f (x) =
x 8. f (x) = 2x − 2 cos x
x
5. f (x) = 9. f (x) = ln cosh x
(3x + 1)2

B. Given the graph of the derivative of f and assuming f is continuous everywhere, find the
intervals where f is increasing, decreasiing and the x-coordinates of the relative extrema of
f.

ic s
at
1 2

2 em
h 2 (1, 32 )
at
(0, 1)
M

1 (− 21 , 34 ) 1
of

(−3, 0) (−1, 0) (2, 0)

e

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
ut

(0, −1) −4 −3 −2 −1 (0, 0)1 2

−1
tit

−1
(−2, −1)
s
In

−2
(2, −2) −2
UP

C. Do as indicated.
 
1
1. Show that if f is decreasing on (0, +∞), the g(x) = f is increasing on (0, +∞).
x3
2. Use a first derivative to show that sin x < x for all x > 0.
3. Find a polynomial with critical numbers 0 and 3 with relative maximum at x = 0 and no
relative extremum at x = 3.
4. Find the value of c such that f (x) = x + ln(x2 + 1) + c tan−1 x has a relative maximum at
x = −5 and a relative minimum at x = 3.
130 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

2.8 Concavity and the Second Derivative Test

The shape of the graph of a function provides many useful insights on the physical quantity that
it represents. Thus, we study the concavity of a graph.

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• interpret the notion of concavity, and points of inflection of a function graphically

• determine if a function is concave up or concave down on an interval using the

second derivative

• find the relative extrema using the Second Derivative Test

2.8.1 Concavity

ic s
Definition 2.8.1.

at
1. The graph of a function f is said to be concave up at the point P (c, f (c)) if f 0 (c) exists and
em
there is an open interval I containing c such that for all x ∈ I \ {c}, the point (x, f (x)) is
h
at
above the tangent line to the graph of f at P . We say that the graph of f is concave up on
M

an interval I if it is concave up at (c, f (c)) for all c ∈ I.

of

2. The graph of a function f is said to be concave down at the point P (c, f (c)) if f 0 (c) exists
e

and there is an open interval I containing c such that for all x ∈ I \ {c}, the point (x, f (x))
ut

is below the tangent line to the graph of f at P . We say that the graph of f is concave down
tit

on an interval I if it is concave down at (c, f (c)) for all c ∈ I.

s
In

Example 2.8.2. Let f be a function whose graph is given below.

UP

c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 c6 c7

Figure 2.8.1

• The graph of f is concave up at the point P .

• The graph of f is concave up on (c1 , c2 ) ∪ (c2 , c3 ) ∪ (c3 , c5 ) and concave down on (c5 , c7 ).

• The graph of f is neither concave up nor concave down at the point (c5 , f (c5 )).
2.8. CONCAVITY AND THE SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST 131

• Concavity of the graph of f at x = c1 and x = c3 cannot be determined because f 0 (c1 ) and

f 0 (c3 ) are not defined.

• Concavity of the graph of f at x = c2 and x = c7 cannot be determined because f is not defined

at these values of x.

We wish to find another characterization of concavity aside from its graphical definition. Observe
the behavior of the tangent lines to the concave up curve in Figure 2.8.2a. As a point goes from
left to right, the slope increases. Meanwhile, the slope of the tangent line decreases as a point goes
from left to right along the concave down curve in Figure 2.8.2b. We shall state this as a theorem.

Figure 2.8.2a Figure 2.8.2b

s
Recall that f 00 (x) = Dx (f 0 (x)). Hence if f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then f 0 (x) is increasing on

ic
at
(a, b) and the graph of f is concave up on (a, b). If f 00 (x) < 0, then f 0 (x) is decreasing on (a, b) and

em
the graph of f is concave down on (a, b).
h
at
Theorem 2.8.3 (Test for Concavity). Let f be a function such that f 00 exists on (a, b).
M

1. If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then the graph of f is concave up on (a, b).
of
e

2. If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b), then the graph of f is concave down on (a, b).
ut
tit

2.8.2 Point of Inflection

s
In

Example 2.8.4. If f (x) = x3 , then f 00 (x) = 6x. Note that f 00 (x) > 0 when x > 0 and f 00 (x) < 0
UP

when x < 0. Hence, the graph of f is concave up on (0, ∞) and concave down on (−∞, 0) (refer to
Figure 2.8.3a). Observe that that the graph of f changed concavity at x = 0. In this case, we call
the point (0, f (0)) = (0, 0) a point of inflection.
g(x) = x2/3
f (x) = x3 √
3
f (x) = x
f (x) = x4

Figure 2.8.3a Figure 2.8.3b Figure 2.8.3c Figure 2.8.3d

Definition 2.8.5. The graph of f (x) has a point of inflection at P (c, f (c)) if f is continuous at
x = c and the graph of f changes concavity at P , i.e. there is an open interval (a, b) containing c
such that
1. f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (c, b) or;

2. f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, c) and f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (c, b).
132 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

Theorem 2.8.6. If P (c, f (c)) is a point of inflection of the graph of the function f , then
f 00 (c) = 0 or f 00 (c) does not exist.

Example 2.8.7.

1. The graph of f (x) = x3 has a point of inflection when x = 0. Indeed, f 00 (0) = 0.

√
2. The graph of f (x) = 3 x (refer to Figure 2.8.3b) has a point of inflection at x = 0. Note that
2
f 00 (x) = − 5/3 . Indeed, f 00 (0) is undefined.
9x
Remark 2.8.8. The converse of the preceding theorem is not true. That is, if f 00 (c) = 0 or f 00 (c)
dne, the graph of f may or may not have a point of inflection at x = c. Take for example the
graphs of f (x) = x4 and g(x) = x2/3 illustrated in Figures 2.8.3c and 2.8.3d. The graph of both
functions have no points of inflection but f 00 (x) = 0 and g 00 (x) does not exist when x = 0. From
now on, we will refer to the values of x in the domain of f that satisfy either f 00 (x) = 0 or f 00 (x)

s
does not exist, as possible points of inflection.

ic
at
Example 2.8.9. Determine all points of inflection of the graph of the following functions and
discuss their concavity. hem
at
x3
1. f (x) = − 3x
M

9
of

Solution.
2x
e

Note that f 00 (x) = = 0 when x = 0.

ut

3
tit

0
s
In

f 00 (x) − +
UP

Then the graph of f has a point of inflection at (0, 0) and the graph of f is concave down on
(−∞, 0) and concave up on (0, ∞).

2. f (x) = x4 + 2x3

Solution.
Observe that f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 12x = 12x(x + 1) = 0 when x = 0 or x = −1.

−1 0
f 00 (x) + − +

Then (−1, −1) and (0, 0) are points of inflection of the graph f . The graph of f is concave up
on (−∞, −1) and (0, ∞). The graph of f is concave down on (−1, 0).

x2
3. f (x) =
9 − x2
Solution.
2.8. CONCAVITY AND THE SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST 133

(9 − x2 )2 18 − 18x(2)(9 − x2 )(−2x) 54(3 + x2 )

Note that f 00 (x) = = which is never zero and is
(9 − x2 )4 (9 − x2 )3
undefined when x = ±3.
−3 3

999

999
f 00 (x) − + −

Note that the graph of f cannot have points of inflection at x = ±3 because ±3 ∈

/ dom f . Also,
the graph of f is concave up on (−∞, −3) and (3, ∞), while f is concave down on (−3, 3).

4. f (x) = −x4/3 + 4x1/3

Solution.
−4(x + 2)
Verify that f 00 (x) = = 0 when x = −2 and f 00 (x) is undefined when x = 0.
9x5/3

−2 0
f 00 (x) − + −
√

ic s
Then (−2, 2 3 2) and (0, 0) are points of inflection of the graph of f . The graph of f is concave

at
down on (−∞, −2) and (0, ∞) and concave up on (−2, 0).

2.8.3
h
The Second Derivative Test for Relative Extremaem
at
M

The following is another test for relative extrema that uses the second derivative of a function.
Compare this test with the first derivative test for relative extrema.
of
e
ut

Theorem 2.8.10 (Second Derivative Test for Relative Extrema). Let f be a function such
tit

that f 0 and f 00 exist for all values of x on some open interval containing x = c and f 0 (c) = 0.
s
In

1. If f 00 (c) < 0, then f has a relative maximum value at x = c.

UP

2. If f 00 (c) > 0, then f has a relative minimum value at x = c.

3. If f 00 (x) = 0, we have no conclusion (f may or may not have a relative extrema at x = c).

Remark 2.8.11. Note that the second derivative test is only applicable to the first type of critical
numbers: those that make the first derivative zero (x-coordinates of so-called stationary points).

Example 2.8.12. Given the following functions, determine if the second derivative test is appli-
cable to their critical numbers. If yes, what can you conclude using the second derivative test?

x3
1. f (x) = − 3x with C.N. : −3, 3
9
Solution.
x2 − 9 2x
Recall that f 0 (x) = and f 00 (x) = . The second derivative test is applicable to both
3 00 3
−3 and 3. Observe that f (−3) = −2 < 0 and thus, f has a relative maximum at x = −3.
Similarly, f 00 (3) = 2 > 0 and thus, f has a relative minimum at x = 3.
134 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

2. f (x) = x4 + 2x3 with C.N. : 0, − 32

Solution.
Recall that f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 and f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 12x. The second derivative test is applicable
to both 0 and − 23 . Note that f 00 (0) = 0 and this gives us an inconclusive case. On the other
hand, f 00 − 32 = 9 > 0 and so f has a relative minimum at x = − 32 .

x2
3. f (x) = with C.N. : 0
9 − x2
Solution.
18x 2
We have seen that f 0 (x) = and f 00 (x) = 54(3 + x ) . The second derivative test is
(9 − x2 )2 (9 − x2 )3
54(3)
applicable to 0. Since f 00 (0) = 93 > 0, f has a relative minimum at x = 0.

4. f (x) = −x4/3 + 4x1/3 with C.N. : 0, 1

Solution.

ic s
−4(x − 1) 00 (x) = −4(x + 2) . The second derivative test is applicable to 1 but
f 0 (x) = and f

at
3x2/3 9x5/3

em
not to 0. Because f 00 (1) = − 43 , then f has a relative maximum at x = 1.
b
h
5. f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a 6= 0. C.N. : − 2a .
at
M

Solution.
of

Note that f 0 (x) = 2ax+b and f 00 (x) = 2a. The second derivative test is applicable to − 2a
b
. From
e

00 b b
f (− 2a ) = 2a, we conclude that if a > 0, f has a relative minimum at x = − 2a . Meanwhile,
ut

b
a < 0, then f has a relative maximum at x = − 2a .
s tit
In
UP
2.8. CONCAVITY AND THE SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST 135

2.8.4 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Identify the possible points of inflection of the graph of each function. Determine which of
these are indeed points of inflection using a table of signs. Determine the intervals on which
the graph of the function is concave up or concave down.

1. f (x) = (x + 2)3 x
5. f (x) = √
x2
+1
2. f (x) = x2/3 √ 1
x 6. f (x) = x + √
3. f (x) = 2 x
x +2 7. f (x) = sin x cos x
x2 − 3 sin x
4. f (x) = 8. f (x) =
x2 + 1 2 − cos x

B. Determine which critical numbers satisfy the hypotheses of the second derivative test and

ic s
apply the test to these numbers.

at
em
1. f (x) = (x2 − 1)4 h 4. f (x) = 2x + cot x
2. f (x) = x1/3 (x + 4) 5. f (x) = cos2 x − 2 sin x
at
√
M

3. f (x) = x4/3 − 6x1/3 6. f (x) = 3x + 2 sin x

of

C. Suppose that water is flowing at a constant rate into the container below. If f (t) is the water
e
ut

level (height) in the container after time t, how would you describe the graph of y = f (t)?
tit
s
In

1. 2.
UP

Supplementary Exercises

A. Identify the possible points of inflection of the graph of each function. Determine which of
these are indeed points of inflection using a table of signs. Determine the intervals on which
the graph of the function is concave up or concave down.

1. f (x) = −x4 + 10x3 − 36x2 − 90x + 200

(
9−x , if x ≤ 3
4. f (x) =
2. f (x) = x2 (2x2 − 4x + 3) x2 − 3 , if x > 3
√
3. f (x) = (x + 2)5 + x4 + 8x3 + 24x2 5. f (x) = x2 + 2x + x
136 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

1 − 2x2 e2x 7. f (x) = ln(x3 − 1)

6. f (x) =
e2x 8. f (x) = 2x2 + ln x

B. Determine which critical numbers satisfy the hypotheses of the second derivative test and
apply the test to these numbers.

√ √
16000 3
4. f (x) = 2 3 x − x2
1. f (x) = x2 +
x
  5. f (x) = cos(π sin x)
200
2. f (x) = (x − 4) −2 2
x 6. f (x) = e−x
√
3. f (x) = x − 2 x + 1 + 1 7. f (x) = x − ln sech x

C. Given the graph of the derivative of f and assuming f is continuous everywhere, find the
intervals where f is concave up, concave down and the x-coordinates of the points of inflection
of f .

ic s
at
1 2

2
h em (0, 0) (3, 0)
at
−2 −1 1 2 3
M

(0, 1)
1 −1
of

(−1, 0) −2
e

−3
ut

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
(0, −1)
tit

−1 −4
(−2, −4)
s

−5
In

−2
(2, −2) −6
UP

D. Do as indicated.

1. If f is a function concave down everywhere, show that e−f (x) is concave up everywhere.
2. Suppose n is a positive integer such that n ≥ 2. Let g(x) = xn+1 − (n + 1)xn .
a. Prove that g has a relative minimum at x = n.
b. Explain why the Second Derivative Test cannot be used to show that g has a relative
maximum at x = 0 when n is even.
c. Show that g has a point of inflection at x = n − 1 and at x = 0 when n is odd.
2.9. GRAPH SKETCHING 137

2.9 Graph Sketching

We have laid out the tools we need to analyze the behavior of a function. We are now ready to
sketch the graph of functions using its derivatives.

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• find the vertical, horizontal, and oblique asymptotes of a function

• graph polynomial functions (of degree at most 5) and rational functions

Here are some guidelines we can follow.

Guidelines for Graphing a Function f Analytically:

1. Find the domain and intercepts of f .

ic s
2. Determine vertical, horizontal and oblique asymptotes of f .

at
em
3. Compute f 0 (x) and f 00 (x), and determine the critical numbers.
h
4. Divide the real number line using the numbers that make f 0 zero or undefined and the
at
numbers that make f 00 zero or undefined. Determine the sign of f 0 (x) and f 00 (x) on each
M

interval. It would be easier if you make a table(s) of signs.

of
e

5. Determine intervals on which the function is increasing,decreasing, concave up, concave

ut

down. Determine the coordinates of the relative extremum points and points of inflection.
stit

6. Plot important points (intercepts, holes, extrema, points of inflection) and asymptotes
In

first.
UP

7. Use the table of signs of f 0 and f 00 to graph the rest of the function.

2.9.1 Graphing Polynomial Funtions

x3
Example 2.9.1. Sketch the graph of f (x) = − 3x.
9

Solution.

domf : R √
interval f f0 f 00 conclusion
x-intercept: x = 0, ±3 3 (−∞, −3) + - inc., cd
−3 6 0 - rel. max.
y-intercept: y = 0
(−3, 0) - - dec, cd
x2 − 9
f 0 (x) = CN: −3, 3 0 0 - 0 POI
3 (0, 3) - + dec, cu
2x
f 00 (x) = PPOI : 0 3 −6 0 + rel. min.
3
(3, ∞) + + inc, cu
138 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

(−3, 6)

√ √
(−3 3, 0) (3 3, 0)
(0, 0)

(3, −6)

Example 2.9.2. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x4 + 2x3 using derivatives.

Solution.

s
R

ic
domf : f 0 (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 CN: 0, − 23

at
x-intercept: x = 0, −2 f 00 (x) = 12x2 + 12x PPOI: 0, −1
y-intercept: y = 0 h em
at
interval f f0 f 00 conclusion
M

(−∞, − 32 ) - + dec., cu
of

−27
− 32 16 0 + rel. min. (0, 0)
e

(− 32 , −1) + + inc, cu
ut

−1 −1 + 0 POI
tit

(−1, −1)
(−1, 0) + - inc, cd
s
In

0 0 0 0 POI
( −3 , −27
)
UP

(0, ∞) + + inc, cu 2 16

2.9.2 Review of Asymptotes

In graphing functions accurately, it is also important to take note of its asymptotes. In this course,
we will discuss linear asymptotes of a function. The formal definition of an asymptote involves
limits.

Definition 2.9.3. The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f (x) if at least one of the
following is true:

(a) lim f (x) = ∞ x=a (b) lim f (x) = −∞ x=a

x→a− x→a−
2.9. GRAPH SKETCHING 139

(c) lim f (x) = ∞ x=a (d) lim f (x) = −∞ x=a

x→a+ x→a+

Remark 2.9.4. To look for the vertical asymptotes of the graph of a function, we have to think
of a real number a such that the limit of f as x approaches a is infinite. For a rational polynomial
P (x)
, x = a is a vertical asymptote if (x − a) is a factor of Q but not of P (or the multiplicity of
Q(x)
x − a as a factor of Q is greater than the multiplicity of x − a as a factor of P ).
Example 2.9.5.
x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2)
1. f (x) = = has a vertical asymptote at x = 3 but has none at x = 2.
x2 − 5x + 6 (x − 3)(x − 2)

s
To verify this using limits,

ic
at
(x − 2)(x + 2) (x + 2)

em
lim = lim = −4
x→2 (x − 3)(x − 2) x→2 (x − 3)
h
at
   
(x − 2)(x + 2) 1·5 (x − 2)(x + 2) 1·5
M

lim = −∞ lim =∞
x→3− (x − 3)(x − 2) (0− ) · 1 x→3+ (x − 3)(x − 2) (0+ ) · 1
of
e

4 − x2 (2 − x)(2 + x)
ut

2. f (x) = = has a vertical asymptote at x = 2.

x2 − 4x + 4 (x − 2)2
tit

 
(2 − x)(2 + x) −(x + 2) −4
s
In

lim = lim = ±∞
x→2∓ (x − 2)2 x→2∓ (x − 2) 0∓
UP

Definition 2.9.6. The line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f if at least one of the
following is true:

y=b
(a) lim f (x) = b
x→∞
y=b

y=b
(b) lim f (x) = b
x→−∞
y=b

Remark 2.9.7. To find all horizontal asymptotes of a polynomial or rational function, we only
need to evaluate the limit of the function as x → ∞ and as x → −∞. If the limit is finite, then there
is a horizontal asymptote. Notice that in a rational function, whenever the degree of the numerator
is less than or equal to the degree of the denominator, then there is a horizontal asymptote.
140 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

Example 2.9.8.
x+3
1. f (x) = has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
x2 − 1
1 1 3 1 1 3
x+3 x2 x + x2 x+3 x2 x + x2
lim · 1 = lim 1 =0 lim · 1 = lim 1 =0
x→∞ x2 − 1 x→∞ 1− x→∞ x2 − 1 x→∞ 1−
x2 x2 x2 x2

2x + 1 2 2
2. f (x) = has a horizontal asymptote at y = and y = − .
|5x − 2| 5 5
2x + 1 2x + 1 2 2x + 1 2x + 1 2
lim = lim = lim = lim =−
x→∞ |5x − 2| x→∞ 5x − 2 5 x→−∞ |5x − 2| x→−∞ −5x + 2 5

Definition 2.9.9. The graph of f has the line y = mx + b, m 6= 0, as an oblique asymptote if at

least one of the following is true:

(a) lim f (x) − (mx + b) = 0

x→∞

s
y = mx + b

ic
y = mx + b y = mx + b y = mx + b

at
hem
at
M
of

(b) lim f (x) − (mx + b) = 0.

x→−∞
e
ut
stit
In
UP

y = mx + b
y = mx + b y = mx + b y = mx + b

P (x)
Remark 2.9.10. If P (x) and Q(x) are polynomial functions with deg(P ) = deg(Q) + 1, then
Q(x)
has an oblique asymptote.
x2 + 3
Example 2.9.11. The rational function f (x) = has an oblique asymptote because the
x−1
degree of the numerator is 2, which is one degree greater than that of the denominator. To find
the equation of the oblique asymptote, we use long division.

x+1 Thus
4
x2


x−1 +3 f (x) = (x + 1) + .
x−1
− x2 + x
From here it can be shown that y = x + 1 is an oblique asymptote
x+3
since
−x+1 4
lim f (x) − (x + 1) = lim = 0.
x→±∞ x→±∞ x + 1
4
2.9. GRAPH SKETCHING 141

2.9.3 Graphing Rational Functions

x2
Example 2.9.12. Sketch the graph of f (x) = using derivatives.
9 − x2

R
Solution.
domf : \ {±3} interval f f0 f 00 conclusion
x-int: x = 0 y-int: y = 0 (−∞, −3) - - dec., cd
−3 und und und V.A.
Vertical Asymptotes: x =  −3and x = 3 (−3, 0) - + dec, cu
9
lim f (x) = −∞ − 0 0 0 + rel. min.
 0
x→−3 −
(0, 3) + + inc, cu
9
lim f (x) = ∞ +
3 und und und V.A.
x→−3+  0 (3, ∞) + - inc, cd
9
lim f (x) = ∞
x→3− 0+ 
x2

9 f (x) =
lim f (x) = −∞ 9 − x2
x→3+ 0−
Horizontal Asymptotes: y = −1 x = −3 x=3
x2 1 (0, 0)

s
lim = lim 9 = −1

ic
x→±∞ 9 − x2 x→±∞ 2 − 1 y = −1
x

at
Oblique Asymptotes: none

em
18x
f 0 (x) = CN: 0
(9 − x2 )2 h
54(3 + x2 )
at
f 00 (x) = PPOI: none
(9 − x2 )3
M

4x
of

Example 2.9.13. Sketch the graph of f (x) = using derivatives.

x2 +1
e
ut

Solution.
domf : R
tit

x-int: x = 0 interval f f0 f 00 conclusion

s

√
In

(−∞, − 3) - - dec., cd
y-int: y = 0 √ √
− 3 − 3 - 0 POI
√
UP

Vertical Asymptote.: none (− 3, −1) - + dec, cu

Horizontal Asymptote: y = 0 −1 −2 0 + rel. min.
4
x 0 (−1, 0) + + inc, cu
lim = =0
1
x→±∞ 1 + x12 0 0 + 0 POI
Oblique Asymptote: none (0, 1) + - inc, cd
4 − 4x2 1
√
2 0 - rel. max.
f 0 (x) = 2 CN: −1, 1 (1, 3) - - dec, cd
(x + 1)2 √ √
8x(x2 − 3) √ 3 3 - 0 POI
√
f 00 (x) = 2 3
PPOI: 0, ± 3 ( 3, ∞) - + dec, cu
(x + 1)

(1, 2) √ √
( 3, 3)

(0, 0)
y=0

4x
√ √ f (x) =
(− 3, − 3) x2 + 1
(−1, −2)
142 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

x−1
Example 2.9.14. Sketch the graph of f (x) = 4 + x + using derivatives.
x2 − 1

Solution.

R
domf : \ {−1, 1} √ x = −1

x-intercept: x = −5±2 5
1 x2 + 5x + 5
f (x) = 4 + x + = , x 6= 1 x−1
x+1 x+1 f (x) = 4 + x +
y-intercept: y = 5   x2 − 1
11 (1, 11
)
V.A.: x = −1 hole: 1, 2
2
H.A.: none y =x+4
(0, 5)
lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = −∞
x→∞ x→−∞
O.A.: y = x + 4
x2 + 2x
f 0 (x) = CN: 0, −2
(x + 1)2 (−2,1)
2 √

s
f 00 (x) = PPOI: none ( −5− 5

ic
2
, 0)
(x + 1)3 √

at
( −5+
2
5
, 0)

em
0 00
interval f f f conclusion
(−∞, −2) + - inc, cd
h
at
−2 1 0 - rel. max.
M

(−2, −1) - - dec, cd

−1 und und und V.A.
of

(−1, 0) - + dec, cu
e

0 5 0 + rel. min.
ut

(0, ∞) + + inc, cu
s tit

2.9.4 The Graph of f from the Graph of f 0

In

We know that we can gain insight on the shape of a function f if we know the behavior of its
UP

derivative. From the graph of the derivative of f , what can we deduce about the graph of f ?
Example 2.9.15. Given the graph of f 0 below and assuming that f is continuous everywhere,
sketch a possible graph of f .

−1 1 2

−1

Solution.
2.9. GRAPH SKETCHING 143

(a) First, we need to determine the critical numbers of f . Remember that these are the numbers
that make f 0 zero or undefined. From the graph of f 0 , we see that the critical numbers are −1,
0 and 2.

(b) Next, we need to determine where the graph of f has points of inflection. These are the points
where the graph of f 0 changes from increasing to decreasing, or vice versa. The possible points
of inflection of the graph of f are attained at values of x where the graph of f 0 has a horizontal
tangent line or a vertical tangent line or has no tangent line. Thus, the x-coordinates of the
possible points of inflection of f are 0 and 1.

(c) Recall that the graph of f is increasing on [a, b] if f 0 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ (a, b). This means that
the graph of f 0 is above the x-axis on the interval (a, b). Similarly, the graph of f is decreasing
on [a, b] if the graph of f 0 is below the x-axis on the interval (a, b).

(d) Meanwhile, the graph of f is concave up on an interval (a, b) if the graph of f 0 is increasing on
(a, b). It is concave down on (a, b) if the graph of f 0 is decreasing on (a, b).

f0 f 00

s
interval conclusions on the graph of f

ic
(−∞, −1) + − increasing, concave down

at
−1 0 − relative maximum
(−1, 0) − − h em
decreasing, concave down
at
0 und und relative minimum, POI
M

(0, 1) + + increasing, concave up

1 + 0 POI
of

(1, 2) + − increasing, concave down

e
ut

2 0 − relative maximum
tit

(2, ∞) − − decreasing, concave down

s
In

From this table, we can construct a possible graph of f .

UP

−1 0 1 2
144 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

2.9.5 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Explain why the following functions do not have a linear asymptote and sketch their graphs.

1. y = x3 − 3x2 + 1 3. y = x1/3 (x + 4)
2. y = −x4 + 8x3 − 18x2 + 10 4. y = sin x cos x

B. Find all vertical, horizontal and oblique asymptotes of the following functions using limits.

√
x2 + 1 x+1−1
1. f (x) = 4. f (x) =
x+1 x
sin x 2
x − 4x + 4
2. f (x) = 5. f (x) = 2
x x +x−6

s
x2 − 1 4

ic
3. f (x) = 2 6. f (x) = x + 1 +

at
5x + 1 x−4

C. Sketch the graph of the following functions analytically. h em

at
M

x x2 + 1
1. f (x) =
of

(2x + 1)2 4. f (x) =

x+1
e

12x2 x3 − 1
ut

2. f (x) = 5. f (x) = 2
(x − 2)2 x −1
tit

2x3 (x + 1)3
s

3. f (x) = 6. f (x) =
In

x2 − 4 x2
UP

D. Sketch a possible graph of the function f given the graph of f 0 . Assume that f is continuous
everywhere.

1. 2.

(−1, 2) 2 3
(0, 2.6)
2
1
(−2, 1) (0, 1)
√ 1
(−2, 0) (3 − 2, 0)
(−1, −0.6) (3, 0)
−3 −2 −1(0, 0) 1 2
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2
−1
−1

−2 (1, −2) −2
2.9. GRAPH SKETCHING 145

Supplementary Exercises

A. Explain why the following functions do not have a linear asymptote and sketch their graphs.

1. y = 3x4 − 4x3 3. y = x4/3 − x1/3

2. y = x4 − 8x2 + 16 4. y = cosh x

B. Find all vertical, horizontal and oblique asymptotes of the following functions using limits.

2x + 3 1
1. f (x) = 3. f (x) =
x+4 |x − 3|
1
4. f (x) = ln(1 + )
x−9 x2
2. f (x) = √ 5. f (x) = coth x
x−3

s
C. Sketch the graph of the following functions analytically.

ic
at
em
1. f (x) = 4x3 + 12x2 (x + 1)3
5. f (x) =
h x2
(x − 1)2
at
2. f (x) = (x − 2)(3x + 2)
x2 6. f (x) =
M

x+1
4(2x + 3)(x + 3) (2x − 1)2
of

3. f (x) = 7. f (x) =
(x + 2)2 (x − 2)2
e
ut

x2 + 3x + 2 x3
4. f (x) = 8. f (x) =
tit

3x + 2 x2 − 4
s
In

D. Sketch a possible graph of the function f given the table of signs of f 0 and f 00 . Assume that
UP

f is continuous everywhere

1. 2.

x f 0 (x) f 00 (x) x f 0 (x) f 00 (x)

− − + −
x = −1 und und x=0 0 0
− + + +
x=0 0 + x=1 und und
+ + − +
x=1 + 0 x=4 0 +
+ − + +
146 CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVES AND DIFFERENTIATION

s
ic
at
hem
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
Chapter 3

Applications of Differentiation

3.1 Rectilinear Motion

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

s
• use the techniques of differentiations in problems of rectilinear motion

ic
at
em
Suppose a particle is moving along a horizontal line, which we shall refer to as the s-axis. Suppose
h
at
the position of the particle at time t is given by the function s(t), called the position function of
M

s(t) − s(t0 ) ∆s
the particle. The average velocity of the particle on [t0 , t] is vave = = .
t − t0 ∆t
of

Definition 3.1.1. Let s(t) be the position function of a particle moving along s-axis.
e
ut
tit

1. The instantaneous velocity of the particle at time t is

s
In

∆s ds
v(t) = lim = = s0 (t).
∆t→0 ∆t dt
UP

2. The instantaneous speed of the particle at time t is |v(t)|.

3. The instantaneous acceleration of the particle at time t is

dv d2 s
a(t) = = v 0 (t) or a(t) = = s00 (t).
dt dt2

Remark 3.1.2. Let s(t) be the position function of a particle moving along the s-axis. Note that
∆t is always positive. The signs of v(t) and a(t) give us information about the motion of the
particle.

1. a. If v(t) > 0, then the particle is moving in the positive direction of s (usually to the right
or upward) at time t.
b. If v(t) < 0, then the particle is moving in the negative direction of s (usually to the left or
downward) at time t.
c. If v(t) = 0, either the particle is not moving or is changing direction at time t.

147
148 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

2. a. If a(t) > 0, then the velocity of the particle is increasing at time t. In addition,
a. if v(t) > 0, then the speed of the particle is increasing at time t (speeding up).
b. if v(t) < 0, then the speed of the particle is decreasing at time t (slowing down).
b. If a(t) < 0, then the velocity of the particle is decreasing at time t. In addition,
a. if v(t) > 0, then the speed of the particle is decreasing at time t.
b. if v(t) < 0, then the speed of the particle is increasing at time t.
c. If a(t) = 0, then the velocity of the particle is constant.
(This does not mean that the particle is NOT moving!)

Example 3.1.3. A particle moves along a horizontal coordinate line in such a way that its position
at time t is specified by s(t) = t3 − 12t2 + 36t − 30 where s is measured in feet and t in seconds.

1. Find the instantaneous velocity and the instantaneous acceleration in terms of t.

2. Describe the position and motion of the particle in a table that includes the intervals of time
when the particle is moving to the left or to the right, when the velocity is increasing or

s
decreasing, when the speed is increasing or decreasing, and the particle’s position with respect

ic
to the origin during these intervals of time.

at
em
3. Show the motion of the particle schematically.
h
at
4. Determine the total distance traveled by the particle during the first 7 seconds.
M

Solution.
of

ds dv
1. We have s(t) = t3 − 12t2 + 36t − 30 so v(t) = = 3t2 − 24t + 36 and a(t) =
e

= 6t − 24.
ut

dt dt
tit

2. First, we find t ≥ 0 such that v(t) = 0 and a(t) = 0.

s
In

v(t) = 0
UP

2
3t − 24t + 36 = 0 a(t) = 0
2
t − 8t + 12 = 0 6t − 24 = 0
(t − 6)(t − 2) = 0
t=4
t = 6, t = 2
Thus we have the following table.
s(t) v(t) a(t) Conclusions
t=0 −30 36 −24 left of origin, towards right, decreasing velocity, slowing down
0<t<2 + − towards right, decreasing velocity, slowing down
t=2 2 0 −12 right of origin, changing direction, decreasing velocity
2<t<4 − − towards left, decreasing velocity, speeding up
t=4 −14 −12 0 left of origin, towards left, constant velocity
4<t<6 − + towards left, increasing velocity, slowing down
t=6 −30 0 12 left of origin, changing direction, increasing velocity
t>6 + + towards right, increasing velocity, speeding up
3.1. RECTILINEAR MOTION 149

3. Schematically, the particle moved in the following way:

t=6
t=2
t=0

−30 2

4. Note that the particle changed directions at t = 2 and t = 6. Thus the total distance traveled
is |s(2) − s(0)| + |s(6) − s(2)| + |s(7) − s(6)| = 32 + 32 + 7 = 71 feet.

ic s
at
em
h
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
150 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

3.1.1 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

1. An object moves on a horizontal coordinate line. Its directed distance s from the origin at
the end of t seconds is s = (t3 − 6t2 + 9t) feet.

a. when is the object moving to the left?

b. what is its acceleration when its velocity is equal to zero?
c. when is the acceleration positive?
d. when is its speed increasing?

2. Suppose that a ball was thrown upward from the top of a building. If the equation of the
ball is s = −16t2 + 64t + 160 where s is the directed distance from the ground in feet and t
is in seconds,

a. when did the ball reach its maximum height?

ic s
b. what was the ball’s maximum height?

at
c. when did the ball hit the ground?
d. with what speed did the ball hit the ground? h em
at
e. what was the acceleration of the ball after 2 seconds?
M

f. what is the height of the building?

of

3. A stone is thrown vertically upward from the top of a building. If the equation of the motion
e
ut

of the stone is s = −5t2 + 30t + 200, where s is the directed distance from the ground in
tit

meters and t is in seconds,

s
In

a. find the acceleration of the stone when the velocity is 10 meters per second.
UP

b. after how many seconds will the stone reach its maximum height?
c. what is the height of the building?
d. what is the maximum height the stone will reach?
e. what is the velocity of the stone upon impact?

Supplementary Exercises

1. A particle is moving along a horizontal line. Its directed distance s from the origin at the end
of t seconds is s = t3 − 9t2 + 24t − 16 feet.

a. when is the particle moving to the left?

b. what is the acceleration when its velocity is equal to zero?
c. when is the acceleration positive?
d. when is the particle slowing down?
e. what is the total distance travelled by the particle after 4 seconds?
3.1. RECTILINEAR MOTION 151

2. An apple is thrown vertically upward from the top of a tree. If the directed distance of the
apple from the ground after t seconds is s = −5t2 + 6t + 8 meters,

a. when did the apple hit the ground?

b. with what speed did the apple hit the ground?
c. what was the apple’s maximum height?
d. if a person stands directly below the path of the apple to catch it and he can extend his
arm to get a reach of 2 meters from the ground, at what time will he be able to catch the
apple?

3. An object’s position along a horizontal axis after t seconds is given by s = −t3 + 4t2 − 4t + 5
feet.

a. When will the object change direction?

b. When is the object speeding up?
c. What is the total distance travelled by the object afer 3 seconds?

ic s
d. Suppose another object is on the same horizontal axis with position functon r (t) = −t3 +

at
5t2 − 3t + 6. Will the two objects collide?
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
152 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

3.2 Rates of Change and Related Rates

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• use derivatives to compute the instantaneous rates of change of certain quantities

with respect to one or more other quantities

3.2.1 Rates of Change

Rates of change occur in many real-world applications and phenomena.

• A microbiologist might be interested in the rate at which the number of bacteria in a culture
changes over time.

• An engineer might be interested in the rate at which the length of a metal rod changes with
temperature.

s
• An economist might be interested in the rate at which production cost changes with the quantity

ic
at
of a product that is manufactured.

with the concentration of alcohol in the bloodstream.

h em
• A medical researcher might be interested in the rate at which the radius of an artery changes
at
M

Definition 3.2.1. Suppose f is a function and y = f (x).

of

1. The average rate of change of y with respect to x on [x0 , x] is

e
ut

∆f f (x) − f (x0 )
tit

= .
∆x x − x0
s
In

2. The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x = x0 is

UP

∆f f (x) − f (x0 )
lim = lim = f 0 (x0 ).
∆x→0 ∆x x→x0 x − x0

Remark 3.2.2.

1. Graphically, the average rate of change of y with respect to x on [x0 , x] is the slope of the secant
line passing through P (x0 , f (x0 )) and Q(x, f (x)).

2. The derivative of f at x = x0 , f 0 (x0 ) can be interpreted as the instantaneous rate of change of

y with respect at x at x = x0 . That is, f 0 (x0 ) is the rate of change of y per unit change in x at
the instant when x = x0 .

3. Let y be a function of x.
dy
(a) If > 0 on an interval I, then y increases as x increases, and y decreases as x decreases.
dx
dy
(b) If < 0 on an interval I, then y decreases as x increases, and y increases as x decreases.
dx
3.2. RATES OF CHANGE AND RELATED RATES 153

dy
(c) If = 0 on an interval I, then y does not change with respect to x.
dx
Example 3.2.3. A right circular cylinder has a fixed height of 6 units. Find the rate of change of
its volume with respect to the radius of its base.

Solution.
The volume of the cylinder is given by V = πr2 h = 6πr2 . Thus, the rate of change of the volume
dV
with respect to the radius is = 12πr. This means that a unit change in the radius of the sphere
dr
produces a change of 12πr cubic units in the volume.
Example 3.2.4. A bactericide was introduced to a nutrient broth in which bacteria were growing.
The bacterium population continued to grow for some time but then stopped growing and began
to decline. The size of the population at time t (hours) was
P = 106 + 104 t − 103 t2 .
Determine the growth rates at t = 0, t = 5 and t = 10 hours.

Solution.

ic s
The growth rate or the rate of change of the bacterium population P with respect to time t is given

at
by P 0 (t). We have

em
P 0 (t) = 104 − 2(103 )t = 2(103 )(5 − t).
h
at
The growth rates are P 0 (0) = 104 , P 0 (5) = 104 − 2(103 )(5) = 0 and P 0 (10) = 104 − 2(103 )(10) =
M

−104 .
of

Also, notice that P 0 (t) > 0 on [0, 5), P 0 (5) = 0, and P 0 (t) < 0 on (5, +∞). This shows that
e

the bacterium population was increasing until t = 5 hours, then it stopped growing and began to
ut

decline.
tit

Example 3.2.5. A ladder 24 ft. long rests against a vertical wall. Let θ be the angle between the
s
In

top of the ladder and the wall and let x be the distance from the bottom of the ladder to the wall.
UP

If the bottom of the ladder slides away from the wall, how fast does x change with respect to θ
π
when θ = ?
3
Solution.

From the figure, the equation that relates x and

θ is
θ
24 ft.

x
sin θ =
24
x
x = 24 sin θ.
dx π
Thus, the rate of change of x with respect to θ is = 24 cos θ. At θ = , we have
dθ 3
dx 
  π 
= 24 cos = 12 ft/radian.
dθ θ= π3 3

154 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

3.2.2 Related Rates

Consider a still pond. If you drop a stone on the pond, the water is disturbed, thus creating ripples.
The ripples are composed of circles increasing in size as time passes. The areas and the radii of the
circles both increase and are related to each other. Thus, if we know how fast one increases, say,
how fast the radius increases, we can determine how fast the areas of the circles are changing.

dx
Let x be a quantity that is a function of time t, meaning the quantity changes over time. Then
dt
is the rate of change of x with respect to t.
A problem on related rates is a problem involving rates of change of several variables where one
variable is dependent on another. In particular, if y is dependent on x, then the rate of change of y
dy
with respect to t is dependent on the rate of change of x with respect to t, that is, is dependent
dt
dx
on .
dt

ic s
Suggestions in solving problems involving related rates:

at
em
1. Let t denote the elapsed time. If possible, draw a diagram of the problem that is valid for
any time t > 0.
h
at
M

2. Select variables to represent the quantities that change with respect to time. Label those
of

quantities whose values do not depend on t with their given constant values.
e
ut

3. Write down any numerical facts known about the variables. Interpret each rate of change as
tit

the derivative of a variable with respect to time. Remember that if a quantity decreases over
s

time, then its rate of change is negative.

In
UP

4. Identify what is being asked.

5. Write an equation relating the variables that is valid at all time t > 0.

6. Differentiate the equation in (5) implicitly with respect to t.

7. Substitute in the equation obtained in (6) all values that are valid at the particular time of
interest. Solve for what is being asked.

8. Write a conclusion that answers the question of the problem. Do not forget to include the
correct units of measurement.

Example 3.2.6. A ladder 10 meters long is leaning against a wall. If the bottom of the ladder is
being pulled horizontally towards the wall at 2 m/s, how fast is the top of the ladder moving when
the bottom is 6 meters from the wall?

Solution.
3.2. RATES OF CHANGE AND RELATED RATES 155

wall
dx
We have = −2 m/s, negative since x decreases as time goes on. We
dt
dy
want to find when x = 6 m. Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we ladder
dt y
obtain

x2 + y 2 = 100. x
Differentiating both sides with respect to time t,

Dt [x2 + y 2 ] = Dt [100]
dx dy
2x + 2y = 0
dt dt
dy x dx
= − .
dt y dt
Now, if x = 6 then y 2 = 100 − 62 or y = 8. Hence,
dy  −6 3
= · (−2) = m/s.
dt x=6,y=8 8 2


ic s
at
em
Example 3.2.7. Water is pouring into an inverted cone at the rate of 8 cubic feet per minute. If
the height of the cone is 12 feet and the radius of its base is 6 feet, how fast is the water level rising
h
at
when the water is 4 feet deep?
M

Solution.
of

Let V be the volume of the water inside the cone at any time t. Let h, r be the height and radius,
e

dV
ut

respectively, of the cone formed by the volume of water at any time t. We have = 8 ft3 /min
dt
tit

dh
and we wish to find when h = 4 ft.
s

dt
In
UP

Now, using similar triangles, we obtain

6
r 6
=
h 12

h r 12
or r = at any time t. Thus,
2
h
 2
1 2 1 h 1
V = πr h = π h = πh3 .
3 3 2 12

Differentiating both sides with respect to t,

 
1
Dt [V ] = Dt πh3
12
dV 1 2 dh
= πh
dt 4 dt
dh 4 dV
= .
dt πh2 dt
156 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Thus,
dh  4 2
= 2
· 8 = ft/min.
dt h=4 π(4) π


Example 3.2.8. An automobile traveling at a rate of 20 ft/s is approaching an intersection. When

the automobile is 100 ft. from the intersection, a truck traveling at the rate of 40 ft/s crosses the
intersection. The automobile and the truck are on roads that are at right angles to each other. How
fast are the truck and the automobile separating 2 seconds after the truck leaves the intersection?

Solution.

Let x denote the distance of the automobile from y = 80 ft.

the intersection, y denote the distance of the
truck from the intersection and z denote the
x automobile
distance between the truck and the automobile.
dx dy y
Then we have = −20 ft/s, = 40 ft/s.

s
dt dt z

ic
After 2 seconds, note that x = 60 ft and y = 80

at
dz truck
ft. So we want to find when x = 60 ft and

em
dt
Observe that at any time t, we have
h
at
M

x2 + y 2 = z 2 .
of

Differentiating both sides with respect to t,

e
ut

Dt x2 + y 2 = Dt z 2
   
tit

dx dy dz
2x + 2y = 2z
s
In

dt dt dt
dz 1  dx dy 
= x +y .
UP

dt z dt dt
Now, if x = 60, y = 80, then 602 + 802 = z 2 or z = 100. Hence,
dz  1  
= 60(−20) + 80 · 40 = 20 ft/s.
dt x=60,y=80,z=100 100

3.2. RATES OF CHANGE AND RELATED RATES 157

3.2.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

1. Find how fast the volume of a sphere increases as the radius increases.

2. If water is being drained from a swimming pool and V liters is the volume of the water at
the time t minutes after the draining starts, where V = 250(1600 − 80t + t2 ), how fast is the
water flowing out of the water pool 5 minutes after the draining starts?

3. Find the slope of the tangent line at each point of the graph of y = x4 + x3 − 3x2 where the
rate of change of the slope is equal to zero.

4. An airplane is flying on a horizontal path at a height of 3800 ft. At what rate is the angle of
elevation θ of the airplane from P changing with respect to the distance between the airplane
and a fixed point P on the ground if θ = 30◦ ?
5
5. Starting from the same point, Reden starts walking eastward at ft/s while Neil starts
2

s
running towards the south at 6 ft/s. How fast is the distance between Reden and Neil

ic
at
increasing after 2 s?

ohms is given by
1
=
1
+
1
h em
6. If two resistors with resistance R1 and R2 are connected in parallel, the total resistance R in
. If R1 and R2 are increasing at 0.4 ohms/s and 0.25 ohms/s,
at
R R1 R2
M

respectively, how fast is R changing when R1 = 600 ohms and R2 = 400 ohms?
of

7. A right circular cone with radius 3 cm and height 6 cm is submerged point first into a tall
e

cylinder of radius 5 cm that is partially filled with water. How fast is the water level rising
ut

when the cylinder is completely submerged?

stit
In

Supplementary Exercises
UP

1. A woman standing on a cliff is watching a motor boat through a telescope as the boat approaches
the shoreline directly below her. If the telescope is 250 feet above the water level and if the boat
is approaching the cliff at 20 ft/s, at what rate is the acute angle made by the telescope with
the vertical changing when the boat is 250 feet from the shore?

2. A right circular cylindrical balloon is being inflated in such a way that the radius and height are
both increasing at the rate of 1 in/s and 3 in/s, respectively. What is the rate of change of its
total surface area when its radius and height are 20 in and 50 in, respectively?

3. A baseball diamond has the shape of a square with sides 90 ft long. A player 60 ft from the
second base is running towards the third plate at a speed of 28 ft/min. At what rate is the
player’s distance from the home plate changing?

4. At 12:10:00 p.m., a bug starts crawling away from the center of a clock, which is 2 meters above
the ground. It moves along the minute hand at a constant rate of 0.1 cm/s. Find the initial rate
at which its height above the ground changes. (For this problem, assume that all hands of the
clock have negligible thickness and move at a constant rate.)
 158 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

5. Shan, who is 5 feet tall, is approaching a post that holds a lamp 15 feet above the ground. If he
is walking at a speed of 4 ft/s, how fast is the end of his shadow moving when he is 17 feet away
from the base of the lamp post?

6. Water is being poured at the rate of 2π ft3 /min. into an inverted conical tank that is 12 ft deep
and having radius of 6 ft at the top. If the water level is rising at the rate of 16 ft/min and there
is a leak at the bottom of the tank, how fast is the water leaking when the water is 6 ft deep?

7. Newton is traveling eastward at 20 km/hr while Leibniz is traveling northward at 10 km/hr

At 1:00 PM, Leibniz is located 50 km south of Newton. At what rate is the distance between
Newton and Leibniz changing at 3:00 PM?

8. The apparent brightness of a star is equal to the rate at which it emits energy (in watts) divided
by the square of its distance from Earth (in meters). Currently, the sun is 1.5 × 108 m away,
−16
while it emits energy at a rate of 3.15 × 1019−10 t W t seconds from now. If the Earth is moving
away from the sun at a constant rate of 0.05 m/s, at what rate is the apparent brightness of the
sun changing?

ic s
9. A particle moves along the curve y = 2x−2 , with its x-coordinate increasing at a constant rate

at
of 1 unit/s. At what rate is its distance from the origin changing when it is at (3, 4)?

em
10. A point moves along the upper half of the curve y 2 − y = x3 − x, with its x-coordinate increasing
h
at
at a constant rate of 1 unit/s. At what rate is the slope of the tangent line to the point changing
M

when it is at (2, 3)?

of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
3.3. LOCAL LINEAR APPROXIMATION AND DIFFERENTIALS 159

3.3 Local Linear Approximation and Differentials

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• use differentials to approximate the net change of quantities

• approximate quantities using local linear differentiation more other quantities

Recall:
Q
f (x) − f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim R
x→x0 x − x0
f (x) 
∆y dy
= lim . P
∆y
∆x→0 ∆x f (x0 ) | {z }S
dx=∆x
∆y
If ∆x is small enough, then is approximately
0
∆x x0 x = x0 + dx
equal to f (x0 ). Thus, ∆y may be approximated y = f (x)

ic s
by f 0 (x0 )∆x. Figure 2.3.1

at
em
Definition 3.3.1. Let the function y = f (x) be differentiable at x.
h
at
1. The differential dx of the independent variable x denotes an arbitrary increment of x.
M

2. The differential dy of the dependent variable y associated with x is given by dy = f 0 (x)dx.

of

dy
e

Observe that if dx 6= 0, then dy = f 0 (x)dx implies that = f 0 (x).

ut

dx
tit

dy
s

Remark 3.3.2. The symbol may be interpreted as either the derivative of y = f (x) with
In

dx
respect to x or the quotient of the differential of y by the differential of x.
UP

The following theorems follow immediately from the differentiation rules discussed previously.

Theorem 3.3.3. Let u and v be differentiable functions of x and c a constant.

1. d(c) = 0 4. d(uv) = udv + vdu

vdu − udv
2. d(xn ) = nxn−1 dx 5. d( uv ) =
v2
3. d(cu) = cdu 6. d(un ) = nun−1 du

Example 3.3.4.

1. Let y = x5 − x3 + 2x. Then dy = (5x4 − 3x2 + 2) dx .

√ 1
2. If y = x3 + 3x2 , then dy = √ · (3x2 + 6x) dx .
2 x3 + 3x2
160 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

dy
3. Find if xy 2 = y + x.
dx
Solution.
Using implicit differentiation,
x(2ydy) + y 2 dx = dy + dx

and therefore
1 − y2
dy = dx.
2xy − 1

In the previous discussion, we have shown

that if ∆x is very small, we have y = f (x)
`

s
∆y ≈ f 0 (x0 )∆x.

ic
f (x)

at
f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 )
Equivalently, we have

f (x) ≈ f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ).

h em
at
M

Now, the equation of the tangent line to the x0 x

of

graph of y = f (x) at the point (x0 , f (x0 ))

is given by Figure 2.3.2
e
ut

y − f (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 )

tit

y = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ).

s

⇐⇒
In
UP

Remark 3.3.5.

1. The function L(x) = f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ) is called the local linear approximation of f (x)
at x0 . It follows that f (x) ≈ L(x) at points close to (x0 , f (x0 )). Moreover, from the discussion
above, the tangent line to the graph of f at x0 approximates the graph of f when x is near x0 .

2. The local linear approximation is the “best” linear approximation of f near x0 .

3. If dx = ∆x = x − x0 , then x = x0 + dx. Since f (x) ≈ f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ), we have

f (x0 + dx) ≈ f (x0 ) + f 0 (x0 )dx

4. If dx ≈ 0 , then dy = f 0 (x)dx = f 0 (x)∆x ≈ ∆y. Hence, for sufficiently small values of dx,
dy ≈ ∆y.
3.3. LOCAL LINEAR APPROXIMATION AND DIFFERENTIALS 161

5. Because dy is easier to compute than ∆y , dy is used to approximate ∆y when dx is

sufficiently small (depending on the required accuracy of the increment).

Example 3.3.6.
√
3
√
3
1. Find the local linear approximation of f (x) = x at x0 = 8 and use this to approximate 8.03.

Solution.
1
We have f 0 (x) = √
3
, thus at x0 = 8,
3 x2

L(x) = f (8) + f 0 (8)(x − 8)

1
L(x) = 2 + (x − 8).
12

√ 1
Therefore, 8.03 = f (8.03) ≈ L(8.03) = 2 + (8.03 − 8) = 2.0025.
12

ic s
2. Approximate the following:

at
√

em
(a) 3 27.027

Solution.
h
at
√ 1
Let f (x) = 3
x. Then f 0 (x) = √ . Thus,
M

3
3 x2
of

√3
27.027 = f (27 + 0.027)
e
ut

≈ f (27) + f 0 (27) · (0.027)

tit

1
= 3+ · (0.027)
3·9
s
In

= 3.01.
UP

√
(b) 15.96

Solution.
√ 1
Let f (x) = x. Then f 0 (x) = √ . Thus,
2 x
√
15.96 = f (16 − 0.04)
≈ f (16) + f 0 (16) · (−0.04)
1
= 4+ · (−0.04)
2·4
= 4 − 0.005
= 3.995.

1
3. A ball 10 inches in diameter is to be covered by a rubber material which is 16 inch thick. Use
differentials to estimate the volume of the rubber material that will be used.

Solution.
162 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

4
The volume of the ball with radius r is given by V (r) = πr3 . So dV = 4πr2 dr . The volume
3
of the rubber material is
 
1
V 5+ − V (5) = ∆V
16
≈ dV
1
= 4πr2 dr, where r = 5, dr =
  16
1
= 4π (5)2 ·
16
25π 3
= in .
4

4. A metal rod 15 cm long and 8 cm in diameter is to be insulated, except for the ends, with a
material 0.001 cm thick. Use differentials to estimate the volume of the insulation.

Solution.

s
Note that since the ends are not to be insulated, the height of the rod remains the same. Thus,

ic
at
the volume of the rod with radius r at the ends is given by V = πr2 h = 15πr2 . We have

em
dV = 30πrdr. The volume of the insulation is
h
V (4 + 0.001) − V (4) = ∆V
at
M

≈ dV
of

= 30πrdr, where r = 4, dr = 0.001

e

= 30π (4) · (0.001)

ut

= 0.12π cm3 .
s tit
In

5. Suppose that the side of a square is measured with a ruler to be 8 inches with a measurement
1
error of at most ± 64 of an inch. Estimate the error in the computed area of the square.
UP

Solution.
The area of a square with side x is A(x) = x2 . Thus, dA = 2xdx. The measurement error of at
1 1
most ± 64 implies that |dx| = 64 . We can approximate the error in the computed area ∆A using
dA. We have

1 1


|∆A| ≈ |dA| = 2x|dx| = 2(8) 64 = 4

Therefore, the propagated error in the computed area is at most ± 41 of a square inch.
3.3. LOCAL LINEAR APPROXIMATION AND DIFFERENTIALS 163

3.3.1 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Find the local linear approximation of f at x0 .

√
1. f (x) = x2 2x + 3; x0 = −1
2. f (x) = ln(2 − sec x); x0 = 0

B. Approximate the following using local linear approximation.

1. (2.001)5
√
2. 2.99 3.99
3. e0.01 + 0.01 ln 1.02

C. Solve the following completely.

1. Use differentials to approximate the increase in the surface area of a soap bubble when its

ic s
radius increases from 3 inches to 3.025 inches.

at
2. A metal box in the form of a cube is to have an interior volume of 1000 cm3 . The six sides

em
are to be made of metal 21 cm thick. If the cost of the metal to be used is 0.20 pesos per
h
cubic centimeter, use differentials to find the approximate cost of the metal to be used in
at
the manufacture of the box.
M

3. A cylindrical roller is exactly 12 inches long and its diameter is measured as 6 ± 0.05 inches.
of

Approximate its volume with an estimate for the error.

e
ut
tit

Supplementary Exercises
s

A. Find the local linear approximation of f at x0 .

In
UP

1. f (x) = sech(π − x) + e1+cos x ; x0 = π

√
2. f (x) = tan−1 ( x); x0 = 1

B. Approximate the following using local linear approximation.

1
1. √6
64.12
2. sec 0.2 tan 0.2
3. sin(tan−1 0.04)

C. Solve the following completely.

1. A malt candy is a ball of malt, with diameter 1.5 cm, coated in a layer of chocolate 0.02
cm thick. Use differentials to approximate the amount of chocolate (in mL) each candy
contains.
2. A burn on a person’s skin is in the shape of a circle. Estimate the decrease in the area of
the burn when the radius decreases from 1 cm to 0.8 cm.
164 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

3. The pH of an aqueous solution is given by

pH = − log10 (aH+ ),

where aH+ is the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. A solution with initial
pH = 3 decreases in volume from 1 L to 0.99 L, but the amount of hydrogen ions in the
solution remains unchanged. Estimate the net change in its pH.
4. The population of a bacterium in a nutrient broth is given by P = 10000e0.001t t hours after
it was introduced. Estimate the net change in the population within the first six minutes.

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
3.4. ABSOLUTE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL 165

3.4 Absolute Extrema of a Function on an Interval

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• determine the absolute extrema of a function on an interval

• solve optimization problems using techniques for finding absolute extrema

Suppose a businessman wishes to know how many toy robots he needs to produce to maximize his
profit. If he produces too many toys, some of these may not be bought because of limited demand.
Using market research, he finds out that if he produces x toy robots, his profit will be given by the
function f (x). In deciding how many he will produce, he also has to consider some constraints, like
his budget or his factory’s production speed. Hence, he only considers values of x on a given set,
say, an interval I. How will the businessman determine what value of x on the interval I will give
the highest value of f (x)?

Definition 3.4.1. A function f is said to have an absolute maximum value on an interval I at

ic s
x0 if f (x0 ) ≥ f (x) for any x ∈ I. Similarly, f is said to have an absolute minimum value on an

at
interval I at x0 if f (x0 ) ≤ f (x) for any x ∈ I. If f has either an absolute maximum or absolute

em
minimum value on I at x0 , then we say f has an absolute extremum on I at x0 .
h
Remarks.
at
M

1. Unlike with relative extrema, the interval I need not be an open interval.
of

2. Note that the absolute maximum (or minimum) value of a function on an interval is unique, if
e

it exists. However, the graph of f may have more than one absolute maximum (or minimum)
ut

point (same y-values but different x-values).

tit
s
In

f (x) = cot x (−2, 4)

f (x) = x2
UP

π
2
− π2 (0, 3) f (x) = 2x + 3
(1, 1)
(−1, 1)

−2 0 1
−1 0

Example 3.4.2.

• f (x) = cot x has no absolute extrema on the interval [− π2 , π2 ].

• f (x) = x2 has an absolute minimum on the interval (−2, 1) at x = 0 but has no absolute
maximum on (−2, 1).

• f (x) = 2x+3 has an absolute minimum on the interval [−1, ∞) at x = −1 but has no absolute
maximum on [−1, ∞).
166 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

• f (x) = 2x + 3 has an absolute minimum on the interval [−1, 0] at x = −1 and an absolute

maximum on [−1, 0] at x = 0.

3.4.1 Absolute Extrema on Closed and Bounded Intervals

Ultimately, we want to find the absolute extrema of a function on a given interval. It would also be
helpful if we can easily determine the existence of an absolute minimum or an absolute maximum
of a function, so that we are at least guaranteed that our efforts in finding them are not wasted.

Theorem 3.4.3 (Extreme Value Theorem). If f is continuous on [a, b], then f has both an
absolute maximum and an absolute minimum on [a, b].

Remark 3.4.4. If you replace [a, b] by one of the following intervals (a, b), [a, b), (a, b], (a, ∞),
(−∞, b), [a, ∞), (−∞, b], then the conclusion of the Extreme Value Theorem does not follow.

The Extreme Value Theorem assures us that a continuous function on [a, b] will attain both an

s
absolute maximum and minimum on [a, b]. Hence, an absolute extremum may be attained at either

ic
an interior point, that is x ∈ (a, b), or at an endpoint, that is x = a or x = b.

at
em
Theorem 3.4.5. If f has an absolute extremum on the open interval (a, b) at x = c, then c is
h
at
a critical number of f on (a, b), that is, either f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) is undefined.
M
of

Finding absolute extrema of f on [a, b]:

e

• find critical numbers of f between a and b, say c1 , . . . , cm

ut
tit

• evaluate f at each critical number and at the endpoints a and b

s
In

• compare f (c1 ), . . . , f (cm ), f (a) and f (b)

UP

• the number that gives the highest (lowest) value of f gives the absolute maximum
(minimum).

Note: Always check if the function is continuous on I.

Example 3.4.6. Find the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum values of f (x) on the
given closed interval. Specify the values of x at which these absolute extrema are attained.

1. f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 1 on I = [− 12 , 4]

Solution.
f 0 (x) = 3x2 − 6x = 3x(x − 2) C.N.s on I: 0, 2
 
1 1
f − = f (0) = 1 f (2) = −3 f (4) = 17
2 8

Therefore f has an absolute minimum at x = 2 and an absolute maximum at x = 4.

3.4. ABSOLUTE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL 167

1
2. f (x) = on I = [−2, 1]
1 + x2
Solution.
−2x
f 0 (x) = C.N.s on I: 0
(x2 + 1)2
1 1
f (−2) =
f (0) = 1 f (1) =
5 2
Therefore f has an absolute minimum at x = −2 and an absolute maximum at x = 0.

3. f (x) = x2/3 on I = [−8, 1]

Solution.
2
f 0 (x) = C.N.s on I: 0
3x1/3
f (−8) = 4 f (0) = 0 f (1) = 1

Therefore f has an absolute minimum at x = 0 and an absolute maximum at x = −8.

ic s
4. f (x) = x − tan x on I = [− π4 , π4 ]

at
em
Solution.
f 0 (x) = 1 − sec2 x C.N.s on I: 0
h
at
 π π π  π
M

f − =− +1 f (0) = 0 f = −1
4 4 4 4
of

π
Therefore f has an absolute minimum at x = 4 and an absolute maximum at x = − π4 .
e
ut

(
x2 − 4 , x < 3
tit

5. f (x) = on I = [0, 5]
8−x , x≥3
s
In

Solution.
UP

(
2x , x < 3
f 0 (x) = C.N.s on I: 0, 3
−1 , x > 3

f (0) = −4 f (3) = 5 f (5) = 3

Therefore f has an absolute minimum at x = 0 and an absolute maximum at x = 3.

3.4.2 Absolute Extrema On Open Intervals

Even if a function is continuous, we are not always guaranteed that it attains an absolute extremum
on an interval like (a, b), (a, b], (a, b] or infinite intervals. In those cases, the following theorem will
be useful.

Theorem 3.4.7. Suppose the function f is continuous on an interval I containing x0 and x0

is the only number in I for which f has a relative extremum.

(a) If f has a relative maximum at x0 , then f has an absolute maximum on I at x0 .

168 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

(b) If f has a relative minimum at x0 , then f has an absolute minimum on I at x0 .

Example 3.4.8. Find the value(s) of x where the given function attains its absolute extrema, if
any, on the given interval.
1
1. f (x) = on I = (−2, 1)
1 + x2
Solution.
−2x
f 0 (x) = C.N.: 0
(x2 + 1)2

−4x2 + 2
f 00 (x) = and f 00 (0) = 2 > 0
(x2 + 1)3
By the second derivative test, f has a relative minimum at x = 0. Since the point (0, 1) is the
only relative extremum of f on I, then f has an absolute minimum at x = 0.

2. f (x) = x4 − 4x on R

ic s
Solution.

at
f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 4 C.N.: 1

em
f 00 (x) = 12x2 and f 00 (1) = 12 > 0
h
at
By the second derivative test, f has a relative minimum at x = 1. It is the only relative
R
M

extremum of f in . Hence, f has an absolute minimum at x = 1.

of

16
3. f (x) = x + x on (1, ∞)
e
ut

Solution.
tit

x2 − 16
f 0 (x) = 1 − 16
= C.N. on (1, ∞): 4
s

x2 x2
In

32 1
f 00 (x) = and f 00 (4) = > 0
UP

x3 2
By the second derivative test, f has a relative minimum at x = 4. Since it is the only relative
extremum of f on (1, ∞), then f has an absolute minimum at x = 4.

Consider a function f continuous on an open interval I with more than one relative extremum on
I. We can also determine the absolute extrema of f by observing the limit of f as x approaches
the endpoints/tails of the interval.

Example 3.4.9. Find the value(s) of x where f (x) = x4 − 5x2 + 4 attains its absolute extrema on
I = (−3, ∞).

Solution.
Note that f is continuous on the open interval (−3, ∞).
√ √
f 0 (x) = 4x3 − 10x = 2x(2x2 − 5) and C.N. : 0, − 10
2 ,
10
2

f 00 (x) = 12x2 − 10
 √  √ 
f 00 (0) = −10 and f 00 − 210 = 20 = f 00 210
3.4. ABSOLUTE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL 169

By the√ second derivative

√ test, f has a relative maximum at x = 0 and relative minimum at
10 10
x = − 2 and x = 2 . Now,
 √  √ 
f (0) = 4, f − 210 = − 94 = f 210

lim f (x) = 40 and lim f (x) = +∞.

x→−3+ x→+∞

Make a rough sketch of the graph of f on (−3, ∞).

Clearly, f has no absolute maximum. Note that the interval (−3, ∞) is open. Thus, if f has
an absolute minimum on (−3, ∞), then it must be a relative minimum. From the behavior of
the function towards the left√ endpoint and towards ∞, we can conclude that f has an absolute
minimum attained at x = ± 210 .

3.4.3 Optimization: Application of Absolute Extrema on Word Problems

Many real-life situations require us to find a value that best suits our needs. If we are given
several options for the value of a variable x, how do we choose the “best value”? Such a problem is

s
classified as an optimization problem. We wish to apply our previous discussion on finding absolute

ic
extremum values of a function to solve some optimization problems.

at
Suggestions on Solving Optimization Problems
h em
1. If possible, draw a diagram of the problem corresponding to a general situation.
at
M

2. Assign variables to all quantities involved.

of

3. Identify the objective function.

e
ut

(a) Identify the quantity, say q, to be maximized or minimized.

tit

(b) Formulate an equation involving q and other quantities. Express q in terms of a single
s
In

variable, say x. If necessary, use the information given and relationships between
quantities to eliminate some variables.
UP

(c) The objective function to be maximized/minimized: q = f (x)

4. Determine the domain or constraint of q from the physical restrictions of the problem.

5. Use appropriate theorems involving absolute extrema to solve the problem. Make sure to
give the exact answer to the question (indicate units).

Example 3.4.10.

1. Find the number in the interval [−2, 2] so that the difference of the number from its square is
maximized.

Solution.
Let x be the desired number. We want to maximize

f (x) = x2 − x
170 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

where x ∈ [−2, 2]. Note that f is continuous on [−2, 2] and thus, we can apply the Extreme
Value Theorem. We first find the critical numbers of f in the interval (−2, 2).

f 0 (x) = 2x − 1

Hence we have one critical number in (−2, 2), that is x = 21 . Then we compare the function
value at the critical number and the endpoints.
 
1 1
f (−2) = 6 f (2) = 2 f =−
2 4

From this, we conclude that f attains an absolute maximum on I at x = −2. Hence, the number
we are looking for is −2.

s s
s s

s
9 in

ic
2. A rectangular box is to be made from a piece of

at
cardboard 24 inches long and 9 inches wide by s s

em
cutting out identical squares from the four corners s s
and turning up the sides. Find the volume of the
h
at
largest rectangular box that can be formed. 24 in
M
of

Solution.
e

If s is the length of the side of the squares to be cut out, then the volume of the open-topped
ut

box we can construct is

s tit

V (s) = (24 − 2s)(9 − 2s)s = 2(108s − 33s2 + 2s3 ).

In
UP

We wish to maximize V (s) but note that s is a positive real number which has to be less than
half the width of the cardboard. That is, s ∈ (0, 4.5). Now

V 0 (s) = 216 − 132s + 12s2 = 12(18 − 11s + s2 ) = 12(s − 2)(s − 9)

and hence the only critical number of V in (0, 4.5) is 2. Using the second derivative test, we
see that V 00 (s) = −132 + 24s and V 00 (2) < 0. Therefore V has a relative maximum at s = 2.
Since it is the only relative extremum of V on the open interval (0, 4.5), then V also attains
its absolute maximum at s = 2. We conclude that the volume of the largest box that can be
formed is V (2) = 200 in3 .

3. A 1000 square yard rectangular lot along a highway is to be fenced off such that one side of the
fence is on the highway. The fencing on the highway costs Php 80 per yard and the fencing on
the other sides costs Php 20 per yard. Determine the dimensions of the lot that will minimize
the total cost of the fencing. (Assume that materials can be bought in any fractional parts.)

Solution.
3.4. ABSOLUTE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL 171

Let s1 be the length of the side of the lot facing the highway and s2 be the length of the other
side. Since the area of the lot is 1000 yd2 , then we can write s2 = 1000
s1 . If C is the cost of
fencing the lot, then
40, 000
C(s1 ) = 100s1 + 40s2 = 100s1 + .
s1
We want to minimize this function but what are the feasible values for s1 ? Clearly, s1 is a
positive real number. Aside from this, we do not have any other constraint for s1 . Thus, the
domain is (0, ∞). Note that
40, 000
C 0 (s1 ) = 100 −
s21

and so C has a critical number at s1 = 20. Since C 00 (20) = 2(40,000)

203
> 0, then C has a relative
minimum at s1 = 20. Using similar arguments as the previous examples, we conclude that the
side facing the highway must be 20 yards and the other side must be 50 yards to minimize the
cost of fencing the lot.

4. Determine the dimensions of the right circular cylinder of greatest volume that can be inscribed

s
in a right circular cone of radius 6 inches and height 9 inches.

ic
at
r

em
6 in
h
at
M

h
of

9 in
e
ut
stit
In
UP

Solution.
Let h and r respectively denote the height and radius of the cylinder. The volume of the cylinder
is πr2 h. Looking at the middle cross-section of the cylinder and cone, we can see similar triangles
and so
6 9
=
6−r h
We can now write our objective function
3
V (r) = 9πr2 − πr3
2
to be maximized. Clearly, r ∈ (0, 6). Now, V 0 (r) = 18πr − 29 πr2 = 9πr(2 − 2r ) and hence, the
only critical number is 4. Applying the second derivative test, we get V 00 (r) = 18π − 9πr and
V 00 (4) = −18π < 0. Since V has only one relative extremum on the interval (0, 6) and it is a
relative maximum, then it is also an absolute maximum. Therefore, the inscribed right circular
cylinder will have the greatest volume if its dimensions are r = 4 inches and h = 3 inches.
172 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

5. Angelo, who is in a rowboat 2 miles from a straight shoreline, notices smoke billowing from his
house, which is on the shoreline and 6 miles from the point on the shoreline nearest Angelo. If
he can row at 6 miles per hour and run at 10 miles per hour, how should he proceed in order to
get to his house in the least amount of time?

Starting Point

2 mi
Angelo’s house c P
shoreline
6 mi

Solution.
Let c be the distance between the house and the point P on the shore from which Angelo will
start to run. Using the Pythagorean theorem, we see that the distance
p he will travel by boat is
− c)2

s
4 + (6
4 + (6 − c)2 . Note that speed= distance
p

ic
time . Thus he will sail for hours and walk
6

at
c
for 10 hours. We wish to minimize

em
p
4 + (6 − c)2 c h
T (c) = +
at
6 10
M

We can assume that c ∈ [0, 6]. Solving for the critical numbers of f on (0, 6),
of

p
5c − 30 + 3 4 + (6 − c)2
e

0
T (c) = ,
ut

p
30 4 + (6 − c)2
tit

we get c = 92 . Comparing function values at the endpoints and the critical number,
s
In

√
UP

 
2 10 9 13 14
T (0) = T = T (6) = ,
6 2 15 15

we see that the absolute minimum of T is attained at c = 92 . Angelo must row up to the point
P on the shore 92 miles from his house and 32 miles from the point on the shore nearest him.
Then he must run straight to his house.

6. A Norman window consists of a rectangle surmounted by r

a semicircle. If the perimeter of a Norman window is to h
be 20ft., what should the radius of the semicircle and the
height of the rectangle be so that the window will admit the
most light?

Solution.
3.4. ABSOLUTE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL 173

Let r denote the radius of the semicircle and h denote the height of the rectangular as seen in
the illustration. Since the perimeter is 20 ft., we get the equation 20 = 2h + 2r + rπ. From this,
we can solve for h in terms of r and vice versa. We have
1 20 − 2h
h = 10 − (2 + π)r and r= .
2 2+π
From these two equations, notice that since h and r are positive real numbers, then h cannot
exceed 10 and
20
r< .
2+π
Thus, we want to maximize the surface area
1 πr2
A(r) = 2rh + πr2 = − − 2r2 + 20r,
2 2
20
where r ∈ (0, 2+π ). Since A0 (r) = −πr − 4r + 20, then the only critical number is r = π+4
20
. If
we can show that A attains a relative maximum at this critical number, then we can conclude
that A also attains its absolute maximum at this critical number. Indeed,

ic s
 
00 00 20
A (r) = −π − 4 = A <0

at
π+4

20
admits most light when r = π+4 20
feet and h = π+4
h em
and so by the second derivative test we obtain the desired conclusion. Therefore, the window
feet.
at
M

7. Find all points on the parabola with equation x = 2y 2 that are closest to the point (10, 0).
of

(2y 2 , y)
e
ut
tit

(10, 0)
s
In
UP

Solution.
Since the point/s we are looking for is/are on the graph of x = 2y 2 , then we let (2y 2 , y) be the
coordinates of the desired point/s. We wish to minimize
p p p
d := (x − 10)2 + y 2 = (2y 2 − 10)2 + y 2 = 4y 4 − 39y 2 + 100

R
where y ∈ . Note however that a value of y minimizing d also minimizes d2 because d is a
positive value. For simplicity, we minimize

D(y) := 4y 4 − 39y 2 + 100

q
instead. Note that D0 (y) = 16y 3 − 78y and so the critical numbers of D are 0, ± 398 . From the
following observations,
r ! r !
00 2 00 00 39 00 39
D (y) = 48y − 78 and D (0) = −78 < 0 and D = 156 = D −
8 8
174 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
q
we see that D has a relative maximum at y = 0 and relative minimum at y = ± 39
8 . Moreover,

lim D(y) = +∞ and lim D(y) = +∞.

y→−∞ y→+∞

Thus D has no absolute

q maximum value but has an absolute minimum attained at two q values

of y, namely, y = ± 39
8 . Therefore, the points in the graph nearest (10, 0) are 39
4 , 39
8 and
 q 
39 39
4 ,− 8 .

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
3.4. ABSOLUTE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL 175

3.4.4 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Find the absolute extrema of the function on the given interval, if there are any, and determine
the values of x at which the absolute extrema occur.
√
1. f (x) = x 4 − x2 on [−1, 2]
(
4x − 2, x<1
2. f (x) = on [ 12 , 72 ]
(x − 2)(x − 3), x ≥ 1
3. f (x) = 2 sec x − tan x on 0, π4
 

4. f (x) = 4x3 − 3x2 − 6x + 3 on (0, ∞)

1
5. f (x) = x + on (−∞, 0)
x
√
6. f (x) = 4 − x2 on (−2, 2)
4
7. f (x) = on [2, 5)

s
(x − 3)2

ic
8. f (x) = [[x]] − x2 on (−1, 1)

at
√ √

em
9. f (x) = x2 + cos(x2 ) on (− π, π)
h
at
B. Answer the following optimization problems systematically.
M

1. Find two numbers such that their difference is 50 and their product is as small as possible.
of

2. A closed box with a square base is to have a volume of 2000 in3 . The material for the top
e
ut

and bottom of the box cost 30 pesos per square inch amd the material for the sides cost
tit

15 pesos per square inch. Find the dimensions of the box so that the total cost of material
is least.
s
In

3. Find the area of the largest rectangle having two vertices on the x-axis and two vertices
UP

above the x-axis and on the parabola with equation y = 9 − x2 .

4. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x3 − 3x2 + 5x that has the least slope.
5. Find the radius and height of the right circular cylinder of largest volume that can be
inscribed in a right circular cone with radius 6 inches and height 10 inches.
6. A closed cylindrical can is to hold 1 liter of liquid. Assuming there is no waste or overlap,
how should we choose the height and radius to minimize the amount of material needed to
manufacture the can?
7. Find a point on the curve y = x2 that is closest to the point (18, 0).
8. The product of two positive numbers x and y is equal to 9. Find the largest possible value
of xy .
176 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Supplementary Exercises

A. Find the absolute extrema of the function on the given interval, if there are any, and determine
the values of x at which the absolute extrema occur.

x sin x
1. f (x) = on [−1, 4] 6. f (x) = √ on [0, 2π]
x2
+2 cos x + 2
2. f (x) = 4x3 − 3x2 − 6x + 3 on (−1, ∞) 7. f (x) = sin(cos x) on [0, 2π]
1
3. f (x) = on [−2, 3] 8. f (x) = x ln x on (0, +∞)
x
√
4. f (x) = |x − 4| + 1 on (0, 6) 9. f (x) = ln(1 + 3x2 ) + 2 tan−1 ( 3x) on
5. f (x) = 2 cos x on [ −2π π
3 , 3) (−∞, +∞)

B. Answer the following optimization problems systematically.

1. Express the number 11 as a sum of two nonnegative numbers whose product is as large as
possible.

ic s
2. A garden is to be laid out in a rectangular area and protected by a chicken wire fence.

at
What is the largest possible area of the garden if only 100 running feet of chicken wire is

em
available for the fence? h
3. An open box is to be made from a 16-inch by 30-inch piece of cardboard by cutting out
at
squares of equal size from the four corners and bending up the sides. What size should the
M

squares be to obtain a box with the largest volume?

of

4. An offshore oil well located at a point W that is 5 km from the closest point A on a straight
e
ut

shoreline. Oil is to be piped from W to a shore point B that is 8 km from A by piping it

tit

on a straight line underwater from W to some shore point P between A and B and then
s

on to B via pipe along the shoreline. If the cost of laying pipe is around P10,000,000/km
In

underwater and P5,000,000/km over land, where should the point P be located to minimize
UP

the cost of laying the pipe?

5. Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a semicircle of radius 5.
6. Paper Packaging and Artwork Philippines, a paper manufacturing company, makes open-
topped rectangular boxes as follows. First, they cut out a large rectangular sheet of card-
board. Then, from the corners of that rectangular sheet, they cut out small squares, and
fold up the sides of the resulting shape, as shown below. The company wishes to make a
rectangular box of volume 2000 cm3 with a square base. What dimensions will minimize
the amount of cardboard used in the production of the box, i.e., the area of the sheet from
which the box is cut?
7. If P (a, a2 ) is a point on the parabola y = x2 except for the origin, let Q be the point where
the normal line intersects the parabola again. Find the value of a for which P Q is shortest.
8. If a projectile is fired with an initial velocity v at an angle of elevation θ above the horizontal,
then its trajectory, neglecting air resistance, is the parabola
5 π
y = x tan θ − x2 , 0≤θ≤ .
v 2 cos2 θ 2
3.4. ABSOLUTE EXTREMA OF A FUNCTION ON AN INTERVAL 177

Suppose the projectile is fired from the base of a plane that is inclined at an angle of π4 from
the horizontal. Determine θ so that the range of the projectile (i.e., its net displacement
from its point of origin before it lands on the plane) is maximized.
9. The bottom of a projector screen 1 m high is 0.8 m above eye level. How far should one
stand from the screen in order to get the best view? (A viewer gets the best view when
the angle subtended by the screen whose vertex is at the viewer’s eyes is maximized.)
10. A rectangular sheet of paper 12 cm × 6 cm is folded so that one corner meets the longer
of the opposite edges. Find the shortest possible length of the crease.

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
178 CHAPTER 3. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

s
ic
at
hem
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
Chapter 4

Integration and Its Applications

4.1 Antidifferentiation and Indefinite Integrals

At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

s
• recognize antidifferentiation as the inverse process of differentiation

ic
at
• integrate algebraic functions and functions involving the six circular functions
h
• integrate functions using substitution rule em
at
M

• find a particular antiderivative given an initial condition

of

• solve problems involving rates of change given initial conditions (e.g. rectilinear
e

motion)
ut
tit

In Chapters 1 and 2, we developed tools for differentiation, and saw various applications of the
s
In

derivative as a rate of change. Now we introduce antidifferentiation, the process which reverses
UP

differentiation. Given a function f , can we find a function F whose derivative is f ? We will see
that this process is related to the computation of the area of a region in the plane.

4.1.1 Antiderivatives or Indefinite Integrals

Definition 4.1.1. A function F is an antiderivative of the function f on an interval I if F 0 (x) =
f (x) for every value of x in I.

Example 4.1.2.

1. An antiderivative of f (x) = 12x2 + 2x is F (x) = 4x3 + x2 .

2. An antiderivative of g(x) = cos x is G(x) = sin x.

3. Another antiderivative of f (x) = 12x2 + 2x is F1 (x) = 4x3 + x2 − 1.

4. Another antiderivative of g(x) = cos x is G1 (x) = sin x + π.

179
180 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Remark 4.1.3. If an antiderivative of f exists, then it is not unique.

Theorem 4.1.4. If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then every antiderivative of

f on I is given by F (x) + C, where C is an arbitrary constant.

Remark 4.1.5. By the theorem above, we can conclude that if F1 and F2 are antiderivatives of f ,
then F2 (x) = F1 (x) + C. That is, F2 and F1 differ only by a constant.

Terms and Notations:

• Antidifferentiation is the process of finding antiderivatives.

Z
• If F is an antiderivative of f , we write f (x) dx = F (x) + C.
Z
• The symbol , called the integral sign, denotes the operation of antidifferentiation.

ic s
at
• The function f is called the integrand.

tive of f is called a particular antiderivative of f .

h em
• The expression F (x)+C is called the general antiderivative of f . Meanwhile, each antideriva-
at
M

Example 4.1.6.
of

Z
12x2 + 2x dx = 4x3 + x2 + C


1.
e
ut
tit

Z
2. cos x dx = sin x + C
s
In
UP

Theorem 4.1.7 (Theorems on Antidifferentiation).

Z
1. dx = x + C

2. If a is a constant, then Z Z
af (x) dx = a f (x) dx.

3. If f and g are defined on the same interval, then

Z Z Z
 
f (x) ± g(x) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx.

4. If n is any real number and n 6= −1, then

xn+1
Z
xn dx = + C.
n+1
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 181
Z
1
5. dx = ln |x| + C
x

Example 4.1.8. Find the following antiderivatives.

Z
1. x5 dx

x6
= +C
6
Z
2. 2 dx
Z
=2 dx = 2(x + C1 ) = 2x + 2C1 = 2x + C
Z
3
3. dx
x5
3x−4
Z Z
3

s
−5
= 3x dx = 3 x−5 dx = +C =− 4 +C

ic
−4 4x

at
Z

em
4u /4 du
3
4.
h
at
4u7/4 16u7/4
= +C = +C
M

7/4 7
of

Z
12x2 + 2x dx


5.
e
ut

12x3 2x2
Z Z
2
+ C2 = 4x3 + x2 + C
tit

= 12x dx + 2x dx = + C1 +
3 2
s
In

Z  √
6. t 2t − 3 t dt
UP

2t3 6t5/2
Z   Z Z
2t2 − 3t /2 dt = 2t2 dt − 3t /2 dt =
3 3
= − +C
3 5
x2 + 1
Z
7. dx
x2
x−1
Z
1
1 + x−2 dx = x +


= +C =x− +C
−1 x
3x2 + 5
Z
8. dx
4x
Z   Z Z
3 5 3 5 3 5
= x+ dx = x dx + x dx = x2 + ln |x| + C
4 4x 4 4 8 4

Theorem 4.1.9 (Antiderivatives of Trigonometric Functions).

182 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Z Z
1. sin x dx = − cos x + C 4. csc2 x dx = − cot x + C
Z Z
2. cos x dx = sin x + C 5. sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
Z Z
3. sec2 x dx = tan x + C 6. csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C

Example 4.1.10. Find the following antiderivatives.

Z
1. (sin x + cos x) dx

= − cos x + sin x + C
Z
cos x
2. dx
sin2 x
Z Z
1 cos x

s
= · dx = csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C

ic
sin x sin x

at
em
Z
3. tan2 x dx
h
at
Z
sec2 x − 1 dx = tan x − x + C


=
M
of

Z
dx
4.
e

1 + sin x
ut

1 − sin x 1 − sin x
Z Z
1
tit

= · dx = dx
1 + sin x 1 − sin x cos2 x
s
In

Z
sec2 x − sec x tan x dx = tan x − sec x + C


=
UP

Theorem 4.1.11 (Antiderivatives of Exponential Functions).

ax
Z
1. ax dx = + C (a > 0 and a 6= 1)
ln a
Z
2. ex dx = ex + C

Example 4.1.12. Find the following antiderivatives.

Z
1. 7x dx

Solution.
7x
Z
7x dx = + C.
ln 7
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 183
Z
2. 22x · 5x dx

Solution.
Applying laws of exponents,
20x
Z Z Z
2 · 5 dx = 4 · 5 dx = 20x dx =
2x x x x
+ C.
ln 20

Theorem 4.1.13 (Antiderivatives of Hyperbolic Functions).

Z Z
1. cosh x dx = sinh x + C 4. csch2 x dx = − coth x + C
Z Z
2. sinh x dx = cosh x + C 5. sech x tanh x dx = − sech x + C
Z Z

s
3. sech2 x dx = tanh x + C 6. csch x coth x du = − csch x + C

ic
at
Example 4.1.14.
csch x − tanh3 x
em
Z
1. dx
h
at
tanh x
M

Solution.
csch x − tanh3 x
of

Z Z
dx = (csch x coth x − tanh2 x) dx
tanh x
e
ut

Z
= (csch x coth x + sech2 x − 1) dx
stit

= − csch x + tanh x − x + C.
In

The next two theorems give antiderivatives yielding the inverse circular and hyperbolic functions.
UP

Theorem 4.1.15 (Antiderivatives Yielding the Inverse Circular Functions).

Z
dx
1. √ = sin−1 x + C
1 − x2
Z
dx
2. = tan−1 x + C
1 + x2
Z
dx
3. √ = sec−1 x + C
x x2 − 1

Theorem 4.1.16 (Antiderivatives Yielding the Inverse Hyperbolic Functions).

Z
1 p
1. √ dx = sinh−1 x + C = ln(x + x2 + 1) + C
x2 + 1
184 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Z
1 p
2. √ dx = cosh−1 x + C = ln(x + x2 − 1) + C, x > 1
x2 − 1

−1
Z
1  tanh x + C , if |x| < 1
  
1  1 + x 
3. dx = = ln  +C
1 − x2 2 1 − x
coth−1 x + C , if |x| > 1



1
It is recommended that the concise formula for the integral of be used rather than the
1 − x2
complicated piecewise function.

Example 4.1.17. Find the following antiderivatives.

x4
Z
1. dx
x2 + 1
Solution.
x4 x3
Z Z  
1
dx = x 2
− 1 + dx = − x + tan−1 x + C.

s
x2 + 1 x2 + 1 3

ic
at
2t4 + 3t2 + 4
Z
2. dt

em
t2 − 1
h
Solution.
at
2t4 + 3t2 + 4 2t3
Z Z   Z    
9 9 9  1 + t 
M

2 2
dt = 2t + 5 + 2 dt = 2t + 5 − dt = +5t− ln  +
t2 − 1 t −1 1 − t2 3 2 1 − t
of

C.
e
ut

4.1.2 Integration by Substitution

s tit
In

Suppose F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x), and g is a differentiable function of x whose range is

contained in the domain of F . Recall the chain rule:
UP

Dx [F (g(x))] = F 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x).

Hence, F 0 (g(x))g 0 (x) is an antiderivative of g 0 (x). If we take u = g(x), then du = g 0 (x) dx.
The following theorem thus allows us to take the antiderivatives of more complex functions:

Theorem 4.1.18 (Substitution Rule). If u = g(x) is a differentiable function whose range

is an interval I and f is continuous on I, then
Z Z
0
f (g(x)) · g (x) dx = f (u) du.

Example 4.1.19.
Z
(1 − 4x) /2 dx
1
1.
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 185

−4
If we let u = 1 − 4x, then du = −4 dx. We multiply the integrand by . Thus,
−4

1 2u3/2
 
−4
Z Z Z Z
1/2 1/2 1/2 du 1
u /2 du = − ·
1
(1 − 4x) dx = (1 − 4x) · dx = u − =− + C.
−4 4 4 4 3

We put the final answer in terms of x by substituting u = 1 − 4x. Therefore,

(1 − 4x)3/2
Z
1/2
(1 − 4x) dx = − + C.
6
Z
2. x2 (x3 − 1)10 dx

du
Let u = x3 − 1. Then du = 3x2 dx, or = x2 dx. By substitution,
3
3 − 1 11


Z Z
du 1
Z
u11 x
x2 (x3 − 1)10 dx = u10 · = u10 du = +C = + C.

s
3 3 33 33

ic
at
Z
x
3. dx

em
(x2 + 1)3
du
h
at
Let u = x2 + 1. Then du = 2x dx, or = x dx. By substitution,
2
M

1 u−2
Z Z
x 1 −3 1
dx = u du = · +C =− + C.
of

2 3 2 2 −2 4(x + 1)2
2
(x + 1)
e
ut

Z
4. cos4 x sin x dx
stit

Let u = cos x. Then du = − sin x dx, or −du = sin x dx. By substitution,

In

u5 cos5 x
Z Z
UP

cos x sin x dx = − u4 du = − + C = −
4
+ C.
5 5
Z
x sec3 x2 tan x2 dx



5.

du
Let u = sec x2 . Then du = sec x2 tan x2 · 2x dx, or = sec x2 tan x2 · x dx. By






2
substitution,
Z Z
3 2 2
x sec x tan x dx = sec2 x2 sec x2 tan x2 · x dx

1 u3
Z
1
= u2 du = · +C
2 2 3
sec3 x2


= + C.
6

tan 1s + tan 1s sin 1s

Z
6. ds
s2 cos 1s
Let u = 1s . Then du = − s12 ds or −du = ds
s2
. By substitution,
186 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

tan 1s + tan 1s sin 1s

Z Z
tan u + tan u sin u
2 1 ds = − du
s cos s Z cos u
sec u tan u + tan2 u du


=−
Z
sec u tan u + sec2 u − 1 du


=−
= − (sec u + tan u − u) + C
= − sec 1s − tan 1s + 1s + C.

√
Z
7. t t − 1 dt

Let u = t − 1. Then u = dt. Also, t = u + 1. By substitution,

√ 2u5/2 2u3/2
Z Z Z  
1/2 3/2 1/2
t t − 1 dt = (u + 1) u du = u +u du = + +C
5 3
5/2 3/2
2 (t − 1) 2 (t − 1)
= + + C.
5 3

ic s
t3
Z
8. √ dt

at
t2 + 3

em
du
Let u = t2 + 3. Then du = 2t dt, or = t dt. Also, t2 = u − 3. By substitution,
h
2
at
t3 t2 · t
Z Z Z
du
M

−1
√ dt = √ dt = u /2 (u − 3)
t2 + 3 t2 + 3 2
of

!
Z  3/2
1 1/2 −1/2
 1 2u 1/2
= u − 3u du = − 6u +C
e

2 2 3
ut

3/2
t2 + 3
tit

1/2
= − 3 t2 + 3 + C.
3
s
In

√
Z q
UP

9. 4 + x dx

√ 1 dx
Let u = 4 + x. Then du = √ dx or 2 du = √ . By substitution,
2 x x
√
√ √
Z q Z
x
q
4 + x dx = 4 + x · √ dx
x
√ √ √
Z
dx
q
= 4+ x· x· √ ( x = u − 4)
x
Z
u /2 · (u − 4) · 2 du
1
=
Z  
2u /2 − 8u /2 du
3 1
=

2 · 2u5/2 2 · 8u3/2
= − +C
5 3
√ 5/2 √ 3/2
4 (4 + x) 16 (4 + x)
= − + C.
5 3
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 187

At this point, among the six circular functions, we know the antiderivatives of only the sine and
the cosine functions. We will see that the antiderivatives of the other circular functions involve the
natural logarithmic function.

Theorem 4.1.20.
Z
1. tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C
Z
2. cot x dx = ln | sin x| + C
Z
3. sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C
Z
4. csc x dx = ln | csc x − cot x| + C

Proof. We shall prove items 1 and 3 only. Statements 2 and 4 can be proved similarly.

ic s
Z Z
sin x

at
First, note that tan x dx = dx. Let u = cos x. Then du = (− sin x) dx. Hence,
cos x

em
Z Z
1 h
tan x dx = − du = − ln |u| + C = − ln | cos x| + C = ln | sec x| + C.
u
at
M

That proves the statement for the tangent function.

of

Now, for the secant function, note that

e
ut

sec2 x + sec x tan x

Z Z Z
sec x(sec x + tan x)
tit

sec x dx = dx = dx.
sec x + tan x sec x + tan x
s
In

Let u = sec x + tan x. Then du = (sec x tan x + sec2 x) dx. Therefore,

UP

Z Z
du
sec x dx = = ln |u| + C = ln | sec x + tan x| + C.
u

Example 4.1.21. Find the following antiderivatives.

Z
x3 csc x4 dx


1.

Solution.
Let u = x4 . Then du = 4x3 dx. Therefore,
Z Z
3 4 1 1 1 
csc u du = ln | csc u − cot u| + C = ln csc x3 − cot x3  + C.




x csc x dx =
4 4 4
sin( x2 ) + 4
Z
2. dx
cos( x2 )

Solution.
188 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Let u = x2 . Then du = 21 dx. Hence,

sin( x2 ) + 4
Z Z
sin u + 4
x dx = 2 du
cos( 2 ) cos u
Z
= 2 (tan u + 4 sec u) du

= 2 (ln | sec u| + 4 ln |sec u + tan u|) + C

= 2 ln | sec( x )| + 4 ln sec( x ) + tan( x ) + C.
 

2 2 2

Similar results can be derived for the remaining hyperbolic functions.

Theorem 4.1.22.
Z
1. tanh x dx = ln(cosh x) + C
Z
2. coth x dx = ln | sinh x| + C

ic s
Z

at
3. sech x dx = 2 tan−1 (ex ) + C

= tan−1 (sinh x) + C h em
at
Z
M

4. csch x dx = ln |csch x − coth x| + C

of
e

Also, one can generalize Theorems 4.1.15 and 4.1.16 to the case when the constant 1 in the integrand
ut

is replaced by some other positive number, as shown in the next theorem.

s tit
In

Theorem 4.1.23. Let a > 0.

UP

Z
du u
1. √ = sin−1 +C
a2 − u2 a
Z
du 1 −1 u
 
2. = tan +C
a2 + u2 a a
Z
du 1 u
3. √ = sec−1 +C
u u2 − a2 a a
Z
1 u p
4. √ du = sinh−1 + C = ln(u + u2 + a2 ) + C
u2 + a2 a
Z
1 u p
5. √ du = cosh−1 + C = ln(u + u2 − a2 ) + C, u > a
u2 − a2 a

1 −1 u
 


 a tanh + C , if |u| < a
a
Z   
1 1 a + u
6. du = = ln 
 +C
a2 − u2 2a a − u 
 1 coth−1 u + C , if |u| > a

  

a a
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 189

Proof. We will prove the first statement only and leave the proofs of the rest as exercises.
Let a > 0. Then,
Z Z Z
du du du
√ = √ q = q , since a > 0.
a − u2
2
a2 1 − u2
a 1− u 2


a2 a

u 1
Let v = . Then dv = du and hence
a a
Z Z
du dv u
√ = √ = sin−1 v + C = sin−1 + C.
a2 − u2 1 − v2 a

1
As before, it is recommended that the concise formula for the integral of be used.
a2 − u2
Example 4.1.24. Evaluate the following integrals.
Z
1
1. √ dx

s
9x2 + 1

ic
at
Solution.
Let u = 3x. Then du = 3dx and
Z
1 1
Z
1 1 1
h em
at
√ = √ du = sinh−1 u + C = sinh−1 (3x) + C
2
9x + 1 3 2
u +1 3 3
M

x2
Z
of

2. dx
x6 − 25
e
ut

Solution.
tit

Let u = x3 . Then du = 3x2 dx and

s
In

x2
Z Z Z
1 1 1 1
= du = − du
UP

6
x − 25 3 2
u − 25 3 25 − u2
 5 + x3 
   
1 1 5 + u 1
=− · ln   + C = − ln  +C
3 10  5 − u  30  5 − x3 
Z 2
3 dx
3.
0 4 − x2
Solution.
Z 2  2 "   #
 2 + x x= 3 2
 2 + 
3 dx 1 1 3
 2 + 0
= ln = ln  − ln 
    
4 − x2 2 · 2  2 − x x=0 4 2 −
 2 2 − 0
0 3

1 1
= [ln 2 − ln 1] = ln 2
4 4
2x − 1
Z
4. √ dx
x2 + 4x − 5
Solution.
Let u = x2 + 4x − 5. Then du = (2x + 4)dx and
190 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

2x − 1 2x + 4 − 4 − 1
Z Z
√ dx = √ dx
x2 + 4x − 5 Z x 2 + 4x − 5
Z
2x + 4 5
= √ dx − √ dx
x 2 + 4x − 5 x2 + 4x − 5
Z Z
1 5
= √ du − √ dx
u 2
x + 4x + 4 − 4 − 5
√
Z
5 dx
=2 u− p .
(x + 2)2 − 9

Let v = x + 2. Then dv = dx and

2x − 1
Z Z
p 5
√ dx = 2 x2 + 4x − 5 − √ dv
x2 + 4x − 5 v2 − 9
p v 
= 2 x2 + 4x − 5 − 5 cosh−1 +C
3 
−1 x + 2
p
2
= 2 x + 4x − 5 − 5 cosh + C,
3

s
where v > 3, i.e. x > 1.

ic
at
4.1.3 Particular Antiderivatives
h em
Now suppose that given a function f (x), we wish to find a particular antiderivative F (x) of f (x)
at
that satisfies a given condition. Such a condition is called an initial or boundary condition.
M
of

Example 4.1.25.
e

1. Given that F 0 (x) = 2x and F (2) = 6, find F (x).

ut
tit

Solution.
s
In

Since F 0 (x) = 2x, we have Z

UP

F (x) = 2x dx = x2 + C.

The initial condition F (2) = 6 implies that F (2) = 22 + C = 6. we get C = 2. Therefore,

the particular antiderivative that we wish to find is

F (x) = x2 + 2.

√
2. The slope of the tangent line at any point (x, y) on a curve is given by 3 x. Find an equation
of the curve if the point (9, 4) is on the curve.

Solution.
Let y = F (x) be an equation of the curve. The slope of the tangent line mT L at a point
√
(x, y) on the graph of the curve is given by F 0 (x) = 3 x. We have
Z
F (x) = 3x /2 dx = 2x /2 + C.
1 3
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 191

The initial condition that (9, 4) is on the curve implies that F (9) = 2 · 93/2 + C = 4. We obtain
C = −50. Thus, an equation of the curve is

y = 2x /2 − 50.
3

4.1.4 Rectilinear Motion Revisited

Suppose that a particle is traveling along a straight line and s (t), v (t) and a (t) are equations of
motion, velocity and acceleration, respectively, of the particle. Recall that

v(t) = s0 (t) and a(t) = v 0 (t).

Therefore, s(t) is a particular antiderivative of v(t) while v(t) is a particular antiderivative of a(t).

Example 4.1.26.

s
1. A heavy projectile is fired straight up from a platform 3 meters above the ground with an

ic
initial velocity of 160 m/s. Find an equation of motion of the particle. (Use −10 m/s2 for

at
acceleration due to gravity.)

Solution.
h em
at
Let the acceleration and velocity of the particle at time t be given by a (t) and v (t).
M

Since a(t) = −10 at any time t and v (t) is a particular antiderivative of a (t), we have
of

Z
e

v(t) = −10 dt = −10t + C.

ut
tit

The initial velocity is 160 m/s, so v(0) = 160. Thus, 160 = −10 · 0 + C, or C = 160, and we
s
In

obtain
UP

v(t) = −10t + 160.

Let s (t) be the position of the particle from the ground at time t. Now s (t) is a particular
antiderivative of v (t), so
Z
s (t) = (−10t + 160) dt = −5t2 + 160t + C.

The initial condition s(0) = 3 yields C = 3. Finally,

s(t) = −5t2 + 160t + 3.

2. The acceleration of a particle moving along a line at t seconds is given by a (t) = t2 + 2t.
Find an equation of motion of the particle if the particle is one unit to the right of the origin
when t = 0, and 3 units to the left of the origin when t = 2.

Solution.
192 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Since v(t) is an antiderivative of a(t), we have

t3
Z
t2 + 2t dt = + t2 + C1 .


v(t) =
3
Because there is no initial condition involving velocity, we antidifferentiate the previous ex-
pression to obtain a general expression for s(t) first:
Z  3
t4 t3

t 2
s(t) = + t + C1 dt = + + C1 t + C2 .
3 12 3

The initial condition s(0) = 1 yields C2 = 1. Meanwhile, the other initial condition s(2) = −3
4 8
implies that + + 2C1 + 1 = −3, or C1 = −4. Therefore, an equation of motion of the
3 3
particle is
t4 t3
s(t) = + − 4t + 1.
12 3

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 193

4.1.5 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Find the following antiderivatives.

Z   Z
6
4 csc x cot x + 2 sec2 x dx
3/4 4


1. x − 5x − 4 dx 5.
x
Z Z
2 cot2 θ − 3 tan2 θ dθ


2. (4s + 3)(s − 5) ds 6.

4z 2 − 6z + 3
Z Z
1
3. √ dz 7. dx
z 1 − cos x
Z
4. (5 cos x − 4 sin x) dx

B. Find the following antiderivatives using substitution.

ic s
Z p Z
3
16n2 − 8n + 1 dn coth2 x csch2 x dx

at
1. 5.

em
Z
sec2 x
p Z
4
2. z 8 z 3 + 3 dz h 6. dx
1 − 16 tan2 x
at
√
sec2 (3 t)
Z Z
x
M

3. √ dt 7. √ dx
t 2
x − 8x
of

ex
  Z
1
Z 4 cos 8. √ dx
e

x2 e2x − 4
ut

4.   dx Z
3 1 x
tit

3
x sin 9. √ dx
x2 x + 4x2 + 5
4
s
In

C. Solve the following problems completely.

UP

1. The point (3, 2) is on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, the tangent line has
slope equal to 2x − 3. Find an equation of the curve.
d2 y
2. The points (1, 3) and (0, 2) are on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, 2 = 2−4x.
dx
Find an equation of the curve.

D. Solve the following problems completely. (When appropriate, assume acceleration due to
gravity is −10 m/s2 or −32 ft/s2 .)

1. A ball is thrown vertically upwards from a platform 8 feet above the ground. After 2
seconds, the ball is 2 feet below the platform. Find the initial velocity of the ball.
2. If the brakes on a car can give the car a constant negative acceleration of 8 m/s2 , what
is the maximum speed it can go to be able to stop within 25 meters after the brake is
applied?
194 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Supplementary Exercises

A. Verify that F is an antiderivative for f .

x x2 + 1
1. F (x) = − ; f (x) =
4(4x2 + 5x − 4) (4x2 + 5x − 4)2
2. F (x) = x ln x − x; f (x) = ln x
3. F (x) = x sin x + cos x; f (x) = x cos x
3x4 + 2x3 − 2x + 1
 
3 2 2 −1 2x + 1
4. F (x) = ln |x − x + 1| + √ tan √ ; f (x) =
3 3 x5 + x + 1
B. Find the following antiderivatives.

Z Z
2 2
1. x (x − 1) dx 5. (tan x + cot x)2 dx
 
√ √
Z Z
1 cosh x
2. y 3
y+ √ 4 y
dy 6. p dx
8 − cosh2 x

ic s
1 2
Z  √ Z
sec θ

3
7. dθ

at
3. 2 t+ √ dt
3
t sec θ − tan θ

em
1 − t2
Z Z
3 csc2 t − 5 sec t tan t dt


4. 8. dt
h
1 + t2
at
M

C. Find the following antiderivatives using substitution.

of
e

Z
tan2 x 1 + sin2 x
Z

ut

2 3 4
1. 2x (4 + 3x ) dx 11. dx
cos2 x
tit

Z √ √
cot 3 x csc2 3 x
Z
s

2. (2y − 1)6 dy √
In

12. 3 √ 2 dx
x2 (4 + cot2 3 x)
UP

s3
Z
√
Z q
3. √ ds 13. 4 − 4 − x dx
3s2 + 1
Z
t Z
csch cot−1 x


4. dt 14. dx
t4 + 2t2 + 1 1 + x2
Z Z
5. 4x[3x + cos(2x2 + 1)] dx sech x 2 + coth2 x dx


15.
Z
cos x
Z
x
6. dx 16. 5x ecsch(5 ) csch(5x ) coth(5x ) dx
(1 + sin x)5
Z Z
7. csc3 (2x + 1) cot (2x + 1) dx 17. sinh x tanh x dx

tanh2 (ey )
Z Z
8. sin θ cos θ cos (cos 2θ) dθ 18. dy
cosh y − sinh y
Z
dx
Z
sec2 θ − cos2 θ tan θ dθ


9. 19. √
2
4x + 8x + 13
Z
dx
Z
sin y − tan2 y sec2 y dy


10. 20. √
16 − e−2x
4.1. ANTIDIFFERENTIATION AND INDEFINITE INTEGRALS 195

cosh−1 (log5 x)
Z
2x + 10 Z
21. 2
dx 26. dx
x + 2x − 3
q
Z x (log5 x)2 − 1
1
22. √ dx
Z
sin 2x + 2 sin x
e2x −4 27. dx
Z sin2 x + 1
1 Z x
3 +1
23. √ dx 28. dx
25 + 16x2 9x + 1
Z Z
x 1
24. √ dx 29. √ dx
x4−1 e2x + 4
Z
Z
dx sech r
25. 30. p dr
52−x − 5x 15 coth2 r + 1

D. Solve the following problems completely.

1. The point (3, 2) is on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, the tangent line has
slope equal to 2x − 3. Find an equation of the curve.
d2 y

ic s
2. The points (1, 3) and (0, 2) are on a curve, and at any point (x, y) on the curve, 2 = 2−4x.
dx

at
Find an equation of the curve.

em
3. An equation of the tangent to a curve at the point (1, 3) is y = x + 2. If at any point (x, y)
d2 y
h
on the curve, = 6x, find an equation of the curve.
at
dx2
M

E. Solve the following problems completely. (When appropriate, assume acceleration due to
of

gravity is −10 m/s2 or −32 ft/s2 .)

e
ut

1. A sandbag is released from a balloon rising vertically with a velocity of 16 ft/s at the
tit

instant when the balloon is 64 feet from the ground. How many seconds after its release
s

will the bag hit the ground?

In

2. If a particle starts from rest, what constant acceleration is required to move the particle
UP

50 meters in 5 seconds along a straight line?

3. Two stones are thrown vertically upward at the same time, one with an initial velocity of
32 ft/s from a height of 128 feet, the other with an initial velocity of 64 ft/s from a height
of 80 ft. If the stones travel along parallel paths, when will the second stone overtake the
first?
196 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

4.2 The Definite Integral

We have probably known of some formulas regarding the area of specific shapes, or polygons for a
better term.
√ For instance, the area of an equilateral triangle of side length s is give by the function
s2 3
A(s) = . A square of side length s has area A(s) = s2 , and so on. In general, the area of any
4
polygon is the sum of the areas of the triangles into which it can be decomposed. It can be seen
that this computation is independent of the way in whiich we divide the polygon into the needed
triangles.

Now, we deconstruct this notion of area for us to be able to find the area of a region bounded by a
curve and some vertical lines.
At the end of this section, the student will be able to:

• generalize the notion of area of a polygonal region to the area of any plane region;

• derive an expression that gives such a formula, given any function f (x);

ic s
at
• use the properties of summation to obtain an exact number that gives the desired area.

h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP

4.2.1 Area of a Plane Region: The Rectangle Method

Definition 4.2.1. (Sigma Notation) Let n be a positive integer, and F be a function such that
{1, 2, . . . , n} in is the domain of F . We define:
n
X
F (i) := F (1) + F (2) + . . . + F (n)
i=1

We read the left hand side as ”the summation of F (i), with i from 1 to n.

Remark 4.2.2.

1. The variable i is called a dummy variable. It can be changed arbitrarily, especially when two
or more summations are involved in a single calculation.
4.2. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 197

2. In general, the summation need not start from 1. As long as we have k ∈ , , where k < n, we Z
can define the summation of F (i), with i from k to n:

n
X
F (i) := F (k) + F (k + 1) + . . . + F (n)
i=k

However, for convenience of calculations, we start from i = 1.

Theorem 4.2.3. (Properties of Summation) Let n be a positive integer, c be a real number,

and F and G be functions defined on the set {1, 2, . . . , n}.
n
X
1. c = cn
i=1
n
X n
X
2. cF (i) = c F (i)

ic s
i=1 i=1

at
n n n

em
X   X X
3. F (i) ± G(i) = F (i) ± G(i)
i=1 i=1 i=1
h
at
n
n(n + 1)
M

X
4. i=
2
i=1
of

n
e

X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
i2 =
ut

5.
6
tit

i=1
s
In

Example 4.2.4.
UP

30 30 30 30 30
X X X X X 30(31)
1. (6i − 1) = 6i + 1=6 i+ 1=6· + 1 · 20 = 2750
2
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

10 10 10 10 10
X X X X X 10(11)(21) 10(11)
2. (i − 1)2 = (i2 − 2i + 1) = i2 − 2 i+ 1= −2· + 10 = 285
6 2
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

10 n n n n
X X X X X n(n + 1)(2n + 1) n(n + 1)
3. (i − 1)2 = (i2 − 2i + 1) = i2 − 2 i+ 1= + +n =
6 2
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
n(2n2 − 3n + 1)
6

The Area of a Plane Region

Suppose we wish to find the area of the region R in the first quadrant bounded by the curve
f (x) = x2 , the x-axis and the vertical line x = 2.
198 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

We calculate the area AR of the region R in the following manner:

s
ic
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In

1. First, we divide the interval [0, 2] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x. Note that
UP

2−0 2
∆x = = .
n n

2. Let ci be the right endpoint of the ith subinterval, i = 1, 2, .., n.

3. Next, we cover the region with n circumscribed rectangles of width ∆x and height f (ci ).

4. Let Ai be the area of the ith rectangle. We get

Ai = f (ci ) · ∆x.

5. The area of the region can be approximated by taking the sum of the areas of the n circum-
scribed rectangles. Thus,
Xn
AR ≈ Ai
i=1
or
n
X
AR ≈ f (ci ) · ∆x
i=1
4.2. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 199

2
But ∆x = and f (ci ) = c2i . So,
n
n
X 2
AR ≈ c2i ·
n
i=1

2i
Moreover ci = i · ∆x = . So,
n
n  2
X 2i 2
AR ≈ ·
n n
i=1

6. We simplify the right hand side using summation formulas and obtain

n n
X X 8i2
AR ≈ Ai =
n3
i=1 i=1
n
8X2
= i

s
n3

ic
i=1

at
8 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= ·

em
n3 6
h 4(n + 1)(2n + 1)
=
at
3n2
M
of

7. Note that if we increase the number of rectangles, we get a better approximation of the area.
In fact, we define the area of the region to be
e
ut
tit

n
X
AR := lim Ai .
s

n→∞
In

i=1
UP

We obtain
n
X 4(n + 1)(2n + 1) 8
AR := lim Ai = lim = .
n→∞ n→∞ 3n2 3
i=1

In the previous illustration, we calculated the area AR of a plane region R bounded above by a
continuous function y = f (x) and below by the interval [a, b] by covering R with n circumscribed
rectangles of equal width ∆x. We then let n → ∞ to calculate the area

n
X
AR := lim f (ci ) · ∆x
n→∞
i=1

where ci is the right endpoint of ith subinterval and ∆x is the width of the ith rectangle, i =
1, 2, ..., n.

The following alternative method can be used to calculate AR .

200 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Instead of taking the right endpoint ci of the ith subinterval, we can take any number x∗i in the
ith subinterval and let the height of the ith rectangle be h = f (x∗i ). The area of the region is now

s
given by

ic
n

at
X
AR = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆x.

em
n→∞
i=1
h
at
4.2.2 The Definite Integral
M

To find the area of some plane regions R bounded above by y = f (x) and below by the interval
of

[a, b], it is sometimes more convenient to use rectangles of different widths.

e
ut
s tit
In
UP

Given an interval [a, b], we define a partition of the interval to be a sequence of numbers

a = x0 < x1 < x2 < ... < xn−1 < xn = b

the divides interval into n subintervals where the length of the ith interval is given by ∆xi =
xi − xi−1 , where i = 1, ..., n. When the subintervals are of equal length we say that the partition is
a regular partition.
4.2. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 201

For a regular partition, the length of each subinterval tends to 0 as n → ∞. However, if the
partition is not regular, this is not always true. Instead, we define max∆xi to be the length of the
longest subinterval in the partition. This length is called the mesh size of the partition. The area
of the region is now given by
Xn
AR = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆xi .
max∆xi →0
i=1

Definition 4.2.5. Let f be defined on [a, b]. The definite integral of f from a to b is
Z b n
X
f (x) dx = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆xi
a max∆xi →0
i=1

if the limit exists and does not depend on the choice of partitions or on the choice of numbers x∗i
in the subintervals. If the limit exists, the function is said to be integrable on [a, b].

Terminologies and Notations:

ic s
• The process of calculating the integral is called integration.

at
em
Z b
• In the notation for the definite integral f (x) dx: h
a
at
Z
M

– The integral sign resembles the letter S because an integral is the limit of a sum.
of

– The function f (x) is called the integrand.

e

– The numbers a and b are called the limits of integration: a is the lower limit of integra-
ut

tion, while b is the upper limit of integration.

tit

– We use the same symbol as the antiderivative because the definite integral is closely
s
In

linked to the antiderivative, as shall be seen in the following section.

UP

n
f (x∗i )·∆xk is called a Riemann Sum, after the mathematician Bernhard Riemann
P
• The sum
i=1
who formulated much of the concepts in integral calculus.

Remark 4.2.6. We note the following:

1. The definite integral is a number which does not depend on the variable used. The value of the
definite integral does not change if x is replaced by any other variable. For example,
Z b Z b
f (x) dx = f (t) dt.
a a

Z b
2. Geometrically, the definite integral f (x) dx gives the net-signed area between the graph of
a
the curve y = f (x) and the interval [a, b]. In particular, if the graph of y = f (x) lies above
Z b
the x-axis in the interval [a, b], f (x) dx gives the area of the region bounded by the curve
a
y = f (x), the x-axis and the lines x = a and x = b.
202 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

3. If the function f is continuous, a regular partition can be used to compute the definite integral:
Z b n
X
f (x) dx = lim f (x∗i ) · ∆x
a n→∞
i=1

4. The interval [a, b] must be contained in the domain of the function f to define the definite
Z 1
1
integral of f from [a, b]. For instance 2
dx is not a definite integral, since the 0 is not in
0 x
1
the domain of f (x) = 2 . This type of integral is called an improper integral, which is not in
x
the scope of this course.

Example 4.2.7. Evaluate the following definite integrals:

Z 2
1. x2 dx
0

ic s
Solution.

at
We have seen that the area of the region bounded by the curve f (x) = x2 , the x-axis and the

em
Z 2
8 8
vertical line x = 0 and x = 2 is square units. Therefore, x2 dx = . h
3 0 3
at
M

Z 6
2. 2x dx
of

−2
e
ut

Solution.
tit

The value of the given definite integral is the net-signed area between the curve y = 2x and the
s
In

x-axis over the interval [−2, 6].

UP

Z 6
1 1
We have that 2x dx = · 6 · 12 − · 2 · 4 = 32.
−2 2 2
4.2. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 203

Theorem 4.2.8. If a function is continuous on [a, b], then it is integrable on [a, b].

Example 4.2.9.

1. Polynomial functions are integrable on any closed interval.

2. The function f (x) = |x| is integrable on the interval [−1, 2], although it is not differentiable on
(−1, 2).

3. The sine and cosine functions are integrable on any closed interval.

Theorem 4.2.10 (Properties of the Definite Integral). Let f and g be integrable on [a, b].
Z b Z a
1. f (x) dx = − f (x) dx
a b
a

s
Z

ic
2. f (x) dx = 0

at
a

em
Z b
3. c dx = c(b − a) h
a
at
Z b Z b
M

4. c f (x)dx = c f (x) dx
a a
of

Z b Z b Z b
e

5. [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx

ut

a a a
tit

6. If f is integrable on a closed interval I containing the three numbers a, b and c,

s
In

Z b Z c Z b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
UP

a a c

regardless of the order of a, b and c.

204 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

4.2.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Let R be the region bounded by y = 4 − x2 and the x-axis in the interval [0, 2].

1. Use circumscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.
2. Use inscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.

B. Find the value of the following definite integrals.

Z 8
1. 10 − 3x dx
−2
Z1
2. x2 cos x dx
1
Z 4√
3. 16 − x2 dx
−4
2 √
Z 

s
4. 3− 4 − t2 dt

ic
0

at
C. Do as indicated.

1. If
Z 6
f (x) dx = 3 and
Z 6
g(x) dx = 8, find
Z 6 h em
[3f (x) − 2g(x)] dx.
at
−1 −1 −1
M

Z ln 2 Z ln 2
15 2
16 sinh2 (x) + 16 dx.
 
2. Given that cosh (x) dx = + log 2, find
of

ln 0.5 16 ln 0.5
Z 5 Z 5 Z 5
e

2
[f (x)]2 dx = 32.
ut

3. Find the value of [f (x) − 5] dx, given f (x) dx = −17 and

−1 −1 −1
tit

Z 2 Z 5 Z 5 Z 2
s

4. If f (x) dx = f (x) dx and f (x) dx = 21, and f (x) dx = 7, find

In

−5 Z 5 −2 −5 −2
Z −2
UP

f (x) dx + f (x) dx.

−5 2
Z 2 Z 1 Z 1
5. If g(x) dx = 4 and 3g(x) dx = 6, evaluate g(x) dx.
−1 −1 2

Supplementary Exercises

A. Using the theorems on summation, prove the following:

n
X n2 (n + 1)2
i3 =
4
i=1

B. Let R be the region bounded by y = x3 and the x-axis in the interval [0, 2].

1. Use circumscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.
2. Use inscribed rectangles of equal width to find the area of the region.

C. Find the value of the following definite integrals.

4.2. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 205
Z 12 Z 7
1. 4 dx 4. −|12 − 3x| dx
−3 2
Z 6 Z 3
2. 15 + 4x dx 5. cosh−1 x dx
−4 3
6 Z −10
csc−1 w
Z 5 Z 
3. |2x − 5| dx 6. dw dx
0 4 −10 csc w

D. Do as indicated.
√
1. Find the area enclosed by the x-axis and the semicircle y = 16 − x2 , on the following
intervals: (a) [0, 4], (b) [2, 4], (c) [0, 2], (d) [−2, 4].
 
2. Find the area of the region enclosed by the graph of f (x) = 2 − |x − 5|, the two
coordinate axes, and the line x = 10.
Z 6 Z 6 Z 6
3. If f (x) dx = 12, g(x) dx = −2 and h(x) dx = −7, find the value of
−3 −3 −3

s
−3  

ic
Z
f (x) 3h(x)
+ 3g(x) − dx

at
6 4 7

Z b Z b em
4. Let k be any real number, and a, b be real numbers such that a 6= b. Given that
h Z b
at
2
g(x) dx = k and 2
[g(x)] dx = k + 2k − 1, find the value of [3g(x) − 2]2 dx.
M

a a a
of
e
ut
tit
s
In
UP
206 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

4.3 The Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus

Now that we have the necessary background about antiderivatives and definite integrals, we are
ready to state (and prove) the two statements that link differential and integral calculus.

At the end of this section, the student will be able to do the following:

• state the First and Second Fundamental Theorems of the Calculus,

• provide a proof using the concepts we had discussed so far, and

• apply these theorems to solve complicated integrals more conveniently.

4.3.1 First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus

s
Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b]. Then the value of the definite integral

ic
Z b

at
f (x) dx depends only on the function f and the values of a and b, and is independent of our

em
a
choice of the variable in the function. That is, h
at
Z 2 Z 2 Z 2 Z 2
2 8 2 8 2 8 8
x dx = y dy = r dr = u2 du =
M

0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3
of

We have to be careful here, though: we cannot use i, since we know for a fact that i2 = −1.
e
ut

Hence, its usage in the example above will be problematic.

tit

Z x
s

We consider a function defined by F (x) = f (t) dt, where f is a continuous function on [a, b] and
In

a
x is any number in [a, b].
UP

Example 4.3.1.
Z x
1. Let F (x) = t2 dt. Evaluate F at x = 0 and x = 2.
0
Z 0
a. F (0) = t2 dt = 0
0
Z 2
8
b. F (2) = t2 dt =
0 3
Z x
2. Let F (x) = 2t dt.
0

Notice that F (x) gives the areaZ of the triangle under the curve y = 2t in the interval [0, x].
x
Therefore, we get that F (x) = 2t dt = 21 · x · 2x = x2 . In this case, F 0 (x) = 2x. Note that
0
F 0 (x) = f (x).
4.3. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF THE CALCULUS 207

As was illustrated inZthe previous example, the next theorem states that in general, for a function
x
of the form F (x) = f (t) dt, where f is a continuous function on [a, b] and x is any number in
a
[a, b], F 0 (x) = f (x).

ic s
at
em
Theorem 4.3.2 (The First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus). Let f be a function
h
continuous on [a, b] and let x be any number in [a, b]. If F is the function defined by F (x) =
at
Z x
f (t) dt, then
M

a
of

F 0 (x) = f (x)
e
ut
tit

Example 4.3.3. Find the derivative of the following functions.

s
In

Z x
1. F (x) = t2 dt
UP

Solution.
Let f (t) = t2 . Applying the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we obtain F 0 (x) = x2 .
Z x
cos t2 + 1 dt


2. F (x) =
−π

Solution.
In this case, let f (t) = cos t2 + 1 . Thus, F 0 (x) = cos(x2 + 1).

Z 3
3. F (x) = sin 2t dt
x

Solution.
To apply the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, we first need to switch the upper and
lower
Z limits of integration. Using the first property of the definite integral, we have F (x) =
x
− sin 2t dt. Now let f (t) = sin 2t. Finally, we get that F 0 (x) = − sin 2x.
3
208 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Z g(x)
Remark 4.3.4. Suppose F (x) = f (t) dt, where f is a function continuous on [a, b] and let
Z xa
g (x) ∈ [a, b]. If we let H(x) = f (t) dt, then F (x) = H(g(x)). Using the chain rule, we get
a
F 0 (x) = H 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x). By the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, H 0 (x) = f (x). So we
have

F 0 (x) = f (g(x)) · g 0 (x)

Example 4.3.5. Find the derivative of the following functions.

Z x2
1. F (x) = t2 dt
−1
F 0 (x) = (x2 )2 · 2x = 2x5
Z cos x
dt

s
2. F (x) =

ic
1 t

at
1
F 0 (x) = · (− sin x) = − tan x

em
cos x
Z 0
h
t
at
3. F (x) = 2
dt
2x+1 t + 1
M

Z 2x+1
t
of

F (x) = − 2
dt
0 t +1
e

2x + 1 2x + 1 2x + 1
ut

F 0 (x) = − 2
·2=− 2 ·2=− 2
(2x + 1) + 1 4x + 4x + 2 2x + 2x + 1
s tit

Z x
In

4. F (x) = sin2 t dt
Z−x−1
UP

0 Z x
2
F (x) = sin t dt + sin2 t dt
−x−1 0
Z −x−1 Z x
2
=− sin t dt + sin2 t dt
0 0
F 0 (x) = − sin2 (−x − 1) (−1) + sin2 x = − sin2 (x + 1) + sin2 x
tanh(x)  
t−1
Z
2
5. F (x) = sinh dt
x3 3
Z 1   Z tanh(x)  
2 t−1 2 t−1
= sinh dt + sinh dt
x3 3 1 3
Z x3   Z tanh(x)  
2 t−1 2 t−1
=− sinh dt + sinh dt
1 3 1 3
 3   
0 2 x −1 2 2 tanh(x) − 1
F (x) = sinh · 3x + sinh · sech2 (x)
3 3

We end this part with a proof of the First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus.
4.3. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF THE CALCULUS 209
Z x
d
Proof. Let f be continuous on [a, b]. We wish to show that f (t) dt = f (x).
dx a
Z x
Let F (x) = f (t) dt. We have
a

F (x + ∆x) − F (x)
F 0 (x) = lim
∆x→0 ∆x
F (x + ∆x) − F (x)
Consider the expression . We have
∆x
Z x+∆x Z x
f (t) dt − f (t) dt
F (x + ∆x) − F (x) a a
=
∆x ∆x
Z x+∆x
f (t) dx
x
=
∆x
Now, consider the function f (t) on [x, x + ∆x]. Since f is continuous, we use the Mean Value

ic s
Theorem for Integrals to conclude that there exists c ∈ [x, x + ∆x] such that

at
em
Z x+∆x
f (t) dt = f (c) [(x + ∆x) − x] = f (c)∆x
h
x
at
Thus,
M

Z x+∆x
of

f (t) dx
F (x + ∆x) − F (x) f (c)∆x
F 0 (x) = lim x
e

= lim = lim = f (c)

ut

∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x ∆x→0 ∆x

tit

Note that c depends on x and ∆x. Finally, because x ≤ c ≤ x + ∆x and lim x = lim (x + ∆x) =
∆x→0 ∆x→0
s
In

x, we conclude by the Squeeze Theorem that lim c = x. Hence, by continuity of f ,

∆x→0
UP

 
0
F (x) = lim c = f lim c = f (x)
∆x→0 ∆x→0

4.3.2 The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Theorem 4.3.6 (The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus). Let f be a

function continuous on [a, b]. If F is any antiderivative of f on [a, b], then
Z b ix=b
f (x) dx = F (x) = F (b) − F (a)
a x=a

Example 4.3.7. Evaluate the following definite integrals.

Z 2  3 x=2  
2 x  8 8
1. x dx = +C  = + C − (0 + C) =
0 3 x=0 3 3
210 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Z 6
x=6
2

2. 2x dx = x  = 36 − 4 = 32
−2 x=−2
Z 3
dx
3.
−1 (x + 2)3

Solution.
We use integration by substitution to get the desired antiderivative. Let u = x + 2. Then
du = dx. We get that

u−2
Z Z
dx 1 1
= u−3 du = +C =− 2 +C =− +C
(x + 2)3 −2 u (x + 2)2

We now have

s
3 Z 3 x=3

ic
Z
dx dx  1 1 24 12
= =− + = =

at

−1 (x + 2)3 −1 (x + 2) 3 
x=−1 50 2 50 25

Remark 4.3.8. By the Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and the Substitution Rule,
h em
at
M

Z b
x=b
0

f (g(x))g (x) dx = F (g(x)) = F (g(b)) − F (g(a))
of

a x=a
e

If we let u = g(x), we have that

ut
tit

Z b
u=g(b)
0

s

f (g(x))g (x) dx = F (u)

In

a u=g(a)
UP

Therefore,
Z b Z g(b)
0
f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du
a g(a)

Example 4.3.9. Evaluate the following definite integrals using the previous remark.
Z 3
dx
1.
−1 (x + 2)3

Solution.
Again, we let u = x + 2. Then du = dx. We use the previous remark and put the limits of
integration in terms of the new variable u. If x = −1, then u = 1. If x = 3, then u = 5. We
now have

u−2 u=5
Z 3 Z 5 
dx −3 1 1 12
3 = u du = =− + =
−1 (x + 2) 1 −2 u=1
 50 2 25
4.3. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF THE CALCULUS 211
√
Z 11 1
2. 2x(x2 + −3) 3 dx
2

Solution.
√
Let u = x2 − 3. Then du = 2x dx. Moreover, if x = 2, then u = 1. If x = 11, then
√
2
u= 11 − 3 = 8. Thus,
√ 4 4 4
11 8
3 3 u=8 3(8) 3
Z Z
2
1 1 3(1) 3 45
2x(x + −3) 3 dx = u3 du = = − =
2 1 4 u=1 4 4 4
Z π2
√
sin t
3. √ dt
π2 t
4

Solution.
√ dt dt 2 π
Let u = t. Then du = √ , or 2du = √ . In addition, if x = π4 , then u = . Meanwhile, if
2 t t 2

s
x = π 2 , then u = π. Thus,

ic
√

at
Z π2 Z π u=π
sin t 
√ dt = 2 sin u du = 2(− cos u) π =2−0=2
em

π2 t π
4 2 u= 2
h
at
Z 2
4. |x| dx
M

−1
of

Solution. (
e

x ; x≥0
ut

Recall that |x| = . We use the 6th property of the definite integral and obtain
−x ; x < 0
tit

Z 2 Z 0 Z 2
s
In

|x| dx = (−x) dx + x dx
−1 −1 0
UP

x2 x=0 x x=2
2
 
= −  + 
2 x=−1 2
   x=0
1 5
= 0− − + (2 − 0) =
2 2

Remark 4.3.10.
1. The Fundamental Theorems of CalculusZ establish a close connection between antiderivatives
and definite integrals. For this reason, f (x) dx is also referred to as an indefinite integral,
and the process of antidifferentiation as integration. However, note that in Advanced Calculus,
the indefinite integral is defined independently of the antiderivative and does not always
coincide with the antiderivative of a function.

2. To use the Second Fundamental

Z 2 Theorem of Calculus, the function f must be continuous on
1 1 ix=2 1 1
[a, b]. For instance, 2
dx 6
= − = . In fact, the definite integral of f (x) = 2 on
−1 x x x=−1 2 x
[−1, 2] cannot even be defined since the interval is not contained in the domain of f .
212 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

4.3.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Find the derivative of the following functions.

2 7
t3
Z Z
t2 + 1 dt


1. F (x) = 3
dt 3. F (x) =
1−3x 1 + t csc x
Z 1
x√
Z cos x
2. F (x) = 1 + m3 dm 4. F (x) = y 2 dy
1 sin x

B. Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the following functions at the given value
of x:

√
x 3 x2 −5x+6
3r3 + sech r
Z
t
Z
1. h(x) = dt ; x = −8 3. f (x) = dr ; x = 3

s
2
t + 8t + 1
−8 3r3 − sech r

ic
9−x2

at
3x2 −10 cos(x2 )
2we−w
Z Z
z sinh(z)
2. g(x) = dz ; x = −2 4. g(x) = dw ; x = 0

em
2 cos2 z − 4 2x+1 tan−1 w
h
at
C. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
M
of

Z π Z π
2 2
1. sin x dx 7. cos x cos(π sin x) dx
e
ut

0 0
Z 4 Z 2
tit

2
p
2. (1 + 3t − t ) dt 8. y y − 1 dy
s

0 1
In

64 √ π
1+ 3y
Z Z
2 p
3. √ dy 9. sin 2y 1 − sin ydy
UP

3 y
1 0
π ln 3
cos2 θ
Z Z
1+
4
4. dθ 10. tanh x sech3 x dx
0 cos2 θ ln 2
Z π x x Z 4
1
5. sin2 cos dx 11. √ √ 3 dw
π 2 2 1 w ( w + 2)
3
Z π
tan u 2
1 2
Z  
6. du 1
2π sec u − tan u
12. 1+ dm
3 1 m2 m

Supplementary Exercises

A. Find the derivative of the following functions.

Z x Z 2x3
1. F (x) = t2 sin t dt 1
2. F (x) = ds
0 x 1 + s2
4.3. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF THE CALCULUS 213
√
3
" !#
t2 − 1
Z x Z 2x Z 3s2 √
d
3. F (x) = √ 3
dt 4. F (x) = t3 + 1dt ds
sec x 1 + t 5 ds 1

B. Find an equation of the tangent line and normal line to the graph of the following functions at
the given value of x:

1−4x
√
x2 5 s2 + 1
Z Z
1. h(x) = sec(t − 1) dt ; x = −2 4. h(x) = ds ; x = 1
2−x −3 tan−1 (s)
2
0 πx sinh−1 v
Z Z
1+u π
2. f (x) = du ; x = 1 5. g(x) = dv ; x =
x5 −1 1 + u + u2 csc(x) sinh v 2
cos(x2 )
0 2we−w
Z Z
4 ln(cosh u) + 1 π
3. f (x) = du ; x = 6. g(x) = dw ; x = 0
cos x
2
u +1 2 2x+1 tan−1 w

C. Evaluate the following definite integrals.

ic s
at
π
3
Z  
1 
Z 
3 2 11. sin x − dx
1. x − 4x + 5x − 8 dx

em
−2 0
 2
√
Z π
h Z ln 4
4
at
2. 3
tan (y)(1 + tan y) dy 2 12. sinh x cosh x dx
π ln 0.5
M

6 Z ln 3
tanh x sech3 x dx
Z 6
5x2 13.
 
of

3. x sin dx ln 2
6
e

1 14.
ut

Z π    
π
(
6 2 3x 3x x≤0
Z
x ;
tit

4. sec tan dx 15. f (x) dx if f (x) =

−
π 4 4 −π sin x ; x>0
s

3
In

√
3 Z ln 5
tan−1 x e−x tanh(e−x ) dx
Z
3 16.
UP

5. dx
0 1 + x2 ln 0.2
Z e4
Z 1 csch cot−1 x

1
6. dx 17. p dx
1 + x2 e2 x ln2 x − 1
0
Z 1  −1
2
e
coth2 (ln x + x)(x + 1)
Z
2 sech (x)
7. dx 18. √
1 x 0 x 1 − x2
Z 0 Z 1
1
8. |3x + 1 |dx 19. √ dx
−1 0 1 + e4x
Z 3 Z ln 5
sinh x
9. (|3x − 6| − 1) dx 20. dx
0 1 e − e−x
x
Z 4 Z 3 log (x3 +2x2 )
2 3
10. |s2 − 4s + 3| ds 21. √ dx
log x+2
0 1 x·4 3
214 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

4.4 Generalization of the Area of a Plane Region

Now that we know the most important properties of the definite integral, we are able to perform
some geometric calculations. One such computation generalizes the concept of a plane region
we discussed earlier.

At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to do the following:

• express the area bounded by arbitrary curves as a definite integral;

• use the Second Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus to compute such areas; and
• use the concept of vertical and horizontal strips to perform convenient calculations for
area.

Let f be a continuous function. Recall the following:

ic s
at
Z b n
f (x∗i ) ∆x.
P
1. f (x)dx = lim

em
a n→∞i=1
h Z b
at
2. If the graph of y = f (x) lies entirely above the x-axis in the interval [a, b], f (x) dx gives
a
M

the area of the region bounded by the curves y = f (x), the x-axis and the vertical lines
of

x = a and x = b. This is illustrated in the figure below.

e
ut
stit
In
UP

We generalize the problem to finding the area of a plane region bounded by several curves such
as the one shown below.
4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 215

ic s
at
em
Some Preliminaries:
h
at
M

1. The coordinates of an arbitrary point on a curve y = f (x) in terms of x are given by the
of

ordered pair (x, f (x)).

e
ut
tit

Example 4.4.1.
s
In

a. y = x2
UP

b. y = x3
216 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

The height h of a curve at x with reference to the x-axis is given by:

a. h = f (x), if the curve is above the x-axis.
b. h = −f (x), if the curve is below the x-axis.
Example 4.4.2.

ic s
a. y = x2

at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In

b. y = x3
UP

The height (or distance) between two curves at x is given by

h = (y-coordinate of the upper curve) − (y-coordinateof the lower curve)

Example 4.4.3.
a. y = x2 and y = x + 1
4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 217

h = (x + 1) − x2 = −x2 + x + 1

b. y = x2 and y = −1

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut

h = x2 − (−1) = x2 + 1
s tit
In
UP

Area between Two Curves: Vertical Approach

Let y = f (x) and y = g (x) be the equations of two curves that are continuous on [a, b] such
that g (x) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ [a, b]. To find the area between the curves y = f (x) and y = g (x)
in the interval [a, b], we modify the method used for finding the area of a region bounded above
by a curve the lies and below by the x-axis in a given closed interval:
218 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

ic s
1. We divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x. We assign the width

at
of the ith rectangle to be ∆x. Note that

∆x =
b−a
hem
at
n
M

2. Let i = 1, 2, ..., n. Let x∗i be an arbitrary point in the ith subinterval. We assign the height
of

hi of the ith rectangle to be the distance between the two curves at x∗i :
e
ut

hi = f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i )
s tit
In

3. The area of the ith rectangle is now given by

UP

Ai = hi ∆x = f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i ) ∆x
 

4. We approximate the area AR of the region R by getting the sum of the areas of the n
rectangle:
n
X n
X
f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i ) ∆x
 
AR ≈ Ai =
i=1 i=1

5. We let n → ∞ and define this to be the area of the region:

n
X n
X
f (x∗i ) − g(x∗i ) ∆x
 
AR = lim Ai =
n→∞
i=1 i=1

6. By the definition of the definite integral, we get

Z b
AR = (f (x) − g(x)) dx
a
4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 219

Formula for the Area of a Plane Region

If f and g are continuous functions on the interval [a, b] and f (x) ≥ g (x) for all x ∈ [a, b],
then the area of the region R bounded above by y = f (x) , below by y = g (x) and the
vertical lines x = a and x = b is
Z b
AR = (f (x) − g(x)) dx
a

Suggestion: We can think of the formula for the area of a plane region in this way:
Z b
AR = h dx
a

where:

ic s
at
• [a, b] is the interval I covered by the region along the x-axis

em
• h is the height of the rectangle at an arbitrary point x in the interval I
h
• dx is the width of the rectangle at an arbitrary point x in the interval I
at
M

Example 4.4.4.
of
e

1. Find the area of the region bounded by y = x3 , the x-axis and x = −2.
ut
s tit
In
UP

The interval covered by the region along the x-axis is

I = [−2, 0]
Meanwhile, the height of the rectangle at an arbitrary point x in the interval I is given by
220 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

h = 0 − x3 = −x3

Therefore, the area of given plane region is given by

Z 0
AR = −x3 dx
−2

We evaluate the definite integral and obtain

0
x4 x=0
Z 
3
AR = −x dx = −  = 0 − (−4) = 4 square units
−2 4 x=−2

2. Find the area of the region bounded by y = x2 + 2, y = −1, x = −1 and x = 2.

s
ic
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
tit
s
In
UP

We have the following:

I = [−1, 2] ; h = (x2 + 2) − (−1) = x2 + 3

Therefore, the area of the desired region is given by

2
x=2
x3
Z
(x2 + 3) dx =

AR = + 3x
−1 3
   x=−1
8 1
= AR = + 6 − − − 3 = 12 square units
3 3

3. Find the area of the region bounded by y = 2 − x2 and y = −x.

4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 221

We solve for the x-coordinates of the points of intersection to get I.

ic s
2 − x2 = −x

at
x2 − x − 2 = 0

em
(x + 1) (x − 2) = 0
h
at
x = −1 or x = 2
M

Thus, I = [−1, 2]. Meanwhile,

of
e

h = 2 − x2 − (−x) = −x2 + x + 2


ut
tit

The area of the plane region is

s
In

2
x=2
x3 x2
Z
UP

2

AR = (−x + x + 2) dx = − + + 2x
−1 3 2 x=−1
   
8 1 1 9
= − +2+4 − + −2 square units
3 3 2 2

Notice that the formula for the area of a plane region assumes that the upper curve y = f (x)
is always above the lower curve y = g (x) in [a, b]. That is, the formula for the height h of a
rectangle at an arbitrary x is the same throughout the region. In the case that this is not so,
we have to divide the region into an appropriate number of subregions to apply the formula.

Example 4.4.5.

1. Find the area of the region bounded by y = cos x, y = sin x and the lines x = 0 and x = 2π.
222 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

ic s
We divide the interval into three subregions R1 , R2 and R3 . To determine the appropriate

at
x-interval covered by each of these three subregions, we solve for the x-coordinates of the

em
points of intersection of y = cos x and y = sin x in the interval [0, 2π]:
h
at
sin x = cos x
M

1 1
· sin x = · cos x
of

cos x cos x
tan x = 1
e

π 5π
ut

x= or x =
4 4
s tit
In

We now have the following:

UP

For R1 : For R2 : For R3 :

I = [0, π4 ] I = [ π4 , 5π
4 ] I = [ 5π
4 , 2π]
h = cos x − sin x h = sin x − cos x h = cos x − sin x

The required area is given by:

AR = AR 1 + AR 2 + AR 3
Z π Z π Z 2π
4
4


= cos x − sin x dx + cos x − sin x dx + cos x − sin x dx
5π
0 0 4
√
= 4 2 square units

2. Find the area of the region shown below. The boundaries are y = x2 , y = 2x and 7x+4y = 15.
4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 223

We divide the interval into two subregions R1 and R2 and solve for the points of intersection:

ic s
Intersection of y = x2 and 7x + 4y = 15:

at
15 − 7x

em
x2 =
h 4
4x2 + 7x − 15 = 0
at
M

(4x − 5)(x + 3) = 0
5
of

x= or x = −3
4
e
ut

Intersection of y = 2x and 7x + 4y = 15:

tit

7x + 4 (2x) = 15
s
In

x = 1
UP

Intersection of y = x2 and y = 2x:

x2 − 2x = 0
x (x − 2) = 0
x=0 or x=2

We now have
For R1 : For R2 :
I = [−3, 1] I = [1, 2]
15 − 7x
h= − x2 h = 2x − x2
4
Finally,
AR = AR 1 + AR 2
Z 1  Z 2
15 − 7x 2 40
2x − x2 dx =


= −x dx + square units
−3 4 1 3
224 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

An Alternative Method Using Horizontal Rectangles

In the method we employed to find the area of a plane region, the plane region is covered using
rectangles oriented vertically. Now consider the case of the plane region below. If rectangles
oriented vertically are used to find the area of the plane region, the region would have to be
divided into two subregions because the formula for the height of the rectangle is not consistent
throughout the region. In one subregion, the upper curve is the line, while the lower curve is
the lower branch of the parabola. In the other subregion, the upper curve is the upper branch
of the parabola, while the lower curve is the lower branch of the parabola.

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut

Notice, however, that if we use rectangles oriented horizontally, the expression for the length of
tit

the rectangle is the same throughout the given region. This is in contrast to the approach using
s

vertical rectangles, where the expression for the height of the rectangle is the same throughtout
In

the region.
UP

The length of a rectangle oriented horizontally is given by

4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 225

l =(x-coordinate of the right curve) − (x-coordinate of the left curve)

Throughout the region, the curve on the right is always the parabola, while the curve of the left
is always the line.
The following gives an alternative method for finding the area of a plane region using horizontal
rectangles, which would be more convenient to use in finding the area of some regions such as
the one shown above.

Formula for the Area of a Plane Region

If u and v are continuous functions in y on the interval [c, d] and v (y) ≥ u (y) for all
y ∈ [c, d], then the area of the region R bounded on the left by x = u (y) , on the right
by x = v (y) and the horizontal lines y = c and y = d is
Z d
AR = (v(y) − u(y)) dy
c

ic s
at
em
Suggestion: Again, we can think of the formula for the area of a plane region in this way:
h
at
Z d
M

AR = l dy
c
of

where:
e
ut

• [c, d] is the interval I covered by the region along the y-axis;

tit

• l is the length of the rectangle at an arbitrary point y in the interval I;

s
In

• dy is the width of the rectangle at an arbitrary point y in the interval I.

UP

Some Preliminaries.

1. The coordinates of a point on the curve x = u (y) in terms of y is given by (u(y), y)

Example.
226 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

2. The length of the rectangle at an arbitrary y is given by

l =(x-coordinate of the right curve) − (x-coordinate of the left curve)

Example. In the previous example,

h = (3 − y 2 ) − (y + 1) = −y 2 − y + 2

Example 4.4.6.

1. Find the area of the region bounded by x = 3 − y 2 and the line y = x − 1. (Refer to the
figure in the previous example.)

To find the y-interval covered by the region above, we solve for the y-coordinates of the
points of intersection:

ic s
at
3 − y2 = y+1

em
y2 + y − 2 = 0 h
(y + 2)(y − 1) = 0
at
M

y = −2 or y = 1
of
e

Therefore, I = [−2, 1]. We have already seen that the length of a horizontal rectangle at an
ut

arbitrary y is given by
s tit
In

l = −y 2 − y + 2
UP

We get that the area of the region is given by the definite integral

Z 1
− y 2 − y + 2 dy


AR =
−2

Evaluating this integral, we obtain

y=1
y3 y2  9
AR = − − + 2y  = square units
3 2 y=−2 2

y2
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas x = 4 − y 2 and x = 2 − .
2
4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 227

We solve for the y-coordinates of the points of intersection:

ic s
at
4 − y2
4 − y2 =

em
2
y2 − 4 = 0
h
at
y = −2 or y = 2
M

4 − y2 4 − y2
 
of

y2


Therefore, we have I = [−2, 2] and l = 4 − − = . The required area is
2 2
e
ut

2
y2 y 3 y=2
Z   
16
tit

AR = 2− dy = 2y −  = square units
−2 2 6 y=−2 3
s
In

3. Find the area of the region bounded by the parabolas x2 = 4y and the parabola y 2 = −4x.
UP
228 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

The curve on the right is the upper branch of the parabola y 2 = −4x. We isolate x and
y2
get x = − . On the other hand, the curve on the left is the left branch of the parabola
4 √
x2 = 4y. We solve for x and obtain x = ±2 y. Since the curve of interest is the left branch
√
of the parabola, the equation of the curve is x = −2 y.

We solve for the y-coordinates of the points of intersection and obtain

√
y2 = −4 (−2 y)
y 4 − 64y = 0
y = 0 or y = 4

y2 √
Thus, we get I = [0, 4] and h = − + 2 y. Finally,
4
3
4
y2 y3 4y 2 y=4 16

√
Z
AR = − + 2 y dy = − + = square units
4 12 3 y=0 3

s
0

ic
at
hem
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 229

4.4.1 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Find the area of the following regions.

1. Triangle whose vertices are the points (−1, 4), (2, −2), and (5, 1)
2. Trapezoid whose vertices are the points A(−1, −1), B(2, 2), C(6, 2) and D(7, −1)
3. Region bounded by the upper branch of the parabola x = y 2 , the tangent line to the parabola
at (1, 1) and the x-axis
4. Region bounded by y = x2 − 2x + 3 and y = x + 7.
5. Region bounded by y = 6x − x2 and 2y = 5x + 6.
6. R is bounded above by the graph of y = |2x|, and below by the parabola y = x2 − 8.
7. Region shown below. Boundaries are y = 5 − x2 , y = 2x + 2, y = −x − 1

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
tit

8. Region bounded below by the curves y = 3−x and y = 3x , and the line y = 9
s
In

9. Region bounded by the curve y = tanh2 (x), the x-axis, and the line x = ln 14
UP

10. Region bounded by the curve y = 2x , the coordinate axes, and the lines x = 4 and y = 8

Supplementary Exercises

A. Find the area of the following regions.

1. Region bounded by y = x2 − 2x + 1 and y = 7 − x
2. Triangle whose vertices are the points (−1, 4), (2, −2), and (5, 1)
3. Triangle with vertices at A(−2, 2), B(5, 8), and C(1, −4).
4. Triangle with vertices at A(0, 0), B(4, −8), and C(−2, −4).
5. Quadrilateral with vertices A(−5, −3), B(1, 6), C(6, 6), and D(12, −3).
6. Region bounded by the line y = −9 and the curve y = 16 − x2 .
7. Region bounded below by the x-axis, and above by the parabola x = y 2 and the tangent
line to the parabola at (2, 4).
8. R is bounded below by the graph of y = 3 sin x, above by the graph of y = −2 cos2 x,
and between x = 0 and x = 2π
230 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

9. Region shown below. Boundaries are x = y 2 − 2y, x = 4 − y 2 and x + 2y = 4

10. Set up the integral that gives the area of the region shown below. The parabola and the
circle intersect at the point (2, 0).

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of

11. Set up the definite integral(s) equal to the area of the region with the given boundaries.
a. y = tan x, y = cot x, y = x2 − x, x = 1
e
ut

b. y = ln x, y = −x2 − x + 2, 20x − 4y = 5, 4x = 1
tit

√
c. y = x, y = 0, y = 6 − x
s

√
In

d. y = 2x2 , y = − x, 4x + 3y = 10
√
UP

e. y = x, y = −3 x + 1, y= 
−x + 1, y = 0
x x
f. y = 2 cos , y = ln , 4x = π
2 √ π
g. xy = 2, y = 2 x, x − 3y = 1, y = 0

B. Do as indicated.
1. The parabola y = 10 − x2 , and the lines y = −2x + 2 and y = 3x + 6, serve as boundaries
of three finite regions in the Cartesian plane. Find the area of each region.
1
2. Find the area of the region bounded by the graph of y = √ , the x-axis, and the
√ x 4x2 − 1
3
lines x = and x = 1.
3
x2 y 2
3. Derive the formula for the area of an ellipse with equation 2 + 2 = 1.
a b x
4. Derive the formula for the area of the region R bounded by the catenary y = a cosh ,
a
the coordinate axes, and the line x = a, where a > 0.
1
5. Let R be the region under the graph of y = 2 over [1, 4].
x
4.4. GENERALIZATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE REGION 231

A. Find a such that the line with equation x = a divides R into two regions having equal
area.
B. Find b such that the line with equation y = b divides R into two regions having equal
area.
C. Do as indicated.
1. TRUE OR FALSE: Any region, whose boundaries can be expressed in terms of functions
and vertical lines, can be divided into two regions of equal area.
2. For the statement above to be always true, what condition(s) must be satisfied?
3. Prove the following statement: If a region is bounded above by y = f (x), below by y =
g(x), and the lines x = a and x = b, then there is a unique line dividing the region into
two regions of equal area.
4. Construct a similar statement for regions bounded on the left by x = u(y), on the right
by x = v(y), and the lines y = c and y = d.
5. Consider the region R bounded above by the graph of f (x) = 4x − x2 and below by the
x-axis. What value of m will make the graph of g(x) = mx divide R into two regions of

ic s
equal area?

at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
stit
In
UP
232 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

4.5 Arc Length of Plane Curves

We proceed with another geometric computation which turns out to make use of the derivative.
We only need a fact from Euclidean geometry, which states that the distance between two points
p
on the Cartesian plane, P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ), is d(P Q) = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 .

At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to do the following:

• characterize a smooth function;

• derive an expression for the length of any smooth function; and

• use a particular orientation of the curve to be ale to construct a convenient expression

for its length.

ic s
at
First, we define a smooth curve. A curve with equation y = f (x) is said to be smooth on [a, b] if

the interval [a, b].

h em
f 0 is continuous on [a, b]. Suppose we want to find the length of the arc of a smooth curve over a
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP

We use the previous method of dividing the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length. Let
i = 1, 2, ..., n.

1. Let (xi , yi ) and (xi+1 , yi+1 ) be the endpoints of the arc over the ith subinterval.

2. The distance between the endpoints of the ith subinterval is given by

p
di = (xi+1 − xi )2 + (yi+1 − yi )2 , for i = 1, 2, . . . , n
4.5. ARC LENGTH OF PLANE CURVES 233

3. Let ∆xi = xi+1 − xi and ∆yi = yi+1 − yi . So we have

p
di = (∆xi )2 + (∆yi )2
s
(∆xi )2 + (∆yi )2
= · (∆xi )2
(∆xi )2
s
∆yi 2
 
= 1+ · ∆xi
∆xi

4. The length of the arc is approximated by

s
n n  2
X X ∆yi
L≈ di = 1+ · ∆xi
∆xi
i=1 i=1

5. We define the length of the arc to be the limit of the sum as n → ∞:

s
s
n n 2

ic

X X ∆yi
L = lim di = 1+ · ∆xi

at
n→∞ ∆xi
i=1 i=1

h em
6. Therefore, length of the arc is given by the definite integral
at
M

s 2
Z b 
dy
L= 1+ dx
of

a dx
e
ut
stit

Formula for the Length of an Arc

In

If y = f (x) is a smooth curve on the interval [a, b], then the arc length L of this curve
UP

from x = a to x = b is
s  2
Z b Z bq
dy  2
L= 1+ dx = 1 + f 0 (x) dx
a dx a

If x = u(y) is a smooth curve on the interval [c, d], then the arc length L of this curve
from y = c to y = d is
s  2
Z d Z dq
dx  2
L= 1+ dy = 1 + u0 (y) dy
c dy c

Example 4.5.1.

1 2
3/2
1. Find the length of arc of the curve y = x +2 from x = 1 to x = 2.
3
234 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

First, we compute

dy 1p 2 p
= x + 2 · 2x = x x2 + 2
dx 2
Therefore,

ic s
s 2
2  p 2p

at
Z Z
L= 2
1+ x x +2 dx = x4 + 2x2 + 1 dx

em
1 1
2
x=2
x3
Z
10
2
 h
= (x + 1) dx = + x = units
at
1 3 x=1 3
M

2. Set up the definite integral required to find the arc length of the curve x = (y − 1)2 − 4 from
of

the point (−3, 2) to (0, −1).

e
ut
s tit
In
UP

Here, it is more convenient to use the horizontal orientation of the curve. We have that

dx
= 2(y − 1)
dy

The definite integral that gives the length of arc is

Z 2 p
L= 1 + 4(y − 1)2 dy
−1
4.5. ARC LENGTH OF PLANE CURVES 235

3. Set up the definite integral required to find the perimeter of the region enclosed by the curves
1 2
 
3 1 3
y=x + ,x=− y− and y = .
2 2 2

1
If L1 is the length of the segment from −1, 32 and 1, 32 , L2 is the length of the arc of y = x3 +



2

s
 2

ic
1
from 0, 12 to 1, 32 , and L3 is the length of the arc of x = − y − from −1, 23 to 0, 12 ,

at
2

em
then the perimeter P of the enclosed region is given by
h
P = L1 + L2 + L3
at
M

Obviously,
of

L1 = 1 − (−1) = 2
e
ut
tit

We set up the integral to find L2 in terms of x and get that

s
In

Z 1p
L2 = 1 + 9x4 dx
UP

We set up the integral to find L3 in terms of y and get that

Z 3
s
1 2
 
2
L3 = 1+4 y− dy
1 2
2

Therefore,
3
s
1p
1 2
Z Z  
2
P =2+ 1+ 9x4 dx + 1+4 y− dy
0
1 2
2

Remark 4.5.2. Note in the previous example that our expression for the perimeter involves x and
y. This is sometimes the case, especially for the perimeter of regions with varying boundaries. The
thing to take away here is that each integral must contain only one variable of integration; that is,
x and y cannot appear in a single integrand.
236 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

4.5.1 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Find the arc length of the following curves in the specified interval:
2
(x − 5) /2 from the point where x = 6 to the point where x = 8.
3
1. y =
3
2. 2x − 4y + 6 = 0 between y = 0 and y = 2
π
3. y = ln(cos x) from x = 0 to x =
4
√
4. 9y 2 = 4x3 from the origin to the point (3, 2 3).
5. 8y = x4 + 2x−2 from the point where x = 1 and x = 2.
x
6. y = a cosh , from the point where x = 0 to the point where x = a
a
7. y = sinh−1 x from the point where x = 0 to the point where x = 4

B. Do as indicated.

ic s
1. Set up a definite integral that gives the length of the arcsine function throughout its domain.

at
√
2. Set up a definite integral that gives the arc length of y = 3 x − 1 from x = 0 to x = 1. (Note

em
that this integral has to be set up in terms of y. Why not x?)
h
at
Supplementary Exercises
M

A. Find the perimeter of each region in Exercises 4.4.1, Part A, Items 1-7, and Exercises 4.4.2,
of

Part A, 1-5.
e
ut

B. Set up the (sum of) definite integral(s) equal to the perimeter of each region in Exercises 4.4.1,
tit

Part A, Items 8-10, and Exercises 4.4.2, Part A, 6-11.

s
In

C. Set up the (sum of) definite integral(s) equal to the perimeter of each of the regions described
UP

in Exercises 4.4.2, Part B, Items 1-4.

4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 237

4.6 Volumes of Solids

Another application of the definite integral comes in when we consider the volume of solids formed
using special procedures. We consider first right cylinders, the normal type of cylinders we see in
everyday life. Then we consider solids formed by rotating about a particular line.

At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to do the following:

• understand the different procedures used in computing the volume of a given solid;

• generate expressions for the volume of any solid using cross-sectional area; and

• solve for the volume of solids generated by revolving a plane region about an indicated
axis, using the methods of disks, washers, and cylindrical shells.

s
ic
Volumes of Solids of Revolution1

at
4.6.1

Solids of Revolution
em
h
at
A solid of revolution is a solid obtained when a plane region is revolved about a line called the
M

axis of revolution.
of
e
ut

Example 4.6.1.
tit

1. The solid of revolution generated when the region bounded by x = y 2 and y = x2 is revolved
s
In

about the x-axis:

UP

2. The solid of revolution generated when the region bounded by y = sin x and the x-axis in the
interval [0, π] is revolved about the y-axis:

1
Some of figures in this section are taken from [5].
238 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Two methods allow us to find the volume of a solid of revolution:

A. Disk or Washer Method. Use rectangles that are perpendicular to the axis of revolution.

ic s
at
B. Cylindrical Shell Method. Use rectangles that are parallel to the axis of revolution.
h em
at
M

Some Preliminaries. To determine the distance d from an arbitrary point x on a curve to the
of

axis of revolution:
e
ut
tit

1. If the axis of revolution is a vertical line, the horizontal distance from the axis of revolution to
s

an arbitrary point on the curve is given by

In
UP

d = (x-coordinate of the right curve) − (x-coordinate of the left curve)

2. If the axis of revolution is a horizontal line, the vertical distance from the axis of revolution to
an arbitrary point on the curve is given by

d = (y-coordinate of the upper curve) − (y-coordinate of the lower curve)

Example. Find the distance from an arbitrary point x on the given curve to the given axis of
revolution.

1. y = x2 , x ≥ 0

a. Axis of revolution: x = 5
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 239

√
In terms of x: d = x + 2 In terms of y: d = y+2
b. Axis of revolution: x = −2

s
ic
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In

√
In terms of x: d = x + 2 In terms of y: d = y+2
UP

2. x = 4 − y 2

a. Axis of revolution: y = 3

√
In terms of y: d = 3 − y In terms of x: d = 3 − 4−x
240 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

b. Axis of revolution: y = −1

√ √
In terms of y: d = y − (−1) = y + 1 In terms of x: d = 4 − x − (−1) = 4−x+1

The Disk or Washer Method

s
A disk and a washer with the formulas for their respective volumes are shown below.

ic
at
h em
at
M
of

Washer: V = πh(r22 − r12 )

e

Disk: V = πr2 h
ut

r2 = outer radius; r1 = inner radius

tit

In the disk or washer method, the rectangles are oriented so that they are perpendicular to the axis
s

of revolution.
In
UP

When a segment of the axis of revolution is a boundary of the region, as is the case when the
region below is revolved about the y-axis, disks are obtained.

If the axis of revolution does not intersect the region, or intersects the region at only one point, we
get washers. This is illustrated in the following example.
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 241

Let us consider the simple case when we only obtain disks. Refer to the region below, bounded
above by the curve y = f (x), in the interval [a, b]. To get the volume of the solid generated when
the region is revolved about the x-axis, we do the following:

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP

1. We divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x.

2. Let x∗i be an arbitrary point in the ith subinterval. Let the ri = f (x∗i ) be the height of the ith
rectangle.

3. When we revolve the ith rectangle about the axis of revolution, we get the ith disk whose radius
is given by ri and whose height is given by ∆x.

4. The volume of the ith disk is then given by

Vi = πri2 ∆x = π [f (x∗i )]2 ∆x

5. The volume of the solid of revolution can be approximated by adding the volumes of the disks
obtained when the rectangles are revolved about the axis of revolution. The expression becomes
n
X n
X
V ≈ Vi = π [f (x∗i )]2 ∆x
i=1 i=1
242 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

6. We define the volume of the solid to be the limit of the sum above as n → ∞:

n
X
V = lim π [f (x∗i )]2 ∆x
n→∞
i=1

7. By the definition of the definite integral, we have

Z b
V = π [f (x)]2 dx

s
ic
a

at
h em
at
M

The formula below generalizes what is obtained above.

of
e
ut

Formula for the Volume of a Solid of Revolution using Disks or Washers

tit

Vertical Rectangles: Suppose R is the region bounded above by y = f (x), below by

s

y = g (x), and the vertical lines x = a and x = b such that f and g are continuous
In

functions on [a, b]. If the line y = y0 does not intersect the interior of R, then the volume
UP

of the solid of revolution obtained when R is revolved about the line y = y0 is given by:

1. If only disks are obtained (that is, a boundary of R lies on the axis of revolution),
then
Z b
V = π [r(x)]2 dx
a

where r (x) is the radius of a disk at an arbitrary x in [a, b].

2. If washers are obtained (that is, a boundary of R does not lie on the axis of revolution),
then
Z b  
V = π [r2 (x)]2 − [r1 (x)]2 dx
a

where r2 (x) and r1 (x) are the outer radius and inner radius, respectively, of a washer
at an arbitrary x in [a, b].
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 243

Formula for the Volume of a Solid of Revolution using Disks or Washers

Horizontal Rectangles: Suppose R is the region bounded on the left by x = u (y) , on
the right by x = v (y) and the horizontal lines y = c and y = d such that u and v are
continuous functions on [c, d]. If the line x = x0 does not intersect the interior of R, then
the volume of the solid of revolution obtained when R is revolved about the line x = x0
is given by:

1. If only disks are obtained, then

Z d
V = π [r(y)]2 dy
c

where r (y) is the radius of a disk at an arbitrary y in [c, d].

2. If washers are obtained, then

Z d  
V = π [r2 (y)]2 − [r1 (y)]2 dy

ic s
c

at
where r2 (y) and r1 (y) are the outer radius and inner radius, respectively, of a washer
at an arbitrary y in [c, d]. h em
at
M

Suggestion:
of

A. We can think of the volume of a solid of revolution in this way:

e
ut

1. If only disks are obtained:

tit

Z b
s

V = πr2 dw
In

a
UP

where:
• [a, b] is the interval I covered by the region
• r is given by the distance of the farther tip of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of
revolution
• dw is the width (shorter side) of an arbitrary rectangle
2. If washers are obtained:
Z d
π r22 − r12 dw


V =
c

where:
• [a, b] is the interval I covered by the region
• r1 is given by the distance of the nearer tip of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of
revolution
• r2 is given by the distance of the farther tip of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of
revolution
244 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

• dw is the width (shorter side) of an arbitrary rectangle

B. If vertical rectangles are used, dw = dx, so set up the integral in terms of x. If horizontal
rectangles are used, dw = dy, so set up the integral in terms of y.

Example 4.6.2. Let R be the region bounded by y = x2 , x = 0 and x = 2.

1. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the x-axis.

ic s
at
h em
at
Since the rectangles must be perpendicular to the axis of revolution, we use vertical rectangles
M

and set up the integral in terms of x. In this case, a boundary of the region lies on the axis of
of

revolution so only disks are obtained.

e
ut

The x-interval covered by the region is [0, 2] and the distance from the farther tip of an ar-
tit

bitrary rectangle to the axis of revolution is r = x2 − 0 = x2 . Therefore, the volume is given

s
In

by
UP

πx5 2 32π
Z 2 
4
V = πx dx = = cubic units
0 5 0 5

2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line x = 2.
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 245

We use horizontal rectangles and set up the integral in terms of y. Again only washers are
obtained, so we have:

√
I = [0, 4] ; r =2− y

The volume is given by

3


4 2
√
Z
8y 2 y 8π
V = π(4 − 4 y + y) dy = π 4y − + = cubic units
0 3 2 3

3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line y = 4.

ic s
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP

We use vertical rectangles and set up the integral in terms of x. This time we obtain washers.
We get the following:

I = [0, 2] ; r1 = 4 − x2 ; r2 = 4 − 0 = 4

The volume is given by

2  2
8x3 x5
Z 
2 4  = 224π cubic units


V = π 8x − x dx = π −
0 3 5 
0 15

cubic units

4. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the y-axis.
246 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

We use horizontal rectangles and set up the integral in terms of y. We use the formula for
washers and get

ic s
√ √
I = [0, 4] ; r1 = y−0= y ; r2 = 2 − 0 = 2

at
Therefore, the volume required is h em
at
M

4  4
y2
Z 

V = π (4 − y) dy = π 4y −  = 8π cubic units
of

0 2 
0
e
ut
tit

The Cylindrical Shell Method

s
In

A cylindrical shell and the formula for its volume are shown below.
UP

Cylindrical Shell: V = 2πrh ∆r

r1 +r2
r= 2 ; r2 = outer radius; r1 = inner radius; ∆r = r2 − r1

Suppose we want to get the volume of the solid generated when the region below is revolved about
the y-axis. In the cylindrical shell method, we orient the rectangles so that they are parallel to the
axis of revolution.
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 247

When we revolve the rectangles about the axis of revolution, we obtain cylindrical shells.

ic s
at
h em
at
M

We obtain the formula for the volume of a solid of revolution using cylindrical shells in the following
of

manner:
e
ut
stit
In
UP

1. We divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x.

2. Let x∗i be the midpoint of the ith subinterval.

3. The height of the ith rectangle is given byhi = f (x∗i ).

4. For the ith cylindrical shell, r = x∗i , h = f (x∗i ), ∆r = ∆x.

5. Thus, the volume of the ith cylindrical shell is

Vi = 2π(x∗i )f (x∗i )∆x

248 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

6. The volume of the solid is approximated by adding the volumes of the n cylindrical shells:
n
X X
V ≈ Vi = i = 1n 2π(x∗i )f (x∗i )∆x
i=1

7. The volume of the solid is defined to be the limit of the above as n → ∞:

n
X
V = lim 2π(x∗i )f (x∗i )∆x
n→∞
i=1

8. By the definition of the definite integral,

Z b
V = 2πxf (x) dx
a

The formulas below generalize that which was derived above.

s
Formula for the Volume of a Solid of Revolution using Cylindrical Shells

ic
at
Vertical Rectangles: Suppose R is the region bounded above by y = f (x) , below by

em
y = g (x), and the vertical lines x = a and x = b such that f and g are continuous
functions on [a, b]. If the line x = x0 does not intersect the interior of R, then the volume
h
at
of the solid of revolution obtained when R is revolved about the line x = x0 is given by
M

Z b
V = 2πr(x)h(x) dx
of

a
e
ut

where r (x) and h (x) are the radius and height, respectively, of a cylindrical shell at an
tit

arbitrary x in [a, b].

s
In

Horizontal Rectangles: Suppose R is the region bounded on the left by x = u (y) , on

the right by x = v (y) and the horizontal lines y = c and y = d such that u and v are
UP

continuous functions on [c, d]. If the line y = y0 does not intersect the interior of R, then
the volume of the solid of revolution obtained when R is revolved about the line y = y0
is given by
Z d
V = 2πr(y)h(y) dy
c

where r (y) and h (y) are the radius and height, respectively, of a cylindrical shell at an
arbitrary y in [c, d].

Suggestion:

A. We can think of the formula for the volume using cylindrical shells in this way:
Z b
V = 2πrh dw
a

where:
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 249

• [a, b] is the interval I covered by the region

• r is the distance of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of revolution

• h is the height of an arbitrary rectangle

• dw is the width of an arbitrary rectangle

B. If vertical rectangles are used, dw = dx, so set up the integral in terms of x. If horizontal
rectangles are used, dw = dy, so set up the integral in terms of y.

Example 4.6.3. Let R be the region bounded by y = x2 , x = 0 and x = 2.

s
1. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the y-axis.

ic
at
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP

Since the rectangles must be parallel to the axis of revolution, we use vertical rectangles and
set up the integral in terms of x. The x-interval covered by the region is I = [0, 2]. Meanwhile
the distance of an arbitrary rectangle to the axis of revolution is r = x − 0 = x and the height
of an arbitrary rectangle is h = x2 . Therefore, we get that

2
πx4 2
Z 
3
V = 2πx dx = = 8π cubic units
0 2 0

2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line x = 2.
250 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

We use vertical rectangles and set up the integral in terms of x. We get the following:

I = [0, 2] ; r =2−x ; h = x2

ic s
The volume is therefore

at
 2

em
Z 2  3 4 
2x x 8π
V = 2π(2x2 − x3 ) dx = 2π −  = cubic units

0 3 4  3
h
at
0
M

3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the y-axis.
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP

In this case, the axis of revolution is horizontal, so use horizontal rectangles and set up the
integral in terms of y. We have the following:
√
I = [0, 4] ; r = y − 0 = y ; h = 2 − y

The required volume is given by

 5

Z 4   4
3 2y 2
  = 32π cubic units
dy = 2π y 2 −

V = 2π 2y − y2
0 5 
0 5
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 251

4. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the line y = 4.

We use horizontal rectangles and set-up the integral in terms of y We get the following
√

ic s
I = [0, 4] ; r = 4 − y ; h = 2 − y

at
The volume of the resulting solid of revolution is

em
 3 5

Z 4   4
1 3 h 2 8y 2 2y 2  
V = 2π 8 − 2y − 4y 2 + y 2 dx = 2π 8y − y − +
at

3 3

0 
0
M

224π
= cubic units
of

15
e
ut

Remarks.
tit

1. If the formula for the height of the rectangle is not the same throughout the region, divide the
s
In

region into the appropriate number of subregions.

UP

2. If you are free to choose the method, the best method is that for which the formula for the
height of the rectangle changes least throughout the region.
Example 4.6.4. Let R be the region bounded by x = 3y 2 and x = 4 − y 2 .
252 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

For this particular region, it is better to use horizontal rectangles, so we set up all required integrals
in terms of y.

1. Set-up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the
line y = 1.

Since we are using horizontal rectangles and the axis of revolution is also horizontal, we use
the Cylindrical Shell Method.

We find the y-coordinates of the points of intersection to determine the y-interval covered by
the region.

3y 2 = 4 − y 2
4y 2 = 4
y = ±1

ic s
at
We have the following:
h em
h = (4 − y 2 ) − (3y 2 ) = 4 − 4y 2
at
I = [−1, 1] ; r =1−y ;
M
of

The required volume is given by the integral

e
ut

Z 1
2π(1 − y)(4 − 4y 2 ) dy
tit

−1
s
In
UP

2. Set-up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the
line x = −1.

This time the axis of revolution is vertical so we use the Washer Method. We obtain the
following:

I = [−1, 1] ; r = (4 − y 2 ) − (−1) = 5 − y 2 ; h = (3y 2 ) − (−1) = 3y 2 + 1

The required volume is given by the integral

Z 1 h
2
2 i
V = π −y 2 + 5 − 3y 2 + 1 dy
−1

Example 4.6.5. Let R be the region bounded by y = −3x + 8, y = 3x + 2 and y = x2 − 2.

4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 253

ic s
at
In this case, it is better to use vertical rectangles so we set-up the integral in terms of x. We divide

em
the region R into two subregions R1 and R2 . h
at
1. Set-up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the
M

line x = 2.
of

Vertical rectangles are parallel to the axis of revolution so we use Cylindrical Shell Method.
e
ut

First we find the x-coordinates of the points of intersection to determine the x-interval covered
tit

by the region.
s

Points of intersection of y = 3x + 2 and y = x2 − 2:

In
UP

3x + 2 = x2 − 2
x2 − 3x − 4 = 0
x = 4 or x = −1

Points of intersection of y = 3x + 2 and y = −3x + 8:

3x + 2 = −3x + 8
x = 1

Points of intersection y = −3x + 8 and y = x2 − 2:

x2 − 2 = −3x + 8
x2 + 3x − 10 = 0
(x + 5)(x − 2) = 0
x = −5 or x = 2
254 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

For R1 : For R2 :
I = [−1, 1] I = [1, 2]
r =2−x r =2−x
h = (3x + 2) − (x2 − 2) h = (−3x + 8) − (x2 − 2)
= −x2 + 3x + 4 = −x2 − 3x + 10

The volume of the resulting solid when R1 is revolved about the axis of revolution is the following:
Z 1
V1 = 2π(2 − x)(−x2 + 3x + 4) dx
−1

The volume of the resulting solid when R2 is revolved about the axis of revolution is:
Z 2
V2 = 2π(2 − x)(−x2 − 3x + 10) dx
1

The required volume is given by:

ic s
V = V1 + V2

at
Z 1 2

em
Z
= 2π(2 − x)(−x2 + 3x + 4) dx + 2π(2 − x)(−x2 − 3x + 10) dx
−1 1
h
at
M

2. Set-up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about the
line y = −3.
of
e
ut

This time we use the Washer Method.

tit

For R1 : For R2 :
s
In

I = [−1, 1] I = [1, 2]
r2 = (3x + 2) − (−3) = 3x + 5 r2 = (−3x + 8) − (−3) = −3x + 11
UP

r1 = (x2 − 2) − (−3) = x2 + 1 r1 = (x2 − 2) − (−3) = x2 + 1

The volume of the solid obtained when R1 is revolved about the axis of revolution is:
Z 1 h
i 2
V1 = π (3x + 5)2 − x2 + 1 dx
−1

The volume of the solid obtained when R2 is revolved about the axis of revolution is
Z 2 h
i 2
V2 = π (−3x + 11)2 − x2 + 1 dx
1

The required volume is given by:

V = V1 + V2
Z 1 h Z 2
2
i 2 h
i 2
= 2
π (3x + 5) − x + 1 dx + π (−3x + 11)2 − x2 + 1 dx
−1 1
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 255

4.6.2 Volume of Solids by Slicing2

We recall that the volume of a cylinder is given by

Volume of a cylinder = Area of a cross-section × Height

s
ic
Let S be a solid bounded by two parallel planes perpendicular to the x-axis at x = a and x = b

at
such that the cross-sectional area of S in the plane perpendicular the x-axis at an arbitrary x in

em
[a, b] is given by a continuous function A (x).
h
at
M
of
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ut
s tit
In
UP

We obtain the volume of the solid by ”slicing” the solid into vertical cylinders:

2
Some figures in this section are taken from [5].
256 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

1. Divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length ∆x.

2. Let x∗i be an arbitrary point in the ith subinterval.

3. The volume of the ith cylinder is given by

Vi = A(x∗i )∆x

4. The volume of the solid is approximated by

n
X n
X
V ≈ Vi = A(x∗i )∆x
i=1 i=1

5. The volume of the solid is defined to be

n
X
V = lim A(x∗i )∆x
n→∞
i=1

s
ic
at
6. The volume of the solid is given by

em
Z b
V = A(x) dx
h
at
a
M

Similarly, we can also find the volume of a solid by slicing the solid into horizontal cylinders.
of

Formula for the Volume of a Solid by Slicing

e
ut

Vertical Cylinders: Let S be a solid bounded by two parallel planes perpendicular to

tit

the x-axis at x = a and x = b. If the cross-sectional area of S in the plane perpendicular

s

the x-axis at an arbitrary x in [a, b] is given by a continuous function A (x), then the
In

volume of the solid is

UP

Z b
V = A(x) dx
a

Horizontal Cylinders: Let S be a solid bounded by two parallel planes perpendicular to

the y-axis at y = c and y = d. If the cross-sectional area of S in the plane perpendicular
the y-axis at an arbitrary y in [c, d] is given by a continuous function A (y), then the
volume of the solid is
Z d
V = A(y) dy
c

Example 4.6.6.

1. Find the volume of the solid shown below.

4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 257

Note: Cross-sections are circles.

s
The given solid is bounded on the left by the plane x = 0 and on the right by the plane x = 1.

ic
at
Note that the cross-sectional area of S in a plane perpendicular to the x-axis at any x ∈ [0, 1]

em
is a circle. If r(x) is the radius of the cross-section at x, then
√ h √ √
2 x− x x
at
r(x) = =
2 2
M

Thus,
of

πx
A(x) = π [r(x)]2 =
e
ut

4
tit

The volume is therefore given by

s
In

1 x=1
πx2
Z
πx π
V = dx = = cubic units.
UP

0 4 8 x=0 8

2. Derive the formula for the volume of a right circular cone of radius r and height h.
258 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

The solid is bounded on the left by the plane x = 0 and on the right by the plane x = h. Again,
an arbitrary cross-sectional area in a plane perpendicular to the x-axis is a circle. Let r(x) be
the radius of the cross-section at x. Using similar triangles, we get

r (x) r
=
x h
rx
r (x) =
h
The area of a cross-section is given by

πr2 x2
A(x) = π [r(x)]2 =
h2
We get the desired formula for the volume of a cone
h
πr2 x2 πr2 x3 x=h πr2 h
Z 
V = dx = =
0 h2 3h2 x=0 3

ic s
at
em
h
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 259

4.6.3 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Find the volume of the following solids by slicing:

1. The figure shown below by slicing. Cross-sections are circles.

ic s
2. The solid whose base is the triangular region with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0) and (0, 1). Cross-

at
em
sections perpendicular to the y-axis are squares.
h
B. Find the volume of the solid generated when the indicated plane region is revolved about the
at
given axis of revolution.
M

π π
of

1. Region bounded by y = cos x, x = , x = and y = 0; about the x-axis.

4 2
e

2. Region bounded by y = x2 − 2x + 1, y = 7 − x
ut
tit

a. about y = −1 b. about x = −2
s
In
UP

3. Region bounded by x = y 2 , x = 0, y = 2;

a. about the x-axis b. about x = −1

4. Region in Exercises 4.4.1, Part A, Item 15,

a. about the x-axis b. about x = 1

5. Region in Exercises 4.4.1, Part A, Item 16,

a. about y = −1 b. about x = 4

C. Let R be the region bounded by y = (x − 2)2 , y = x3 and x = −1.

1. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = −2 using the Washer
Method.
260 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about y = 10 using the Cylin-
drical Shell Method.
3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = 1.

Supplementary Exercises

A. Find the volume of the following solids by slicing:

1. The volume of a sphere of radius 3 using vertical cylinders.

2. The volume of a pyramid with a square base using horizontal cylinders.
3. The solid whose base of is an elliptical region with boundary curve 9x2 + 4y 2 = 36. Cross-
sections perpendicular to the x-axis are isosceles right triangles with hypotenuse in the base.

B. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the given plane region about the indicated
axis:

1. Region bounded by the curve y = 9 − x2 and the two coordinate axes

ic s
at
a. x = 0 b. x = −4 c. y = −4
h em
2. Region bounded by the curve y = 4x − x2 , the y-axis, and the lines y = 6 and x = 2,
at
M

a. x = 3 b. y = −1 c. x = −4
of
e

3. Region bounded by the curve y = cos x, and the two coordinate axes
ut
tit

a. y = 1 b. x = π c. x = −π
s
In

4. Region bounded by the curve x = y 3 , and the lines x = 8 and y = 1

UP

a. y = 0 b. x = −3 c. x = −1

5. Region bounded by the curve 1 − x = (y − 2)2 , and the lines x = 3, y = 0 and y = 2

a. y = 3 b. x = 5 c. x = −5

6. Region bounded by the curve y = 4 − |x| and the x-axis

a. y = 0 b. y = 5 c. x = 10

7. Region bounded by the curve x − 1 = (y − 2)2 , y-axis, and y = 10

4.6. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 261

a. x = 0 b. x = −5 c. y = 0
1
C. Let R be the region bounded by y = , x = 4 and y = 1.
x
1. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = −1 using the Washer
Method.
2. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about y = −3 using the Cylindrical
Shell Method.
3. Find the volume of the solid generated when R is revolved about x = 6.

D. Let R be the region in the first quadrant bounded by x2 + y 2 = 3, y 2 = −x + 3 and y = 0.

1. Set up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated by revolving R about x = 4:
a. using the method of washers
b. using the method of cylindrical shells
2. Set up the integral that gives the volume of the solid generated by revolving R about y = −5:

ic s
a. using the method of washers

at
b. using the method of cylindrical shells
h em
at
M
of
e
ut
s tit
In
UP
262 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

4.7 Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

Our main goal for this section is to develop more useful properties of the definite integral. In
particular, we want to direct our discussion in such a way that our complicated computations from
the previous section can be simplified.
At the end of this section, the student will be able to do the following:

• compare integrals of distinct functions,

• put uper and lower estimates on the definite integral of a function,

• provide a statement parallel to the Mean Value Theorem for Derivatives, and

• define and compute the average value of a function.

In particular, we need the third goal - that is, to state the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
- to be able to provide a proof of the First Fundamental Theorem of the Calculus. This

ic s
proof will be given in the next section.

at
em
We begin with the following result, which compares the definite integrals of two regions in the same
closed interval [a, b]:
h
at
M

Theorem 4.7.1. If the functions f and g are integrable on [a, b], and if f (x) ≥ g(x) for all x
of

in [a, b], then

e

Z b Z b
ut

f (x) dx ≥ g(x) dx.

a a
s tit

The geometric interpretation of the previous theorem is illustrated in the following figure. If the
In

graph of y = f (x) lies above the graph of y = g (x) in the interval [a, b], then the net-signed area
UP

between the the curve y = f (x) and [a, b] must be greater than the net-signed area between the
the curve y = g (x) and [a, b].
4.7. MEAN VALUE THEOREM FOR INTEGRALS 263

Theorem 4.7.2. Suppose f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]. If m and M are the
absolute minimum function value and absolute maximum function value, respectively, of f in
[a, b], then
Z b
m(b − a) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a).
a

The previous theorem is illustrated in the following figure. By the Extreme Value Theorem, we
know that if f is continuous on [a, b], then f achieves an absolute maximum value M and absolute
minimum value m on [a, b]. Therefore, the area between y = f (x) and the interval [a, b] is greater
than the area of the rectangle with width (b − a) and height m, but less than the area of the
rectangle with the same width, but with height M .

ic s
at
hem
at
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e
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s tit
In
UP

Theorem 4.7.3 (Mean Value Theorem for Integrals). If the function f is continuous
on the closed interval [a, b], then there exists a number c in [a, b] such that
Z b
f (x) dx = f (c) (b − a).
a

Geometrically, this means that if a function f is nonnegative and continuous on a closed interval
[a, b], we can find a number c in [a, b] such that area of a rectangle with base equal to the length
of the interval [a, b] and height equal to the height of the curve at c is the same the the area under
the curve y = f (x) from a to b.
264 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Example 4.7.4. Since f (x) = x2 is continuous on [0, 2], there exists c ∈ [−2, 0] satisfying the

s
conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem. That is,

ic
at
Z 2
x2 dx = c2 (2 − 0)

em
0
√ √
h
at
8 2 3 2 3
We get that 2c2 = so c = ± . But c ∈ [0, 2], so c = .
M

3 3 3
In the previous example, there is only one value of c in the interval satisfying the conclusion of the
of

Mean Value Theorem. In general, however, the value of c is not unique.

e
ut

The value of f (c) in the Mean Value Theorem is called the average value of f in the interval [a, b].
tit

It is a generalization of the arithmetic mean of a discrete and finite set of numbers. We thus have
s

the following definition.

In
UP

Definition 4.7.5. If the function f is integrable on [a, b], the average value of f on [a, b] is
Rb
a f (x) dx
fave = .
b−a

Example 4.7.6. The average value of f (x) = x2 on [0, 2] is

Z 2
x2 dx 8
0 3 4
= = .
2−0 2 3
4.7. MEAN VALUE THEOREM FOR INTEGRALS 265

4.7.1 Exercises
Exercises for Discussion

A. Do as indicated.
Z 2
3
1. Given that x dx = , find the average value of f (x) = x in the interval [−1, 2]. Find
−1 2
the value of x ∈ [−1, 2] at which the average value occurs.
Z 3
2. If f is continuous and f (x) dx = 4, show that f takes on the value of 2 at least once
1
on the interval.
3. Use Theorem 4.3.2 to prove the following inequalities:

Z 2 Z 3
1 1 1 4
a. 2+4
dx ≤ c. ≤ dx ≤ 4
0 x 2 2 −1 x3 + 5
Z 2 ln 9+1
x2 − 1
Z
1 64
b. 0 ≤ sin πx dx ≤ 2 d. 0 ≤ sinh3 dx ≤

s
2 2 27 ln 9

ic
0 1

at
4. Find the value of b such that the average value of g(x) = 3x2 − 4x − 1 on [0, b] is equal to
2.
em
h
at
B. Find a closed interval containing the definite integral of the following functions on the corre-
M

sponding closed interval:

of
e

1. f (x) = 4x3 + 3x2 − 2x − 1 on [−1, 2] 1

ut

5. g(x) = on [3, 9]
6 x−2
tit

2. g(x) = on [−4, −2] √

(x + 1)2 6. h(x) = 16 − x2 on [−2, 4]
s

3. f (x) = 3x2 + sin(x) on [0, π]

In

x2 + 5
 
1 1 7
7. h(x) = on ,
UP

4. g(x) = 2 on [0, 1]
x +1 x−4 2 2

C. Find the average value of the following functions on the corresponding interval, and find
a value of c in the interval which satisfies the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem for
Integrals:

1. f (x) = 6x2 − 4x + 1 on [−2, 1]

 
π
6. f (x) = sec2 3x on 0,
2. f (x) = x3 − 4x − 6 on [1, 5] 18
x+2 √ √
3. f (x) = on [4, 6] csc(π x) cot(π x)

1 1

x−3 7. f (x) = √ on ,
1 x 16 9
4. f (x) = 2 on [1, 3]
x + 2x + 1 
1

1+π 1 8. f (x) = p
5. f (x) = sin(3x − 1) on ,π + √ on [16, 64]
3 3 9− x
266 CHAPTER 4. INTEGRATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Supplementary Exercises

A. Find a closed interval containing the definite integral of the following functions on the corre-
sponding closed interval:

1. f (x) = 12 + 3x2 + x3 on [−1, 5] 1

5. g(x) = on [3, 9]
x2 −3
2. g(x) = ln(x + 1) on [0, e3 − 1] √
16 − x2
π 6. h(x) = on [2, 4]
3. f (x) = sin−1 (x) + on [−1, 1] x
2
2 − 3x
4. g(x) = cosh−1 (x) on [1, 3] 7. h(x) = on [−3, 3]
x+4

B. Find the average value of the following functions on the corresponding interval, and find
a value of c in the interval which satisfies the conclusion of the Mean Value Theorem for
Integrals:

9. f (x) = ex on [−3, 1]

s
1. f (x) = 3x − 12 on [−3, 7]

ic
at
2. f (x) = x2 − 3x − 9 on [−3, 3] 10. f (x) = 4x − 2x on [−3, log2 5]

em
3. f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 3 on [−2, 4] 11. f (x) = 2x + 2−x on [−4, −1]
h
4. f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 − 3 on [−2, 0] 12. f (x) = 4x − 3 on [−2, 2]
at
M

5. f (x) = 4x3 + 6x2 + 4x − 1 on [−3, 2] 13. f (x) = sinh(x) on [0, 1]

x 14. f (x) = x cosh(x2 ) on [0, 1]
of

6. f (x) = √ on [1, 5]
24 + x2
15. f (x) = π tanh2 x on [0, ln 3]
e
ut

1
7. f (x) = √ on [0, 2] 16. f (x) = sech(2x) on [− ln 3, ln 5]
tit

16 − x2
1 sinh−1 (x)
s

8. f (x) = √ on [−4, 4] 17. f (x) = √ on [0, 1]

In

9 + x2 x2 + 1
UP
Bibliography

[1] H. Anton, I. Bivens, S. Davis, Calculus: Early Transcendentals, John Wiley and
Sons, 7th Edition, 2002.

[2] M. Castillo, F. Reyes, F. Cejalvo, J. Tangco, College Algebra and Trigonom-

etry, National Book Store, 2008.

[3] L. Leithold, College Algebra and Trigonometry, Addison Wesley Longman Inc.,
1989, reprinted-Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd, 2002.

ic s
[4] L. Leithold, The Calculus 7, Harpercollins College Div., 7th edition, December 1995.

at
em
[5] J. Stewart, The Calculus: Early Transcendentals, Brooks/Cole, 6th Edition, 2008.
h
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267
Institute of Mathematics, College of Science
University of the Philippines Diliman