AP Chem Adrian Dingle

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AP CHEMISTRY
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UNIT 4: Chemical Reactions

TOPIC 4A: Chemical & Physical Change
Physical change
If some aspect of the physical state of matter is altered, but the chemical composition remains the
same, then the change is considered to be a physical change. The most common physical
changes are changes of state. These are summarized below.
SOLID → LIQUID Melting

LIQUID → GAS Boiling
GAS → LIQUID Condensing
SOLID → GAS Sublimation
GAS → SOLID Reverse sublimation or deposition
LIQUID → SOLID Freezing
In solids, the particles have relatively little energy and vibrate around fixed positions. If a solid is
heated, the particles gain energy, move around move, and eventually gain enough energy to
break away from their fixed positions and form a liquid. Continued heating leads to the liquid
particles gaining sufficient energy to break away from one another and form a gas. In a gas the
particles move freely and with relatively large amounts of energy.
Chemical change
In a chemical change, which is often called a chemical reaction, the atoms of a substance are
rearranged to form new substances. A chemical change requires that the new substance or
substances formed have a different chemical composition to the original substance or
substances. Chemical changes are often accompanied by observable changes such as color
changes and energy changes.
Driving forces
Evidence for chemical change can manifest itself in a number of ways. One might see a
precipitate form, experience a change of energy in the form of heat or light, observe a color
change, see the formation of a gas, or observe an electrical current (a flow of electrons), all of
which suggest that a chemical reaction has taken place. Such changes are sometimes called
driving forces.
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Gas producing reactions
Several reactions produce gases as one of the products.
Generic reaction: Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen

Example: Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Test for gas: ‘Squeaky-pop’ with lighted splint
Generic reaction: Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + CO2

Example: H2SO4(aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Test for gas: Extinguishes a lighted splint; turns ‘lime-water’ (Ca(OH)2) milky
(N2, or simply a lack of O2, will also extinguish a lighted splint)
Specific reaction: Production of O2 by the decomposition of H2O2 with MnO2 catalyst

Reaction: 2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Test for gas: Relights glowing splint
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TOPIC 4B: Equations & Net Ionic Equations
Chemical equations
Chemical equations are a shorthand method used to illustrate what happens during a chemical
reaction. There can be a number of steps to writing an equation.
1. Write down the equation in words.

2. Fill in the correct formulae for all the substances.
3. Balance the equation.
Balancing the equation can be tricky and requires practice. It involves the following steps.
(i) Ensure the correct formulae are being used for all the reactants and products
(ii) Balance each element in turn, remembering to multiply brackets out carefully. This
process can be rather “unscientific”, and is essentially a process of trial and error but can
be aided by the following tips;
• If an element appears in only one compound on each side of the equation, try
balancing that first
• If one of the reactants or products appears as the free element, try balancing that
last
(iii) When balancing, only place numbers in front of whole formulae. Do not change the
(correct) formulae of any of the reactants or products, or add any extra formulae. The
numbers that appear in front of each formula are called the stoichiometric coefficients.
They have an extremely important role to play in calculations since they give the
reacting ratio (i.e., the number of moles of one substance that react with, or are
produced from, others).
4. Add state symbols; (s) for solid, (l) for liquid, (g) for gas and (aq) for aqueous (meaning in
solution with water as the solvent). State symbols are not always necessary or relevant, and
should be applied on a case by case basis.
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Task 4.1
1. Write balanced equations for the following reactions.
(a) Hydrogen + copper (II) oxide → copper + water

(b) Carbon + oxygen → carbon monoxide
(c) Magnesium + sulfuric acid → hydrogen + magnesium sulfate
2. Balance the following equations.
(a) Ca + H2O → H2 + Ca(OH)2

(b) Cu + O2 → CuO
(c) Na + O2 → Na2O
(d) Fe + HCl → FeCl2 + H2
(e) Fe + Br2 → FeBr3
(f) C4H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
(g) Na2CO3 + HI → NaI + CO2 + H2O
(h) CuCO3 → CuO + CO2
(i) Pb(NO3)2 → PbO + NO2 + O2
(j) H2SO4 + KOH → K2SO4 + H2O
(k) NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
(l) Al + O2 → Al2O3
Reactions in aqueous solution
Many qualitative and quantitative chemical reactions are carried out in an aqueous solution
(where the compounds are dissolved in water before they react). Water is a convenient medium
since it is a cheap and readily available solvent, that many solids dissolve in. When dealing with
aqueous solution, we often take the molecular (full) equations seen in the previous section, and
create further nuances. To consider these other ways of representing equations, we have to think
about a few aspects of chemicals in solution.
Electrolytes, non-electrolytes and weak electrolytes
Ionic solutions can be identified by their ability to conduct electricity. If a large number of ions are
present in a solution, then the solution will be an excellent conductor of electricity. Such a
substance is completely ionized and is a strong electrolyte. All soluble ionic compounds, but very
few molecular compounds are strong electrolytes.
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If the ionic solution conducts electricity only weakly, there are likely to be only a few ions present.
Such a substance is partially ionized, and is a weak electrolyte.
Non-electrolytes have no ions present in solution and therefore cannot conduct electricity. Such a
substance is not ionized and is a non-electrolyte. Most molecular compounds are either non-
electrolytes or weak electrolytes.
Ionic equations
In order to understand what is happening as substances interact with water, we can use ionic
equations to show the degree of ionization taking place.
Strong electrolytes are completely dissociated into ions. For example, solid strontium chloride,
when dissolved in water, forms aqueous strontium ions and aqueous chloride ions. This can be
summarized thus;
SrCl2(s) → Sr2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
In this situation, the ∂- part of the water molecules (i.e., the more electronegative oxygen atoms)
surround the cations, and the ∂+ part of the water molecules (i.e., the more electropositive
hydrogen atoms) surround the anions. Both cations and anions, when surrounded by water, are
said to be ‘hydrated’.
Weak electrolytes are only partially dissociated into a few ions. For example, a solution of
ethanoic acid only forms a few ions in water. This can be summarized thus;
HC2H3O2(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + C2H3O2-(aq)
The reversible arrows imply that although the ethanoic acid may split up into hydrogen ions and
ethanoate ions, the reaction may come backwards to the left too, re-joining the ions to form the
completely non-ionized molecule. In fact, in the case of a weak electrolyte, the majority of the
solution will be made up by complete (non-ionized) ethanoic acid molecules.
Non-electrolytes are not ionized at all, and therefore there are no ions present. For example, a
solution of ethanol in water, although entirely soluble because of the hydrogen bonding between
water and ethanol molecules, forms no ions. This can be summarized thus;
C2H5OH(aq) → no ionization
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Net Ionic Equations
When a chemical equation is shown in its ionic form, it may be possible to simplify it to what is
known as a net ionic equation. Consider this example where the strong electrolytes silver nitrate
and potassium bromide (AgNO3(aq) and KBr(aq)) react to yield silver bromide which is a solid that
does not ionize (AgBr(s)), and another strong electrolyte potassium nitrate (KNO3(aq)).
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + K+(aq) + Br-(aq) → AgBr(s) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
It can be seen that the potassium and nitrate ions are in the aqueous state on both sides of the
equation, and essentially do not take part in the reaction (i.e., they remain unchanged). They are
said to be spectator ions and the equation can be re-written only showing the ions that take part
in the reaction.
Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) → AgBr(s)
This equation is called the net ionic equation.
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TOPIC 4C: Particulate Representations of Equations
No matter how the chemical or physical process is represented in an equation, it can be

translated into a particulate diagram where symbols can be used to represent the equation.
It is very important to consider the conservation of mass, i.e., that all of the particles that were
present at the start of the reaction are present at the end.
Task 4.2
1. The reaction between hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2) can result in the
formation of liquid water (H2O).
(a) Describe any observations that you might reasonably expect to make
during this reaction.
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation to summarize the reaction.
(c) Give three reasons why the diagram below represents a reasonable
summary of the chemical reaction.
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TOPIC 4D: Chemical & Physical Change in Terms of Bonds & Forces
It is vital to distinguish between physical change (where only states change and there are no new
substances formed), and chemical change (where new substances are formed). If there is only an
interruption in the inter-molecular forces then the change should be seen as physical, but if there
is a re-arrangement of the intra (covalent or ionic) bonds, then the change is chemical.
Task 4.3
1. Discuss the change in forces and bonds when water boils.

2. Discuss the change in forces and bonds when water decomposes into its elements.
Some changes such as the dissolution of a salt in water are more difficult to characterize as being
physical or chemical, since both intra bonds are broken (breaking ionic bonds in the ionic lattice),
and inter-molecular attractions are broken between the solvent (water) molecules, before ion to
dipole forces are created when the ions are surrounded by water molecules.
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TOPIC 4E: Stoichiometry
The mole concept and calculations from equations
We have already seen how moles can be calculated, and how a balanced chemical equation that
shows the molar ratios can be used to make predictions about other substances within the
equation. The equations used previously to calculate moles and perform these calculations
amongst solid, liquids and solutions are given below.
mass of sample mass of sample

Number of Moles of an Element = =
RAM Molar Mass

Number of Moles of a Molecular compound = =
RMM Molar Mass

Number of Moles of an Ionic compound = =
RFM Molar Mass
mol L
Moles = (concentration) (volume) = ! L
" ! " = moles
Task 4.4
1. The combustion of methane, CH4, can be summarized by the equation below.
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
(a) Calculate the mass of O2 required in order to produce 2.23 g of carbon dioxide.
(b) Calculate the mass of water produced when 34.0 g of CH4 is burned.
2. In an experiment to determine the reacting ratio of moles between a metal X, and

bromine gas, it is found that 4.0 g of Br2 reacts with 1.0 g of X, and that X has a molar
mass of 40.0 g mol-1.
(a) Calculate the molar ratio and hence the chemical equation.
(b) Identify the metal, and explain how these data are consistent with your
identification.
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3. What mass of solute (solid sodium carbonate), must be used in order to prepare 275
mL of 1.20 mol L-1 sodium carbonate solution?
4. A sample of copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate with a mass of 8.512 g is dissolved in

500.0 mL of water. A 25.00 mL portion completely reacts with 20.00 mL of a 0.1702 mol
L-1 solution of iodide ions. In what molar ratio do Cu2+ and iodide ions react?
Questions 5-7 require balanced equations before they can be solved.
5. Carbonates, in the form of antacid tablets, can be used to neutralize stomach acid. 25.0
mL of 0.100 mol L-1 sodium carbonate solution completely reacts with 35.3 mL of HCl
in such a simulated neutralization. What is the concentration (molarity) of the acid?
6. Some metals will react vigorously with acids to produce hydrogen gas. What mass of
zinc metal, will react completely with 75.0 mL of 0.200 mol L-1 sulfuric acid?
7. Hydroxides can be used to neutralize acids. What volume of 1.00 mol L-1 NaOH, would
be required to completely neutralize 25.0 mL of 2.00 mol L-1 HCI?
Molar volume and gas stoichiometry
We have seen how Avogadro's law states that equal volumes of all gases at constant
temperature and pressure will contain equal numbers of moles. The volume of one mole of any
gas is called its molar volume, and can be calculated using the ideal gas equation.
P V = nR T
By applying the data, pressure (P) = 1.00 atm, temperature (T) = 273 K, the gas constant (R) =
0.0821 L atm K-1 mol-1, number of moles (n) = 1.00 mol, the volume (V) can be found.
A simple calculation finds its value to be = 22.4 L. That is to say,
1 mole of any ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP) occupies a volume of 22.4 L
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Task 4.5
Assume conditions of standard temperature and pressure (STP) in the questions below.
1. Calculate the mass of ammonium chloride required to produce 11.6 L of ammonia gas
in the reaction below.
2NH4CI(s) + Ca(OH)2(s) → 2NH3(g) + CaCI2(s) + 2H2O(g)
2. Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide gas produced when 9.85 g of barium carbonate
is completely decomposed in the reaction below.
BaCO3(s) → BaO(s) + CO2(g)
3. Calculate the molar mass of a gas that is formed when 0.120 g of its liquid are
vaporized, at a temperature of 50oC, and occupy a volume of 38.0 mL at atmospheric
pressure.
Limiting reactant
When all the reactants in a chemical reaction are completely consumed, i.e., they are all
converted to products, then the reactants are said to be in stoichiometric proportions. On other
occasions, it may be that only one particular reactant is completely used up. This happens when
one reactant is in excess. The reactant that is completely consumed is called the limiting reactant,
and it is what determines the quantities of products that form.
Task 4.6
S(s) + 3Cl2(g) → SCl6(l)
Sulfur and chlorine, react according to the equation above. If 202 g of sulfur are allowed to
react with 303 g of CI2 in the reaction above, which is the limiting reactant? What mass of
product will be produced? What mass of the excess reactant will be left over?
Percentage yield
In all chemical reactions, the yield of the product will be less than 100%. The yield is usually less
than 100% since the reactants are often not pure, some of the product is lost during purification,
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the reaction may be reversible and/or side reactions may give by-products. The % yield can be
calculated, and can be thought of as a guide to the efficiency of the reaction. The higher the %
yield, the greater the efficiency.
æ actual yield of product ö

% Yield = ç ÷ X 100
è theoretical yield of product ø
Task 4.7
4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
Aluminum will react with oxygen gas according to the equation above. In one such
reaction, 23.4 g of Al are allowed to burn in excess oxygen. 39.3 g of aluminum oxide are
formed. What is the percentage yield?
Combustion analysis
Compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen only, when burned completely in oxygen, will yield
only carbon dioxide and water. Analysis of the mass of CO2 and H2O produced can be used to
determine the empirical formula of the substance in question. This method assumes that all the
carbon in CO2 originated from the carbon in the original compound, and all the hydrogen in the
water originated from the hydrogen in the original compound. The method is as follows.
1. Calculate the moles of CO2 produced. Since there is one carbon atom in one molecule of
CO2, this is also the number of moles of C atoms present in the original compound.
2. Calculate the moles of H2O produced. Since there are two hydrogen atoms in one
molecule of H2O, multiply this number by two to calculate the number of moles of H
atoms present in the original compound.
3. Calculate the mass of C and H atoms present in the combusted sample by multiplying the
moles of each by their molar masses.
4. If there is another element present (typically O) in the combusted substance, then
calculate its mass by subtracting the mass of C and H from the total mass of the
combusted sample. Turn the mass of element into moles by dividing by the appropriate
molar mass.
5. Find the smallest number of moles calculated and divide all the numbers of moles by that
number. This gives the molar ratio. N.B. Avoid rounding up or down too much at this
stage, and be lenient with significant figures.
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6. The results from #5 should be in a convenient ratio, and give the empirical formula. N.B.
It may be that the ratio includes a fraction such as .500, .250 or .333 etc. If so, then
multiply all numbers by 2, 4 or 3 as appropriate to remove the fraction.
7. If necessary, use the molar mass to turn the empirical formula into a molecular formula.
Task 4.8
When 4-ketopentenoic acid is analyzed by combustion, it is found that a 0.3000 g sample

produces 0.579 g of CO2 and 0.142 g of H2O. The acid contains only carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. What is the empirical formula of the acid?
Analysis of hydrates
Hydrates are formula units with water associated with them. The water molecules are
incorporated into the solid structure. For example, CuSO4•5H2O, copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate.
Strong heating will drive off the water as a vapor. When the water is completely removed, the
salts are said to be anhydrous (without water).
Task 4.9
1. A sample of the hydrated salt CoCl2•xH2O, with a mass of 11.73 g, is heated to drive off
the water of crystallization, cooled and reweighed until constant mass (6.410 g) is
achieved. Calculate the value of x.
2. What is meant by the term “constant mass” in question 1?
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TOPIC 4F: Titrations I
Volumetric analysis (titrations) and moles
Chemical reactions are often carried out between substances that are in solution (dissolved in a
solvent, usually water). The concentration of a solution can be measured in terms of the number
of grams of the solute (solid) that has been dissolved in a particular volume of the solution (where
water is usually the solvent), or more usually, in terms of the number of moles of the solute in a
particular volume of the solution. Typical units are mol/L (mol L-1) and is referred to as molarity
(M). So for example, a solution that has a concentration of 0.250 mol L-1 has 0.250 moles of
solute dissolved in 1.0 L of solution and can be referred to as ‘0.250 M solution’ or a ‘0.250
‘molar’ solution’. When concentration is measured in mol L-1 and volume in liters (L), then;
Moles = (concentration) (volume)
Titration is the name given to the experimental method of analysis that utilizes concentrations of
solutions. As above, if we know a balanced chemical equation and can calculate the moles of one
substance, then by ratio we will know the moles of other substances, and we can use that data to
calculate an unknown concentration. We need to use a substance with the known concentration
(called the titrant) that specifically reacts with the solution of unknown concentration (called the
analyte). For example, the addition of a solution of hydrochloric acid to a solution of sodium
hydroxide resulting in the formation of sodium chloride plus water according to the balanced
equation below.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Unlike gravimetric analysis, there is no solid formed in this reaction, so we have to have another
way of determining that the analyte has been totally consumed and therefore the stoichiometric
molar ratio has been achieved. We accomplish this by using an indicator that changes color at
the equivalence point (the point at which the stoichiometric molar ratio has been achieved). The
observable event that occurs at the equivalence point is called the end point.
Task 4.10
Hydroxides can be used to neutralize acids. It is found that an indicator changes color at
the precise moment that 44.0 mL of NaOH has been added to 25.0 mL of 2.00 mol L-1 HCI in
a titration. Use these data to calculate the concentration of NaOH.
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TOPIC 4G: Types of Chemical Reaction

TOPIC 4H: Acid-Base Reactions
TOPIC 4I: REDOX Reactions
Acid and base reactions
Acids and bases can be identified in many ways but the most useful way at this stage is the
Brønsted Lowry definition. It states that,
An ACID is a substance that donates hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous solution

A BASE is a substance that accepts hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous solution
For example;
HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

ACID BASE
Here water acts as a base by accepting a hydrogen ion, HNO3 acts as an acid by donating a
hydrogen ion. The hydroxonium or hydronium ion (H3O+(aq)) is a product of such a reaction. Often
a proton (H+(aq)) will be written instead of the hydroxonium ion, they mean the same thing.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

BASE ACID ACID BASE
Here water acts as an acid by donating a hydrogen ion, NH3 acts as a base by accepting a
hydrogen ion. OH-(aq) is the other product of such a reaction.
The ability of water to act as both and acid and a base is an important concept to grasp, and is
called amphoteric behavior.
Acid-base conjugate pairs
Conjugate acid and base pairs are related by a hydrogen ion on either side of the equation.
Consider the second example above. If the reaction proceeds in the forward direction then NH3
acts as a base by accepting a proton to form NH4+.
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If the reaction were to then go backwards, then the NH4+ would act as an acid by donating a
proton. NH3 and NH4+ are species that can act as a base and as an acid respectively, and are
related by virtue of the fact they have a difference of only one H+. As such they are said to be an
acid-base conjugate pair. The same is true of H2O and OH-.
Strength of acids and bases
A strong acid or base undergoes complete ionization. For example, for a strong acid, HCl, and a
strong base, B, the following reactions go to completion (completely to the RHS) to produce large
numbers of H3O+(aq) and OH-(aq) respectively in solution.
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

B(aq) + H2O(l) → BH+(aq) + OH-(aq)
If the first reaction lies almost 100% to the RHS, then HCl is a very strong acid. It is also true to
say that the conjugate base of HCl, Cl-, is a very weak base. This is true of all conjugate pairs in
as much as a very strong component in a conjugate pair will always be accompanied by an
equally weak, partner.
Weak acids and weak bases on the other hand, have very little ionization and equilibria are set up
with the equilibria laying heavily on the LHS i.e., the undissociated form.
HA(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + A-(aq)

B(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ BH+(aq) + OH-(aq)
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Neutralization
One of the most important reactions of acids and bases is their ability to neutralize one another. A
neutralization reaction takes place when the hydrogen ions in an acidic solution react with the
hydroxide ions from a basic solution to form water. The other product of a simple neutralization is
a salt. In general;
ACID + BASE → SALT + WATER
For example, hydrochloric acid reacting with sodium hydroxide
A whole formula equation is, HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

An ionic equation is, H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
A net ionic equation is, H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)
Task 4.11
Write a whole formula, ionic and net ionic equation for the neutralization reaction between
aqueous solutions of potassium hydroxide and sulfuric acid.
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REDOX (REDuction and OXidation)
Oxidation & reduction can be defined in a number of ways, one of which is in terms of electrons.
Oxidation is a LOSS of electrons and Reduction is a GAIN of electrons

(OIL RIG or LEO GER)
An oxidizing agent is one that promotes oxidation, i.e., one that causes a species to become
oxidized by losing electrons. Oxidizing agents achieve this by accepting electrons themselves,
and in the process, they become reduced.
A reducing agent is one that promotes reduction, i.e., one that causes a species to become
reduced by gaining electrons. Reducing agents achieve this by donating electrons themselves,
and in the process, they become oxidized.
N.B., You may not encounter the terms oxidizing agent and reducing agent on the AP exam, but
they are important to your understanding, and you should know them.
Examples of oxidizing agents
Chlorine: Cl2 + 2e- → 2Cl-

Manganate (VII): MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- → Mn2+ + 4H2O
Dichromate (VI): Cr2O72- + 14H+ + 6e- → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Oxygen: O2 + 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2O
H+ represents an acid, and is present in order to react with any excess oxygen atoms to form
water. In general, non-metals tend to be good oxidizing agents since they tend to gain electrons.
Examples of reducing agents
Zinc metal: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-

Hydrogen gas: H2 + 2OH- → 2H2O + 2e-
Tin metal: Sn → Sn2+ + 2e-
In general, metals tend to be good reducing agents since they tend to give up electrons.
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REDOX reactions
2K + Cl2 → 2KCl
For example, consider the formation of potassium chloride from its elements show above. This
reaction can be thought of as two half equations that show electrons either being lost or gained.
K → K+ + e- (oxidation)
Cl2 + 2e- → 2Cl- (reduction)
When combining two half equations it is necessary to cancel out the electrons (in this case by
multiplying the oxidation equation by 2) to produce the full, balanced, REDOX equation;
2K → 2K+ + 2e- (oxidation)

Cl2 + 2e- → 2Cl- (reduction)
2K + Cl2 → 2KCl (REDOX)
If, during a reaction the oxidation number of an element becomes more positive, then the element
has been oxidized (and vice-versa).
Oxidation number concept
Oxidation number (ON) is the number of electrons that an atom loses, or tends to lose, when it is
involved in a REDOX reaction. If the atom gains, or tends to gain electrons, then the oxidation
number is negative, and vice-versa. If there is no change in the number of electrons, then it has
not taken part in a REDOX reaction. In the case of a simple ion the oxidation number of the
species is equal to the ionic charge. In the case of covalent compounds the oxidation number
may be regarded as the charge that the species would develop if the compound were fully ionic.
There are rules that simplify the process of assigning ONs and they should be applied in order.
(i) The ON of an element when uncombined (as the free element) is always zero.
(ii) The sum of the ONs in a neutral substance is always zero.
(iii) In an ion, the sum of the ONs of any elements present equals the ionic charge.
(iv) Some elements exhibit very common ONs in their compounds;
Group 1 always +1; group 2 always +2; F always -1; O almost always -2; H almost
always +1.
(v) In binary compounds with metals, the group 17 elements are –1, group 16 are –2, and
group 15 are –3.
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For example, in order to calculate the oxidation number of Cr, in K2Cr2O7
Individual oxidation Sum of the charges must = 0 since K2Cr2O7 has no charge, meaning
numbers;
+2 + 2x -14 = 0
K = +1 (2) = +2
Cr = x (2) = 2x x = +6
O = -2 (7) = -14
Task 4.12
1. What is the oxidation number of each of the atoms listed in the following species?
(a) Sulfur in SO3

(b) Oxygen in KO2
(c) Nitrogen in NH4+
(d) Strontium in SrF2
(e) Cobalt in [CoCl6]3-
2. For the formation of each of the following ionic compounds from their elements, write
an overall equation showing the formation of the compound. Then write two half-
equations to identify the REDOX process.
(a) calcium sulfide

(b) aluminum bromide
(c) aluminum oxide
3. Where appropriate, construct half-equations for the following reactions and use them
to balance the full equations.
(a) IO3- + I- + H+ → I2 + H2O

2-
(b) I2 + S2O3 → I - + S4O6 2-
(c) Br2 + KI → KBr + I2
(d) MnO42- + H+ → MnO4- + MnO2 + H2O
(e) CrO42- + H+ → Cr2O72- + H2O
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Balancing in acid and in base
Consider the reaction below, where Mn has been reduced and Fe has been oxidized
MnO4- + 5Fe2+ + 8H+ → Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O (REDOX)
This is further illustrated by considering the two half equations
Mn7+ + 5e- → Mn2+ (reduction)

Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e- (oxidation)
It can be seen that the stoichiometry of the full REDOX equation is related to the changes of
oxidation number and the REDOX process that is occurring. Sometimes, as in the example
above, when more complicated species are present, a half equation can be more difficult to write.
This usually occurs when oxygen and or hydrogen are present in a polyatomic ion. When this
occurs, the equation can be balanced with H+ ions (acid), OH- ions (base) and/or water. When
balancing “in acid solution” use water and H+. For example, if we were to use the correct, full
formula for the manganate ion, we should write the first half equation thus
MnO4- + 5e- → Mn2+ (reduction)
Of course, this doesn’t balance, so we need to introduce O and H to the equation. Start by adding
water on the RHS to balance the O atoms
MnO4- + 5e- → Mn2+ + 4H2O
Then add H+ (acid) on the LHS to balance the H atoms
MnO4- + 5e- + 8H+ → Mn2+ + 4H2O
If a reaction requires balancing “in basic solution”, balance “in acid solution” first, and then add
hydroxide ions to each side of the equation to remove excess H+ and form water. For example, if
balancing the half equation where MnO4- is converted to MnO2 “in acid” led to the equation below
MnO4- + 3e- + 4H+ → MnO2 + 2H2O
then in order to convert it to being balanced “in base”, add 4OH- to each side, in order to remove
the H+ and convert it to water and to keep the equation balanced
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MnO4- + 3e- + 4H2O → MnO2 + 2H2O + 4OH-
Then ‘tidy’ the equation by canceling water
MnO4- + 3e- + 2H2O → MnO2 + 4OH-
Classifying REDOX reactions
Disproportionation - A reaction where there is a simultaneous oxidation and reduction of one

species, for example, the disproportionation of hypochlorite ions.
3ClO- → ClO3- + 2Cl-
In this reaction, the Cl species is simultaneously changing from an oxidation number of +1 to one
of +5 and one of –1.
Synthesis (or combination) - A reaction where a compound is formed by the reaction of simpler
materials, often its elements, but sometimes by two compounds, for example, the synthesis of
water from oxygen and hydrogen.
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
In this reaction both the elements start the reaction in oxidation state zero and one is oxidized
and one is reduced.
Decomposition - A reaction where a compound is broken down into simpler substances, for
example, the decomposition of mercury(II) oxide into its elements.
2HgO → 2Hg + O2
In the reaction, the atoms within the compound start in positive or negative oxidation state and
revert back to zero in the elemental state. It is the reverse of a synthesis reaction.
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Task 4.13
1. In a simple synthesis reaction, magnesium metal is placed in a crucible and is heated

strongly in air until it has been completely oxidized by the oxygen present. The shiny,
silvery colored metal turns to a white ash when the process is complete.
(a) Suggest a chemical formula for the white ash.

(b) After the reaction between the magnesium and the oxygen is complete, what do
you predict will happen to the mass of the crucible and its contents? Justify your
answer.
2. Calcium carbonate, when heated strongly in an open test tube, decomposes to yield
both the corresponding metal oxide, and a non-metal oxide. The non-metal oxide is a
gas, and escapes into the atmosphere. In such a reaction, the following data are
collected.
Mass of calcium carbonate and test tube before heating 30.46 g
Mass of the test tube and contents after heating 27.86 g
Mass of empty test tube 24.56 g
(a) What type of reaction is this?

(b) Write a balanced chemical equation to summarize the reaction.
(c) Use the data to illustrate that matter has been conserved, and that to justify
the equation that you have written in (b).
Single displacement - A reaction where an atom or ion in a compound is displaced by an atom

or ion of another element.
(i) Metal displacement. For example, zinc metal reacting with copper (II) ions in solution.
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
In this reaction, solid zinc metal atoms (in an oxidation state of zero) are oxidized to Zn2+(aq) ions
displacing the copper (II) ions in the sulfate solution. In the process, the Cu2+(aq) ions are reduced
to copper metal atoms (in an oxidation state of zero).
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This reaction can be replicated using many different metals and solutions but not all combinations
result in a reaction. For example, although zinc metal will displace copper metal from a solution of
copper (II) ions, copper metal cannot do the same to a solution of zinc ions.
(ii) Hydrogen displacement from water. For example, sodium metal reacting with cold water.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
In this reaction sodium metal (in an oxidation state of zero) is oxidized to Na+(aq) ions and the
hydrogen atoms in the water molecules (in an oxidation state +1) are reduced to hydrogen gas (in
an oxidation state of zero).
(iii) Hydrogen displacement from acids. For example, zinc metal reacting with hydrochloric
acid.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
In this reaction, the zinc atoms (in an oxidation state of zero) lose electrons to become Zn2+(aq)
ions and are therefore oxidized, whereas the hydrogen ions (in an oxidation state of +1) gain
electrons to form hydrogen atoms (in an oxidation state of zero) that then pair to give hydrogen
molecules.
As in metal displacement there are a number of possible reactions. Some metals will react with
water, some with acids, some with both, and some with neither. Predictions can be made about
the reactions that will and will not happen using the activity series.
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Activity series
Metals are arranged according to their ability to displace hydrogen, the most reactive at the top.
• All metals above hydrogen in the series will displace it from an acid
• All metals below hydrogen will not displace it from an acid or water
• A metal relatively high in the series will displace one below it from a solution of its ions but
the reverse process is not possible
React with?
Metal
Acid Steam Cold water
Li YES YES YES
K YES YES YES
Ca YES YES YES
Na YES YES YES
Mg YES YES NO
Al YES YES NO
Zn YES YES NO
Fe YES YES NO
Sn YES NO NO
Pb YES NO NO
HYDROGEN
Cu NO NO NO
Ag NO NO NO
Pt NO NO NO
Au NO NO NO
It should be carefully noted that that ionization energy is an isolated process that involves the
removal of an electron from a gaseous species, e.g., Li(g) → Li+(g) + e-, and that electrode
potentials are a similar, but not identical process where aqueous ions are involved, e.g., Li(s) →
Li+(aq) + e-. As such, it is not possible to necessarily easily compare ionization energy with
reactivity.
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(iv) Halogen displacement. For example, chlorine displacing bromine from a solution of KBr.
Cl2(g) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) +Br2(l)
In this reaction, the bromide ions (–1) lose electrons to become Br atoms (0) that then pair to give
bromine molecules. The chlorine atoms (0) gain electrons to form chloride ions (–1).
Once again, some halogens will displace other halogens from solutions of their ions, but not all
combinations lead to a reaction. A halogen high in group 17 will displace one below it in group 17
form a solution of its ions, but the reverse is not possible.
Combustion - A reaction where a compound or element “burns” in oxygen.
(i) Very often this is a hydrocarbon (a compound of hydrogen and carbon) that reacts with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water and a large amount of energy, for example,
propane burning in oxygen.
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l) + energy
In this reaction, both carbon and hydrogen gain oxygen and are “oxidized”. The oxygen is
reduced from an oxidation state of 0 to one of -2.
(ii) Biochemical reactions – Reactions where the metabolism of sugars, fats and proteins
leads to the production of energy (like combustion above), for example, the metabolism
of glucose.
C6H12O6(g) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(g) + energy
Using REDOX reactions quantitatively (REDOX titrations)
Iodine versus thiosulfate REDOX titrations
Thiosulfate ions react with iodine according to the full REDOX equation below. As a solution of
thiosulfate is added to a solution of iodine, the color of the iodine fades to pale yellow. At this
point a few mL of starch is added to give a blue/black color with the remaining iodine. Drop by
drop addition of thiosulfate is then continued, until the blue color disappears indicating that all of
the iodine has been reacted and the equivalence point has been reached.
2S2O32-(aq) + I2(aq) → 2I-(aq) + S4O62-(aq)
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Task 4.14
Iodate ions react with iodide ions according to the equation below. A sample of sodium
iodate with a mass of 0.311 g is dissolved in water and made up to 250. mL. 25.0 mL
portions are added to KI that has been dissolved in sulfuric acid. The resultant iodine is
titrated against sodium thiosulfate, the average volume being 12.5 mL. Calculate the
molarity of the thiosulfate solution.
IO3-(aq) + 5I-(aq) + 6H+(aq) → 3I2(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Manganate(VII) (permanganate) REDOX titrations
When manganate(VII) ions act as oxidizing agents in acid solution, they are reduced to a
manganese(II) salt, according to the half equation below. In these titrations, the permanganate
solution is placed in the buret meaning that no indicator is needed since the solution in the flask
changes from colorless to pale pink at the end-point.
MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e- → Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
Task 4.15
Hydrated ammonium iron (II) sulfate crystals have the formula, (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.xH2O.
8.325 g of the salt were dissolved in 250.0 mL of acidified water. A 25.00 mL portion of this
solution was titrated with potassium manganate (VII) solution of concentration 0.1480 M. A
volume of 2.250 mL was required. Calculate the value of x.
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Precipitation reactions
Some ionic compounds are very soluble in water while others are less so. A precipitation reaction
occurs when certain cations and certain anions combine to form insoluble compounds. By
definition, these compounds do not dissolve in water, and form insoluble solids, or precipitates. In
order to study these reactions, it is necessary to be aware of the solubility rules shown below.
You need to know and learn only the bold and italicized rules. All others will be given to you (or
implied in the question), if you require them.
SOLUBLE COMPOUNDS INSOLUBLE COMPOUNDS
Hydroxides
Group 1 and ammonium
EXCEPT Group 1 and ammonium.
(hydroxides of Ca2+, Sr2+ and Ba2+ are often
Nitrates, hydrogen carbonates and chlorates
only slightly soluble)
Chlorides, bromides and iodides Carbonates, phosphates, chromates and
(EXCEPT those of Pb2+, Ag+ and Hg22+) sulfides
Sulfates (EXCEPT Group 1 and ammonium and the
(EXCEPT Ag+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+ and Ca2+) sulfides of group 2)
Using the solubility rules, it becomes possible to make predictions about precipitation reactions.
For example, what will happen when a solution of silver nitrate is mixed with a solution of
potassium bromide? Either there will be a rearrangement of ions to produce a precipitate, or no
such combination is possible, and there will be no reaction. According to solubility rules it can be
predicted that the silver bromide that forms will be a solid precipitate, and that the potassium
nitrate will remain in solution since it is a soluble salt.
AgNO3(aq) + KBr(aq) → AgBr(s) + KNO3(aq)
A reaction where there is a rearrangement of both cation anion pairs can be classified as a
double displacement (or double replacement) reaction.
An ionic equation can be written to show all of the ions present. Since silver bromide is insoluble,
it does not split up into ions in solution.
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + K+(aq) + Br-(aq) → AgBr(s) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq)
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It can be seen that the potassium and nitrate ions are in the aqueous state on both sides of the
equation, and essentially do not take part in the reaction (i.e., they remain unchanged). They are
said to be spectator ions and the equation can be re-written only showing the ions that take part
in the reaction.
Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) → AgBr(s)
This equation is called the net ionic equation.
Task 4.16
Predict if a reaction takes place between the following solutions. If it does, write a net ionic
equation for the reaction.
(a) KOH(aq) + MgBr2(aq) →

(b) BaS(aq) + NiSO4(aq) →
(c) (NH4)2SO4(aq) + ZnCl2(aq) →
(d) AlCl3(aq) + LiOH(aq) →
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The formation of colored precipitates and other qualitative test are an important tool in aqueous
chemistry. The table below summarizes a few of the more common reactions (this is not a
comprehensive list) that are used in qualitative analysis to identify precipitates and gases. You do
NOT need to commit this to memory, but being aware of some of these reactions may help to
‘unlock’ a question for you.
Test for
Reagent added Expected result Notes
ANIONS
Ba2+(aq), often in the form of

SO42-(aq) White ppt. of BaSO4(s)
BaCl2(aq)
Ag+(aq), often in the form of ppt. soluble in dilute,

Cl-(aq) White ppt. of AgCl(s)
AgNO3(aq) NH3(aq)
Ag+(aq), often in the form of ppt. soluble in conc.,

Br-(aq) Cream ppt. of AgBr(s)
AgNO3(aq) NH3(aq)
Ag+(aq), often in the form of

I-(aq) Pale Yellow ppt. of AgI(s) ppt. insoluble in NH3(aq)
AgNO3(aq)
Test for CO2 - turns

HCO3-(aq)/(s)/CO32-(aq)/(s) Acid (H+(aq)) Bubbles of CO2(g)
limewater milky
NO3-(s) Heating Brown gas, NO2(g)
Test for
Reagent added Expected result Notes
CATIONS
Aqueous halide ion (Cl-(aq), ppt. of halide salt (see

Ag+(aq)
Br-(aq) I-(aq)) above)
Ba2+(aq) SO42-(aq) White ppt. of BaSO4(s)
Other halide ions will also

Pb2+(aq) I-(aq) Yellow ppt. of PbI2(s) precipitate Pb2+ with
different colors
NH3 gas given off -
NH4+(s) Heating
pungent smell
OH-(aq), often in the form of

Ni2+(aq) Green ppt. ppt is gelatinous
NaOH(aq)
OH-(aq), often in the form of ppt dissolves in XS

Al3+(aq) White ppt.
NaOH(aq) hydroxide

Cu2+(aq) Blue ppt.
NaOH(aq)

Fe2+(aq) Dirty Green ppt.
NaOH(aq)

Fe3+(aq) Red/Brown ppt.
NaOH(aq)
OH-(aq), often in the form of ppt dissolves in XS

Zn2+(aq) White ppt.
NaOH(aq) hydroxide
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Precipitation, gravimetric analysis and moles
Gravimetric analysis involves the addition of a substance to an aqueous solution (i.e., one where
water is the solvent), that causes the formation of a solid (or a precipitate). The substance that is
added is specifically chosen to react with analyte (the species that is undergoing analysis). For
example, addition of silver ions to a solution that contains chloride ions will result in the formation
of a precipitate of silver chloride, according to the balanced equation below.
Cl-(aq) + Ag+(aq) → AgCl(s)
When no more precipitate forms, we can be confident that the analyte (the chloride ions) has
been totally consumed, and this is point at which the stoichiometric molar ratio has been
achieved. After their formation, such solids are usually removed from solutions by filtering,
washing and drying.
Task 4.17
A solid of unknown composition contains some chloride ions. A 0.182 g sample of the
solid is dissolved in water and the chloride ions dissolve to produce an aqueous solution.
The solution has a large amount of aqueous silver ions added to it until no more
precipitate can be formed. After filtering, washing and drying, it is found that 0.287 g of the
precipitate is produced in the reaction.
(a) Identify the precipitate formed.

(b) Calculate the moles of the precipitate formed.
(c) Calculate the moles of chloride ions present in the original sample.
(d) Calculate the mass of chloride ions present in the original sample.
(e) Calculate the mass percentage of chloride ions in the original sample.
(f) What would the effect on the value calculated in (e) be, if the precipitate were only
partially dried? Explain your answer.
10/30/2019 6:06 PM Page 32 of 32

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What are some common physical changes and how do they differ from chemical changes?

What are some common physical changes and how do they differ from chemical changes?

What are some driving forces that provide evidence for chemical change?

What are some driving forces that provide evidence for chemical change?

© Adrian Dingle’s Chemistry Pages and ChemEducator LLC 2019 – All rights reserved.

10/30/2019 6:06 PM Page 1 of 32

UNIT 4: Chemical Reactions

SOLID → LIQUID Melting

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Gas producing reactions

Several reactions produce gases as one of the products.

Generic reaction: Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen

Generic reaction: Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + CO2

Specific reaction: Production of O2 by the decomposition of H2O2 with MnO2 catalyst

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TOPIC 4B: Equations & Net Ionic Equations

1. Write down the equation in words.

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1. Write balanced equations for the following reactions.

(a) Hydrogen + copper (II) oxide → copper + water

2. Balance the following equations.

(a) Ca + H2O → H2 + Ca(OH)2

Reactions in aqueous solution

Electrolytes, non-electrolytes and weak electrolytes

SrCl2(s) → Sr2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

HC2H3O2(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + C2H3O2-(aq)

Net Ionic Equations

Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + K+(aq) + Br-(aq) → AgBr(s) + K+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) → AgBr(s)

This equation is called the net ionic equation.

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TOPIC 4C: Particulate Representations of Equations

No matter how the chemical or physical process is represented in an equation, it can be

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1. Discuss the change in forces and bonds when water boils.

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TOPIC 4E: Stoichiometry

The mole concept and calculations from equations

mass of sample mass of sample

mass of sample mass of sample

mass of sample mass of sample

1. The combustion of methane, CH4, can be summarized by the equation below.

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

2. In an experiment to determine the reacting ratio of moles between a metal X, and

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4. A sample of copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate with a mass of 8.512 g is dissolved in

Questions 5-7 require balanced equations before they can be solved.

Molar volume and gas stoichiometry

A simple calculation finds its value to be = 22.4 L. That is to say,

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2NH4CI(s) + Ca(OH)2(s) → 2NH3(g) + CaCI2(s) + 2H2O(g)

BaCO3(s) → BaO(s) + CO2(g)

S(s) + 3Cl2(g) → SCl6(l)

æ actual yield of product ö

4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3

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When 4-ketopentenoic acid is analyzed by combustion, it is found that a 0.3000 g sample

2. What is meant by the term “constant mass” in question 1?

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