INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Definition of terms

Computer : is an electronic device that operates

(works) under the control of programs stored in its own memory unit.
A computer is an electronic machine that processes raw data to give information as output.

An electronic device that accepts data as input, and transforms it under the influence of a set of
special instructions called Programs, to produce the desired output (referred to as Information).

Explanations;
A computer is described as an electronic device because; it is made up of electronic components
and uses electric energy (such as electricity) to operate.

A computer has an internal memory, which stores data & instructions temporarily awaiting
processing, and even holds the intermediate result (information) before it is communicated to
the recipients through the Output devices.

It works on the data using the instructions issued, means that, the computer cannot do any
useful job on its own. It can only work as per the set of instructions issued.

A computer will accept data in one form and produce it in another form. The data is normally
held within the computer as it is being processed.

Program:
A computer Program is a set of related instructions written in the language of the computer & is
used to make the computer perform a specific task (or, to direct the computer on what to do).

A set of related instructions which specify how the data is to be processed.

A set of instructions used to guide a computer through a process.
Data: Is a collection of raw facts, figures or instructions that do not have much meaning to the
user.

Data may be in form of numbers, alphabets/letters or symbols, and can be processed to

produce information.

TYPES OF DATA.
There are two types/forms of data:

a). Digital (discrete) data:

Digital data is discrete in nature. It must be represented in form of numbers, alphabets or
symbols for it to be processed by a computer. Digital data is obtained by counting. E.g. 1, 2, 3 …

b). Analogue (continuous) data:

Analogue data is continuous in nature. It must be represented in physical nature in order to be
processed by the computer. Analogue data is obtained by measurement. E.g. Pressure,
Temperature, Humidity, Lengths or currents, etc. The output is in form of smooth graphs from
which the data can be read.
Data Processing:
It is the process of collecting all items of data together & converting them into information.

Processing refers to the way the data is manipulated (or handled) to turn it into information.
The processing may involve calculation, comparison or any other logic to produce the required
result. The processing of the data usually results in some meaningful information being
produced.

Information: is the data which has been refined, summarized & manipulated in the way you
want it, or into a more meaningful form for decision-making. The information must be accurate,
timely, complete and relevant.

Characteristics / Features of a Computer.

Before 20th century, most information was processed manually or by use of simple machines.
Today, millions of people are using computers in offices and at home to produce and store all
types of information

The following are some of the attributes that make computers widely accepted & used in the
day-to-day activities in our society:
1. Speed.
Computers operate at very high speeds, and can perform very many functions within a very
short time.
They can perform a much complicated task much faster than a human being.
The speed of a computer is measured in Fractions of seconds.
Millisecond - a thousandth of a second (10-3)
Microsecond - a millionth of a second (10-6)
Nanosecond - a thousand millionth of a second (10-9)
Picosecond - a million millionth of a second (10-12)

The speed of a computer is usually linked to the technology used to build it.

a). 1st Generation computers (1940s & early 1950s).

• The computers were built using Vacuum tubes, and the speed was measured in Milliseconds.
E.g., a computer could perform 5,000 additions & 300 multiplications per second.

b). 2nd Generation computers (1950s & early 1960s).

Were built using Transistors. Their operation speeds increased & were measured in
Microseconds. E.g., a computer could perform 1 million additions per second.
c). Mid 1960s.
Integrated Circuit (IC), which combined a no. of transistors & diodes together on a silicon chip,
was developed. The speed increased to tens of millions of operations per second.

d). In 1971, Intel Corporation produced a very small, single chip called a Microprocessor, which
could perform all the operations on the computer’s processor. The chip contained about 1,600
transistors.

e). Today’s microprocessors are very powerful, cheaper & more reliable due to the use of the
Large Scale Integration (LSI) & Very Large scale Integration (VLSI) technologies, which combines
hundreds of thousands of components onto a single chip.
The computer speeds are now measured in Nanoseconds & Picoseconds.
2. Accuracy:
Unlike human beings, computers are very accurate, i.e., they never make mistakes.
A computer can work for very long periods without going wrong. However, when an error
occurs the computer has a number of in-built, self-checking features in their electronic
components that can detect & correct such errors.
Usually errors are committed by the users entering the data to the computer, thus the saying
Garbage in Garbage Out (GIGO).
This means that, if you enter incorrect data into the computer and have it processed, the
computer will give you misleading information.

3. Reliability.
The computer can be relied upon to produce the correct answer if it is given the correct
instructions & supplied with the correct data.

Therefore, if you want to add two numbers, but by mistake, give the computer a “Multiply”
instruction, the computer will not know that you intended to “ADD”; it will multiply the numbers
supplied.

Similarly, if you give it the ADD instruction, but make a mistake and enter an incorrect data; let
say, 14 & 83 instead of 14 & 38; then the computer will produce the “wrong” answer 97 instead
of 52. However, note that, 97 is ‘correct’ based on the data supplied.

Therefore, the output produced by a computer is only as reliable as the instructions used & the
data supplied.

4. Consistency:

Computers are usually consistent. This means that, given the same data & the same instructions,
they will produce the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.

5. Storage:

A computer is capable of storing large amounts of data or instructions in a very small space.

A computer can store data & instructions for later use, and it can produce/ retrieve this data
when required so that the user can make use of it.

Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals through the use of
passwords.

6. Diligence:
Unlike human beings, a computer can work continuously without getting tired or bored. Even if
it has to do a million calculations, it will do the last one with the same speed and accuracy as the
first one.

7. Automation:

A computer is an automatic device. This is because, once given the instructions, it is guided by
these instructions and can carry on its job automatically until it is complete.

It can also perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.

8. Versatile:

A computer can be used in different places to perform a large number of different jobs
depending on the instructions fed to it.

9. Imposition of a formal approach to working methods:

Because a computer can only work with a strict set of instructions, it identifies and imposes rigid
rules for dealing with the data it is given to process.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computer exist in defferent sizes, weight and shapes
The major ways in which computers are classified are
i) Classification according to Functionality
In this category, computers are categorised ccording to the way they process data and kind of
data a computer can process.
Example of this data are,
a) Analog Data
b) Digital data

ii) Classification according to the purpose

iii) Classification according to physical size
iii) classification according to functionality

ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL SIZE

TYPES OF COMPUTER
Analog computer

Analog computer measures and answer the questions by the method of “HOW MUCH”.
The input data is not a number infect a physical quantity like temp, pressure, speed,
velocity.

 Signals are continuous of (0 to 10 V)

 Accuracy 1% Approximately
 High speed
 Output is continuous

Time is wasted in transmission time

ANALOG COMPUTER
DIGITAL COMPUTERS

Digital computer counts and answer the questions by the method of “HOW Many”. The
input data is represented by a number. These are used for the logical and arithmetic
operations.

 Signals are two level of (0 V or 5 V)

 Accuracy unlimited
 low speed sequential as well as parallel processing
 Output is continuous but obtain when computation is completed.
MICRO COMPUTERS

Micro computer are the smallest computer system. There size range from calculator to
desktop size. Its CPU is microprocessor. It also known as Grand child Computer.

 Application : - personal computer, Multi user system, offices.

MINI COMPUTERS

These are also small general purpose system. They are generally more powerful
and most useful as compared to micro computer. Mini computer are also known as
mid range computer or Child computer.

 Application :- Departmental systems, Network Servers, work group system.

MAINFRAME COMPUTERS

Mainframe computers are those computers that offer faster processing and grater
storage area. The word “main frame” comes from the metal frames. It is also known as
Father computer.

 Application – Host computer, Central data base server.

SUPER COMPUTERS

 Super computer are those computer which are designed for scientific job like
whether forecasting and artificial intelligence etc. They are fastest and expensive. A
super computer contains a number of CPU which operate in parallel to make it
faster. It also known as grand father computer.
 Application – whether forecasting, weapons research and development.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS

 Desktop
 Workstation
 Notebook
 Tablet PC
 Handheld computer
 Smart Phone

WORKSTATION
TABLET PC

HANDHELD PC (PDA)

SMART PHONE

Introduction to Operating System (OS)

Definition

OPERATING SYSTEMS

 Is a software that acts as an interface between the user, application software and the
computer hardware

EXAPMLE OF OPERATING SYSTEM

1. Microsoft Disk operating system ( Ms DOS)

2. Windows ( 98, 2000, XP, vista)
3. Linux
4. Unix

PARTS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

1. Shell – it is the outer part of an operating system and it is responsible of interacting with
the operating system
2. Kernel – Responsible for managing and controlling computer resources such as the
processor, main memory, storage devices, input devices, output devices and
communication devices

RESOURCE UNER THE OPERATING SYSTEM CONTROL

 The processor
 Main memory
 Input/Output Device
 Secondary storage devices
  Communication devices and ports

FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM

1. Job scheduling

– it is the process of the operating system to keep list of jobs currently being run by the
computer and clocking them in and out of the processor.

1. Interrupt handling

 It is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a program

1. Resource control and allocation

 It is situation where the processor gives a computer resources a unique number called
interrupt number so that it can be able to recognize and prioritize it.

1. Memory Management

 It is where the operating system constantly assigns main memory storage partitions to
data an instructions

1. Error handling

 It is a situation whereby an operating system alerts the user of errors that arises in ease
of illegal operations, hardware or software failure.

1. Input/output handling

NOTE

What is interrupt request?

 Is a unique number that is given to a resource for identification purposes

What is the importance of interrupt computer

 To enable urgent tasks/ processes to b given the first priority during program execution

What is virtual memory

 Part of the hard disk that acts as maim memory

  Operating system organizes the main memory in blocks called page frames. The
processes are divided into partitions that can fit in a page. The operatind system swaps
these pages between the main memory and the hard disk. The part of the hard disk
where these pages are held in the virtual memory.

What is a deadlock

 Is where a particular task holds a resourcs and refuses to release it for othe tasks to use.

CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEM

They are classified into three ways/types:-

1. According to the number of tasks handled concurrently

2. Single task – one task is operated at a any given time
3. Multi-Task – More than one task is processed apparently simultaneously

1. According to the number of users

2. Single user – Single (One) user operates a computer at any given time
3. Multi user – More than one user can operate the computer at the same time

1. Human computer interface / G U I

 Interaction between the computer and the user.

1. Command line – The user types the commands at the command prompt to activate
them by pressing the enter key

Advantages

 Fast in operation by experienced users

 flexible
 Use Less memory
 Don’t require expensive hardware

Disadvantages

- Hard to learn and understand

- Not user friendly

- If you mistype or forgot the syntax of writing the command, you cannot operate it

- Difficult to learn
- Difficult to move information from one application to another

- Difficult to design and produce printed reports

- Do not support multi-users and multi-task

1. Menu driven – The user is provided with a list of menu to choose from

Advantages

 More user friendly than command line

 More easier to learn and understand
 Eliminates the problem of forgetting the syntax of command since commands are
provided for you

Disadvantages

 Slow to operate
 Not flexible

1. Graphical User Interface(GUI) – The user interacts with the computer using icons and
menus and select them using pointer

Advantages

- It is easy to learn and operate

- They make it easy to exchange information between application

- Reduce the user training time and cost due to their inform mode of operation

- It is more user friendly

- Supports multi user and multi task

Disadvantages

 Cost of GUI supporting hardware is higher

 Many objects on the GUI confuse new computer users
 - Require faster processors that are more expensive

WINDOW as used in operating system

Is a rectangular object created on a screen by operating system to contain input or
output data for a particular program

PROPERTIES OF A WINDOW

 Title bar
 Display/ working area
 Horizontal and vertical scrolls bars
 Menu bars
 Status bar
 Tool bar

TYPES OF MENUS

1. Pop up menu
2. Pop down menu
3. Sub menu( Cascading/ Side kick menu)

COMPUTER FILES

Are classifies into types :-

1. System Files

Are files that contain information that is critical to the operations of the computer

1. Application Files

Are files that holds programs or application files

COMPUTER SYSTEM
Definition: Is a collection of entities(hardware,software and liveware) that are designed
to receive, process, manage and present information in a meaningful format.

COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

 Computer hardware - Are physical parts/ intangible parts of a computer. eg

Input devices, output devices, central processing unit and storage devices
 Computer software - also known as programs or applications. They are classified
into two classes namely - sytem software and application software
 Liveware - is the computer user. Also kwon as orgwareor the humanware. The
user commands the computer system to execute on instructions.

a) COMPUTER HARDWARE

Hardware refers to the physical, tangible computer equipment and devices, which
provide support for major functions such as input, processing (internal storage,
computation and control), output, secondary storage (for data and programs), and
communication.
HARDWARE CATEGORIES (Functional Parts)
A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store
data and information. Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital
processing device. There are five main hardware components in a computer system:
Input, Processing, Storage, Output and Communication devices.

1. INPUT DEVICES

Are devices used for entering data or instructions to the central processing unit. Are
classifie according to the method they use to enter data.

a) KEYING DEVICES
Are devices used to enter data into the computer using a set of Keys eg Keyboard,
key-to- storage and keypad.
i) The keyboard

Keyboard (similar to a typewriter) is the main input device of a computer . It contains

three types of keys-- alphanumeric keys, special keys and function keys. Alphanumeric
keys are used to type all alphabets, numbers and special symbols like $, %, @, A
etc. Special keys such as <Shift>, <Ctrl>, <Alt>, <Home>, <Scroll Lock> etc. are used
for special functions. Function keys such as <Fl>, <F2>, <F3> etc. are used to give
special commands depending upon the software used e.g.F5 reloads a page of an
internet browser. The function of each and every key can be well understood only after
working on a PC. When any key is pressed, an electronic signal is produced. This signal
is detected by a keyboard encoder that sends a binary code corresponding to the key
pressed to the CPU. There are many types of keyboards but 101 keys keyboard is the
most popular one.

How the keys are organized

The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on function:

 Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number,
punctuation, and symbol keys found on a traditional typewriter.
 Special (Control) keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other
keys to perform certain actions. The most frequently used control keys are CTRL,
ALT, the Windows key, and ESC.
 Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are
labelled as F1, F2, F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys differs
from program to program.
 Cursor Movement (Navigation) keys. These keys are used for moving around in
documents or WebPages and editing text. They include the arrow keys, HOME,
END, PAGE UP, PAGE DOWN, DELETE, and INSERT and ARROW KEYS.
 Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly.
The keys are grouped together in a block like a conventional calculator or adding

machine.

B. POINTING DEVICES
Are devices that enter data and instructions into the computer using a pointer that
appears on the screen. The items to be entered are selected by either pointing to
or clicking on them.e.g mice, joystick, touch sensitive screen, trackballs
i) THE MOUSE
A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen.
Although mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual
mouse. It's small, oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that
resembles a tail and the connector which can either be PS/2 or USB. Some newer mice
are wireless.

A mouse usually has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a
secondary button. Many mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which allows
you to scroll smoothly through screens of information.

When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in the same
direction. (The pointer's appearance might change depending on where it's positioned
on your screen.) When you want to select an item, you point to the item and
then click (press and release) the primary button. Pointing and clicking with your mouse
is the main way to interact with your computer. There are several types of mice:
Mechanical mouse, optical mouse, optical-mechanical mouse and laser mouse.

Basic parts

A mouse typically has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and
a secondary button (usually the right button). The primary button is the one you will use
most often. Most mice also include a scroll wheel between the buttons to help you scroll
through documents and WebPages more easily. On some mice, the scroll wheel can be
pressed to act as a third button. Advanced mice might have additional buttons that can
perform other functions.
Holding and moving the mouse

Place your mouse beside your keyboard on a clean, smooth surface, such as a
mouse pad. Hold the mouse gently with your index finger resting on the primary
button and you thumb resting on the side. To move the mouse, slide it slowly in
any direction. Don't twist it—keep the front of the mouse aimed away from you.
As you move the mouse, a pointer (see picture) on your screen moves in the same
direction. If you run out of room to move your mouse on your desk or mouse pad,
just pick up the mouse and bring it back closer to you.
Pointing to an object often reveals a descriptive message about it.The pointer can
change depending on what you're pointing at. For example, when you point to a link in
your web browser, the pointer changes from an arrow to a hand with a pointing finger .

Most mouse actions combine pointing with pressing one of the mouse buttons. There
are four basic ways to use your mouse buttons: clicking, double-clicking, right-clicking,
and dragging.

Clicking (single-clicking)

To click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the primary
button (usually the left button).

Clicking is most often used to select (mark) an item or open a menu. This is sometimes
called single-clicking or left-clicking.

Double-clicking
To double-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then click twice quickly. If
the two clicks are spaced too far apart, they might be interpreted as two individual clicks
rather than as one double-click.

Double-clicking is most often used to open items on your desktop. For example, you
can start a program or open a folder by double-clicking its icon on the desktop.

Right-clicking

To right-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the
secondary button (usually the right button).

Right-clicking an item usually displays a list of things you can do with the item. For
example, when you right-click the Recycle Bin on your desktop, Windows displays a
menu allowing you to open it, empty it, delete it, or see its properties. If you are unsure
of what to do with something, right-click it.

C) SCANNING DEVICES
Are devices that capture an object or a document directly from the source. They are
classifie according to the technology used to capture data e.g. Scanners and Document
readers.
i) Scanners
Used to capture a source document and converts it into an electronic form.
Example are - FlatBed and HandHeld scanners.
ii) Document readers
Are documents that reads data directly from source document and convey them as
input in the form of electronic signal. e
Types of Document Readers

i) Optical Mar Reader (OMR)

ii) Barcode readers

iii) Optical Character Readers

b) Magnetic Readers
Reads data using magnetic ink.t uses principle of magnetism to sense data which have
been written using magnetised ink.
THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT ( C P U)

Is the brain or the heart of a computer. Is also known as processor and consist of three
units namely -
i) Control Unit ( C U)
ii) Arithmetic logic Unit ( A L U)
iii) Main Memory unit ( M M U)
The system unit is the core of a computer system. Usually it's a rectangular box placed
on or underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that
process data. The most important of these components is the central processing unit
(CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another
component is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that
the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when
the computer is turned off.

Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The
cables plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit.
Hardware that is not part of the system unit is sometimes called a peripheral
device. Peripheral devices can be external such as a mouse, keyboard, printer, monitor,
external Zip drive or scanner or internal, such as a CD-ROM drive, CD-R drive or
internal modem. Internal peripheral devices are often referred to as integrated
peripherals. There are two types according to shape: tower and desktop.

Tower System Unit Desktop System Unit

A motherboard (mainboard, system board, planar board or logic board) is the

main printed circuit board found in computers and other expandable systems. It holds
many of the crucial electronic components of the system, such as the central processing
unit (CPU) and memory, and provides connectors for other peripherals.
Motherboard

TYPES OF PROCESSORS
I) Comples Instruction Set Computers (CISC)
ii) Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)

FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

- Process data
- Control sequence of operaions within the computers
- It gives command to all parts of a computer
- It control the use of the main memory in storing of data and instructions
- it provides temporary storage (RAM) and permanent storage(ROM) of data

THE CONTROL UNIT

Is the center of operations for the computer system, it directs the activities of the
computer system.
Funlctions of Control Unit
INTERNET AND E-MAIL

THE INTERNET

The Internet links private PCs, public networks and business networks together using
telephone lines to form one vast world-wide network.

It allows computer users to share and exchange information with each other wherever
they are in the world.

The information on the Internet comes in many different formats.

These range from simple e-mail text files to music, video clips, computer software and
even live television pictures.

The simplest way to connect to the Internet is to use a dial-up connection.

This type of connection requires a computer with a modem and access to a telephone
line.

A modem converts a digital signal into an equivalent analogue signal that can be sent
down a telephone line.

At the destination another modem is needed to convert the analogue signal back into a
digital signal, which the receiving computer can understand.

The speed of a modem is measured in kilobits per second (Kbps) – this is a measure of
how fast data can be transferred.

Dial-up modem connections offer data transfer speeds of up to 52 Kbps.

ISDN digital telephone lines offer a faster connection to the Internet.

ISDN connections offer data transfer speeds of up to 128 Kbps.

Dialup modems and ISDN lines are gradually being replaced by broadband connections
that use a system called ADSL.

Broadband connections allow round-the-clock Internet access without having to dial a

special telephone number and wait for a connection to be established.
ASDL is much faster than ISDN typically offering data transfer speeds of between 500
Kbps and 1,000 Kbps.

Some larger organisations use a leased line as their method of connection.

This is a private telephone line which is permanently open 24 hours a day.

An Internet Service Provider is a commercial organisation, which provides a

connection to the Internet for other businesses or individuals.

Search engines allow users to surf the Internet for information by entering keywords.

Web addresses give the location of individual sites on the World Wide Web.

A web site can be quickly accessed using its address which is often referred to as
a URL or Uniform Resource Locator.

A Uniform Resource Locator or URL gives the location of an individual site on the
World Wide Web

Most URLs start with http//:www.

URLs often reveal the country of origin such as .uk for the United Kingdom.

URLs also indicate whether a site is commercial with either .co or .com for a commercial
organisation, .gov for a government organisation and .ac for academic organisations.

Many businesses now have websites that allow Internet users to buy their goods or
services online at any time of day or night throughout the year.

This type of online shopping also offers the advantages of not needing to travel
anywhere or get pushed around in crowded shops.

Some companies do all of their business over the Internet and have no ordinary shops.

Advantages of online shopping:

money doesn’t have to be spent on normal business overheads like renting shops and
paying employees;
customers can be offered a much wider choice of goods because they can be ordered
from suppliers as required rather than having to be kept available on the shelves all the
time;

money is not tied up in unsold stock or wasted on products that aren’t popular;

data about customers and their buying habits can be collected directly and used to offer
a much more personalised service tailored to suit the needs of an individual customer.

Disadvantages of online shopping:

debit or credit card numbers can be intercepted by hackers during transmission and
used to make unauthorised purchases;

criminals can set up fake web sites offering goods or services often using the name of a
genuine company;

it is much easier for a business to gather information about its rivals by simply accessing
their web sites — this can make it much harder to remain competitive.

Online booking systems allow Internet users to check the availability of and book
things like:

theatre, cinema and concert tickets; seats on coaches, trains and aeroplanes; hotel
rooms.

An online booking system is essentially a web site that can be used to access a remote
database.
Dangers of the Internet:

hackers;

viruses;

undesirable material.

Hackers can be stopped using firewall software.

Viruses are often spread via e-mail and can be removed using virus checking
programs.

Undesirable material can be blocked using special filtering software and adult
supervision.
Advantages of the Internet:
easy communication with other people around the world;

valuable learning resource because Internet skills will be needed for jobs in the future;

enables more people to work from home;

a vast amount of information can be accessed;

up-to-date information can be accessed on-line without the need to await publication;

publishing documents on the Internet saves paper;

a valuable resource for companies to advertise and conduct business.

Disadvantages of the Internet:

much of the information isn’t checked and may be incorrect or irrelevant;

a large amount of undesirable material, such as pornography, is readily available;

messages sent across the Internet can be easily intercepted and are open to abuse by
others;

large telephone bills can easily be run up;

too much time spent on the Internet could result in a lack of face-to-face interaction
with others and a loss of social skills;

going on-line runs the risk of hackers or viruses being able to damage your computer.
WORD PROCESSORS

WORD PROCESSORS

Is an application software that enables the user to create, save, edit,format and print a
document.

Example of word processors

 Microsoft Word
 Word star
 Word perfect
 Corel
 Lotus
 Word pro
 K Word
 Abiword
 PC-Write

Advantages of using a word processor over a manual type writer

1. A document can be stored in a computer for future reference

2. Have special editing tools eg spelling and grammar checkers
3. One can easily insert or replace a word or phrase without affecting the neatness of a
document
4. One can easily produce many copies using a printer without retyping

Features of a word processors

 A word wrap which automatically starts a new line if there is insufficient room at the
hand margin
 Availability of different fonts, character sizes and styles
 Text paragraph and page formatting eg text alignment, indenting, page number etc
 Search and replace command which allow replacement of every incidence of a certain
combination of characters with a set of characters
 Undo which allows action that have been performed to be reversed
 Printing of documents single or multiple choices
 Mail merging that is very essential while similar letters have to be sent
 Ability to create and import tables, text and graphics from other programs

Factors to consider when selecting a word processor

1. The type of operating system installed

 2. Its user friendliness
3. Its formatting and editing features
4. Whether it is commercial or open source software

Parts of a Microsoft word window

1. Title bar

It a bar at the top of a the window and it displays the titile currently running application
at task
2. Menu Bar

It contains menus that provides lists of commands

3. Status bar

It is an interactive strip at the bottom of the screen that acts as a communication link
between the user and the program.
Editing – Its is making necessary changes in a document

TWO TYPING MODES

Insert Mode – When text is typed between the existing words or characters it pushes
the existing text forward without replacing them

Type over mode – When text is typed between words or characters the new text
automatically replaces the existing text by deleting it.

Formatting - Applying various styles or features in order to enhance the document

appearance

Text Formatting Features

 Changing font type, size style
 Changing font colour
 Underlining – Placing a line at the bottom of a text
 Bolding – Making the text appear more darker than the rest
 Italicizing –making the text slant forward
 Superscript and subscript
 Strikethrough
DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

Data procesing refers to the transformating raw data into meaningful output.

Data can be done manually using a pen and paper, mechanically using simple
devices eg typewritter or electronically using modern dat processing toolseg
computers

Stages of the data processing cycle.

Data collection involves getting the data/facts needed for processing from the point of
its origin to the computer

Data Input- the collected data is converted into machine-readable form by an input
device, and send into the machine.

Processing is the transformation of the input data to a more meaningful form

(information) in the CPU

Output is the production of the required information, which may be input in future.

The difference between data collection and data capture.

Data capture is the process of obtaining data in a computer-sensible form for at the
point of origin (the source document itself is prepared in a machine-sensible form for
input)

Data collection involves getting the original data to the ‘processing centre’, transcribing
it, converting it from one medium to another, and finally getting it into the computer.

The 5 stages of data collection.

Data creation

Data transmission

Data preparation

Media conversion (i.e, conversion of data from one medium to another

Input validation
Sorting

Relevance of the term garbage in garbage out (GIGO) in reference to errors in data
processing.

The accuracy of the data entered in the computer directly determines the accuracy of
the information given out.

Give and explain two transcription and two computational errors committed
during data processing.

Misreading errors: -they occur when the user reads source document incorrectly, thus
entering wrong values, e.g. a user may confuse 5 in the number 586 with S, and type S86
instead.

Transposition errors: - they result from incorrect arrangement of characters (i.e.,

putting characters in the wrong order especially when keying data onto a diskette), e.g.
the user may enter 396 instead of 369 computational errors

Overflow errors: -An overflow occurs if the result from a calculation is too large to fit in
the allocated memory space, e.g., if the allocated memory space is able to store an 8-bit
character, then an overflow will occur if the result of the calculation gives a 9-bit
number.

 Underflow
 Truncation: 0.784969 784
 Rounding error:30.6666 7
 Algorithm or ,logical errors

Data integrity.

Data integrity refers to the dependability, timeliness, availability, relevance, accuracy &
completeness of data/information

Ways of minimizing threats to data integrity.

 Backing up the data on external storage media

 Enforcing security measures to control access to data
 Using error detection & correction software when transmitting data
 Designing user interfaces that minimize chances of invalid data being entered.
Briefly explain real-time processing.

 Airline reservation systems

 Theatre (cinema) booking
 Hotel reservations
 Banking systems
 Police enquiry systems
 Chemical processing plants
 Hospitals to monitor the progress of a patient
 Missile control systems

Advantages and disadvantages of

Real-time system.

Advantages

 Provides up-to-date information

 The information is readily available for instant decision-making
 Provides better services to users/customers.
 Fast &reliable
 Reduces circulation of hardcopies.

Disadvantages

 Require complex Os & are very expensive

 Not easy to develop
 Real time systems usually use 2 or more processors to share the workloads, which is
expensive.
 Require large communication equipment.

The Differentiate between CPU bound jobs and I/O bound jobs.

CPU bound jobs require more of the CPU time to process these jobs. Most of the work
the I/O devices perform is on the Input; and Output; hence, they require very little CPU
time.

Most companies are now shifting from the use of geographically distributed personal
computers. This method of data processing is known as Distributed Data Processing
(DDP)

Three computing resources that can be distributed.

-CPU (Processors) time

-Files

-Application software

-Data/information/messages

-Computer processing power

-Memory (computer storage)

- Input/Output devices, e.g. printers

-communication devices/communication port

Examples of industries and business organizations that extensively use distributed

processing systems.

 Banks
 Computerized retails stores, e.g. supermarkets
 Learning institutions with many departmental offices
 Bureaus or communication cyber cafes
 Airline reservation systems

Benefits and three risks that might be associated with the distributed data
Processing system.

The load on the host computer is greatly reduced

 The use of low cost minicomputers minimizes the cost in data processing
 Delays in data processing are reduced
 Provides better services to the customers
 There is less risk in case of system breakdown
 The design & implementation of the system is less complex due to decentralization
 The level of expertise required is less.

Risks

o Data duplication is very common

o Programming problems occur with microcomputers & minicomputers
o Security threats, i.e. the data & information sent one the network from one place
to
 o another can be tapped, or listened to by unauthorized parties
o More training is needed for the users involved
o It is expensive due to the extra cost of communication equipment.

The concept of multi-programming

A Multi-programming system allows the user to run 2 or more programs, all of which
are in the computer’s main memory, at the same time.

Benefits that are derived from multi-programming

 It increases productivity of a computer

 Reduces the CPU’s idle time
 Reduces the incidence of peripheral bound operation

Advantages of storing data in computer files over the manual filing system

 Stored information takes up less space

 Easier to update and modify
 Provides faster access and retrieval of data
 Reduces duplication of data or stored records
 Cheaper
 Enhances data integrity (i.e. accuracy and completeness)

The difference between logical and physical computer files.

A logical file is viewed in terms of what data items it contains and what processing
operations may be performed on the data

A physical file is viewed in terms of how the data items found in a file are arranged on
the storage media and how they can be processed.

Arrange the following components of the information system data hierarchy in

ascending order of complexity:

Field, Database, Byte, Record, Bit, and file

Bit Byte Field Record File Database

Types of computer processing files

i) Report file- It contains a set of relatively permanent records extracted from the data
in a master file.
They are used to prepare reports, which can ve printed at a later date, e.g. report on
student’s class performance in the term, extract of students who have not cleared their
school fees, report on absentees
ii) Backup file- Used to backup data or to hold duplicate copies of data/information
from the computer’s fixed storage or main file for security purposes e.g. a copy of all the
students admitted in a school fees, report on absentees

iii) Reference file - Used for reference purposes. It contains records that are fairly
permanent or semi-permanent, e.g. Deductions in caution money, wage rates, tax
deductions, employees address, price lists etc.

iv) Sort file – used to sort/rank data according to a given order, e.g. ranking position in a class
of students.
v) Transaction file - Is used to hold input data during transaction processing. It is later used to
update master files and audits daily, weekly or monthly transaction.

FILE ORGANISATION METHODS

What is file organization?

1. It is the way records are arranged (laid out) within a particular file or any secondary
storage device in a computer
2. Refers to the way data is stored in a file
3. File organization is important because it determines the method of access, efficiency,
flexibility and storage devices to be used.

Methods of file organizatio

Sequential and serial

In sequential file organization, records are stored in a sorted order using a

key field, while in serial; the records are stored in the order they come into the file, and
are not sorted in any way.

Random and indexed-sequential

In random file organization, records are stored in the file randomly and accessed
directly, while in indexed –sequential, the records are stored sequentially but accessed
directly using an index.
Serial file organization

Records are in a file are stored and accessed one after another on a storage medium

Indexed sequencial file organization method

Similar to sequential method, only that an index is used to enable the computer to
locate individual records on the storage media.

ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING MODES

DATA PRESENTATION IN A COMPUTER

Brief Description
Computers are classified according to Functionality, physical size and purpose.

According to functionality, computers can be analog, digital or hybrid.

Digital computers produce data that is in discrete form, analog computers process data
in that is in continuous in nature while hybrid computers process both discrete and
continuous data.

In digital computers , the user input is first converted and transmitted as eklecrical
pulses that can be represented by two distinct states ONE and OFF.

Analog and Digital Signal

Graphically they look different in their appearance, they repeat themselves at equal time
interval. The electrical signal or waveform of this nature are said to be periodic. A
periodic wave representing a signal is described using THREE PARAMETERS

Amplitude (A)

Frequency (f)
Periodic Time (T)

Amplitudes (A)

This is the maximum displacement that the waveform of electrical signal can attain.

Eg

Frequency (f)

This is the number of circles made by the signal in one second.

It is measures in units called hertz (hz) which is equivalent to 1 cycle / second.

Periodic time (T)

The time taken by the signal to complete one cycle and is given by the formula T = I/F,
where f is the frequency of the wave.

When a digital signal is sent over an analog telephone line eg E-mail, it has to be
converted to analog signal. This is done by connecting a device called MODEM
(Modulator/Demodulator) to the computer.

Role of MODEM

A MODEM converts (modules) data from digital to analogue form to be transmitted

over the telephone ling. At the receiving end, the modem attached to the

receiving computer converts (demodulates)the analogue signal back to the original

digital form.

Reasons for using binary in digital technology.

- It is easier to develop devices that understand binary language

- Devices designed using binary logic are simple, more reliable & consume less

energy.

Terminogies as used in data representation.

i) Bit - The smallest binary unit, ‘0’ or ‘1
ii) Byte - A group/collection of 8 bits used to represent a character.

iii) Nibble - a group of four binary digits usually representing a numeric

value
iv) word - The total number of bits that a single register of a particular

machine can hold

TYPES OF DATA PRESENTATION

Is the better way of handling complex types of data ( long streams of binary digits).
Higher number systems are used in computing to reduce the streams of binary into
manageable form, thus helps to improve the processing speed and optimize memeory
usage.

CATEGORIES OF NUMBERS SYSYTEM

1. Decimal Number system

2. Binary Number system
3. Octal Number system
4. Hexadecimal Number system

DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Decimal ( deci) means ten

Has ten digits ranging from 0 – 9 because the system has ten digit.

Also called base ten or denary number system and written with subscript 10 i.e x 10

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

Uses two digits namely 1 and 0

The place values increases by factors of two

Written as base two i.e x 2

Consider a binary number such as 100112, the right most digit has a place value of 2 x
10 while the left most has a place value of 2 x 13
Place Value (2 n) Eights 23 = 8 Four 22 = 4 Twos 21 = 2 Ones 20 = 1
Binary digit 1 0 1 1

OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Uses eight bits running from 0 – 7

The place value go up in factors of eight from right to left

Example. – 72458

Place Value (8 n) 83 = 512 82 = 64 81 = 8 80 = 1

Binary digit 7 2 4 5

NB
The decimal equivalent of 72458 is

N10 = (7x83) + (2x82) + (4x81) + (5x80)

= (7x512) + (2x64) + (4x8) + (5x1)

= 3584 + 128 + 32 + 5

= 374910

HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

It is radix of sixteen (16)

Uses 16 digits ranging from 0 – 9 and letters A to F. A is equivalent to 10 while F is

equivalent to 15.

The place value goes up in factors of sixteen (16) from right to left

Example 1

Convert 11116 to Decimal equivalent

Solution
162 = 256 161 = 16 160 = 1
1 1 1

Example 2

Convert A916 to its decimal equivalent

Solution

161 = 16 160 = 1
A 9

A = 10 - 10 x 161 = 160

1 = 1 - 1 x 160 = 9

Ad the two – 160 + 9 = 169

Therefore A916 = 16910

Uses of hexadecimal notation in a computer.

Helps to manage long binary digit properly

Helps to improve the processing speed and optimize memory usage.

BINARY ARITHMETIC OPERATION

Representation of signed binary numbers

Ways of representing binary number (positive) or (negative)

1. Prefixing an extra sign bit to binary

2. Using ones complement
3. using two complement

Prefixing an extra sign bit to a binary number

A signed number has a prefix + for positive number and represented by prefixing a digit

0 and a negative number represented by prefixing a digit 1

USING COMPLEMENT

One’s compliment to solve the following the following sum: - 510

2 5 Rem
221
210
11

Perform the following Binary arithmetic:

11100111 + 00101110

11100111

00101110 +

(1) 00010101 =1000101012

DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

Introduction

Data procesing refers to the transformating raw data into meaningful output.

Data can be done manually using a pen and paper, mechanically using simple
devices eg typewritter or electronically using modern dat processing toolseg
computers

Data collection involves getting the data/facts needed for processing from the point of
its origin to the computer

Data Input- the collected data is converted into machine-readable form by an input
device, and send into the machine.

Processing is the transformation of the input data to a more meaningful form

(information) in the CPU
Output is the production of the required information, which may be input in future.

The difference between data collection and data capture.

Data capture is the process of obtaining data in a computer-sensible form for at the
point of origin (the source document itself is prepared in a machine-sensible form for
input)

Data collection involves getting the original data to the ‘processing centre’, transcribing
it, converting it from one medium to another, and finally getting it into the computer.

Relevance of the term garbage in garbage out (GIGO) in reference to errors in data
processing.

The accuracy of the data entered in the computer directly determines the accuracy of
the information given out.
Give and explain two transcription and two computational errors committed
during data processing.

Misreading errors: -they occur when the user reads source document incorrectly, thus
entering wrong values, e.g. a user may confuse 5 in the number 586 with S, and type S86
instead.

Transposition errors: - they result from incorrect arrangement of characters (i.e.,

putting characters in the wrong order especially when keying data onto a diskette), e.g.
the user may enter 396 instead of 369 computational errors

Overflow errors: -An overflow occurs if the result from a calculation is too large to fit in
the allocated memory space, e.g., if the allocated memory space is able to store an 8-bit
character, then an overflow will occur if the result of the calculation gives a 9-bit
number.

 Underflow
 Truncation: 0.784969 784
 Rounding error:30.6666 7
 Algorithm or ,logical errors

Data integrity.

Data integrity refers to the dependability, timeliness, availability, relevance, accuracy &
completeness of data/information

Threats to data integrity

Data integrity may be compromised through:

 Human error, whether malicious or unintentional.

 Transfer errors, including unintended alterations or data compromise during transfer
from one device to another.
 Bugs, viruses/malware, hacking, and other cyber threats.
 Compromised hardware, such as a device or disk crash.

Ways of minimizing threats to data integrity.

 Backing up the data on external storage media

 Enforcing security measures to control access to data
 Using error detection & correction software when transmitting data
 Designing user interfaces that minimize chances of invalid data being entered.
DATA PROCESSING METHODS

Data processing methods

1. Manual Data Processing

In manual data processing, data is processed manually without using any machine or
tool to get required results. In manual data processing, all the calculations and logical
operations are performed manually on the data. Similarly, data is transferred manually
from one place to another. This method of data processing is very slow and errors may
occur in the output. Mostly, is processed manually in many small business firms as well
as government offices & institutions. In an educational institute, for example, marks
sheets, fee receipts, and other financial calculations (or transactions) are performed by
hand. This method is avoided as far as possible because of the very high probability of
error, labor intensive and very time consuming. This type of data processing forms the
very primitive stage when technology was not available or it was not affordable. With
the advancement in technology the dependency on manual methods has drastically
decreased.

2. Mechanical Data Processing

In mechanical data processing method, data is processed by using different devices

like typewriters, mechanical printers or other mechanical devices. This method of data
processing is faster and more accurate than manual data processing. These are faster
than the manual mode but still forms the early stages of data processing. With invention
and evolution of more complex machines with better computing power this type of
processing also started fading away. Examination boards and printing press use
mechanical data processing devices frequently.

3. Electronic Data Processing

Electronic data processing or EDP is the modern technique to process data. The data is
processed through computer; Data and set of instructions are given to the computer as
input and the computer automatically processes the data according to the given set of
instructions. The computer is also known as electronic data processing machine.

This method of processing data is very fast and accurate. For example, in a
computerized education environment results of students are prepared through
computer; in banks, accounts of customers are maintained (or processed) through
computers etc.
a. Batch Processing

Batch Processing is a method where the information to be organized is sorted into

groups to allow for efficient and sequential processing. Online Processing is a method
that utilizes Internet connections and equipment directly attached to a computer. It is
used mainly for information recording and research. Real-Time Processing is a technique
that has the ability to respond almost immediately to various signals in order to acquire
and process information. Distributed Processing is commonly utilized by remote
workstations connected to one big central workstation or server. ATMs are good
examples of this data processing method.

b. Online Processing

This is a method that utilizes Internet connections and equipment directly attached to a
computer. This allows for the data stored in one place and being used at altogether
different place. Cloud computing can be considered as a example which uses this type
of processing. It is used mainly for information recording and research.

c. Real-Time Processing

This technique has the ability to respond almost immediately to various signals in order
to acquire and process information. These involve high maintainance andupfront cost
attributed to very advanced technology and computing power. Time saved is maximum
in this case as the output is seen in real time. For example in banking transactions

Example of real time processing

 Airline reservation systems

 Theatre (cinema) booking
 Hotel reservations
 Banking systems
 Police enquiry systems
 Chemical processing plants
 Hospitals to monitor the progress of a patient
 Missile control systems

Advantages

 Provides up-to-date information

 The information is readily available for instant decision-making
 Provides better services to users/customers.
 Fast &reliable
  Reduces circulation of hardcopies.

Disadvantages

 Require complex Os & are very expensive

 Not easy to develop
 Real time systems usually use 2 or more processors to share the workloads, which is
expensive.
 Require large communication equipment.

d. Distributed Processing

This method is commonly utilized by remote workstations connected to one big central
workstation or server. ATMs are good examples of this data processing method. All the
end machines run on a fixed software located at a particular place and makes use of
exactly same information and sets of instruction.

The Differentiate between CPU bound jobs and I/O bound jobs.

CPU bound jobs require more of the CPU time to process these jobs. Most of the work
the I/O devices perform is on the Input; and Output; hence, they require very little CPU
time.

Most companies are now shifting from the use of geographically distributed personal
computers. This method of data processing is known as Distributed Data Processing
(DDP)

Three computing resources that can be distributed.

-CPU (Processors) time

-Files

-Application software

-Data/information/messages

-Computer processing power

-Memory (computer storage)

- Input/Output devices, e.g. printers

-communication devices/communication port

Examples of industries and business organizations that extensively use distributed

processing systems.

 Banks
 Computerized retails stores, e.g. supermarkets
 Learning institutions with many departmental offices
 Bureaus or communication cyber cafes
 Airline reservation systems

Benefits and three risks that might be associated with the distributed data
Processing system.

The load on the host computer is greatly reduced

 The use of low cost minicomputers minimizes the cost in data processing
 Delays in data processing are reduced
 Provides better services to the customers
 There is less risk in case of system breakdown
 The design & implementation of the system is less complex due to decentralization
 The level of expertise required is less.

Risks

o Data duplication is very common

o Programming problems occur with microcomputers & minicomputers
o Security threats, i.e. the data & information sent one the network from one place
to
o another can be tapped, or listened to by unauthorized parties
o More training is needed for the users involved
o It is expensive due to the extra cost of communication equipment.

The concept of multi-programming

A Multi-programming system allows the user to run 2 or more programs, all of which
are in the computer’s main memory, at the same time.

Benefits that are derived from multi-programming

 It increases productivity of a computer

 Reduces the CPU’s idle time
 Reduces the incidence of peripheral bound operation
Advantages of storing data in computer files over the manual filing system

 Stored information takes up less space

 Easier to update and modify
 Provides faster access and retrieval of data
 Reduces duplication of data or stored records
 Cheaper
 Enhances data integrity (i.e. accuracy and completeness)

The difference between logical and physical computer files.

A logical file is viewed in terms of what data items it contains and what processing
operations may be performed on the data

A physical file is viewed in terms of how the data items found in a file are arranged on
the storage media and how they can be processed.

Arrange the following components of the information system data hierarchy in

ascending order of complexity:

Field, Database, Byte, Record, Bit, and file

Bit Byte Field Record File Database

TYPES OF COMPUTER FILES

i) Report file- It contains a set of relatively permanent records extracted from the data
in a master file.

They are used to prepare reports, which can ve printed at a later date, e.g. report on
student’s class performance in the term, extract of students who have not cleared their
school fees, report on absentees
ii) Backup file- Used to backup data or to hold duplicate copies of data/information
from the computer’s fixed storage or main file for security purposes e.g. a copy of all the
students admitted in a school fees, report on absentees

iii) Reference file - Used for reference purposes. It contains records that are fairly
permanent or semi-permanent, e.g. Deductions in caution money, wage rates, tax
deductions, employees address, price lists etc.

iv) Sort file – used to sort/rank data according to a given order, e.g. ranking position in a class
of students.
v) Transaction file - Is used to hold input data during transaction processing. It is later used to
update master files and audits daily, weekly or monthly transaction.

FILE ORGANISATION METHODS

What is file organization?

1. It is the way records are arranged (laid out) within a particular file or any secondary
storage device in a computer
2. Refers to the way data is stored in a file
3. File organization is important because it determines the method of access, efficiency,
flexibility and storage devices to be used.

Methods of file organization

i) Sequential and serial

In sequential file organization, records are stored in a sorted order using a

key field, while in serial; the records are stored in the order they come into the file, and
are not sorted in any way.

ii) Random and indexed-sequential

In random file organization, records are stored in the file randomly and accessed
directly, while in indexed –sequential, the records are stored sequentially but accessed
directly using an index.

iii) serial file organization

Records are in a file are stored and accessed one after another on a storage medium

iv) Indexed sequencial file organization method

Similar to sequential method, only that an index is used to enable the computer to
locate individual records on the storage media.

ELECTRONIC DATA PROCESSING MODES

This is the ways in which a computer under the influence of an operating system is
designed to process data eg
a) Batch processing is the execution of a series of jobs in a program on
a computer without manual intervention (non-interactive). Strictly speaking, it is
a processing mode: the execution of a series of programs each on a set or "batch" of
inputs, rather than a single input (which would instead be a custom job). However, this
distinction has largely been lost, and the series of steps in a batch process are often
called a "job" or "batch job".

Batch processing has these benefits:=

 It can shift the time of job processing to when the computing resources are less busy.
 It avoids idling the computing resources with minute-by-minute manual intervention and
supervision.
 By keeping high overall rate of utilization, it amortizes the computer, especially an
expensive one.
 It allows the system to use different priorities for interactive and non-interactive work.
 Rather than running one program multiple times to process one transaction each time,
batch processes will run the program only once for many transactions, reducing system
overhead.

Disadvantages
- Users are unable to terminate a process during execution, and have to wait until
execution completes.

b)

INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF TERMS

a) computer program
- Refers to a set of computer instructions created using a programming language
b) Programming
Is the process of writting of computer instructions or statements to enable computer acomplish
a paticular task/job

c) Programming Language
Is a set of characters and symbols that used to create computer instructions

d) program Systax
Refe of writting characters to the valid sequence or order of writting characters or statements in
aprogramming language

e) Source program
Is the initial code that the programmer enters in the program editor window, that is not yet
translated into machine readable form.

f) An object code
Is already translated into machine readable form

g) Translator
Utility program or language processors that convert a source code into an object code.

COMPUTER NETWORKS AND DATA COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION

Definition of terms
i) Network
A colection of independent entities that are arranged in such a manner to exchange data,
information or resources e.g Road networks, telephone networks.
ii) Computer networks
A collection of computers linked together using transmission media for the purpose of
communication and resource sharing

iii) Transmission Media

is a physical and non-physical link between two or more computers and in which a signal can be
made to flow from source to destination

iv) Resource Sharing

Is the sharing of the resources that are attached to the network for access by users eg file,
printers , data, application programs etc

v) Data Communication
A process of transmitting data signal from one point to anothe through the network

vi) Telecommunication
The communication i.e. transferring of data and information over significant distances is known
as telecommunication.

Advantages of computer network are:

 Data and software of computer can be shared with other computer on the network.
 Only the authorized user of a network can use the facilities of the network.
 Computers on the network can communicate with each other.

The disadvantages of computer network are:

 Data and information may be stolen by computer hackers if the security of network is
not reliable.
 If any computer in a network gets affected by computer virus, there is high chance of
spreading computer viruses on the other computer.
 Computers on the network have to depend on the server computer for resources.
 This sharing of information may leak the privacy of other clients.

Explain how computer network reduce expences in an office.

- Computer Networks can allow businesses to reduce expenses and improve efficiency by
sharing data and common equipment, such as printers, among many different computers. At the
same time, the network may be connected through cables, telephone lines, infrared beams etc,
which is cheaper and helps to reduce the expenses.

TERMS USED IN DATA COMMUNICATION

i) Data siganal
Is a voltage signal level in the circuirt which represents the flow of data. This can be either
Analog or
Digital in nature
ii) Signal mgnaodulation and Demodulation
Is a process of converting data signal to and from a form that is suitable for transmission over a
transmition medium.
MODEM - Converts digitl signal by superimposing it on an analog carrier signal which is
trnsmitted
over analog telephone line. A process known as Modulation
A modem at the receiving end converts the analog signal into digital form a process
called
Demodulation.

iii) Multiplexing
Is a process of sending multiple data signals over the same medium e.g a wire conductor can
carry several data signal either simultenously or at differenet times.
Demultiplexing
A preocess of seperating the multiplexed signals at the receiving end.

iv) bandwidth
- Is a maximun amount of data that the trnsmission medium can carry at any one time. e.g a
cable having a bandwidth of 100 mbps.
v) Basesband
- A digiltal signaal that is generated and applied to transmission medium directly without
modulation.
- It utilises the full capacity of transmission medium hence at any time, only one signal can be
sent unless they are multipled.

vi) Attenuation/ Signal loss

- Is the decrease in magnitute and energy as a signal progressively move along a transmission
medium. The signal is not boosted, it will totally be lost along the way and may never reach the
destination.
- It corrected by placing a signal amplifier ( repeater station) along the medium at appropriate
distances in order to receive the wek signal, clean it, amplify it then restart it.

MODES OF DATA COMMUNICATION

There are three modes of data communication
i) Simplex
ii) Half Duplex
iii) Full Duplex

1. Simplex
Communication in only one direction e.g radio broadcast. The listener cannot communicate
back through radion receiver

2. Half Duplex
- Communication in both direction but one direction at a time e.g sender sends informtion then
the receiver can reply e.g radio call

3.Full Duplex
- Communication occurs in both directions simultenouesly e.g a computer sending and
receiving data on anetwork.
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
Types of computer networks are classified acoording to size. There are three common networks
1. Local Area Network

2. Metropolitant Area Network

3. Wide Area Network

TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
- Refers to the way which computers and other devices have been arranged or how data is
passed from one computer to another in a network
- Topology is viewed in two ways
1. Logical Topology/ Signal Topology
- Deals with the way data passes from one device to the next in the network e. g Ethernet and
Token Ring

2. Physical Toplogy
- Refers to the physical layout or arrangement of cmponents on the network e.g Star, Bus, Ring,
Mesh, Tree/Hierachical Topologies

1. Bus Topolgy
Alternatively referred to as a line topology, a bus topology is a network setup in which
each computer and network device are connected to a single cable or backbone. The
following sections contain both the advantages and disadvantages of using a bus
topology with your devices.
Advantages of bus topology
 It works well when you have a small network.
 Easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear fashion.
 Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of bus topology

 Difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
 It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
 Not great for large networks.
 Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
 Additional devices slow the network down.
 If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits int

2. Ring Topology
A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other nodes,
forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node - a ring. Data travels from
node to node, with each node along the way handling every packet.
Advantages of ring Topology

 Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to
transmit
 Performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load
 Does not require a central node to manage the connectivity between the computers
 Due to the point to point line configuration of devices with a device on either side (each
device is connected to its immediate neighbor), it is quite easy to install and reconfigure
since adding or removing a device requires moving just two connections.
 Point to point line configuration makes it easy to identify and isolate faults.
 Reconfiguration for line faults of bidirectional rings can be very fast, as switching
happens at a high level, and thus the traffic does not require individual rerouting.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 One malfunctioning workstation can create problems for the entire network. This can be
solved by using a dual ring or a switch that closes off the break.
 Moving, adding and changing the devices can affect the network
 Communication delay is directly proportional to number of nodes in the network
 Bandwidth is shared on all links between devices
 More difficult to configure than a Star: node adjunction = Ring shutdown and
reconfiguration

3. Star Toplogy

Star networks are one of the most common computer network topologies. In its
simplest form, a star network consists of one central node, typically a switch or hub,
which acts as a conduct to transmit messages. In star topology, every node (computer
workstation or any other peripheral) is connected to a central node. The switch is the
server and the peripherals are the clients.[1]
Advantages

 If one node or its connection breaks it doesn’t affect the other computers and their
connections.[3]
 Devices can be added or removed without disturbing the network

Disadvantages

 An expensive network layout to install because of the amount of cables needed[3]

 The central hub is a single point of failure for the network

4. Mesh Topology
A mesh network is a network topology in which each node relays data for the network. All mesh
nodes cooperate in the distribution of data in the network. It can be applied to both wired and
wireless networks.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1) Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This topology can withstand
high traffic.
2) Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative present. So data transfer
doesn’t get affected.
3) Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other nodes.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
1) There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.
2) Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies.
3) Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the network
is tough.

Switch Bridge Packet forwarding in Switches are performed using ASICs (Application Specific
Integrated Circuits). Packet forwarding in Bridges are performed using software. Work at higher
speed. Work at lower speed. Switches have more ports. Bridges have less port. Switches can
operate on half and full duplex mode. Bridges can operate on half duplex mode only.

Router Gateways Coordinates data transfer within internal network. Coordinates data transfer
from internal network to internet. All the functionalty of gateways are in router. Gateways are
integrated into the router. Always have to have a hardware to function. Some softwares also can
perform as gateways.

IMPACTS OF INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

ON SOCIETY
INTRODUCTION
This era of ICT continues to influence our livestyle both positively and negatively. some of the
issues that result from the use of ICT inthe society. This include:
1. Effects on Employment
2. Effects on automated production
3. Issues of workers health
4. Cultural Effects
5. Breaththrough in ICT

1. Effects on Employent
The introduction of computers at the workplace has resulted in Creation of new jobs,
Replcement of computer illitrate workers and Displacement of jobs

a. Job Creation
ICT has introduced new employment opportunities that never existed before. The new job titles
are computer operators, programmers, network administrators, ICT science etc

b. Job Replacement
The workers that are computer illitrate are replaced with those who are computer literate

c. Job Displacement
Here the workers do not lose their jobs instead they are are moved to another place or
departmnet

2. Automated Production
- Used in manufacturing industries to automate their process in order to reduce cost, increase
production e.g computer controlled robots

3. Issues of workers health

- This are effects on our health e.g Repetative starin Injuries, Eyestrain, Headache,
electromagnetic emission and environmental issues

4. Cultural Effects
ICT has presented challenges to our moral and cultural values. ICT has changed the way we talk,
affected our privacy, human rights and integrity e.g
- Use of internet
- Computer related crime e.g hackng, eavesdropping etc
- Use of computers to forge certificates, passport and other documents.
- Has Has beeen used as a complaint platform agaist aspects of the society g drug abuse

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS SYSTEMS

Future trends of ict