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The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
Climate Change and
Questions of Justice
 The Choices Program
www.choices.edu
The Choices Program is a program of the Watson Institute
for International and Public Affairs and the School of
Professional Studies at Brown University. Choices
was established to help citizens think constructively
about foreign policy issues, to improve participatory
citizenship skills, and to encourage public judgement
on policy issues.

The Choices Program develops curricula on current and

historical international issues and offers workshops,
institutes, and in-service programs for high school
teachers. Course materials place special emphasis on the
importance of educating students in their participatory
role as citizens.
Focusing on three main areas­—development, security,
and governance—the Watson Institute is a community of
scholars whose policy-relevant research aims to help us
understand and address the world’s great challenges. Its
mission is to promote a just and peaceful world through
research, teaching, and public engagement.
 Climate Change and
Questions of Justice

© Copyright July 2017. Second Edition. The Choices Program. All rights reserved. Choices grants
individual teachers permission to print copies of the student text and student handouts from the
Teacher Resource Book for use in their own classroom. Permission is not granted to post this docu-
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Acknowledgments
Climate Change and Questions of Justice was developed by the Choices Program with the assistance of faculty at the
Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, scholars at Brown University, and other experts in the field. We
wish to thank the following researchers for their invaluable input:

David Ciplet Michael Warren Murphy

Assistant Professor of Environmental Studies National Science Foundation IGERT Fellow, PhD Candidate
The University of Colorado at Boulder Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs
Brown University
Guy Edwards
Research Fellow, Codirector of Climate Development Lab J. Timmons Roberts
Institute at Brown for Environment and Society Ittleson Professor of Environmental Studies and Sociology
Brown University Institute at Brown for Environment and Society
Brown University
Timothy D. Herbert
Henry L. Doherty Professor of Oceanography Dov Sax
Professor and Chair of Earth, Environmental, and Planetary Associate Professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology
Sciences Department Associate Professor of Environment and Society
Institute at Brown for Environment and Society Deputy Director (Teaching), Institute at Brown for
Brown University Environment and Society, Brown University

Leah K. VanWey
Professor of Environment and Society and Sociology
Associate Provost for Academic Space
Brown University

Thank you to the Climate Development Lab of Brown University (Jeffrey Baum, Cassidy Bennett, Camila Bustos, Ximena
Carranza, Alexis Durand, Victoria Hoffmeister, Zihao Jiang, Maris Jones, Alison Kirsch, Sophie Purdom, Allison Reilly, and
Marguerite Suozzo-Gole) for their guidance and feedback on this curriculum unit.

Thank you to Leah Elliott, Jessica Fields, Danielle Johnstone, and Maya Lindberg for their help in developing and writing this
unit.

Maps by Alexander Sayer Gard-Murray.

Cover photograph by the NOAA Photo Library (CC BY 2.0).

The Choices Program

Director Curriculum Writer Manager, Digital Media Group
Susan Graseck Lindsay Turchan Tanya Waldburger

Curriculum Development Director Research and Writing Intern Office Assistant

Andy Blackadar Ada Okun Lisa Blake

Professional Development Director Administrative Manager

Mimi Stephens Kathleen Magiera

Curriculum Development Assistant Director Marketing and Social Media Manager

Susannah Bechtel Jillian McGuire Turbitt
 Contents
Introduction: The Challenge of a Unified Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Part I: The Causes and Effects of Global Climate Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Understanding Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Effects of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Part II: Responses to Climate Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Vulnerability and Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
International Responses to Climate Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
National and Local Responses to Climate Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Barriers to Action on Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Part III: Case Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
California, United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Freiburg, Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
New Orleans, Louisiana, United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Haiti. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Nigeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Bangladesh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Options for Climate Change Policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Options in Brief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Option 1: Past Emitters Must Pay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Option 2: Responsibility Must Be Shared by All. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Option 3: Economic Growth and Development Must Come First. . . . . . . . . . . 63
Supplementary Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Videos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Online

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
ii Climate Change and Questions of Justice

Cumulative Global Carbon Emissions

This infographic shows the cumulative carbon emissions of various countries—both until 1960 and until 2010. These carbon emissions have
contributed to global climate change.

Ivonne Peña. Used with permission.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Introduction 1

Introduction: The Challenge of a Unified Response

“ Coming here today, I have no hidden that cause climate change) in the atmosphere.
agenda. I am fighting for my future. The UNFCCC set in motion a series of climate
Losing my future is not like losing change conferences that continue to this day.
an election or a few points on the Developing responses to climate change
stock market. I am here to speak for that are acceptable to all members of the
all generations to come. I am here international community is no easy task. The
to speak on behalf of the starving challenge is to take into account the many dif-
children around the world whose ferent concerns of countries, ordinary people,
cries go unheard. I am here to speak businesses, and activists in creating an ef-
for the countless animals dying fective set of policies to address this shared
across this planet because they have problem. While scientists argue that human-
nowhere left to go. We cannot afford caused climate change is an urgent matter,
to be not heard.” policy makers disagree about the severity of
—Severn Suzuki, speaking on behalf of the the threat and how to respond.
Environmental Children’s Organization at
the UN’s Earth Summit, 1992
These disagreements have made it difficult
for national governments to develop a unified
response to climate change, even after more
After addressing delegates of governments than twenty years of meetings and confer-
from across the world, Severn Suzuki became ences. The slow pace of this process has led
known as “the girl who silenced the world in people and groups outside of national govern-
five minutes.” Thirteen-year-old Suzuki and ments to develop their own responses. Just as
three of her peers had raised money to attend Severn Suzuki, with her 1992 speech, chal-
the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, lenged the idea that only national leaders have
where leaders and officials of 172 countries a stake in environmental issues, organizations
were meeting to establish an agenda to address and individuals are finding ways to raise their
global environmental issues. At the Summit, voices and create change. Local governments
Suzuki stood before this vast audience of inter- around the world are designing plans to help
national power-holders
and urged them to consider
the futures of their chil-
dren—the futures of young
people like her.
Ultimately, the Earth
Summit resulted in 165
governments agreeing
that climate change was
a shared and dangerous
Jan Golinski, UNclimatechange (CC BY 2.0).

problem. As of 2017, 196

countries have signed the
United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), prom-
ising to work together to
reduce or prevent increases
in the amounts of green-
house gases (the gases Country delegates at a 2014 United Nations (UN) Climate Change Conference
in Bonn, Germany.

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2 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Introduction
Kris Krüg (CC BY-SA 2.0).

People marching outside a 2009 UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, Denmark.

their communities adapt to the new condi- response to climate change so difficult. As you
tions caused by climate change. Several state read, keep these questions in mind:
governments have voluntarily adopted stricter • How does climate change affect differ-
environmental standards. Nongovernmental ent regions of the world?
organizations (NGOs) work to influence policy
and educate the public. Corporations are see- • Who is vulnerable to climate change?
ing business opportunities in providing more • Who is responsible for climate change?
environmentally friendly products. • How can the international community
In the coming pages, you will explore respond to climate change in a fair and
the pressing need for an effective response to effective way?
climate change and take on the challenge of After completing your readings, you will
determining what that response should be. have a chance to grapple with these same
You will begin by examining the causes and questions during a climate conference simula-
effects of climate change and by analyzing the tion with your classmates. You will take on
efforts to respond to this global problem. You the roles of national leaders, representatives
will explore eight case studies that show how of NGOs, and technical experts to debate and
different parts of the world are experiencing a discuss questions of climate justice.
changing climate. The readings highlight many
of the issues that make developing a unified

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part I 3

Part I: The Causes and Effects of Global Climate Change

Understanding Climate Change Part I Definitions
Wherever people live, they become famil- Climate change—Any significant
iar with their local climate. Some may live shifts in temperature, rainfall, wind, and
in regions where it snows or rains frequently, other environmental factors that occur
places where summers are hot and dry, or over decades or more.
in tropical or arid regions. Weather, rainfall,
temperature, and human activity affect the Greenhouse gases—Gases in the atmo-
types of plants, trees, and animals that live in sphere that warm the earth.
a region and contribute to the local climate. Climate change refugees—People who
are forced to flee their homes due to the
effects of climate change.
What is climate change?
The term “climate change” can refer to
any significant shifts in temperature, rainfall,
wind, and other environmental factors that oc- at how they affect temperature. The earth’s
cur over decades or more. The earth’s climate current average temperature is 59˚F. Without
has undergone natural variations throughout greenhouse gases, the earth’s average tempera-
the entire history of the planet. Today, the ture would drop to around 0˚F, potentially
climate change we hear about most often refers making the planet cold enough for all water on
to changes caused primarily by human activity Earth to freeze.
that alters the composition of the atmosphere.
The earth’s atmosphere is made up of
numerous gases that make
life possible. Gases such
as carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane, nitrous oxide,
and water vapor exist natu-
rally in the atmosphere and
warm the earth to a tem-
perature at which humans
can live. These gases make
up only a small percentage
of the atmosphere. They
are called “greenhouse
Mattes (public domain via Wikimedia Commons).

gases” because they trap

heat in the atmosphere
by absorbing energy that
would otherwise be radi-
ated back into space. The
process works the same
way that a greenhouse for
plants prevents heat from
escaping beyond its glass
panels. The roof and glass walls of a greenhouse let the sun’s energy in and keep
heat trapped inside, creating an environment warm enough for certain
To get a sense of how plants to grow. Gases like CO2 and methane in the Earth’s atmosphere are
important these gases are to called greenhouse gases. This is because they perform a similar function to
life on Earth, we can look the glass of a greenhouse: allowing in sunlight and trapping heat.

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4 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part I

Over the past 150 years, human activ- In ages past, their remains were buried deep
ity—primarily the burning of fossil fuels—has within the earth’s crust and were transformed
increased the amount of greenhouse gases in into petroleum and natural gas by intense heat
the atmosphere. With more greenhouse gases, and pressure. Since the start of the Industrial
the earth gets warmer, which is why climate Revolution in the late eighteenth century, hu-
change today is often referred to as “global man consumption of fossil fuels has soared,
warming.” and the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere has
Often, the topic of climate change will increased by more than 40 percent.
come up after an extreme weather event like Some scientists say that humans’ impact
a hurricane or a blizzard. When there is a on the climate traces back to the origins of
long heat wave or a series of powerful storms, agriculture. As farming replaced hunting and
people might think that they are witness- gathering as the dominant means of survival
ing climate change. But while it is tempting for humans, people cleared land of trees so
to attribute these weather patterns to global that it could be used to grow crops or raise
warming, in truth, no one
can say climate change is
happening based on their
own observations over
a few days, months, or
even years. Scientific data
collected over a period
of decades has led to
the conclusion that the
earth’s climate is drasti-
cally changing.

Reprinted with permission of the Public Agenda Foundation. Phil Sheuer, graphic artist. Text modified by the Choices Program.
“ Even with climate
change, you will
occasionally see
cooler-than-normal
summers or a
typically cold winter.
Don’t let that fool
you.”
—James E. Hansen,
director of the NASA
Goddard Institute for
Space Studies, 2012

What is causing
climate change?
Humans’ use of fossil
fuels (coal, oil, and natu-
ral gas) produces CO2 and
is the leading cause of cli-
mate change. Fossil fuels
were formed from plants
and animals that lived
millions of years ago.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part I 5

NASA. Public domain.

This graph shows the recent dramatic increase in atmospheric CO2 levels compared to the past four hundred
thousand years.

livestock. Farmland now takes up almost half developed oil-drilling techniques. By the turn
of the earth’s land surface, replacing what were of the twentieth century, the United States had
once vast expanses of forest and woodlands. taken the lead in forging an industrial econo-
Because trees absorb CO2, the deforestation my powered by coal and oil. Today, these two
meant that less CO2 was being removed from fuel sources, along with natural gas, supply
the atmosphere. As a result, the percentage of roughly 80 percent of the world’s energy. In
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere gradually 2012, coal alone was responsible for 43 per-
increased. However, it was not until humans cent of the total CO2 emissions from human
began emitting large amounts of greenhouse activity.
gases by burning fossil fuels for transportation,
industry, heat, and electricity that this increase
became pronounced.

How did industrialization

contribute to the use
of fossil fuels?
Courtesy of Leonard Bentley (CC BY-SA 2.0 via Flickr).

With the beginning of

industrialization in the
mid 1700s, Britain was
the first country to replace
wood with fossil fuels as
its main source of energy.
In addition to clearing
forests, people used in-
creasing amounts of coal to
meet Britain’s ever-growing
appetite for energy. In This photograph shows the British Houses of Parliament in the early
the 1800s, industrialists twentieth century. Visible at the left of the image, factories belching smoke
expanded coal mining and into the atmosphere were only yards away.

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
6 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part I

Carbon dioxide accounts for the majority shrinking in size, and extreme weather events
of the greenhouse gas emissions from human have increased in frequency.
activity. On the one hand, CO2 is essential for
life on Earth. For example, plants require it
How is climate science produced?
just as animals need oxygen. But it is the large
Science is sometimes thought to be a set
and rapid increase in CO2 emissions from hu-
of permanent facts. But the body of scien-
man activity that is causing the earth to warm
tific knowledge is ever-changing as scientists
more now than it has in the past.
continually work to refine understandings of
the natural world. This is also true of climate
What is the evidence of climate change? change science—how it is produced continues
Research shows that the earth’s average to develop and improve.
surface temperature has risen 1.4˚F since 1880. Climate change is a global phenomenon
This may not seem like a large change, but it is that has different effects in different regions
significant considering it has happened about of the world. Many of these effects will not be
ten times faster than the average rate of change fully apparent for decades. This makes it dif-
after each ice age. ficult to predict all the impacts climate change
Most of this warming has taken place since will have. Increasingly, scientists are making
1970. The rapid rate of change concerns sci- these projections through climate models—
entists. The overwhelming agreement among mathematical representations of how human
scientists that the climate is drastically chang- and environmental systems interact.
ing is based on rising temperatures and other To construct a climate model, scientists
evidence as well. Ocean temperatures and spatially divide each of the earth’s components
acidity levels have risen, glaciers (large masses (land, atmosphere, ocean, and ice) into boxes
of slowly moving ice) around the world are
Doug Clark, Western Washington University (public domain via U.S. National Ice Core
Laboratory).

Scientific researchers extract cores of ice from a glacier in British Columbia, Canada in July 2010. Scientists can
extract ice samples from thousands of feet below the earth’s surface. By analyzing the ice cores, they can study
variations in climate going back eight hundred thousand years. Using ice samples, scientists have determined
that the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere was relatively constant until 150 years ago, when it began to
rise more than it ever had before. The goal of these studies is to increase our understanding of past climate
conditions so we can (1) see how the climate has changed up to the present and (2) develop computer models
to predict the impact of climate change in the future.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part I 7
on a computer. For each box, researchers enter The military prepares for many possible con-
known information about those components flicts. School administrators plan for a range of
and how they interact with the others. They potential disruptions—students arriving late,
test the model’s accuracy by running a simula- teachers being out sick, and emergency situa-
tion into the past and comparing the model’s tions like fires and floods.
results with observations of what actually In each case, decision makers incorporate
happened. Once the model is adjusted to be the best information they have into planning
as accurate as possible, scientists run simula- for the future and continue to adapt their
tions into the future to make projections about course of action as new information becomes
how the earth’s climate will change in years to available. This is especially important for cli-
come. mate change, where the decisions people make
today will affect the environment they live in
Why do some people doubt for decades.
climate change science?
Despite an overwhelming consensus
among scientists regarding the reality of
The Effects of Climate Change
Rising temperatures are just one aspect of
climate change, some people have expressed
climate change. The term “global warming”
doubts about climate change science. They
has sometimes been replaced with “global
claim that the information from climate mod-
weirding” because there are so many effects
els should not be trusted because scientists are
of climate change beyond increasing tempera-
just making predictions. Others simply deny
tures.
climate change’s existence without providing
any evidence to support their claims.
What are the impacts of climate change?
It is true that since we cannot know pre-
The effects of climate change include
cisely what the earth’s future environment
rises in sea level, extreme weather events, and
will be like, there is uncertainty associated
with climate models’ projections. For instance, threats to human health. Already, many parts
we cannot know future greenhouse gas emis- of the world are beginning to feel the effects of
sions levels exactly; they will depend on climate change, while the risk of even greater
many factors including impacts multiplies each year.
international negotiations,
regional political deci-
sions, unforeseen natural
events, and technological
developments. Despite
these uncertainties, the sci-
entific community broadly
accepts that climate change
will have dramatic effects.
Furthermore, making
informed predictions to
help plan for the future
Bre LaRow (CC BY 2.0).

and manage risk is com-

mon in many sectors.
Public health officials
create plans for disease
outbreaks even if there A lobster boat off the coast of Maine in the United States. In recent years,
is uncertainty about the lobster populations have suffered dramatic declines in coastal Massachusetts,
likelihood of an epidemic. Rhode Island, and Connecticut. Scientists attribute the decline in southern
New England to rising water temperatures associated with climate change.

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
8 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part I
Sergey Vladimirov (CC BY 2.0).

On July 29, 2010, temperatures in Moscow, Russia reached 100˚F for the first time in the 130 years that
measurements have been kept. The record temperature came during a heat wave that lasted for more than
three weeks. The heat wave also caused hundreds of forest fires, created smog that blanketed Russia, and
contributed to the death of thousands of Russians who were vulnerable to the extreme temperatures and poor
air quality. Above, people in Moscow seek relief from the heat by wading in a fountain in a city park.

Oceans: Climate change could raise the seeking refuge from sea level rise have some-
level of the world’s seas by up to 6.6 feet by where to go.
2100. Rising sea levels are caused by polar ice The ocean also absorbs some of the excess
caps melting and by ocean waters expanding CO2 in the atmosphere. With more CO2, oceans
as they warm. (As water increases in tempera- become more acidic, which is harmful to
ture, it expands to take up a greater volume of marine life and could negatively affect ocean
space.) ecosystems for centuries.
Much of the world’s population and many
of the planet’s most fragile ecosystems could
become more vulnerable to coastal flooding.
Experts predict that densely-populated coastal
“ Climate change is a challenge that
few want to take on. But the price of
inaction is so high. Those of us from
cities, such as Calcutta, New York, and Shang-
Oceania are already experiencing
hai, could experience more floods. In the
it first hand. We’ve seen waves
southeastern United States, some homes and
crashing into our homes and our
coastal properties could be underwater within
breadfruit trees wither from the
the next thirty years as a result of sea level
salt and drought. We look at our
rise.
children and wonder how they will
Numerous low-lying island countries, such know themselves or their culture
as the Carteret Islands, the Marshall Islands, should we lose our islands. Climate
and Kiribati are becoming engulfed by the sea. change affects not only us islanders.
Some of their residents, often called the first It threatens the entire world. To
climate change refugees, have begun to leave tackle it we need a radical change of
the islands. People who lived on the Carteret course.”
Islands have already been forced to evacuate, —Kathy Jetnil-Kijiner, poet from the
and Kiribati has purchased land from Fiji— Marshall Islands, in a speech at a UN
over two thousand miles away—so its citizens Climate Summit, September 23, 2014

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part I 9
Extreme weather
events: Climate change
is affecting weather pat-
terns around the world.
In recent years, scientists
have observed greater
extremes of temperatures
(conditions that are either
extremely hot or extremely
cold), increased numbers
of heat waves, and more
droughts in many regions
of the world.

Mark Knobil (CC BY-SA 2.0).

In addition to tempera-
ture extremes, the number
and strength of power-
ful storms has increased.
This may be caused by
rising ocean temperatures
A hospital in Bangladesh for people afflicted with cholera, a waterborne
increasing the amount of
disease. Increases in water temperatures caused by climate change may
water that evaporates into contribute to the spread of this disease.
the atmosphere. The ad-
ditional warm water vapor
makes storms more power-
ful. Rising sea levels also increase the amount “
We’re now living in a world of
extremes on the Mississippi River.
We just don’t get normal spring rains
of damage storms cause, meaning storms that
have been less of a problem in the past are anymore. We get huge downpours.”
now becoming more dangerous. For instance, —Brant Walker, mayor of Alton, Illinois,
in May 2017, torrential rains caused flood- May 15, 2017
ing along the Mississippi River that led to the
deaths of ten people and caused over a billion Scientists are generally cautious about
dollars of damage. It was the latest in a series saying that climate change caused a particular
of increasingly frequent extreme storms to hit event. Instead they look for patterns over time
the United States in recent years. and are confident that climate change increas-
es the chance that extreme weather events will
occur more frequently.

“ [T]here is a climate change connec-

tion, because the oceans and sea
surface temperatures are higher now Health: Climate change impacts human
because of climate change, and in health in many ways. Heat waves and air pol-
general that adds 5 to 10 percent to lution increase the risk of heat stroke, certain
the precipitation. There have been allergies, asthma, kidney disease, and heart
many so-called 500-year floods along disease, especially among elderly people
the Mississippi about every five to 10 living in urban areas. For example, the 2003
years since 1993.” summer heat wave in Europe contributed to
—Kevin Trenberth, climate scientist with over seventy thousand deaths.
the National Center for Atmospheric In addition, droughts threaten reliable and
Research, May 6, 2017
affordable access to clean water for drinking
and food production, which are essential com-
ponents of good health.

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
10 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part I
USDA (CC BY 2.0).

In August 2012, an official from the U.S. Department of Agriculture and a farmer inspect a soybean field in
Missouri affected by drought. At the time, the Department of Agriculture estimated that about 60 percent of
the United States was experiencing extreme drought.

Extreme weather events often have tragic have a better chance of survival. Species that
death tolls and destroy the resources needed cannot adapt or relocate may die out and go
to promote health among members of affected extinct.
communities. For instance, powerful storms Plants and animals are generally shifting
can restrict transportation, damage medical their habitat ranges either toward the North
facilities, and cause power-outages—limit- and South Poles or toward higher altitudes to
ing access to health care. More frequent and avoid warming temperatures. Various seasonal
intense floods can lead to water contamination aspects of plant and animal life cycles are
and the spread of waterborne diseases like also being affected, like the migration patterns
cholera and diarrhoea. of birds and insects. For example, moths on
Changes in temperature and rainfall may Mount Kinabalu in Borneo are flying higher
also shift the geographic ranges of insects that up the mountain (at an average rate of 220 feet
help spread certain diseases. For instance, in altitude per decade) to escape increasing
dengue fever, a mosquito-borne disease of temperatures.
tropical and subtropical regions, returned to Many species will not be able to adapt or
Florida in 2009 after being absent for sixty-five move fast enough to keep up with the chang-
years. ing climate. Moreover, if species have to
move to find new places to live, their migra-
Species migration: As drastic and varied tion routes may be blocked by human-made
environmental changes unfold, some species obstacles like dams, roads, and cities or com-
will be able to adapt to new conditions. Others petition with other species. In these cases, the
may have to change their geographic range and likelihood of species extinction may increase.
relocate to more suitable locations where they Each of these effects—species relocations and

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part I 11
extinctions—can disrupt entire ecosystems more than eighty thousand deaths, the dis-
and the valuable services they provide to hu- placement of one million people from their
man societies. homes, and widespread disease and starvation,
the military rulers did not allow humanitarian
aid workers to enter the country until weeks
Food and agriculture: The changing
after the storm.
climate directly affects food production and
could increase costs. With increasing tempera- Increasingly severe weather systems such
tures and changes in rainfall patterns, crop as hurricanes, monsoons, or droughts could
yields in some locations may improve, while lead to violence over access to clean water and
in others they may decline. Overall, the nega- food supplies. For example, scientists believe
tive impacts of climate change will outweigh that climate change contributes to military
the positive ones. The yields of major crops conflict in Syria, with warmer, drier condi-
like wheat, rice, and corn will decrease in tions leading to increased instances of drought
many regions of the world. and food scarcity.
More frequent droughts and floods will
make food production more difficult for farm-
ers. They may have to completely alter how
they approach agriculture in the case of drastic
“ We’re not saying the drought caused
the war. We’re saying that added
to all the other stressors, it helped
climate change by growing different crops, kick things over the threshold into
changing irrigation practices, and using greater open conflict. And a drought of that
quantities of chemical pesticides. severity was made much more likely
In addition, increasing ocean temperatures by the ongoing human-driven drying
associated with climate change will impact of that region.”
fisheries—for example, increasing levels of —Richard Seager, a climate scientist at
Columbia University’s Lamont-Doherty
carbon dioxide in the ocean affect the abil-
Earth Observatory, March 2, 2015, speaking
ity of many fish to thrive. Fisheries and the about the effect of climate change on the
fishing industry are important to both the food Syrian Civil War
supplies and economies of many countries.
Furthermore, these effects will take place at The U.S. military believes that climate
the same time that global demand for food is change affects U.S. security. It is also con-
increasing. These factors could contribute to cerned that many U.S. military bases are at
rising food prices. sea level and are threatened by the prospect of
rising oceans.
Conflict and security: Climate change and

“
its far-reaching environmental effects may also I agree that the effects of a changing
contribute to political conflict and security climate—such as increased maritime
concerns around the world. In less wealthy access to the Arctic, rising sea levels,
countries, where governments are often unable desertification, among others—
to respond quickly or adequately to disasters, impact our security situation. I will
a series of poor harvests or the collapse of fish- ensure that the department continues
eries could force millions of refugees across to be prepared to conduct operations
borders. This could lead to violence or govern- today and in the future, and that
mental collapse. we are prepared to address the
Alternatively, governments could become effects of a changing climate on our
more authoritarian in order to deal with these threat assessments, resources, and
security risks. For example, the Southeast readiness.”
Asian country of Myanmar was devastated by —U.S. Secretary of Defense James Mattis,
a cyclone (hurricane) in May 2008. Despite January 2017, in written testimony
to Congress

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
12 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part I

Conclusion
You have just read a brief overview of the
causes and effects of climate change and have
seen that a warming world is already influenc-
ing the lives of plants, animals, and people
across the globe. While understandings of how
global warming works and why it is happening
have steadily improved over the past few de-
cades, the question of what to do about climate
change remains.
In Part II of the reading, you will explore
how governments and other groups, including
businesses and nongovernmental organiza-
tions, are working both to prevent dangerous
climate change and to cope with its effects.
You will begin to consider who is responsible
for the problem of climate change, who is most
at risk, and why a unified international strat-
egy for dealing with a changing climate has
not yet emerged.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II 13

Part II: Responses to Climate Change

T he atmosphere is a shared resource, which

makes climate change an international
problem. To deal with a global problem, policy
Part II Definitions
Energy efficiency—Producing more
proposals are made at multiple levels—in- energy with less fuel.
ternational, national, and local. This makes Mitigation—The effort to reduce harm.
agreeing on climate change policies difficult. Climate change mitigation focuses on
addressing the causes of climate change.
Vulnerability and Responsibility Mitigation efforts seek to reduce green-
While climate change is a shared concern, house gas emissions in order to lessen the
it does not affect places and peoples evenly. harmful effects of climate change.
There are great disputes about who should be Adaptation—Adjustment to new
held responsible for causing climate change conditions. Climate change adaptation fo-
and for repairing its damage. cuses on adjusting to the effects of climate
change. Adaptation efforts seek to reduce
Who is most vulnerable to the people’s vulnerability to these effects.
effects of climate change?
Some countries are more vulnerable to the
often end up living in swamps or the lowest-
harmful effects of climate change than others.
lying parts of the coast, where they are most
For example, Tuvalu—a country made up of
exposed to flooding.
nine small islands in the Pacific Ocean that
is home to about ten thousand people—could Poverty is important in determining
become uninhabitable in the next fifty years as vulnerability to climate change. People in the
sea levels continue to rise. Within individual world’s forty-eight poorest countries are five
countries, impacts vary by region as well. times as likely to die from climate-related
disasters. Poor countries are ill-equipped to
Even within local communities, some
deal with extreme weather and health is-
people may be more vulnerable to the effects
sues. Because money is scarce, they often
of climate change than others. This often
lack effective infrastructure (like hospitals
depends on where they live and how much
and running water systems) to deal with the
their basic needs like food, water, and shelter
impacts of climate change, and their citizens
are affected by changing climate conditions.
often live in homes that cannot withstand
For example, when Hurricane Sandy hit the
intense storms. Most importantly, countries in
United States in 2012, the people who were
the global South are the most likely to already
most affected were those in lower-income
be experiencing issues like water scarcity, food
communities, such as those living in low-
shortages, poor sanitation, and limited ac-
income sections of the Red Hook area in
cess to safe housing. Any worsening of these
Brooklyn, New York. People in poorer neigh-
problems by climate change is likely to be
borhoods may not have access to health care
catastrophic.
or the ability to evacuate their homes. Because
of this, they tend to be more vulnerable than
those who have greater means to recover from How have histories of colonialism
disasters. influenced vulnerability to climate
change in the global South?
In many countries, poor communities live
The economies of many countries in the
in environmentally unsafe areas because this
global South rely heavily on a single agricul-
is where they can afford housing. In Nigeria,
tural crop. This is a legacy of colonial times,
for example, poor people in the city of Lagos
when imperial powers would encourage each

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14 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II

The Global North and the Global South

The “global North” and the “global
South” are labels used to differentiate the
richer parts of the world from the poorer. The
global North includes much of Europe and
North America, while the global South refers
to large parts of Asia, Africa, and South
America. Because most of the richer coun-
tries are concentrated toward the north of the
globe and most of the poorer countries are
toward the south, these geographical labels
were adopted. But the terms are not perfect—
relatively rich Australia lies in the Southern
Hemisphere, while some poorer countries are situated toward the north. For this reason, some
people use the terms “developed countries” and “developing countries” instead.
The global North and the global South have political issues with deep historical roots. Dur-
ing the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the most powerful countries of what is today
the global North competed to establish colonies abroad. Most of these colonies were in the global
South. The powerful countries used colonies to gain access to raw materials and to open up
new markets for their manufactured goods. They often justified their exploitation of people and
resources in the colonies by claiming that they were on missions to “civilize” indigenous commu-
nities. By the turn of the twentieth century, Britain, France, and other colonial powers controlled
nearly the entire continent of Africa and much of Asia. U.S. colonies included the Philippines
and Cuba.
Although almost all of the colonies gained independence by the 1960s, the impact of colo-
nialism has continued to influence international relations. Economic links between the former
colonies and the former imperial powers remain important. In addition, leaders in the global
South argue that colonialism is the source of many of the problems that currently afflict their
countries—from ethnic strife to widespread poverty. International cooperation is complicated
by the differences in the priorities that rich and poor countries have and by poor countries’ fear
that they will be overpowered by the global North. These challenges are apparent in international
negotiations about how to respond to climate change, especially when the question arises of who
is most vulnerable to its effects and who should be held responsible.

of their colonies to produce only one good or How does the question of responsibility
crop. This allowed imperial powers to profit affect the response to climate change?
from their colonies while also keeping each The forty-eight poorest countries in the
colony reliant on the empire for the goods that world, which are home to 12 percent of the
its people needed. Relying on only one crop world’s population and often experience the
makes these countries particularly vulner- greatest effects of climate change, are respon-
able to unpredictable changes in climate and sible for emitting less than 1 percent of total
changes in world markets. If the price of their greenhouse gas emissions. This gap between
primary good goes down or if they experience responsibility and vulnerability complicates
one poor crop yield, their entire economy any response to climate change and raises
fails, and they experience vast food shortages. important questions:
This, in turn, makes coping with the effects of • Should wealthier countries that emit-
climate change an even greater challenge. ted more greenhouse gases over the

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II 15

Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung (CC BY 2.0).

A slum on the coast of Lagos, Nigeria. Because of devastating poverty, people have been forced to live in areas
that face extremely high risks of flooding and damage from storms.

past two hundred years bear more of bearing less responsibility for greenhouse gas
the responsibility and take on more emissions, would pay less. But it is difficult to
of the costs of dealing with climate motivate wealthier countries to take responsi-
change’s effects? bility, particularly given that they are the least
• Should poorer countries that are try- vulnerable to the effects of climate change.
ing to develop economically cut their There is also dispute over how responsi-
greenhouse gas emissions, even if it bility should be calculated. On the one hand,
slows their economic growth? some believe that countries currently emitting
the most greenhouses gases should be held
responsible. This places much of the burden of
“ Developing countries...are historically
least responsible for the emissions
that result in climate change, but
responsibility on newly developing countries
like China, which emits the most greenhouse
gases in the world. On the other hand, China
most vulnerable to its impacts.”
has a large population, which means it does
—Jessica Ayers, climate change researcher,
“Resolving the Adaptation Paradox: not have the highest per capita (per person)
Exploring the Potential for Deliberative emissions. Newly developing countries like
Adaptation Policy-Making China also do not have long-standing histories
in Bangladesh,” 2011 of greenhouse gas emissions the way countries
like the United States do. Because there are
The dispute over responsibility for past different ways to define responsibility, it is
and future emissions is one of the most dif- difficult to decide how to create a response fo-
ficult issues in determining how to respond cused on “climate justice.” This raises another
to climate change. It is costly to respond to important question:
climate change. Cutting emissions means put- • Should responsibility be based on cur-
ting limits on industry by demanding less use rent emissions, per capita emissions,
of fossil fuels, which few countries want to do. or the emissions accumulated over
history?
What is “climate justice”?
Some activists call for “climate justice” in
which countries pay the costs of dealing with
International Responses
climate change proportionately depending to Climate Change
on the extent of responsibility for emissions. In 1992, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil at what
Those countries that contributed most to the became known as the Earth Summit, 165
problem would pay the most. Poorer countries, governments agreed on the principle of pre-

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
16 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II
18

16.07
16

CO2 Emissions Per Capita in 2015

14
Metric Tons of CO2 per capita (per person)

Data from the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre. Graph by the Choices Program.
12

10

8
7.73
6.87

6
4.93

1.87
2

0
United States European Union China World Average India
(28 countries)
This graph shows the average amount of CO2 gas emitted per person in 2015 for the United States, twenty-
eight countries in the European Union, China, and India. The world average is also shown.

venting dangerous climate change. In the years Why have governments struggled to create
that followed, 196 countries ratified the UN a unified response to climate change?
Framework Convention on Climate Change It has been difficult for countries to agree
(UNFCCC), an agreement to limit greenhouse on how to limit greenhouse gas emissions and
gas emissions. The agreement stated that while to decide who should make changes to prevent
climate change is a shared problem, different future problems. The economy of a particular
countries have different levels of ability to country, its peoples’ values, and its political
respond, and that wealthier countries should structure all contribute to its stance on climate
provide funds to address the problem. change. For instance, the European Union
Most importantly, the UNFCCC created believes that effective climate change policy
a system in which countries could continue must begin with widespread and immediate
meeting regularly in order to reach the general changes in national and industrial behavior to
goals established in Rio. Each of these yearly reduce CO2 emissions. The United States and
meetings is referred to as a “Conference of the Japan prefer to focus on developing technology
Parties” (COP). The COP meetings include to protect and repair the atmosphere in the fu-
government representatives, United Nations ture. Poorer countries are primarily concerned
(UN) officials, activists, members of NGOs, and with reducing their vulnerability to the effects
corporations that contribute to considerations of climate change.
of how to address the principles agreed to in Despite the principles laid out in the
1992. UNFCCC, one of the greatest obstacles in
negotiations is deciding who is financially
responsible—who should pay. It is initially

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II 17
Jan Golinski, UNclimatechange (CC BY 2.0).

A press conference held by Secretary General of the UN, Ban Ki-moon (center) at the 19th Conference of the
Parties in Warsaw, Poland. November 19, 2013.

expensive to reduce greenhouse gas emissions What is the Kyoto Protocol?

because it requires turning away from fos- The Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC, which
sil fuels that are currently the cheapest and was negotiated in 1997, laid out clear emis-
most widely used form of energy. But it is also sions restrictions for thirty-seven wealthier
expensive to cope with the effects of climate countries and reduction targets that poorer
change. countries could volunteer to pursue.
Determining which course of action to Some countries have viewed the Kyoto
take is particularly tricky because industrial- Protocol as unfair, because it does not impose
ized countries have already reaped the benefits restrictions on China or India, both of which
of vast greenhouse gas emissions. This raises are substantial CO2 emitters. For this reason, in
important questions: 2007, countries agreed that a new agreement
• Should wealthier countries (historical- must be drawn up to replace the Kyoto Pro-
ly responsible for the most emissions) tocol. In addition, many countries (including
be required to contribute money to Canada and New Zealand) refused to submit
help poorer countries deal with the to any more emissions restrictions under the
effects of climate change? existing protocol. The United States did not
ratify the protocol at all, making the country
• Should countries from the global exempt from all of the treaty’s commitments.
South be subject to restrictions on
emissions while they are trying to
industrialize? What is the Paris Climate Agreement?
In 2015, representatives from 195 coun-
One of the most significant interna-
tries went to Paris for the COP 21. Their
tional agreements, the Kyoto Protocol to the
goal was to create an agreement to replace
UNFCCC, has fallen victim to these thorny
the Kyoto Protocol (which expires in 2020).
questions.
Governments from all countries, rich and

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
18 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II

Important International Conferences

Where? When? What? Important Developments

UN Conference Puts the environment on the UN agenda; establishes that it

Stockholm,
1972 on the Human is the responsibility of national governments to protect the
Sweden
Environment environment.

Earth Summit/UN
Signing of the UNFCCC, which acknowledges the problem of
Rio de Janeiro, Conference on
1992 climate change and includes major agreements to stabilize
Brazil Environment and
emissions but sets no mandatory limits.
Development

Adoption of the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC, which

COP-3 (Conference
Kyoto, Japan 1997 creates binding emissions reduction targets for countries
of the Parties)
that ratify the protocol.

Adoption of National Adaptation Programmes of Action

Marrakech,
2001 COP-7 (NAPAs) for short-term protection against climate change’s
Morocco
effects.

Goal of creating a successor to Kyoto is not achieved;

Copenhagen, Copenhagen Accord (drafted by the United States, China,
2009 COP-15
Denmark Brazil, India, and South Africa) only requires that countries
pledge to voluntarily reduce emissions.

Cancún, Many high-emitting countries pledge to voluntarily reduce

2010 COP-16
Mexico emissions.

Durban, South Agreement to establish a legally binding deal committing all

2011 COP-17
Africa countries by 2015.

Adoption of National Action Plans (NAPs) for long-term

Doha, Qatar 2012 COP-18 protection against climate change’s effects; agreement to
extend the life of the Kyoto Protocol until 2020.

In the Lima Accord, all countries (both rich and poor)

agree to voluntarily put forward plans to reduce domestic
Lima, Peru 2014 COP-20
greenhouse gas emissions; there are no requirements
regarding the amount of emissions reductions.

Adoption of the Paris Climate Agreement, which replaces

the Kyoto Protocol. All countries voluntarily pledge to
Paris, France 2015 COP-21 reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. The agreement
urges wealthier countries to provide funding to help poorer
countries deal with the effects of climate change.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II 19
poor alike, agreed for the
first time to create volun-

© Tribune Media Services, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted with permission.
tarily plans to reduce their
domestic greenhouse gas
emissions and provide
funding for poorer coun-
tries’ programs to deal
with the effects of climate
change. The participation
and cooperation of the
world’s largest emitters of
greenhouse gases, includ-

Cartoon by Jeff MacNelly.

ing China and the United
States, helped ensure adop-
tion of the Paris Climate
Agreement.
In June 2017, U.S.
President Donald Trump
announced the United What is mitigation?
States’ intention to withdraw from the agree- Responses to climate change are gener-
ment. According to the rules of the agreement, ally categorized into two groups: mitigation
a withdrawal could only take effect in 2020, and adaptation. The term “mitigation” means
after the next U.S. presidential election. efforts to reduce the harm of something.
Trump opposed the agreement because he be- Mitigation of climate change means reducing
lieved it was a bad deal that hurt the economy greenhouse gas emissions with the goal of pre-
of the United States. Opponents of Trump’s venting the harmful effects of climate change.
decision included environmental NGOs and Many different mitigation strategies have
large corporations like General Electric, Exx- been proposed and used over the past few
onMobil, and Ford. A poll by the Washington decades. The production and distribution of
Post showed that 59 percent of the U.S. public many goods and services involves fossil fuels.
opposed Trump’s decision, while 28 percent For instance, plastic bags, water bottles, many
supported it. plant fertilizers, clothing items, and many
cosmetics are all made from oil. Reducing
people’s demand for these things is one way of
decreasing carbon emissions. Increasing ener-
gy efficiency (producing more energy with less
fuel) across industries is another. Examples of
this include using more efficient heating, cool-
ing, and lighting systems in buildings.
LGEPR (CC BY 2.0) and KMJ (CC BY-SA 3.0).

Industry standards and regulations can

be used to promote mitigation efforts. For
instance, requiring certain levels of fuel effi-
ciency for cars or changing building codes can
decrease greenhouse gas emissions throughout
an industry. Adding labels to products with in-
formation about how they were produced can
also reduce emissions by educating consumers
and perhaps changing what consumers choose
The light emitting diode (LED) bulb on the left uses
over 75 percent less energy than the incandescent to buy.
light bulb on the right.

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
20 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II

Another strategy
involves reducing the
emissions intensity of
fuel sources. This means
switching from fuels like
coal and oil, which emit
a lot of CO2 when used,
to fuels like natural gas,

Kim Hansen (CC BY-SA 2.0).

which emit less.
Furthermore,
increasing the use of zero-
emissions energy sources
is important in reducing
the amount of greenhouse A wind farm outside of Copenhagen, Denmark, which supplies 4 percent of
the power for the city. Wind spins the blades of the wind turbines, which
gases that end up in the at-
connect to generators inside the turbines that create electricity.
mosphere. Nuclear energy
as well as energy produced
from renewable sources What economic policies
like solar, wind, and water power do not emit encourage mitigation?
any CO2 when used. Different types of policies encourage the
But zero-emissions energy sources come use of these mitigation strategies. Several
with their own set of problems. There are countries have implemented carbon taxes,
safety concerns about nuclear energy produc- which require emitters to pay fees for the
tion and the storage of its radioactive waste. amount of CO2 they emit. The money gener-
There is also a question of whether renewable ated from the taxes can then be used to invest
energy can be produced at a low enough cost in other things, like the development of renew-
and a large enough scale to be widely used. able energy.
Both businesses and people can be reluctant to In cap-and-trade systems, a limit, or “cap,”
pay more for zero-emissions energy if they can to the total amount of emissions is set. Permits
pay less for energy from fossil fuels. that allow companies to emit certain amounts
of greenhouse gases are then either given away
or auctioned off. If one company wants to
emit more CO2 than it has permits for, it can
buy permits from another company. Likewise,
CAP Excess
emissions if a company does not need to use all of its
Unused emissions
permits, it can sell them to other companies.
permits for sale
Both carbon taxes and cap-and-trade strategies
attempt to put a price on carbon. If the price is
too high, the economies of participating coun-
Alexander Sayer Gard-Murray.

TRADE tries will suffer. If the price is not high enough,

Emissions Permits
emissions levels will not drop significantly
Money and may even rise in the long term.

What is adaptation?
A cap-and-trade system sets a limit to the amount While mitigation efforts are aimed at re-
of greenhouse gases companies can emit. It allows ducing the amount of greenhouse gases in the
companies that want to emit more than their share
to buy emissions permits, or allowances, from other
atmosphere, adaptation focuses on adjusting to
companies that emit less. the effects of climate change.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II 21

Geoengineering
A few people have proposed some more extreme ways of fighting the effects of climate
change: firing chemicals into clouds to change rainfall patterns, shooting pollution into the
atmosphere to block sunlight coming toward the earth, and using machines to suck CO2 out of
the atmosphere and burying it underground. These strategies, collectively known as “geoen-
gineering,” use large-scale technological fixes to drastically change the planet’s environment.
While they attempt to reduce or slow some of the effects of global warming, these strategies
are not aimed at addressing climate change’s underlying causes. There are many serious safety
risks associated with geoengineering, as well as the potential for unknown side effects—es-
pecially because there is no way to test such large-scale projects before implementing them.
Furthermore, these strategies are expensive, and only the wealthiest countries would be able
to afford them. With countries in the global North in control of geoengineering efforts, the
interests of countries in the global South could be lost.

In the decades following the 1992 Earth ducing people’s vulnerability to the effects of
Summit, international leaders primarily climate change. For instance, creating new
directed their attention to mitigation. They types of jobs in communities that have been
hoped that through decreasing CO2 emis- dependent on fishing will make the problem of
sions, many of the potential negative effects shrinking fish populations (caused by climate-
of climate change could be avoided. Disagree- related changes in ocean conditions) less
ments among countries about how to actually catastrophic. People will have other options
implement mitigation strategies have meant for how to make a living. Adaptation needs
that progress on reducing greenhouse gas lev- and priorities vary significantly depending
els has been slow. Efforts to reduce emissions on the environmental, social, and economic
continue, but even if all human emissions of conditions of different countries, regions, and
CO2 somehow stopped today, emissions from individual communities.
the past that have accumulated in the envi-
ronment would still cause continued climate
What are National Adaptation
change. Scientists and policy makers have
Programmes of Action?
now recognized that mitigation alone is not
The increasing emphasis on adaptation,
enough.
and the fact that adaptation needs are spe-
The Cancún COP in 2010 declared that cific to particular places and peoples, has led
adaptation must be equal in priority to mitiga- to the development of National Adaptation
tion. This means that greater attention is now Programmes of Action (NAPAs). The world’s
being paid to helping countries and communi- poorest and most vulnerable countries have
ties adapt to the effects of climate change. submitted NAPAs, which are plans that out-
Adaptation strategies vary. Urban plan- line their most urgent needs regarding climate
ners in coastal cities, for example, may take change adaptation, to the UNFCCC. Each
into account sea level rise and flood surges NAPA consists of a ranked list of projects the
that accompany extreme storms. Farmers may country has identified as its highest priorities
plant different crops that are more resilient in adapting to climate change. The UNFCCC
after droughts and floods. Governments might has a fund provided by wealthier countries to
implement early warning systems for more help implement those plans. As of 2015, about
frequent and intense extreme weather events $320 million in funds have been distributed,
and disease outbreaks. although this is not nearly enough to fund all
of the NAPAs.
Improved access to health care and
economic opportunity are also important in re-

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22 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II

NAPAs, adopted at
the COP in Marrakech,
Morocco in 2001, focus on
countries’ most immediate
adaptation needs. Later,
in Doha, Qatar in 2012,
National Adaptation Plans

Practical Action Bangladesh. Used with permission.

(NAPs) were adopted by
the COP to address more
medium- and long-term
projects to adapt to a
changing climate.
While decisions about
the global response to
climate change are made
at the international level,
NAPAs and NAPs depend People in Bangladesh, one of the most vulnerable countries to sea level rise,
on extensive input from have adapted in some places by creating farms that float on water.
local stakeholders (people
and organizations who
have an interest in or are affected by an is-
sue). Both NAPAs and NAPs are intended as
“
The lesson from climate change is...
risks do not register their effects in
the abstract; they occur in particular
ways for members of local governments and
regions and places, to particular
communities to participate in making deci-
peoples, and to specific ecosystems.”
sions about how their country will adapt to
—Professors Jeanne X. Kasperson and
climate change. They are structured this way Roger Kasperson, 2001
so that adaptation plans are not imposed from
above, but rather driven by the concerns and Finding a way for local communities to
priorities of the people in each country. For participate in decision-making about climate
although climate change poses risks on an change adaptation on national and internation-
international scale, many impacts of climate al levels can be challenging. This is because
change are experienced locally. people and groups with more power, such as
wealthy countries and international organiza-

Paying for Adaptation

Many challenges and questions arise in determining how to pay for adaptation to climate
change. Mitigation efforts, such as emissions reductions, have positive effects that are felt around
the world, whereas adaptation tends to have more local benefits. As a result, mitigation has been
more appealing for wealthy countries to fund because they will directly experience its positive
effects. Consequently, much more money overall has gone toward mitigation efforts than toward
adaptation.
In addition, while it is generally agreed upon that money to help poorer countries cope with
climate change’s effects should go to the most vulnerable countries first, which countries and
projects should get prioritized is hard to determine. This is especially challenging when there is a
limited amount of money available and contributions from wealthy countries are voluntary. At the
15th COP in Copenhagen, Denmark, wealthy countries promised roughly $50 billion per year to
go toward adaptation by 2020. Some experts believe that a great deal more will be needed to fund
adaptation projects.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II 23
tions, often see local communities’ expertise as able over a long period of time. Furthermore,
inferior. For example, the top priority project as they become less easily available, they will
in Bangladesh’s NAPA was to establish more also become more expensive.
forests in coastal areas to protect against sea
level rise and more frequent extreme weather Why do countries pursue
events. The NAPA process included input sustainable development?
from people living in coastal communities, Sustainable development is a principle
but their participation was mostly sought out that many rich and poor countries try to fol-
to confirm what higher-up officials and other low. Some European countries, for instance,
experts had already decided were the top promote the use of bicycles to reduce reliance
concerns. As a result, this project focused on on fossil fuels. Efforts like this show that, in
dealing with the physical effects of climate the global North, resources can be used sus-
change, while the local stakeholders wanted tainably without sacrificing a high standard of
instead to focus on improving social and living.
economic conditions so they would be less
vulnerable. In this case, the priorities reflected In the global South, renewable energy is an
in the NAPA did not match those of the local important aspect of sustainable development,
stakeholders. providing struggling communities with effec-
tive and efficient power sources. For example,
some regions of the Philippines use solar pow-
What is sustainable development? er to pump and purify drinking water. Remote
Sustainable development is a way of villages in northern Peru generate electricity
using resources that protects both environ- using the high levels of rainfall they experi-
mental and human well-being in the long ence. These sustainable development efforts
term. Responding to climate change—through both reduce the emission of greenhouse gases
both mitigation and adaptation—can pres- and provide employment opportunities.
ent challenges for countries worried about it
hurting their economic growth. Acknowledg- Many policy makers and economists see
ing this concern, international agreements and sustainable development as a huge opportu-
conferences have stressed the importance of nity for the global South. They suggest that
sustainable development to combine economic poorer countries can “grow green” by using
improvement and climate change prevention. technology that was not available when richer
The goal of sustainable development is to meet countries first industrialized. Because of this,
the economic and social needs of the present sustainability is often included in the condi-
generation without compromising or depleting tions of loans offered by wealthy countries to
resources for future generations. the governments of the global South. Sustain-
able development also has the potential to
In the case of climate change, this princi- help many poorer countries become less reli-
ple is particularly important as the most severe ant on foreign aid.
effects of today’s actions will most likely only
be seen in decades to come. Fossil fuels, in
particular, are not a sustainable source of National and Local Responses
energy. In addition to the harmful effects of the to Climate Change
greenhouse gases released when people use Frustration with the slow pace of the
them, the supply of coal, oil, and natural gas is UNFCCC process to combat climate change
limited. These energy sources take a long time has motivated other people and groups to pro-
to form, for they are made from the remains of pose their own responses. This has happened
plants and animals that lived millions of years at different levels, from national governments
ago. People are using them up at a faster rate to small interest groups. For example, nearly
than they are being regenerated, which makes five hundred presidents of colleges and uni-
humans’ current use of fossil fuels unsustain- versities in the United States have vowed that

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
24 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II

their institutions will become carbon neutral on greenhouse gas emissions from power
(contributing no additional CO2 into the atmo- plants in 2001. This led to the establishment of
sphere). In many parts of the world, national the country’s first cap-and-trade program, the
and local governments are passing their own Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative, involving
rules about climate change. Organizations, nine states along the East Coast of the United
businesses, and individuals are also devising States.
responses to the climate change. In 2006, California passed the Global
National governments: Some countries Warming Solutions Act, which requires
are opting to take a dramatic stance on climate emissions be reduced by nearly 30 percent
change despite the lack of legally binding in- statewide by 2020. Individual cities and
ternational agreements. Denmark has vowed to towns are also making climate change a policy
end all fossil fuel use by 2050 and is a leading priority. Immediately after President Trump
user of energy from wind turbines. Costa Rica, announced the United States would with-
aiming to be carbon neutral by 2085, imposed draw from the Paris Climate Agreement, the
a carbon tax on fossil fuels. Part of the money governors of twelve states and more than two
from this tax goes toward forest conservation. hundred mayors announced plans to continue
The United States, though it is the largest to try to meet the 2025 reduced emissions
historical emitter, has demonstrated less en- target.
thusiasm. In November 2014 under President Businesses: Governments are not the only
Obama, the United States announced a new institutions that have responded to concerns
goal of reducing its emissions 26 to 28 percent about climate change. Even businesses, long
below 2005 levels by 2025. But in June 2017, seen as the enemies of climate change policy,
President Trump announced that the United have become increasingly invested in reducing
States would withdraw from the Paris Climate their impact on the climate.
Agreement and would no longer attempt to When the Kyoto Protocol was signed, oil
meet the emissions target of a 26 to 28 percent producers, vehicle manufacturers, and electri-
reduction. cal trade associations vowed to prevent the
Local governments: Although the United ratification of the agreement. Because of their
States has been slow to take action on climate economic strength, they have had the political
change at a national level, some individual power to stall many mitigation policies. How-
states have not shied away from creating ever, in September 1997, the oil corporation
climate change policy. For instance, Massa- BP announced that it would voluntarily mea-
chusetts became the first state to place limits sure its emissions and research how to reduce
levels of greenhouse gases.
By acknowledging
the effect of fossil fuels
on the environment, BP
set off a revolution in
how corporations ap-
proached climate change.
Companies and industry
Henrik Boegh (CC BY-SA 3.0).

representatives began to
actively participate in the
COP meetings and pre-
sented formal reports on
their own attempts to fight
climate change. Businesses
Public bicycles and abundant bike lanes are part of Denmark’s policy to began investing in forestry
reduce CO2 emissions from cars by making Copenhagen a cycling city.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II 25
Friends of the Earth (CC BY 2.0).

Campaigners from Friends of the Earth International participate in a peaceful march to demand climate justice
during UN talks in Copenhagen. December 2009.

projects, which aimed to provide more CO2- feeling pressure to present a new, green face
absorbing plants, and started promoting the and that customers are increasingly drawn
idea of emissions trading. to companies that express concern about the
Some people claim that these companies environment is significant.
are only trying to appear more environmen- The media: For a long time, media cover-
tally friendly to improve their public image. age of climate change, especially in the United
For instance, while BP advertises its strong States, attempted to balance claims of global
commitment to renewable energy, nongovern- warming with counter-claims that climate
mental organizations such as Greenpeace have change was not real or that human activity
drawn attention to the fact that the company was not causing it. This has declined as over-
invests significantly less money in alternative whelming scientific evidence of human-caused
energy sources compared with its investments climate change has emerged.
in oil and gas. In addition, ExxonMobil, one Media coverage of climate concerns has
of the world’s largest oil and gas companies, ballooned in recent years. This means people
prominently advertises its commitment to around the world have more access to infor-
reducing the risk of climate change. But at the mation about climate science and how the
same time, the company provides millions of atmosphere is changing. It also means that
dollars each year to organizations that promote there is greater awareness of climate-related
the denial of human-caused climate change incidents such as severe storms. Because of the
and to campaigns for politicians who are media’s growing emphasis on climate change,
against climate change mitigation policies. populations around the world have become
It remains true that corporations lobby more aware of the dangers it poses to them and
against policies like carbon taxes and that others.
the amount of money oil companies put Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs):
toward alternative energy is much less than Putting pressure on government is one of the
what they spend to increase oil extraction. key functions of “green groups,” environmen-
However, even the fact that businesses are tal advocacy organizations such as Friends

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
26 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II

ties and often disagree on

things like the viability
of alternative energy or
Cartoon by Nicholson from The Australian www.nicholsoncartoons.com.au.

how to prioritize between

mitigation and adaptation.
NGOs, therefore, do not
present a wholly unified
force during negotiations.

Barriers to Action
on Climate Change
Global climate change
has been on the agenda
Used with permission.

of local governments,
international leaders, and
nonprofit organizations for
decades, yet sometimes
it can seem like little has
of the Earth and Greenpeace. Like the media, been accomplished. Many
these organizations are responsible for increas- significant obstacles stand in the way of re-
ing public awareness of climate change. They sponding to climate change.
frequently engage with people about their
personal greenhouse gas emissions, as well as
What are the most significant obstacles
launching organized efforts to confront politi-
to responding to climate change?
cians. Other types of NGOs focus on providing
Cost: Reducing greenhouse gas emissions
on-the-ground assistance to communities try-
can be a costly endeavor. Right now, fossil
ing to decrease their vulnerability or in climate
fuels are the cheapest source of energy. This
change-affected areas that need disaster relief.
is largely because of benefits called subsidies
Examples of these include Oxfam, Christian
that governments provide. Subsidies make
Aid, and the International Federation of Red
energy from fossil fuels cheaper to produce,
Cross and Red Crescent Societies.
lower the price consumers have to pay for that
The influence of NGOs is becoming energy, and increase the price energy produc-
increasingly central to climate change nego- ers receive. Furthermore, fossil fuels are used
tiations on national and international levels. in manufacturing goods, in generating electric-
The number of organizations authorized to ity, and in other industrial activities central to
participate in COP meetings has expanded a country’s economic growth. In comparison,
considerably over the years, including many other sources of energy, such as wind farms or
from both the global North and the global nuclear power plants, are expensive to build.
South. In fact, at some COPs, representatives
Mitigation policies like carbon taxing or
from NGOs have outnumbered government ne-
cap-and-trade systems attempt to make fossil
gotiators. At these meetings, the organizations
fuels more expensive so that companies will
take part in negotiation sessions, distribute re-
find alternative energy more attractive. Unfor-
ports, hold events, and interact with the press.
tunately, this means that the price of products
Growth in the number and diversity of would increase, and neither businesses nor
organizations attending negotiations has led to individual people want to pay more. If goods
greater influence for NGOs. But there are also in one country increase in price, that country
divisions within the NGO community. These is at a disadvantage when trying to sell its
organizations do not have uniform priori- products in global markets.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II 27
Many experts say that for mitigation to other countries to compromise. The result is
work, societies and cultures have to change that the most vulnerable countries have the
in order to use less energy. This requires a least success including their interests in inter-
transformation in how people live their lives, national agreements.
challenging the way homes are constructed, Most importantly, countries of the global
the kinds of food available to eat, and even the South struggle to afford mitigation and adap-
idea of individuals owning cars. Many people tation projects, despite the fact that they will
see this as a cost in quality of life. Ultimately, be most intensely affected by climate change.
any sort of change will generate resistance. The countries that can afford these policies
Even reducing a country’s vulnerability do not face such immediate or hard-hitting ef-
through adaptation, often seen as the “cheap” fects and therefore find the problem of climate
version of climate change policy because it change less urgent.
does not scale down industry, demands fund-
ing. Obtaining this funding can be a serious Political disagreement: Competition for
challenge to governments and other organiza- political power often makes responding to
tions. climate change difficult. At the international
level, government officials can be pressured
by leaders from other countries, by economic

“ [I]t’s always easier to shell out money

for a disaster that has already
happened, with clearly identifiable
concerns, and by groups of people within their
own country who have strong and specific
interests. These competing demands mean that
victims, than to invest money in even though the risks associated with climate
protecting against something...in the change are clear, some leaders may end up
future.” prioritizing other issues in order to maintain
—James Surowiecki, a journalist in the relationships and power.
New Yorker, 2012
In addition, whatever agreements are
accomplished at the international level ulti-
The North-South divide: The historical
mately come back to individual countries to
tensions between rich and poor countries can
carry out. For this reason, political conflicts at
complicate the processes of climate change
national and local levels also help determine
negotiation. While individual countries have
what action people take to mitigate and adapt
different priorities and interests, poorer coun-
to climate change.
tries often feel they are not being treated fairly.
Countries from the global South object when For example, there is strong partisan
mitigation proposals restrict their ability to disagreement among politicians in the United
grow economically, making it harder for them States about climate change. The disputes
to build roads, provide electricity, improve include concerns about the impact of climate
education, and create jobs for their citizens. change mitigation on jobs and businesses,
They want the same opportunities that wealth- what role the international community should
ier countries have had to pursue prosperity. play in making policy, and even debates about
climate science.
Many poorer countries are also rightfully
concerned about being overpowered in nego- Furthermore, in many democratic coun-
tiations. The global North has more bargaining tries, government leaders are elected every few
power in the international system—rich coun- years. It can be difficult for a country to make
tries have the money to control world markets, lasting decisions about climate change if its
which means they can control the economies primary leaders change so frequently. Also,
of other countries. Wealthier countries often with politicians regularly up for re-election,
use their power to pursue their own national they may choose to focus on issues that pro-
interests. Poorer countries, on the other hand, vide short-term benefits to the people who
do not have the economic influence to push might vote for them as opposed to focusing

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
28 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part II

on mitigation and adaptation strategies that Scientists are also trained to emphasize
are initially expensive but reduce longer-term what they do not yet know and to make all
risks. This way, a politician is more likely to potential uncertainties very clear. Govern-
retain his or her power and influence, even if ment officials and journalists generally want
the risk of dangerous future climate conditions to hear what scientists do know so that these
continues to grow. discoveries can help inform important policy
In addition, certain industries have a decisions. This tension in communication
stronger presence in some countries than in style often makes scientific conclusions about
others. Some of these industries (like renew- climate change appear less confident in the
able energy and agriculture) may benefit from media than they really are. Scientists’ careful
responding to climate change while others explanations of uncertainty get misinterpreted
(like oil and coal production) will not. This as meaning that they are not sure of their find-
second category of industries can put immense ings. This may be one reason why the broad
pressure on government officials to make scientific consensus about the dangers of cli-
decisions that support the continued use of mate change has been misrepresented.
fossil fuels. Corporations in these industries Finally, climate change is often talked
do this through lobbying, providing funding about as having potentially catastrophic ef-
for political campaigns that align with their fects. Emphasizing the dangerous impacts of
interests, threatening to withdraw financial climate change can make the issue feel over-
support from individuals or institutions if whelming and hopeless. If people think that
certain political decisions are made, and care- there is no possible solution to climate change,
fully crafting advertisements and publicity they may not be motivated to take action to
campaigns. slow or stop its effects. Thinking carefully
Communication: Climate change is a about how people talk about climate change
tricky issue for scientists, journalists, policy and making sure to highlight how much can
makers, and the general public to talk about. be done is crucial to keeping people engaged
The concept of climate change can be hard to with the issue.
fully grasp because it refers to changes that oc-
cur over long periods of time. Because global Conclusion
warming’s effects may not be visible from one You have read about the causes and effects
day to the next, climate change is less easily of climate change, tracing its impacts on areas
relatable to people’s daily lives and can be as varied as health, species migration, agri-
easy to ignore or put off until later. culture, and international security. You have
explored contested understandings of who is
responsible for global climate change, who

“ You will never see a headline that says is most vulnerable to its effects, and who has
‘Climate change broke out today.’” the ability to respond. You have also thought
—Andrew Revkin, New York Times through different types of responses—mitiga-
reporter, 2007 tion and adaptation—weighing the benefits
and barriers associated with each.
Furthermore, scientists who study climate Climate change is a global issue with local-
change think about all the intricate details in- ly felt effects. While you have read about the
volved in the systems they study and often use complex web of international climate change
highly specific terminology. As a result, they conferences and the variety of local actors
sometimes struggle to express to the public involved, you will next dive into case stud-
what the one or two main take-away points of ies about how specific communities around
their research are and why their findings mat- the world are experiencing and responding to
ter. climate change.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 29

Part III: Case Studies

T he case studies you are about to read are

not meant to be exhaustive or comprehen-
sive. They are designed to highlight a range
Part III Definitions
Gross domestic product (GDP)—The
of effects climate change has on people and total value of goods and services produced
places around the world, to consider what within a country in a year.
factors in specific situations shape the effects
Life expectancy—The average number
of climate change, to think about how these
of years that a person can expect to live.
factors interact to increase vulnerability of spe-
It is based on statistical analysis of social,
cific groups of people, and to explore various
economic, and biological data.
methods of response.
Each case study includes a table with basic
information about the country covered. For in these tables as you consider each case and
those that focus on cities or states, information compare it with others. As you read, keep
about the specific regions is included in the these questions in mind:
text of the case. You will be given the popula- • What might be the priorities of the
tion of each country and its gross domestic people living in each country?
product (GDP) per capita. GDP per capita is
• To what degree is each country respon-
an estimate of the economic output per per-
sible for the greenhouse gas emissions
son within a country and gives a sense of a
that are warming the planet?
country’s economy and its citizens’ incomes.
A higher GDP per capita generally means the • Which effects of climate change might
population of that country is more wealthy be of greatest concern to each country?
and the government has more money for • To what extent can each country re-
pursuing various policies. A lower GDP per spond to the effects of climate change?
capita, on the other hand, suggests a poorer
• Who are the people driving efforts to
population with limited government funds.
respond in each place?
In addition to population and GDP per
After reading these case studies, you will
capita, the table for each case will show the
begin to consider what responses to a changing
average person’s life expectancy and the car-
climate, both locally and internationally, you
bon dioxide (CO2) emissions per capita (per
believe to be most fair and effective.
person) in that country. Use the information

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
30 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III

California, United States

The story of California’s 2006 Global
Warming Solutions Act provides a window United States
into climate change mitigation politics.
Population 324 million
With over thirty-nine million people, GDP per Capita US$57,300
California has the highest population of any
U.S. state. If it were a country, its economy Life Expectancy 80 years
would be sixth largest in the world. Both of CO2 Emissions per
16.2 metric tons
these factors contribute to California’s abil- Capita
ity to influence the rest of the United States,
helping it set policy trends that the rest of the How is California experiencing
country may soon follow. Californians have a climate change?
history of being interested in environmental is- Jerry Brown, who became governor of
sues. This public support has helped the state California in 2011, has called California the
lower its emission levels. (California emits 9.2 “epicenter of climate change.” The state is
metric tons of CO2 per capita, while the U.S. experiencing a number of climate change’s
average is about 16.2 metric tons.) Looking effects—flooding, lower crop yields, extreme
more closely at California can help show how heat, drought, and wildfires—which are ex-
mitigation policies can be established locally pected to worsen in the coming century.
rather than at the international level.

OREGON

Snake
River

Sacramento Carson City Salt Lake City

San Francisco
Oakland
U N I T E D S T A T E S
UTAH
Pacific CALIFORNIA
NEVADA COLORADO
Ocean River
rado
C olo

Santa Fe
Los Angeles
ARIZONA
nde
Gra

N San Diego Phoenix

Rio

250mi
250km NEW MEXICO

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 31
California’s heavily popu-
lated coastal cities are highly

© Tribune Content Agency, LLC. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted with permission.
vulnerable to climate change.
Many of these cities are impor-
tant shipping hubs that bring
critical goods to the United
States. Sea level rise associ-
ated with global warming will
increase the risk of flooding and
damage to highways, power
plants, airports, and other in-
frastructure along California’s
coast. California also produces
over a third of the United States’
vegetables and two-thirds of
the country’s fruits and nuts.
Changes in water supply and
temperature related to climate
change will reduce crop yields which can destroy people’s homes. Some ex-
in the state and affect the many farming com- perts predict that the area of land in California
munities that depend on agriculture for work. affected by wildfires will increase significantly
In addition, California is already prone to in the next hundred years.
drought, and climate change may make future
droughts more intense. Political conflicts
How is California responding
have erupted within the state as well as be-
to climate change?
tween California and its neighbors about how
California has taken the lead on climate
scarce and precious water resources should
change mitigation within the United States. In
be shared. An extreme drought has already
2006, California passed a law called the Global
caused tens of thousands of farm workers to
Warming Solutions Act, which requires that
lose their jobs and has cost the agriculture
by 2020, the state reduce its greenhouse gas
industry well over a billion dollars. Hot, dry
emissions to the levels they were in 1990. If
conditions also increase the risk of wildfires,
California meets this goal,
its 2020 emissions would
be nearly 30 percent less
than they would have been
without the law, bringing
the state close to what the
Kyoto Protocol would have
required.
The law also includes
plans for a statewide
cap-and-trade system for
Loco Steve (CC BY 2.0).

major emitters, one of the

first in the United States.
This program is seen as a
“test case” as to whether a
cap-and-trade system can
Climate change is affecting agriculture in California, which grows much of
the United States’ fruits and vegetables. Water shortages from more intense successfully curb emis-
droughts could threaten farmers’ ability to water their crops. sions without hurting the

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
32 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III

economy. Environmental
regulations in California
have influenced national
policies in the past. If the
program is successful,
some say it will increase
the chance that the United
States could adopt a simi-
lar program nationally.

Bob Nichols, USDA. 20131030-FS-RBN-211.

Establishing Cali-
fornia’s Global Warming
Solutions Act was not
easy. Even after the law
was passed, it was nearly
overturned. Oil compa-
nies, even those from other
states, funded much of
the opposition to the law.
These companies claimed U.S. Forest Service Chief Tom Tidwell (left) and Smokey Bear (right) honoring
then Governor of California Arnold Schwarzenegger (center) for signing and
their disapproval was fu-
implementing California’s Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006.
eled by concern that the
law would cause many
By 2020, experts say the state’s cap-and-
Californians to lose their jobs. But many oth-
trade program will be generating $5 billion
ers, including California’s governor at the time,
per year (as companies purchase emission
believed the companies were worried that
permits). California plans to put this money
their own profits would suffer under the law.
toward other climate change mitigation and
adaptation projects, and at least 25 percent

“ Does anyone really believe that these

companies, out of the goodness of
their black oil hearts, are spending
of the money will go toward programs that
benefit poor communities. The state has also
partnered with the Canadian province of
millions and millions of dollars to Quebec—linking their cap-and-trade systems
protect jobs?... It’s not about jobs together—and plans to continue joining with
at all, ladies and gentlemen. It is other programs.
about their ability to pollute and thus California continues to push forward
protect their profits.” in climate change mitigation. In 2015, Gov-
—Former Governor of California Arnold ernor Brown announced a new goal for the
Schwarzenegger, 2010
state, calling for 50 percent of its energy use
to come from renewable sources by 2030.
Oil companies were not the only groups The following year, California enacted leg-
that resisted. Some environmental groups were islation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
concerned that the cap-and-trade system did to 40 percent below 1990 levels by the year
not put strong enough limits on emissions. 2030. Even though California is not a national
They feared that it would be ineffective in government, the state is providing a model
mitigating climate change and that it would for mitigation on a national and international
not do enough to stop oil companies from scale.
polluting areas where many poor people live.
Despite so much controversy, the law re-
mained in effect, and California implemented
its cap-and-trade system in 2013.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 33
China
China’s recent and rapid development
demonstrates how economics China
influences both vulnerability to and
responsibility for climate change. Population 1.4 billion

GDP per Capita US$14,600

The People’s Republic of China is the Life Expectancy 76 years
world’s largest country by population size and
CO2 Emissions per
the second largest by land area. Within the 7.5 metric tons
Capita
country there is huge variation in culture, liv-
ing standards, and environmental conditions
across provinces. How is China experiencing climate change?
The impacts of climate change in China
For more than thirty years, China’s econ- are often overlooked in the local media and
omy has been steadily growing, which has in political discussions. Nevertheless, climate
drastically reduced poverty. At the same time, change affects China in many important ways;
there has been a rise in inequality between the country faces risks of flooding, extreme
China’s rich and the country’s poor. The case weather, and food and water scarcity. Some
of China illustrates the impact of economics scholars have even claimed that China is
on both vulnerability to and responsibility for the country most vulnerable to the effects of
climate change.

RUSSIA

KAZAKHSTAN
Ulan Bator
MONGOLIA

Sea of
Beijing N. KOREA
Japan
Tianjin
S. KOREA
C H I N A JAPAN
Tokyo
Nanjing
Chongqing Wuhan Shanghai
INDIA
NEP
New Delhi AL

People per km²

Guangzhou
0-50
MYANMAR Hong
50-100 Kong
100-300 BANGLA-
DESH Macau
300-500 THAILAND
500-700 Bay of Bengal South
N VIETNAM
700-900 China
500mi Sea
>900
500km PHILIPPINES

This map shows China’s population density (how many people live in each square kilometer of territory). China
has the highest total population of any country in the world, and much of its population is concentrated along
the coast.
www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
34 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III

climate change. China’s meteorological admin- those who live in the cities. Many of these
istration has said that in parts of the country, rural economies offer few employment options
the speeds at which temperatures are rising other than farming. As a result, people in rural
have consistently topped the global average. areas are hard-hit by crop failures caused by
Dramatic temperature increases mean that extreme weather or changes in the lengths of
people in China can expect to experience se- seasons. Additionally, a lack of hospitals and
vere social effects of climate change. Some of other services and infrastructure means that
the most densely populated cities in the world rural residents find it extremely difficult to re-
are situated along China’s coast. The city of cover from the effects of climate change. These
Shanghai, for example, has a population den- factors, combined with how difficult it is for
sity of more than 9,900 people per square mile people to leave rural areas, make China’s rural
(far exceeding Los Angeles’ population density population especially vulnerable to the effects
of 8,200 people per square mile). In addition, of climate change.
the rural areas surrounding these coastal cit-
ies have much larger populations than inland How is China responding to climate change?
areas toward the west. Because of the concen- Despite China’s vulnerability to many dan-
tration of people living along the coast, sea gerous effects of climate change, the Chinese
level rise threatens the homes of eighty-five government has been reluctant to commit to
million people (more than the entire popula- strong mitigation agreements. This is because
tion of the United Kingdom). China’s economy is dependent on manufactur-
China’s strict residential laws (known ing that requires a great deal of energy and that
as the hukou system) that limit the ability of relies largely on coal. Until the rapid economic
people to migrate could make this even more growth of the past thirty years, China was a
devastating. In particular, it is very difficult to very poor country. It has used the rapid expan-
move from rural areas in the countryside into sion of industries to relieve poverty. Promising
a city. Rural residents are much poorer than to sharply reduce emissions from fossil fuels
might slow China’s economic growth.
China’s historical reluctance to increase its
mitigation efforts have had international con-
sequences. For example, the main reason that
the United States refused to ratify the Kyoto
Protocol was that the treaty did not require
emissions reductions from countries in the
global South, like China and India.

“ We still have 150 million people

living below the poverty line and
we therefore face the arduous task
of developing the economy and
improving people’s livelihood. China
is now at an important stage of
accelerated industrialization and...
we are confronted with special
Frog and Onion (CC BY 2.0).

difficulty in emission reduction.”

—Former Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, at
the Copenhagen Climate Summit, 2009

In fact, China currently emits the most

A farmer in the Yunnan province of China. greenhouse gases of any country, accounting

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 35
for about 30 percent of the world’s CO2 emis-
sions. This is partially because it has a large
population; the amount of greenhouse gas
emissions per person in China is actually less
than half that in the United States.
China’s status as the “factory of the world”

Michael Mandiberg (CC BY-SA 3.0).

also contributes to the country’s high emis-
sions levels. Many of the products used across
the world are manufactured in China, so some
claim that emissions have been “exported” to
China. This means that despite China’s posi-
tion as the biggest emitter, it may not be the
most responsible for climate change because it
is merely emitting gases on behalf of the coun-
tries that are buying its goods.
renewable and zero-emissions energy sources
But China is starting to show greater inter- become more widely used globally. Its goal is
est in reducing its dependence on fossil fuels. to grow economically by providing all of the
In November of 2014, Chinese President Xi technology for this type of energy.
Jinping announced a joint emissions reduc-
Furthermore, China has an interest in re-
tion agreement with U.S. President Obama.
ducing its use of fossil fuels like coal because
This was China’s first ever commitment to cap
they are causing thick smog in many Chinese
its CO2 emissions and paved the way to its
cities. This smog makes people sick, reduces
agreeing to sign the Paris Climate Agreement
tourism, and makes the public frustrated with
in 2015.
the government. China is already experiment-
In addition, China is showing an increas- ing with some cap-and-trade schemes in cities
ing interest in alternative energy. The country suffering from smog problems. By March 2017,
has become the world’s leading investor in it had shut down all coal plants in Beijing.
renewable energy technology both at home China is beginning a policy transformation
and abroad. China now produces more wind that will improve the prospects of the global
turbines and solar panels than any other coun- fight against climate change.
try. China wants to be at the forefront when
BriYYZ (CC BY-SA 2.0).

Thick smog blanketing the city of Shanghai.

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
36 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III

Colombia
Shifting distributions of malaria
cases in Colombia that are closely Colombia
tied to temperature show how climate
change could affect human health. Population 47.2 million

GDP per Capita US$14,100

Colombia was part of a territory under Life Expectancy 76 years
Spanish colonial rule until it gained its inde-
CO2 Emissions per
pendence in 1819. Throughout the nineteenth 1.7 metric tons
Capita
century, this territory broke up into multiple
smaller countries until the Republic of Colom-
bia as it is today emerged in 1903. Colombia the southeast, and low-lying coasts on both the
is now the fourth largest country in South Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Its economy is
America by land area and the third largest based on exporting goods such as petroleum,
economy on the continent. Over the past coal, emeralds, coffee, bananas, and clothing.
fifteen years, economic growth has improved In fact, it is the fourth largest coal exporter
living standards for many, but a large por- in the world. Despite a history often marked
tion of its population lives in poverty. The by political conflict and violence, Colombia’s
country has highly varied geography, with economy is quickly growing, and it is becom-
densely populated mountainous regions in the ing a more important player on the global
northwest, tropical rainforests that are home stage. Studying how climate change affects Co-
to many different plant and animal species in lombia can demonstrate how climate change
affects human health.

Oranjestad
CURAÇAO
NICARAGUA ARUBA GRENADA
Caribbean Sea Willemstad St. George’s

Barranquilla Port of Spain TRINIDAD &

Caracas TOBAGO
San José

Panama City
VENEZUELA
COSTA
PANAMA
ena

RICA
Rio Orinoco
al
agd

N Medellín
M

Ri
o

500mi s GUYANA
500km n
i Bogotá
a Rio O
Pacific
t

oc
rin

o
Cali
n

Ocean C O L O M B I A
u
o
M

Quito
s

BRAZIL Rio Negro

ECUADOR
e
n d
A

Am
PERU Ama a
zon zon R.
R.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 37
year. Malaria can be dead-
ly if not treated quickly,
and in many parts of the
world, malaria medicines
are no longer effective
to treat it. A certain type
of mosquito spreads the
parasite that causes the
disease, and where these
mosquitoes are able to live
is highly dependent on
climate conditions. While
McKay Savage (CC BY 2.0).

the environmental fac-

tors that determine where
mosquitoes live are highly
complex, both the malaria
parasite and the mosqui-
Colombian coffee is known as some of the best in the world. Certain types toes that carry it generally
of Colombian coffee beans need to be hand-picked and hand-sorted, which thrive in warm tempera-
makes it possible for small family farms to compete in the international
tures.
market. Coffee plants are very sensitive to climate conditions, and climate
change may be increasing the prevalence of disease among the plants. For decades, the
disease has been present
How is Colombia experiencing only in the country’s lower
climate change? elevation regions, and its overall prevalence
Because of the diversity of landscapes has even decreased throughout the country.
present in the country, Colombia is experienc- Nevertheless, as temperatures have risen
ing a wide range of climate change’s effects. over the past few decades, more cases of the
Between 1983 and 2013, increasing tem- disease have emerged at higher elevations.
peratures shrunk the glaciers (large masses of With warming temperatures, the mosquitoes
slowly moving ice) in the Colombian Andes that spread malaria may be able to live in the
Mountains by almost 60 percent. Today, these higher, traditionally cooler, areas of the coun-
glaciers are melting even more quickly. From try—bringing malaria to those regions where it
2002 to 2007, Colombian glaciers shrunk, on had not been common before. This means that
average, by three square kilometers each year. climate change may put the dense populations
At this rate, experts project that these gla- of Colombia’s mountainous regions at greater
ciers will completely disappear before 2020. risk of malaria.
This affects the amount of water available for
drinking and farming as well as for electricity
generation (around 70 percent of the electricity
produced in Colombia is from hydropower). In
addition, like in many other coastal countries,
flooding from sea level rise could displace
javierg0190 (CC0 1.0 via Pixabay).

many people and cause huge losses in the

croplands that are vital to Colombia’s econo-
my.
Colombia may also experience some of
the health effects of climate change. About 21
percent of Colombia’s population is at risk of
malaria infection, a disease that affects 300 A rural road in Colombia. Colombia has a highly
to 600 million people around the world each varied landscape including the Andes mountains,
lowland coasts, and tropical rainforests.
www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
38 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III

is not clear how La Niña

James Gathany, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Public Health

(and its warmer counter-

part, El Niño) is linked to
global warming, but the
extreme weather made
people in Colombia more
concerned about the ef-
fects of a changing climate.
After this environmental
disaster, Colombia shifted
its focus to adaptation.
Image Library. ID #7861.

This is similar to other

countries in South Amer-
ica, like Uruguay, where
recent climate-related
Certain types of mosquitoes, called Anopheles mosquitoes, can carry the disasters led government
malaria parasite and spread the disease to humans. officials and the public
to pay more attention to
climate change.

“ Our latest research suggests that with

progressive global warming, malaria
will creep up the mountains and
spread to new, high-altitude areas.” “ Colombia is not a country with high
polluting emissions, but we want to
assume our responsibility with the
—Menno Bouma, London School of
Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, 2014 planet and its future.”
—Colombian President Juan Manuel
How is Colombia responding Santos, 2010
to climate change?
Before the mid-2000s, Colombia focused Colombia has now made climate change
primarily on climate change mitigation adaptation a national priority. Policies to com-
projects that were also seen as economic op- bat the effects of climate change are integrated
portunities. For example, it participated in into many country-wide plans and projects.
programs that allowed wealthier countries to For example, Colombia created an Adaptation
assist with projects, like new fuel-efficient bus Fund to help farmers recover from the damag-
systems, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ing effects of the 2010-2011 La Niña, and in
in Colombia. These projects helped Colombia 2017, began to implement its National Adap-
pursue sustainable development while also tation Plan for the UNFCCC. In addition, as
helping wealthier countries reach their emis- part of the Colombian National Pilot Study of
sions reduction goals to prevent continued Adaptation to Climate Change, the country has
global climate change. increased its malaria monitoring and preven-
tion efforts. Colombia has recently developed
Colombia’s response to climate change has
new maps, mathematical models, and early
recently shifted. In 2010 and 2011, the country
warning systems to help plan for changes in
experienced devastating rainfall, flooding, and
patterns of malaria exposure. Collaborations
cold from a cyclical climate condition called
between government ministries that focus on
La Niña, which shifts ocean and air tempera-
climate and those that focus on malaria are
tures in the southern Pacific into a roughly
increasing. Because of these efforts, Colombia
ten month cold phase. The intense flooding
has become internationally recognized as a
affected four million Colombians and caused
leader in South America on climate change
more than US$7 billion in damages related to
issues.
loss of livestock, homes, and infrastructure. It

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 39

Freiburg, Germany
Careful city planning and changes in
lifestyle in the city of Freiburg show what Germany
is possible when a highly developed urban
community prioritizes reducing its emissions. Population 80.7 million

GDP per Capita US$48,200

Freiburg is a wealthy city in the southwest Life Expectancy 81 years
of Germany that is home to many univer-
CO2 Emissions per
sity professors. Nearly 12,000 of its 225,000 8.9 metric tons
Capita
citizens work in environmental management
or environmental science, including renew-
able energy research. With the average income of its infrastructure after the war ended. This
in Freiburg almost 30 percent higher than the means that many of the buildings and roads
rest of Germany, the city generally has a high in Freiburg today were constructed relatively
standard of living and has become internation- recently, some with environmental concerns
ally known for its environmentally friendly in mind. Freiburg serves as an example of how
practices. For example, per capita CO2 emis- carefully-thought-out city planning can enable
sions from transportation in Freiburg are only changes in lifestyle and make possible a highly
29 percent of the U.S. average. developed urban community without harmful
greenhouse gas emissions.
Because Freiburg was heavily bombed
during World War II, it had to rebuild much

SWEDEN
N
250mi DENMARK Copenhagen
250km
Baltic Sea
North
Sea
Hamburg
Elbe

Berlin
UNITED Amsterdam POLAND
THE
KINGDOM The Hague NETHERLANDS

London
Rh

Brussels GERM ANY

ine

BELGIUM
English Channel Frankfurt Prague

LUX.
CZECH REPUBLIC
Luxembourg

Strasbourg Da
Paris nu
ine

FRANCE be
Vienna
Rh

Freiburg Munich
Sei
ne

Loire
AUSTRIA
Bern
SWITZERLAND

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
40 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III

decades. As early as 1996,

city officials declared that
Freiburg would strive to
reduce its CO2 emissions
by 25 percent by 2010.
Although it did not quite
meet this goal, the city
is now striving for a 40
percent reduction of emis-
Andrew Glaser (CC BY-SA 3.0).

sions by 2030. Even more

ambitious, it is hoping to
become carbon neutral
(contributing no additional
CO2 into the atmosphere)
by 2050.
The “Solar Settlement” is a residential area in the Vauban quarter of
Freiburg that uses solar panels to produce more energy than it uses. All the

“
homes in this community are carbon neutral. Freiburg should not,
nor does it want
How is Freiburg experiencing to, rest on its laurels,
climate change? content with being a charming,
With over 1,800 hours of sunshine each engaging ‘feel good city’.... Today,
year, Freiburg is one of the hottest, sunni- the city is also seen as a model
est locations in Germany. Climate change is combination of ‘soft’ ecology and
expected to increase the risk of heat-related ‘hard’ economy. Environment policy,
health problems like heat stroke in southern solar engineering, sustainability, and
Germany. There also may be more forest fires. climate protection concepts have
In addition, fresh water will become more become the mainstays of economic,
scarce in the region in the coming century, political, and urban development.”
especially during the summer. On the other —City of Freiburg Green City Office, 2011
hand, Freiburg is within a major wine produc-
ing region of Germany, and global warming is
expected to help the grape
harvest. Overall, these
environmental impacts
are much less severe and
immediate than in many
other parts of the world.
This makes adaptation less
of a priority for the people
of Freiburg, allowing them
to focus more on mitiga-
tion strategies.

How is Freiburg
Ken Hawkins (CC BY 2.0).

responding to
climate change?
Freiburg has worked
to minimize its impact
on the environment for Riding bicycles is a popular form of transportation in Freiburg.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 41
Cora Went. Used with permission.

Easy access to public transportation in Freiburg makes it possible to have fewer cars in the city.

Freiburg is an international hub for re- While Freiburg has taken some dramatic
search on renewable energy sources, especially steps toward sustainability, it is just one of
solar. Solar panels are on many buildings— many cities across the globe that is trying
businesses, universities, private homes, to reimagine how urban life and the natural
churches, city hall, and even the soccer world can more harmoniously coexist. This is
stadium. Some of the city’s electricity is also especially important because by the year 2050,
produced by processing trash. more than two-thirds of all people worldwide
Some sections of Freiburg have gone even will live in cities.
further in their efforts to reduce greenhouse Freiburg is a member of ICLEI-Local Gov-
gas emissions. The Vauban Quarter is a region ernments for Sustainability, an international
of Freiburg built in 1998 that is close to the association of cities and local governments
city center. There are no parking spots on the dedicated to sustainable development. While
streets, and many people in Vauban do not the ICLEI (International Council for Local
have cars. (The city has an extensive public Environmental Initiatives) is currently based
transportation system, and bikes are very pop- in Germany, its member cities and towns are
ular.) The few people who do have cars must spread across the world in over eighty coun-
purchase expensive parking spots, which are tries. This type of international organization
very limited. Houses are specially designed to helps create partnerships among cities so they
minimize energy needs, and cooperative living can learn how other places are working toward
is common. This builds community among the reducing CO2 emissions and building greater
residents, many of whom take pride in their resilience against the effects of climate change.
environmentally friendly lifestyle.

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
42 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III

New Orleans, Louisiana, United States

The destruction Hurricane Katrina
caused in the city of New Orleans shows United States
the dangers that extreme storms and
sea level rise—both associated with Population 324 million
climate change—pose to U.S. coastal GDP per Capita US$57,300
cities. Hurricane Katrina also illustrates
Life Expectancy 80 years
how poverty and long, deep histories
of racism can amplify this danger and CO2 Emissions per
16.2 metric tons
increase vulnerability to climate change. Capita

made of soil and sand that line a body of water

New Orleans is a major port and Louisi- to prevent water from overflowing) and flood-
ana’s largest city, with a population of over walls to keep the city dry.
380,000. The majority of the population is
black. Located on a delta of the Mississippi For years, New Orleans has struggled with
River, New Orleans is sandwiched between high levels of poverty and racial segregation—
Lake Pontchartrain to the north and the Gulf as of 2015, 27 percent of the population was
of Mexico to the south and east. Much of New living in poverty, nearly twice the national
Orleans lies several feet below sea level and average of 15 percent. Further, it is the city’s
depends on levees (natural or artificial ridges black residents who are disproportionately af-

KANSAS
MISSOURI

Nashville
Oklahoma City TENNESSEE
ARKANSAS
i
ipp
siss

OKLAHOMA
Mis

Little Rock

UNITED STATES
Jackson
Montgomery
LOUISIANA
TEXAS MISSISSIPPI ALABAMA GEORGIA At lant ic
Oc ean
Baton Tallahassee
Austin Rouge
New Orleans

FLORIDA

G u l f of Mex ic o
N
250mi
250km

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 43
est European settlements
were built on the higher
elevation shores of the
Mississippi River. But as
the city expanded, people
constructed homes at
lower elevations. Although
the city has a long history
of confronting storms and
floods, scientists predict
Infrogmation (CC BY 2.5).

that New Orleans will be

increasingly threatened
by changes in the global
climate. Rising sea levels
pose a growing challenge
A woman walks her dog along the levee next to the floodwall of the 17th
Street Canal, which separates the city of New Orleans from the neighboring
for the low-lying city,
town Metairie. This photograph was taken a few months after Hurricane and scientists project that
Katrina. Repair work to the floodwall on the New Orleans side of the canal is hurricanes coming off the
visible in the background on the right. warming waters of the Gulf
of Mexico will be more
fected by poverty. The city has become deeply frequent and severe.
segregated based on income with certain
In addition to its history of flooding, like
neighborhoods housing poorer residents and
many cities in the United States, New Orleans
other neighborhoods housing the wealthy.
also has a history of racial segregation and
Looking more closely at how New Orleans
structures that systematically disadvantage
is experiencing and responding to climate
people of color and poor people. For example,
change shows the dangers that U.S. coastal cit-
certain policies, such as those related to hous-
ies face—and how this danger is amplified for
ing, have segregated the city’s residents by
residents who are poor or
people of color.

How is New Orleans

Original source: Midnightcomm (public domain via Wikimedia Commons).

experiencing
climate change?
Experts have identified
New Orleans as one of the
cities in the world most
vulnerable to rising sea
levels. (Other U.S. cities
that are especially vulner-
Modified by the Choices Program.

able include New York,

Miami, Los Angeles, and
Seattle.) Since Europeans
first arrived in the area
more than three hundred
years ago, New Orleans’
coastal location and low This graphic shows a cross section of New Orleans. Much of the city, which
elevation have made the lies between two major bodies of water, is below sea level. While the vertical
city vulnerable to storms scale of this image is exaggerated compared to the horizontal scale, it shows
and floods. The earli- how vulnerable the city is to flooding if its levees and floodwalls fail.

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
44 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III

Jocelyn Augustino, FEMA.

New Orleans residents wait to be rescued from the roof of their home as floodwaters from Hurricane Katrina
surround them. Nearby houses are almost completely underwater.

race, often forcing them to live in areas vulner- hurricane approached, leaving many stranded
able to flooding. and unable to escape. Twenty thousand people
In August 2005, Hurricane Katrina dev- went to the Superdome, a stadium, for refuge,
astated New Orleans. Levees and floodwalls but the shelter was prepared for far fewer
were breached, and water surged into the city. people.
About 80 percent of New Orleans flooded,

“
with some places under more than twelve feet Each day, it was a battle to find
of water. The structural failure of the levee sys- enough food and water and get it
tem, coupled with inadequate warnings and to the Superdome. It was a struggle
insufficient rescue operations, had disastrous meal to meal because, as one was
effects for residents. served, it was clear to everyone that
The hurricane claimed over 1,800 lives, there was not enough food or water
mostly in the New Orleans area, and forced for the next meal.”
nearly 1.5 million people to evacuate. Within —Marty Bahamonde, a FEMA field officer
who responded to the disaster, reflecting
one month of the hurricane, people from New
on the storm before Congress, 2005
Orleans were seeking refuge in every state
of the country. While Katrina caused intense
Of those who died as a consequence of the
flooding in most New Orleans neighborhoods
storm, 67 percent were black, reflecting the
regardless of race or wealth, areas stricken
breakdown of the population of New Orleans
with poverty were least able to cope with the
at the time. But many of the neighborhoods
effects of the hurricane. In poorer, majority-
that were hit the hardest and where the most
black areas, people often did not have access
people died were predominantly black as
to cars or other forms of transportation as the

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 45
black neighborhoods had been historically the residents of St. Bernard Parish—a major-
relegated to the low-lying areas of the city. ity white area. At the same time, FEMA only
Although scientists generally do not at- gave trailers to 13 percent of residents in the
tribute specific extreme weather events to Lower Ninth Ward—a mostly black area also
climate change (and therefore do not say that destroyed by the storm.
climate change caused Hurricane Katrina), Many people across the country began to
climate change will increase the frequency and view the destruction from Hurricane Katrina
intensity of storms like Katrina in the coming as closely tied to racism in the United States.
century.

“
The intensity of the storm, combined We have an amazing tolerance for
with the perceived failure of the government black pain.”
to respond adequately, led many to suggest —Reverend Jesse Jackson, in an interview,
that New Orleans and the United States were September 2005
ill-equipped to deal with the effects of climate
change. How is New Orleans responding
to climate change?

“ What amazed many worldwide was The severity of Hurricane Katrina and
that these extensive failures, often the destructive toll it took on the city of New
attributed to conditions in developing Orleans sparked a national discussion about
countries, occurred in the most how to prepare for the city’s future in the face
powerful and wealthiest country in of a changing climate. These conversations
the world.” have largely focused on ways New Orleans can
—Community and Regional Resilience
adapt to climate change, as opposed to how it
Initiative Research Report, 2008 can increase mitigation.
Local and national attention has focused
Members of the Congressional Black Cau- on rebuilding the city to be better prepared
cus, the National Urban League, the National for rising sea levels, stronger storms, and
Council of Negro Women, the NAACP, and changes in precipitation patterns. Efforts
the Black Leadership Forum gathered after the include elevating existing buildings by several
storm to discuss the U.S. government response feet, constructing new escape routes through
to Hurricane Katrina. They agreed that the gov- roofs, and improving emergency response
ernment responded slowly and inefficiently, plans. In the years following Katrina, Con-
and they suggested that race played a major gress approved funding for multibillion dollar
role in this response. engineering and construction projects to build
floodwalls, water pumps, and a chain of levees
over one hundred miles long to protect New
“ I feel that, if it was in another area,
with another economic state and
racial makeup, that President Bush
Orleans from future storms.
While many people have returned to the
would have run out of Crawford a lot city, New Orleans’ population as of 2014 was
quicker and FEMA would have found only about 85 percent of what it was before
its way in a lot sooner.” Katrina. Many areas of the city remain in ruins
—Reverend Al Sharpton, September 2005 as construction and repair projects have been
delayed.
To support the claim that the government’s Since the disaster, some activists and
response has been dictated by racism, people policy makers have worked to get the public
have cited specific examples. For instance, and the government to acknowledge the role
the Federal Emergency Management Agency that racism and racist policies have played in
(FEMA) gave trailers to about 63 percent of increasing the vulnerability to climate change

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
46 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III

for populations of color. They have also called the region. Some strategies would be to plant
for policies that combat poverty and racial seg- more cypress trees and marsh grasses along the
regation in U.S. cities, including New Orleans. coast as well as to divert water from the Mis-
The conservation and restoration of coastal sissippi River to replenish the wetlands with
wetlands are also important for increasing sediment. However, because these diversions
New Orleans’ climate change resilience. For would impact local people and businesses,
centuries, coastal wetlands (areas of swamps determining where they should occur is chal-
and marshes) provided a natural barrier to lenging. Without significant action, much of
storms and flooding for residents of New Or- coastal Louisiana could be underwater by the
leans. Today, the rate of the loss of wetlands in end of the century. This makes clear just how
New Orleans is among the highest in world— important local adaptation efforts are in the
on average an area of wetlands the size of one face of international leaders’ failure to take
football field is lost every hour. Oil and gas strong action against climate change.
industries have destroyed wetlands by dredg-

“
ing canals (deepening canals by scooping out Climate change is a threat that affects
mud and sand from the bottom) and build- us all, and it is a real and present
ing thousands of miles of pipelines in coastal danger to our coastal communities.
Louisiana. Levees and dams on the Mississippi Here in Louisiana, we face a triple
River have slowed the flow of sediment from threat: subsidence [sinking land],
the river that restores wetlands. coastal erosion, and sea level rise. If
Many nongovernmental groups have unchecked, New Orleans, like many
pressed the state and federal government to do coastal cities, will cease to exist.”
more to halt the destruction of these crucial —Mitch Landrieu, mayor of New Orleans,
June 1, 2017
wetlands, not only for the sake of wildlife, but
for the sake of residents in New Orleans and

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 47
Haiti
Comparing the impact of
Dominican
Hurricane Jeanne on the Haiti
Dominican Republic with the Republic
devastation it caused in Haiti Population 10.5 million 10.6 million
illustrates how poverty increases
GDP per Capita US$1,800 US$15,900
vulnerability to climate change
and reduces the ability to adapt. Life Expectancy 64 years 78 years
CO2 Emissions per
0.3 metric tons 2.1 metric tons
Haiti is one of two separate Capita
countries that occupy the island of
Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea. One of the most important differences is
Haiti was a French sugar plantation colony that Haiti is a much poorer country than the
populated largely by enslaved people that won Dominican Republic. Nearly 60 percent of
its independence from France in 1804. The Haiti’s population lives on less than $2.50 a
second country, the Dominican Republic, was day—a far higher number than in the Domini-
a Spanish colony for three hundred years and can Republic. A number of factors led to these
became independent from Spain in 1820. Al- differences in levels of poverty. International
though these countries share the same island powers, such as Spain, France, and the United
and have populations of around ten million States have interfered in both countries’ affairs
people each, there are major differences be- throughout time and in different ways. For
tween the two. example, following Haitian independence,
France ordered Haiti to pay it large sums of

THE BAHAMAS
TURKS AND CAICOS
ISLANDS
CUBA

Gonaïves
HAITI DOMINICAN
Port-au-Prince REPUBLIC
San Juan
JAMAICA Santo PUERTO RICO
Kingston Domingo (U.S.A.)

Ca r i b b e a n S e a

N
250mi
250km

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48 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III

money or else it and other

countries would not diplo-
matically recognize Haiti.
Some scholars suggest that
race and racism—Haiti is
about 95 percent black—
has also led international
powers to discriminate
against Haitians. These
factors and many others
set the stage for economic
inequality between the two
countries.

Sophia Paris. UN Photo #49043.

Comparing Haiti and
the Dominican Republic
helps show how poverty
increases vulnerability
to the effects of climate
change. In addition, the A woman stands in front of her home in Gonaïves, Haiti three days after
case of Haiti illustrates Hurricane Jeanne. Many homes in Haiti are poorly built, crowded together in
how poverty can limit the unsafe locations, and lack basic infrastructure like electricity and plumbing.
Haiti’s government does not have enough capacity to respond to disasters
capacity to adapt to cli-
and depends heavily on international assistance.
mate change.

island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea

How is Haiti experiencing climate change? places it in the path of hurricanes and tropical
Sharp differences in the effects of extreme storms. Climate change contributes to more
weather on Haiti and the Dominican Republic intense storms that come with strong winds
show how poverty can contribute to vulner- and high levels of rainfall. When a power-
ability of the population. The location of the ful hurricane named Jeanne tore over the
island in 2004, it killed
more than three thousand
people in Haiti but fewer
than twenty-five people in
the Dominican Republic.
Flooding caused many of
the deaths in Haiti. Dur-
ing the storm, torrential
rains and walls of mud
poured down Haiti’s
Fred W. Baker III, Department of Defense.

steep hillsides and col-

lected in rivers that gushed
into the city of Gonaïves
where many of the deaths
occurred. The storms
destroyed crops, contami-
nated water supplies, and
left more than 250,000
A Haitian child carrying a food aid package from the U.S. military, which people in Haiti homeless.
provided disaster relief after an earthquake hit Haiti in 2010.

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 49

Kendra Helmer, USAID.

A farmer growing cabbage in Haiti, where around 40 percent of the population works in agriculture.

“ It was raining when we went to sleep.

We were woken up by water in our
beds, and in no time it was like an
estation has put hillsides at a greater risk of
soil erosion and the kinds of flash flooding
that led to the deaths of so many people dur-
ocean invading us…. I heard my ing Hurricane Jeanne. In contrast, because of
father calling for help. He couldn’t the availability of electricity and other fuel
move because he was handicapped. sources in the Dominican Republic, the people
When I managed to get to his room, there do not rely on harvesting trees for energy
he was already taken by the water.” and do not face problems of such severity from
—Nostra Gosette, a sixteen-year-old deforestation.
survivor of Hurricane Jeanne
reflecting in 2005 on
her experience
“ The crucial thing, because we’re
a country facing both an energy
security crisis and a food security
There is a direct link between poverty and
the amount of damage that occurred in Haiti crisis, is how can we reconcile energy
because of Hurricane Jeanne. It is because of security and food security?”
this link that people in Haiti were more vul- —Gael Pressoir, Haitian nonprofit founder
and business owner, November 2009
nerable than those in the Dominican Republic.
Haiti’s steep and hilly terrain was once cov-
ered with trees and rainforests that absorbed Constant erosion of fertile soil in Haiti
the rain and reduced the threat of mudslides makes planting trees to reforest the land more
caused by tropical downpours. Today, parts of difficult. In addition, the fact that most farmers
Haiti are largely deforested because trees are do not own the land they farm means that they
used as the leading source of energy. Defor- often have little incentive to build embank-

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50 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III

ments or to plant and protect trees to limit The NAPA prioritizes strengthening the
erosion and flooding. As erosion worsens, Haitian government’s ability to anticipate and
farmers face more challenges because the best respond to the effects of climate change. For
soil has been washed away. example, improving disaster preparedness is
Farmers will also have to contend with crucial, as is providing access to clean water
other effects of climate change. Rising sea sources and electricity. Other goals include re-
levels will lead to increased storm surges of ducing vulnerability to flooding through forest
saltwater in low-lying agricultural areas. Salt- restoration, educating farmers about climate
water can contaminate fresh water sources and change and improving agricultural practices,
damage soil, making growing crops more dif- and increasing living standards in rural areas.
ficult. Furthermore, higher temperatures and Ultimately, the most ambitious goal is to re-
greater variation in rainfall patterns in Haiti lieve poverty in order to reduce vulnerability
have already led to more droughts during the to climate change.
dry season and more intense rain during the While this process of planning is im-
rainy season. These changes present challeng- portant, actually implementing a NAPA is
es to farmers who lack access to information particularly challenging in Haiti. Haiti’s
about new rainfall patterns and struggle to government struggles to provide even the
find the means necessary to adapt to changing most basic services to its citizens and depends
growing seasons. on the UN, other countries, and many inter-
Looking to the future, reduced agricultural national NGOs for help with climate change
production due to climate change is one of the adaptation. This creates confusion as differ-
most serious issues facing Haiti. The coun- ent organizations sometimes fail to coordinate
try’s economy depends on farming, and about their activities or prefer to fund their own
40 percent of Haitians work in agriculture. adaptation projects rather than those proposed
Damage to Haiti’s farms and crops results in by the Haitian government. Uncertain political
food scarcity and increases in the cost of basic conditions in Haiti have at times made inter-
goods for Haitians. national donors reluctant to contribute funds.
Other issues also complicate the response. For
example, many Haitian farmers, facing more
How is Haiti responding to climate change? immediate problems like daily hunger, delay
Haiti has developed a NAPA (National learning about and adapting to climate change.
Adaptation Programme of Action) to address
Poverty both makes Haiti more vulnerable
its vulnerability to climate change. But, as the
to climate change and makes responding more
poorest country in the Western hemisphere,
challenging. This creates a cycle that is diffi-
it needs outside funding to implement the
cult to break.
program.

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 51

Nigeria
Conditions in Nigeria bring to light how
women are especially vulnerable to climate Nigeria
change and how they play an important role
Population 186.1 million
in resisting environmental degradation.
GDP per Capita US$5,900
Nigeria is a multiethnic, multireligious Life Expectancy 53 years
country in West Africa. It is situated directly
CO2 Emissions per
south of the Sahel (the transition area between 0.6 metric tons
Capita
the Sahara Desert and sub-Saharan Africa),
and its southern border is located on the coast
of the Gulf of Guinea. companies in the Niger Delta in some cases.
In addition to shedding light on the tensions
Nigeria is one of the top oil producing between powerful industries and their role
countries in the world, processing more than in causing climate change, looking closely at
two million barrels of oil per day. Competi- Nigeria can help us understand the relation-
tions over profits from oil has caused a great ship between gender and responses to climate
deal of political and social conflict in Nigeria. change.
The practices of oil companies like Shell and
Chevron in the region have received criticism
from local communities. Nigerian women How is Nigeria experiencing climate change?
have played an important role in protesting oil The geographic variation in Nigeria means
Ni
ge

NIGER
rR
ive

Lake Chad
r

Niamey
CHAD
BURKINA N’Djamena
FASO
Ch
ar
BENIN iR
ive
NIGERIA r
GHANA

TOGO

Abuja Rive
r

n ue
Be
Ibadan

Lagos
r
Niger Rive

The
Lomé Porto Novo Sahel
Accra
Niger River Delta CAMEROON
Gulf of Guinea Douala
Malabo
N Yaoundé
250mi
250km

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52 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III

access water. Women face

these risks and others to a
greater degree than men in
poor communities through-
Susan Elden, UK Department for International Development (CC BY-SA 2.0).

out the world.

How is Nigeria responding

to climate change?
The Nigerian govern-
ment has some climate
change-related policies.
Local populations and
nongovernmental organiza-
tions also play a vital role in
responding to the threat of
climate change. In the North,
for instance, local communi-
ties are sharing insights on
Women attend a health education session in northern Nigeria. new agricultural practices
as well as resources, such as
that it is vulnerable to a wide range of ef- seeds for growing crops, to
fects of climate change. The North already help each other adapt to changes in climate.
experiences severe heat and water scarcity. In the Niger River Delta, activists and local
Increasing temperatures will lead to extreme communities have also contributed greatly.
drought and heat-related illness, driving Reflecting the relationship between gender and
the people of this region into a state of des- climate vulnerability, some of these groups
peration. In the South, high concentrations of have been influenced in important ways by
people living along the coast are vulnerable to women.
flooding as sea levels rise. Slums and other in- In the 1990s, communities in the Niger
adequate forms of housing are scattered along Delta (an area rich in oil reserves) began to
the most hazardous parts of coastal areas and express discontent with the practices of large
wetlands. Here, poor people live in constant oil companies and the Nigerian government.
danger of flooding, particularly as their homes Local people disapproved of the way that oil
cannot withstand extreme weather. Poor profits were distributed. To further compli-
people in Nigeria face some of the greatest cate the matter, oil corporations were also
vulnerability to climate change. degrading the environment in the Delta. Most
Throughout the world, poor women face notably, they were illegally burning flares of
this vulnerability to the extreme. In certain natural gas during oil drilling. In Europe and
parts of Nigeria, this is also true. Many women North America, the natural gas that is released
in poor communities play a major role in the during oil extraction is collected and used in
agriculture industry, farming in order to feed multiple ways, like for generating electricity
their families or to make a profit. These roles or making chemicals. In Nigeria, however, oil
often expose women to greater impacts from companies burned the gas because this was
climate change. For example, it is typical in cheaper. Burning natural gas in Nigeria has
rural areas for women to have the responsi- contributed more greenhouse gas emissions
bility of collecting water for the household. than the whole of sub-Saharan Africa com-
As temperatures increase and water sources bined. The flares also released toxic gases that
become more scarce, women will have to walk threatened public health in the surrounding
greater distances (often in extreme heat) to villages.

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 53
Tensions rose to new
levels in 1995, when a
group of activists from the
Niger Delta were hanged
by the military dictatorship
after being charged with
crimes that most people
believed were fraudulent.

“ Shell’s day will surely

come for there is no
doubt in my mind that

Sosialistisk Ungdom (CC BY-ND 2.0).

the ecological war
that the Company
has waged in the
Delta will be called
to question and the
crimes of that war be
duly punished.”
In addition to gas flaring, Shell and other companies have spilled an
—Ken Saro-Wiwa,
estimated 1.5 million tons of oil into the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past
Nigerian writer and
fifty years. This damages sensitive habitats for wildlife and contaminates
environmental activist,
local water sources, threatening the millions of people who rely on them
on being sentenced to
for drinking, cooking, cleaning, bathing, and fishing. In January 2015, Shell
death by hanging, 1995
agreed to pay more than $80 million to the Bodo community in the Niger
Delta for the losses caused by two major oil spills in 2008 and 2009.
Later, during a nonvio-
lent protest in 1999, police continued to demand changes in the practices
and government soldiers brutally attacked of oil companies operating in the Delta. These
protesters and targeted the women who were women’s groups were eventually able to per-
involved. In general, women in the region also suade the Nigerian courts in 2006 to demand
faced sexual violence at the hands of members Shell end all flaring in the western part of the
of the Nigerian military. In response to the Niger Delta. In spite of this, the practice of gas
situation in the region, women’s organizations flaring continues in Nigeria.
banded together to fight the oil companies that
were funding the government and its use of Nigerian protests against oil companies
violence. During a ten month occupation of like Shell show that while in many cases
Shell’s facilities, they demanded that flaring in women are particularly affected by climate
Nigeria be completely phased out by 2007. change, they also have played an important
role in resisting climate change and working
Throughout the early 2000s, groups in for improvements.
the Niger Delta—including some women’s
groups—and their international partners

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54 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III

Bangladesh
The determination of many poor local
communities in Bangladesh to fight Bangladesh
climate change shows the importance and
effectiveness of locally-led adaptation. Population 156.2 million

GDP per Capita US$3,900

Bangladesh is among the most densely
populated countries in the world. One of the Life Expectancy 73 years
most prominent geographic characteristics CO2 Emissions per
0.5 metric tons
of Bangladesh is the Ganges Delta, where the Capita
Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna Rivers
come together. This merging of the three riv- turing—with clothing and textiles as key
ers means that the area has richly fertile soil exports—small-scale agriculture is the typical
and expansive wetlands (areas of swamps and way of life on the chars. Char residents (as
marshes). well as other rural Bangladeshi populations)
The combination of this distinctive geog- live very interdependent and communal lives,
raphy and the large Bangladeshi population often sharing resources and working together
has resulted in people living on chars, which in the face of challenges. Because of this,
are small river islands. While the economy Bangladesh provides many examples of locally
of the country is based largely on manufac- initiated responses to climate change.

BHUTAN
NEPAL Thimphu
putra
Brahma

n
wi
ind

Ganges
Ch

Imphal
BANGLADESH MYANMAR
ddy

Dhaka
wa

INDIA
na
gh

Irra
Me

Khulna
Kolkata

Chittagong

Bay of Bengal
N
250mi
250km
Sittwe

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 55

Marufish (CC BY-SA 2.0).

The low land elevation and prominence of rivers makes Bangladesh particularly prone to flooding.

How is Bangladesh experiencing homes. Their only other option is to move to

climate change? cities, where urban slums are rapidly growing.
Because it is dominated by rivers and Both in these quickly built slums and on the
coastlines, Bangladesh is one of the world’s chars, there is no infrastructure for sanitation
most vulnerable countries to flooding. It is or clean drinking water. Waterborne diseases
frequently hit by severe storms, and rises in like cholera are common and spread quickly.
sea level quickly envelop the already scarce Because the poorest people live in the most
and overpopulated land. Saltwater has already vulnerable areas, the effects of climate change
begun to seep into sources of drinking water hit them especially hard. These people are
and into farmers’ soil, making growing certain unlikely to be able to afford health care or to
crops such as rice much more challenging. replace possessions lost in extreme weather.
As climate change causes
rising sea levels and inten-
sifying storms, Bangladesh
will face more weather-
related deaths, declines in
public health, and too little
land for a growing popula-
tion.
Inhabitants of chars
and wetlands are particu-
larly vulnerable, and some
of the islands are fully
submerged for large parts
Tony Cassidy (CC BY-SA 2.0).

of the year. This means

that char residents have
to migrate to other islands
or the river shores until
they can return to their
Textile students at a school in Bangladesh.

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56 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III
Development Planning Unit University College London (CC BY 2.0).

Bangladeshi people building houses on stilts to protect their homes from flooding.

How is Bangladesh responding youth so that they can easily emigrate to other
to climate change? countries that need people with their qualifica-
In Bangladesh, as in many countries in tions.
the global South, responses to climate change In addition, the Bangladeshi government
tend to rely on reducing poverty in order to was one of the first to create a National Adap-
decrease vulnerability. To do this, Bangladesh tation Programme of Action (NAPA). Yet the
has focused primarily on education. Improv- country’s national government quickly real-
ing education helps increase Bangladesh’s ized that the NAPA would not be adequate in
resilience to the effects of climate change in addressing the threat posed by climate change.
various ways. Better education allows for more As a result, Bangladesh created a more com-
career opportunities. This means that educated prehensive national strategy and action plan
young people can pursue careers in sectors for dealing with climate change. This plan
like manufacturing that are less sensitive to a included setting up two funding systems—one
changing climate than sectors like agriculture. for wealthier countries to help fund climate
Bangladesh has also promoted a link between change mitigation and adaptation efforts in
education and migration. In attempts to reduce Bangladesh and another for the Bangladeshi
the pressure of a large population living on government to fund its own projects to counter
increasingly scarce land, Bangladesh has climate change.
pursued what some call an “intentional brain
drain.” The goal is to educate Bangladeshi

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Part III 57
Many of the most effective adaptation match the priorities of the Bangladeshi people,
efforts in Bangladesh have originated within particularly the poor. Local efforts allow
poor communities. The dedication and knowl- people to engage in adaptation in a way that
edge of these communities have resulted in aligns with their needs and interests. Local
small scale adaptation efforts that have made adaptation strategies also tend to be more
Bangladesh a leader in the field. Ranging from easily shared because they are communal in
floating farms that defy the restrictions of nature and require the participation of all local
limited land to innovations in how homes are inhabitants.
built to resist flooding, adaptation in Ban-
gladesh has been an astounding example of
community-led development.
In Kundetar Village, for example, a com-
“ It’s difficult for the people of many
countries like Bangladesh to face
the double burden of poverty and
mittee of local women has partnered with impacts of climate change.... For the
Gana Unnayan Kendra (a local NGO) and sake of sustainability of environment
Oxfam to establish more effective disaster pre- and development, we need to act now
paredness. These women have created a local without delay, individually, locally,
network within their community for anticipat- nationally, regionally, and globally.”
ing extreme weather events. They constantly —Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina of
listen to both Bangladeshi and foreign radio Bangladesh, 2013
stations for any indication that bad weather
could be approaching. If they do expect ex- Local adaptation efforts are not sufficient
treme weather, the women place important in the fight against global climate change.
tools and resources in high places so they are There are often funding shortages for the
accessible if flooding occurs. widespread use of adaptation techniques, and
An important benefit of locally-led adap- poor, local communities often lack the politi-
tation is that it is defined by the very people cal power to demand climate change policy
who are experiencing the problems. This has from the national government or international
not necessarily been the case with the na- community. Furthermore, these populations
tional climate change response in Bangladesh. often cannot implement many climate change
When drawing up its NAPA, the Bangladeshi mitigation strategies because they are respon-
government failed to adequately involve local sible for so little of the world’s greenhouse gas
populations in its deliberations. As a result, emissions.
the priorities of the NAPA did not directly

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58 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Options

Options in Brief
Option 1: Past Emitters Must Pay Option 3: Economic Growth and
Countries with long histories of green- Development Must Come First
house gas emissions must take responsibility Climate change is not our most immediate
for their harmful effects on the environment. problem. Billions of people around the world
Over a century of fossil-fuel driven industry face poverty and hunger every day. How can
in the global North has resulted in unprec- we justify an international focus on expensive
edented spewing of greenhouse gases into climate change mitigation and adaptation
the atmosphere. Climate change is a global strategies when this is the case? In order for
problem, but its effects are most intensely felt the health and education of people in the
by countries in the global South that have global South to improve, international atten-
not contributed to the world’s greenhouse gas tion must turn toward economic development
emissions. Countries with histories of high and poverty reduction. Most importantly, all
emissions must accept strict limitations on countries should be able to grow their econo-
fossil fuel use and provide funding to help mies by increasing their industrial activity.
those facing the effects of climate change. Continuing to hope for global climate change
Countries in the global South should not mitigation is unrealistic—it is too expensive
have to face emissions restrictions that limit and people will not give up a higher qual-
their development or bear the costs of adapta- ity of life for the sake of reducing emissions.
tion. Promoting the economic development Wealthy countries should instead encour-
of poorer countries in this way will also help age businesses and organizations to focus on
reduce their vulnerability to climate change’s scientific research to develop technologies that
effects. Justice requires that we hold historic can help us deal with the effects of climate
emitters accountable. change. If countries each pursue their own
economic growth, the market will generate
Option 2: Responsibility solutions to the problem of global warming.

Must Be Shared by All

Climate change is a serious global prob-
lem, and it demands a global solution. We
should encourage all countries to follow
through on the pledge that they made in the
Paris Agreement to reduce their emissions.
Reducing fossil fuel use will shift interna-
tional attention to sustainable development in
both wealthy and poor countries. Sustainable
development will allow countries around the
world to meet the immediate economic and
social needs of their citizens without compro-
mising the future. We cannot let the short-term
economic costs of establishing new energy in-
frastructure outweigh the long-term benefits of
sustainable development in mitigating a global
climate crisis.

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Options 59

Option 1: Past Emitters Must Pay

C ountries with long histories of

“
greenhouse gas emissions must take Climate justice endorses that
responsibility for their harmful effects polluters must pay. We must
on the environment. Over a century of
have a system that those who
fossil-fuel driven industry in the global
use SUVs, not the one[s] who use
North has resulted in unprecedented
spewing of greenhouse gases into the
bicycles, pay.”
atmosphere. Throughout history, the —Kofi Annan, former Secretary General
of the United Nations, 2014
United States has dumped more than
three times the amount of carbon
dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere than
newly industrializing countries such as China and well over one hundred
times the amount emitted by many poorer countries such as Bangladesh.

Climate change is a global problem, but its effects are most intensely felt by countries
in the global South that have not contributed to the world’s greenhouse gas emissions.
The effects of climate change are costly—financially and in human suffering.
Preventing further damage requires large investments in adaptation projects.

Countries with histories of high emissions must accept strict limitations on fossil fuel use
and provide funding to help those facing the effects of climate change. Countries in the
global South should not have to face emissions restrictions that limit their development or
bear the costs of adaptation. They should have the opportunity to industrialize and gain
an equal footing in the global economy. Promoting the economic development of poorer
countries in this way will also help reduce their vulnerability to climate change’s effects.
Justice requires that we hold historic emitters accountable. Any alternative would not be fair
to the people in the global South who are suffering first and worst from climate change.

Option 1 is based on the following beliefs

• Climate change is one of the most • Major reductions in greenhouse
serious challenges facing our planet. People gas emissions by historic emitters will
who claim that climate change is not real be enough to prevent climate change.
threaten our ability to address the problem. • International agreements about climate
• Justice requires accountability change should prioritize addressing the
for past wrongs. needs of the countries most vulnerable
• Those most responsible to the effects of climate change.
for causing climate change must
bear the costs of solving it.

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60 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Options

What policies should we pursue?

• Historic emitters must accept assistance, disaster preparedness, and
mandatory emissions restrictions and health care improvements—in countries
pursue sustainable development. most vulnerable to climate change.
• Historic emitters must pay for • The global South should be allowed
adaptation efforts—including agricultural to develop without emissions restrictions.

Arguments for Arguments against

1. As a global community, we cannot 1. The United States will not agree
ignore the past emissions that have brought to international treaties that include
us to the edge of catastrophic climate emissions cuts or that require it to contribute
change. For an international system to be funding to poorer countries’ adaptation
grounded in justice, it must hold countries programs. Without U.S. participation,
accountable for historical emissions. any large-scale attempts at mitigation will
2. Countries with low emissions records not be effective in curbing emissions.
are suffering the consequences of climate 2. China has the largest total emissions of
change and do not have the ability to mitigate any country. Its use of fossil fuels will only
or adapt. These countries are entitled to increase in the future. Without restrictions
assistance from those who caused the problem. on rapidly industrializing countries like
3. Poor countries trying to reduce the China and India, an international system
small amounts of greenhouse gases they would not prevent future climate change.
emit will not make a significant difference. 3. Restricting the emissions of some
For mitigation to be effective on a global countries but not others will give the latter an
scale, the countries that have emitted the advantage in the global market. This is unfair
most over time must take the lead. to citizens of countries facing restrictions,
4. Historically responsible countries have which will almost certainly lose jobs to other
reaped the benefits of decades of industrial countries that will take the lead in industry.
growth with little regulation; they can afford 4. The citizens of historically high-
to pay for mitigation and adaptation (both at emitting countries are not as directly or
home and in other countries that need it most). immediately vulnerable to climate change’s
5. Poor countries need a chance to effects. Leaders of these countries will
develop economically and must be either not be able to justify sweeping emissions
allowed to increase their greenhouse gas restrictions to their citizens. These
emissions or helped by wealthy countries to countries are also the most powerful in
pursue sustainable development. Economic the international community making it
development will also reduce poorer is unlikely that an effective agreement
countries’ vulnerability to climate change. will be reached without their support.

6. International negotiations that result

in mandatory rules and restrictions are the
only way to make meaningful progress in
preventing and dealing with climate change.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Options 61

Option 2: Responsibility Must be Shared by All

C limate change is a serious global

“
problem, and it demands a global Emissions are rising fastest
solution. We need to be practical about in emerging economies and
the types of emissions reductions the
in the interest of their poorest
most powerful, highest emitting countries
citizens on the front line of
will realistically agree to in order to
make any progress in preventing the
climate change, they must play a
dangerous effects of climate change. bigger role than in the past.”
—Jan Kowalzig, Oxfam’s
China emits more greenhouse gases climate expert, 2014
than any country in the world. Many
other countries will greatly increase
their greenhouse gas emissions as they continue to industrialize. Why should these
countries be allowed to continue damaging the environment? We should encourage
all countries—both rich and poor—to follow through on the pledge that they made in
the Paris Agreement to reduce their emissions. This approach will be most effective in
preventing future greenhouse gas emissions and will also make countries like the United
States more likely to sign on. In addition, wealthier countries will not feel that they are
at risk of falling behind in the international market. As a result, they will be more likely
to contribute funding to help the countries most affected by climate change to adapt.

At the same time, we cannot deny the importance of development to support economic
growth and increase climate change resilience around the world. Reducing fossil fuel use
will shift international attention to sustainable development in both wealthy and poor
countries. Sustainable development will allow countries around the world to meet the
immediate economic and social needs of their citizens without compromising the future. We
cannot let the short-term economic costs of establishing new energy infrastructure outweigh
the long-term benefits of sustainable development in mitigating a global climate crisis.

Option 2 is based on the following beliefs

• Climate change has already begun to • Voluntary emissions restrictions for
have catastrophic effects on people around the all countries is the only way to reach an
world. Denying or ignoring it is irresponsible. agreement that will involve the entire global
• Justice requires that we stop current community and prevent climate change.
wrongs and prevent future harm. • All countries and organizations should
• This global problem requires have equal participation in negotiating
that everyone takes responsibility, agreements on global climate change.
with those who are most able to pay
giving financial support to others.

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
62 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Options

What policies should we pursue?

• There should be across-the-board • We should encourage all
voluntary emissions restrictions proportional countries to focus on sustainable
to countries’ current emissions levels. development and production.
This will encourage both the global • Wealthier countries should be
North and the global South to reduce encouraged to voluntarily provide funding
future greenhouse gas emissions. for adaptation efforts in poorer countries.

Arguments for Arguments against

1. U.S. or European cuts would be pointless 1. Poor countries deserve the chance to
if China, India, and other countries in the industrialize the way that the United States
global South continue to increase emissions. and other wealthier countries did. Restricting
2. Reducing the focus of blame on their use of fossil fuels would prevent this.
the global North will make wealthier 2. The greenhouse gases in the
countries more likely to contribute atmosphere causing climate change are
funds for adaptation efforts. from the past. We must hold industrialized
3. Emissions restrictions for all countries countries accountable for this.
provides the most realistic chance of reaching 3. Some countries already need to pursue
an international agreement and will be the expensive adaptation efforts in the face of
quickest route to concrete global action. their vulnerability to climate change. They
The longer we wait, the more expensive should receive financial assistance from
mitigation and adaptation will be. the wealthy countries that caused climate
4. Across-the-board emissions change. Funding should be mandatory.
restrictions will encourage sustainable Voluntary contributions will not be enough.
development, allowing countries 4. Limiting the economic development
to improve economically without of countries in the global South by regulating
endangering future climatic conditions. their emissions will slow poverty reduction.
5. To protect the future state of the Continued poverty will keep these countries
environment, we must prevent future vulnerable to the effects of climate change.
greenhouse gas emissions. Climate change
poses a dire threat to life as we know it, and
we must do all we can to prevent catastrophe.
6. International negotiations provide
the only chance to prevent climate change
and realize justice on a global scale.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Options 63

Option 3: Economic Growth and

Development Must Come First

C limate change is not our most immediate

“
problem. Billions of people around the It is prudent to do what we
world face poverty and hunger every day.
reasonably can to reduce
How can we justify an international focus
carbon emissions. But...we
on expensive climate change mitigation
and adaptation strategies when this is the
don’t believe in harming
case? In order for the health and education economic growth.... For many
of people in the global South to improve, decades at least, [fossil fuels]
international attention must turn toward will continue to fuel human
economic development and poverty progress as an affordable
reduction. Most importantly, all countries energy source for wealthy and
should be able to grow their economies developing countries alike.”
by increasing their industrial activity. —Prime Minister Tony Abbott of
Australia, 2014
There should be no mandatory restrictions
on fossil fuel use. All countries should
have the right to industrialize cheaply.
Individual countries, as well as local organizations, can choose to take on voluntary
emissions restrictions and adaptation measures. Economic development will also allow
poorer countries to reduce their vulnerability to climate change. This approach may also
be faster than holding out for a comprehensive global agreement on climate change. Any
attempts by the United Nations (UN) to barge in and tell people how to adapt to climate
change will fail. The UN tramples on local governments and ignores citizens’ input.

Continuing to hope for global climate change mitigation is unrealistic—it is too

expensive and people will not give up a higher quality of life for the sake of
reducing emissions. This makes reaching an international agreement on mitigation
essentially impossible. Wealthy countries should instead encourage businesses and
organizations to focus on scientific research to develop technologies that can help us
deal with the effects of climate change. If countries each pursue their own economic
growth, the market will generate solutions to the problem of global warming.

Option 3 is based on the following beliefs

• Climate change is taking place, but it is • Businesses should have a key voice
not a serious threat that requires drastic action. in considering climate change policies. In a
• Justice is allowing everyone the thriving economy, technological solutions
opportunity to pursue prosperity. will be developed that can eliminate the
harmful effects of climate change.
• The international community is not
responsible for funding and promoting • Policies generated by local people
mitigation and adaptation. These concerns will be more successful than those forced
should be dealt with by national governments upon them by international leaders who
of individual countries according to are not engaged with local concerns.
the interests of their populations.

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
64 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
Options

What policies should we pursue?

• Local and national governments as well research and develop new technologies—
as businesses and other nongovernmental both renewable energy options and
groups can choose to take on voluntary geoengineering techniques that could help
emissions reductions, but there should not deal with the effects of climate change.
be mandatory emissions restrictions. • Monetary aid from wealthier
• The international community should countries should continue to focus on the
encourage countries to pursue economic economic development of poorer countries,
growth so they have money available to not on climate change adaptation.

Arguments for Arguments against

1. The most catastrophic effects of 1. Pursuing sustainable development
climate change are not as immediate would allow countries to prioritize the
or important as the economic needs of economic needs of their peoples and address
people. Economic development will give issues like health, education, and poverty
governments more money to fund public while also limiting greenhouse gas emissions.
health initiatives, improve education, and 2. We cannot rely on hopes of developing
reduce poverty. Expensive attempts at new technology to “solve” climate change.
climate change mitigation would cripple People are already suffering as a result of
countries’ economies, making less funding global warming. We cannot wait any longer
available to deal with these pressing issues. to take action. Furthermore, geoengineering
2. Climate change prevention is too is dangerous, cannot be tested, and does
expensive. Realistically, it will never happen. not address the source of the problem.
3. Countries have a right to develop, and 3. Pursuing efforts to reduce greenhouse
people have a right to pursue prosperity. gas emissions is essential. Unchecked
This requires the use of fossil fuels. It is industrialization could have disastrous
unfair to deny more than half the world environmental effects, potentially resulting
the benefits of industrial development. in many parts of the world becoming
uninhabitable. Long-term human costs
4. Restricting development increases
outweigh short-term economic expenses.
vulnerability to climate change by
In addition, proactive mitigation strategies
preventing both poverty reduction and the
will save money in the long run by
creation of diverse job opportunities.
preventing future damages and lessening
5. Technology has the potential to the need for expensive adaptation efforts.
prevent the most dangerous effects of
4. Because climate change is a global
climate change. We should make sure
problem, solving it requires a coordinated,
we have the money to pursue innovative
international effort. Voluntary action is
technologies to counteract these effects.
not enough because the people and groups
6. International climate change talks have that are motivated to act often are not the
failed to produce meaningful agreements ones who have caused the problem.
that all governments can agree with, and
international laws restrict the ability of
countries to develop in ways that are suited
to their unique local contexts. It is unrealistic
to rely on the international community to
effectively protect the interests of all peoples.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice
65

Supplementary Resources
Books Online Resources
Kolbert, Elizabeth. Field Notes from a Energy Information Administration <http://www.
Catastrophe: Man, Nature, and Climate eia.gov>. Federal agency that provides current
Change. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing and historical data on energy production and
USA, 2006. use as well as the environmental effects of
energy consumption.
Meckling, Jonas. Carbon Coalitions: Business,
Climate Politics, and the Rise of Emissions Global Governance Monitor: Climate Change
Trading. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, <http://www.cfr.org/global-governance/
2011. global-governance-monitor/p18985#!/climate-
change>. A comprehensive educational webpage
produced by the Council on Foreign Relations
Newell, Peter and Matthew Paterson. Climate
Capitalism: Global Warming and the about how the international community is
Transformation of the Global Economy. New responding to climate change.
York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change <http://
O’Brien, Karen, Asunción Lera St. Clair, and Berit www.ipcc.ch>. The leading international body
Kristoffersen, eds. Climate Change, Ethics for scientific, technical, and socioeconomic
and Human Security. New York: Cambridge climate change data and analysis.
University Press, 2010.
Risky Business <http://riskybusiness.org>. A project
Roberts, J. Timmons and Bradley Parks. A Climate and formal report focused on quantifying and
of Injustice: Global Inequality, North-South publicizing the economic risks from the impacts
of a changing climate.
Politics, and Climate Policy. Cambridge, MA:
The MIT Press, 2006.
U.S. Global Change Research Program <http://www.
globalchange.gov>. Federal research program
Roberts, J. Timmons, David Ciplet, and Mizan
that produces the National Climate Assessment,
Khan. Power in a Warming World: The New
supports policy decision-making, and provides
Geopolitics of Climate Change. Cambridge,
tools for educating about climate change.
MA: The MIT Press, Fall 2015.

UN Climate Change Newsroom <http://newsroom.

Ruddiman, William F. Plows, Plagues, and
unfccc.int>. Website of the United Nations
Petroleum: How Humans Took Control of
Framework Convention on Climate Change
Climate. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
(UNFCCC) with the latest international news on
Press, 2010.
climate change research and responses as well
as information about UNFCCC meetings and
process.

What Next Volume III: Climate Development and

Equity <http://www.whatnext.org/Publications/
Volume_3/Volume_3_main.html>. An online
collection of articles by commentators,
researchers, and activists around the world
covering climate change through the lens of
equity.
www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
■  The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
Prepare Students for College,
Career, and Civic Life
Choices' inquiry-based approach to real-world issues promotes the skills required
by the C3 Framework.

Critical Thinking
Guided by compelling questions, students examine historical
context, analyze case studies, consider contrasting policy
options, and explore the underlying values and interests that
drive different perspectives.

Textual Analysis
Students examine primary and secondary sources and
evaluate evidence to understand multiple perspectives on
complex international issues.

Creativity and Innovation

Students form original ideas and express them creatively
through writing, drawing, and role play.

Communication
Students construct, present, and critique arguments using
written, oral, and digital communication.

Collaboration
Students engage in deliberative discussions, build on each
other’s ideas, formulate persuasive arguments, and express
their own views.

www.choices.edu
Climate Change and
Questions of Justice
Climate Change and Questions of Justice explores the
causes and effects of global warming and delves into
questions of who is most responsible for and vulnerable to
the changing climate. Students grapple with how to respond
to climate change at local, national, and international levels
in ways that are both effective and fair.

Climate Change and Questions of Justice is part of a

continuing series on current and historical international
issues published by the Choices Program at Brown
University. Choices materials place special emphasis on the
importance of educating students in their participatory role
as citizens.
 T E A C H E R R E S O U R C E B O O K

Climate Change and

Questions of Justice

T E A C H E R
B O O K

Teacher Resource Book

R E S O U R C E

R E S O U R C E
T E A C H E R

B O O K
B O O K

T E A C H E R
R E S O U R C E

R E S O U R C E
T E A C H E R

B O O K

T E A C H E R R E S O U R C E B O O K
 The Choices Program
www.choices.edu
The Choices Program is a program of the Watson Institute
for International and Public Affairs and the School of
Professional Studies at Brown University. Choices
was established to help citizens think constructively
about foreign policy issues, to improve participatory
citizenship skills, and to encourage public judgement
on policy issues.

The Choices Program develops curricula on current and

historical international issues and offers workshops,
institutes, and in-service programs for high school
teachers. Course materials place special emphasis on the
importance of educating students in their participatory
role as citizens.
Focusing on three main areas­—development, security,
and governance—the Watson Institute is a community of
scholars whose policy-relevant research aims to help us
understand and address the world’s great challenges. Its
mission is to promote a just and peaceful world through
research, teaching, and public engagement.
 Climate Change and
Questions of Justice
Teacher Resource Book

© Copyright July 2017. Second Edition. The Choices Program. All rights reserved. Choices grants
individual teachers permission to print copies of the student text and student handouts from the
Teacher Resource Book for use in their own classroom. Permission is not granted to post this docu-
ment for use online. This curriculum is licensed for single-teacher use only.

ISBN 1-60123-187-3-TRB / 978-1-60123-187-1-TRB

Acknowledgments
Climate Change and Questions of Justice was developed by the Choices Program with the assistance of faculty at the
Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, scholars at Brown University, and other experts in the field. We
wish to thank the following researchers for their invaluable input:

David Ciplet Michael Warren Murphy

Assistant Professor of Environmental Studies National Science Foundation IGERT Fellow, PhD Candidate
The University of Colorado at Boulder Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs
Brown University
Guy Edwards
Research Fellow, Codirector of Climate Development Lab J. Timmons Roberts
Institute at Brown for Environment and Society Ittleson Professor of Environmental Studies and Sociology
Brown University Institute at Brown for Environment and Society
Brown University
Timothy D. Herbert
Henry L. Doherty Professor of Oceanography Dov Sax
Professor and Chair of Earth, Environmental, and Planetary Associate Professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology
Sciences Department Associate Professor of Environment and Society
Institute at Brown for Environment and Society Deputy Director (Teaching), Institute at Brown for
Brown University Environment and Society, Brown University

Leah K. VanWey
Professor of Environment and Society and Sociology
Associate Provost for Academic Space
Brown University

Thank you to the Climate Development Lab of Brown University (Jeffrey Baum, Cassidy Bennett, Camila Bustos, Ximena
Carranza, Alexis Durand, Victoria Hoffmeister, Zihao Jiang, Maris Jones, Alison Kirsch, Sophie Purdom, Allison Reilly, and
Marguerite Suozzo-Gole) for their guidance and feedback on this curriculum unit.

Thank you to Leah Elliott, Jessica Fields, Danielle Johnstone, and Maya Lindberg for their help in developing and writing this
unit.

Maps by Alexander Sayer Gard-Murray.

Cover photograph by the NOAA Photo Library (CC BY 2.0).

The Choices Program

Director Curriculum Writer Manager, Digital Media Group
Susan Graseck Lindsay Turchan Tanya Waldburger

Curriculum Development Director Research and Writing Intern Office Assistant

Andy Blackadar Ada Okun Lisa Blake

Professional Development Director Administrative Manager

Mimi Stephens Kathleen Magiera

Curriculum Development Assistant Director Marketing and Social Media Manager

Susannah Bechtel Jillian McGuire Turbitt
 Contents
Note to Teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Making Choices Work in Your Classroom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Integrating this Unit into Your Curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Part I: The Causes and Effects of Global Climate Change
Study Guides and Graphic Organizer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Climate Change’s Effects on Living Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Films and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Part II: Responses to Climate Change
Study Guides and Graphic Organizer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Policy in the Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Data Analysis: Carbon Dioxide Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Part III: Case Studies
Study Guides and Graphic Organizer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Looking at the Eight Case Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
The Options Role Play
Organization and Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Options: Graphic Organizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Debate and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Synthesis
Taking Action on Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Key Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Issues Toolbox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Assessment Guide for Oral Presentations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Supplemental Materials and Videos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Online

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
2
Note to Teachers
At the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro change conference and wrestle with the same
in 1992, the countries of the world made questions and challenges facing real delegates.
responding to climate change a shared respon- Synthesis: After the role play, students
sibility. The challenge since then has been to enter into deliberative dialogue in which they
take into account the many different concerns analyze together the merits and trade-offs of
of countries, ordinary people, businesses, and the alternatives presented; explore shared con-
activists in creating an effective set of policies cerns as well as conflicting values, interests,
to address this shared problem. While sci- and priorities; and develop their own views.
entists see climate change as an increasingly Armed with fresh insights from the role play
pressing matter, policy makers disagree about and the deliberation, students articulate origi-
the severity of the threat and how to respond. nal, coherent policy options that reflect their
These disagreements have made it dif- own values and goals.
ficult for national governments to develop a • Suggested Activities: The Teacher Re-
unified response to climate change, even after source Book accompanying Climate Change
more than twenty-five years of meetings and and Questions of Justice contains teaching
conferences. The slow pace of this process resources and student activities that help build
has led people and groups outside of national critical-thinking skills.
governments to develop their own responses,
working to both reduce greenhouse gas emis-
sions and adapt to the changing climate. Included Resources
• Study Guides and Graphic Organizers:
Readings and Lessons: Climate Change
Each section of reading has two distinct study
and Questions of Justice explores the causes
guides and a graphic organizer. The standard
and effects of this global problem, and the
study guide helps students gather informa-
responses of governments, organizations, and
tion in preparation for analysis and synthesis
individuals. The readings also help students
in class. It also lists key terms that students
to consider who is most vulnerable to climate
will encounter in the reading. The advanced
change and to grapple with the question of
study guide requires that students analyze and
responsibility. Eight case studies examine
synthesize material prior to class activities.
diverse regions of the world and how they
Graphic organizers can help students better
are experiencing and responding to climate
understand the information that they read.
change. Each case study has a unique focus.
• Videos: Choices produces short videos
This Teacher Resource Book (TRB) for Cli-
featuring leading experts—professors, policy
mate Change and Questions of Justice contains
makers, journalists, activists, and artists—
lessons that correspond to each section of
answering questions that complement the
reading in the student text.
readings and lessons. Read our tips for using
The lessons are provided as a guide. While Choices videos at <https://video.choices.edu/
lessons are usually designed to be completed tips>.
within a single class period, many teachers
• Online Supplemental Materials: More
choose to devote multiple class periods to
resources and materials associated with the
certain lessons and adapt them to the needs of
suggested activities are available at <http://
their students.
www.choices.edu/climatechangematerials>.
The Options Role Play: Students then ex-
amine three distinct options for international
climate change policy in a simulation activity.
In this “Options Role Play,” students take on
the roles of representatives at a UN climate

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
3
Making Choices Work in Your Classroom
Here are suggestions about how to adapt • Create a Know/Want to Know/Learned
Choices curricula to your classroom. They (K-W-L) worksheet for students to record what
are drawn from the experiences of teachers they already know about climate change and
who have used Choices successfully in their what they want to know. As they read they can
classrooms and from educational research on fill out the “learned” section of the worksheet.
student-centered instruction. • Brainstorm current knowledge and then
create web diagrams in which students link
Adjusting for Students of Differing the ideas they have about the topic.
Abilities • Ask students to create their own graphic
Teachers of students at all levels—from organizers for sections of the reading or fill in
middle school to AP—have used Choices ones you have partially completed.
materials successfully. Many teachers make
• Supplement with different types of read-
adjustments to the materials for their students.
ings, such as literature, newspaper articles, or
Here are some suggestions:
textbooks.
• Do only some lessons and readings
• Use Choices’ videos or other visual in-
rather than all of them.
troductions to orient your students.
• Shorten reading assignments; cut and
• Combine reading with political cartoon
paste sections.
analysis, map analysis, or movie-watching.
• Use the questions in the text to intro-
duce students to the topic. Ask them to scan
the reading for major headings, images, and Managing the Options Role Play
questions so they can gain familiarity with the A central activity of every Choices unit is
structure and organization of the text. the role play in which students advocate dif-
ferent options and question each other’s views.
• Read some sections of the readings out
Just as thoughtful preparation is necessary to
loud.
set the stage for cooperative group learning,
• Preview the vocabulary and key con- careful planning for the presentations can
cepts listed on each study guide and in the increase the effectiveness of the Options Role
back of the TRB with students. The study Play.
guides ask students to identify key terms from
Time is the essential ingredient to keep in
the reading. Establish a system to help stu-
mind. A minimum of forty-five to fifty minutes
dents find definitions for these key terms and
is necessary for the presentations. Teachers
others they do not know.
who have been able to schedule a double pe-
• Use the issues toolbox in the back of riod or extend the length of class to one hour
the TRB to introduce overarching themes and report that the extra time is beneficial. When
crucial ideas in the reading. necessary, the Options Role Play can be run
• Go over vocabulary and concepts with over two days, but this disrupts momentum.
visual tools such as concept maps. The best strategy for managing the role play is
to establish and enforce strict time limits, such
• Be sure that students understand the
as five minutes for each option presentation,
purpose of reading the text. For example, if
ten minutes for questions and challenges, and
they are going to do a role play, explain that
the final five minutes of class for wrapping up.
the readings will help them to gather the infor-
It is crucial to make students aware of strict
mation needed to formulate arguments.
time limits as they prepare their presentations.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
4
Adjusting the Options Role Play for it involves students in the assessment process
Large and Small Classes and that it provides teachers with valuable
Choices curricula are designed for an insights into the contributions of individual
average class of twenty-five students. In larger students and the dynamics of different groups.
classes, additional roles, such as those of These insights can help teachers organize
newspaper reporter or member of a special groups for future cooperative assignments.
interest group, can be assigned to increase Evaluating Students’ Original Options:
student participation in the Options Role Play. The original options developed and articu-
With larger groups, additional tasks might be lated by each student after the role play are an
to create a poster, political cartoon, or public important outcome of a Choices unit. These
service announcement that represents the will differ significantly from one another, as
viewpoint of an option. In smaller classes, students identify different values and priori-
the teacher can serve as the moderator of the ties that shape their viewpoints.
debate, and administrators, parents, or faculty
The students’ options should be evaluated
can be invited to play the roles of congres-
on clarity of expression, logic, and thorough-
sional leaders. Teachers can also combine two
ness. Did students provide reasons for their
small classes.
recommendations along with supporting
evidence? Were the values clear and consis-
Assessing Student Achievement tent throughout the option? Did the students
Numerous tools for assessment, including identify the risks involved? Did the students
rubrics specifically designed for the Options present their options in a convincing manner?
Role Play, student self-evaluations, and tips Testing: Research shows that students
from teachers who have used Choices materi- using the Choices approach learn the factual
als in their classrooms are available at <http:// information presented as well as or better than
choices.edu/teachers-corner/>. from lecture-discussion format. Students using
Grading Group Assignments: Students Choices curricula demonstrate a greater ability
and teachers both know that group grades to think critically, analyze multiple perspec-
can be motivating for students, while at the tives, and articulate original views. Teachers
same time they can create controversy. Telling should hold students accountable for learning
students in advance that the group will receive historical information, concepts, and current
one grade often motivates group members to events presented in Choices units. A variety of
hold each other accountable. This can fos- types of testing questions and assessments can
ter group cohesion and lead to better group help students to demonstrate critical thinking
results. It is also important to give individual and historical understanding.
grades for group-work assignments in order to
recognize an individual’s contribution to the
group.
Requiring Self-Evaluation: Having stu-
dents complete self-evaluations is an effective
way to encourage them to think about their
own learning. Self-evaluations can take many
forms and are useful in a variety of circum-
stances. They are particularly helpful in
getting students to think constructively about
group collaboration. In developing a self-eval-
uation tool for students, teachers need to pose
clear and direct questions to students. Two
key benefits of student self-evaluation are that

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
5
Integrating this Unit into Your Curriculum
Units produced by the Choices Program World History: The problem of climate
are designed to be integrated into a variety of change is an outgrowth of the Industrial Revo-
courses. Below are a few ideas about where lution that began more than two centuries ago
Climate Change and Questions of Justice in Britain and spread across Europe, North
might fit into your curriculum. America, and Japan—regions of the world that
are today sometimes called the global North.
Global Issues: Climate change is at the Many of the countries in the global North
forefront of an emerging set of international have long histories of colonialism, which
issues that transcend national borders. Along have important legacies that still remain
with refugee crises, nuclear proliferation, drug today. International negotiations about how
trafficking, and terrorism, climate change has to respond to climate change are complicated
redefined the agenda of the international com- by this history, especially when the question
munity in recent decades. These issues have arises of who is most vulnerable to its effects
focused renewed attention on the role of the and who should be held responsible. Climate
United Nations (UN) and other international Change and Questions of Justice offers stu-
organizations. On the one hand, the threat of dents an opportunity to examine the impacts
climate change and other transnational issues of colonialism and consider its relationship to
has elevated the importance of international economic development, environmental degra-
cooperation. On the other hand, international dation, responsibility, and justice.
negotiations can be slow and individual coun-
tries’ interests often prevent comprehensive Environmental Science: Climate change
agreements from being made. Climate Change threatens to drastically change the natural
and Questions of Justice offers an opportunity world in the coming decades. This means fun-
to examine these issues in the classroom. damental changes to the world’s ecosystems
and the services they provide to human societ-
Economics: Since the first agricultural ies. Yet efforts to curb the effects of a changing
societies took hold, humanity has struggled to climate are complicated by disputes over pol-
balance its economic needs with the health of icy priorities. Responses to climate change are
the natural environment. History shows that negotiated in political contexts, both domestic
even in ancient times short-sighted irrigation and international. Climate Change and Ques-
practices and overgrazing led to the degrada- tions of Justice supplements science curricula
tion of the land in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and and helps students understand the competing
other fertile river valleys. Today, both the values and trade-offs that affect the interpreta-
dangerous effects of climate change and the tion of scientific information by policy makers.
responses to it are often seen as a limit to eco-
nomic growth. Governments, businesses, and
individuals must weigh the high initial costs
of many mitigation and adaptation strategies
against the risk of future environmental and
economic crises. Some economists promote
sustainable development as the most effective
way to move forward. Others view climate
change as a challenge best overcome by spur-
ring market forces to encourage behavior
changes and new technological developments.

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
6 Study Guide Name:______________________________________________

Study Guide—Introduction and Part I

Vocabulary: Be sure that you understand these key terms from the Introduction and Part I of your
reading. Circle terms that you do not know.

emissions nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) climate model

agenda corporations consensus
delegates justice ecosystems
Earth Summit carbon dioxide (CO2) smog
United Nations Framework fossil fuels climate change refugees
Convention on Climate global warming acidic
Change (UNFCCC) extreme weather event urban
greenhouse gases hurricane species migration
international community deforestation crop yields
activists industrialization authoritarian
voluntarily glaciers displacement

Questions:
1. What human activities have caused climate change? Give at least three examples.

2. a. Coal, oil, and natural gas supply _______ percent of the world’s energy.

b. In 2012, coal led to _______ percent of human CO2 emissions.

3. Since 1880, the earth’s average surface temperature has increased by ________˚F. This recent rate
of change of global average temperature is about ________ times faster than the average rate of
change after each ice age.

4. List three environmental changes that are evidence of climate change.

•

•

5. a. The level of the world’s seas could rise by _______ feet by 2100.

b. What are two main reasons that sea levels are rising?
•

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Study Guide
7
6. Who are the first climate change refugees? Why did they have to leave their homes?

7. What effects will higher levels of CO2 have on oceans and the organisms that live there?

8. List four types of extreme weather events that scientists have observed to be occurring more fre-
quently now than in the past.
• •

• •

9. Describe three negative effects that climate change can have on human health.
•

10. In which directions might plants and animals shift their geographic ranges in response to warm-
ing temperatures?

11. What changes might farmers need to make in order to continue growing food in a changing cli-
mate?

12. Explain two scenarios in which climate change could lead to conflict or insecurity.
•

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
8 Advanced Study Guide Name:______________________________________________

Advanced Study Guide—Introduction and Part I

1. Explain the connection between fossil fuel use, the greenhouse effect, and climate change.

2. Describe what the chart on page 5 of your reading demonstrates about the change in atmospheric
CO2 levels throughout history and in recent decades.

3. How do scientists use climate models to project future climate conditions? Why do some people
question these projections?

4. Which of the effects of climate change do you think might affect you and your community the
most?

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Graphic Organizer
9
Part I: Causes and Effects of Global Climate Change
Instructions: Use information from your reading to fill in the spaces below. On the bottom half of
the sheet, fill in each shape with at least two examples of how climate change affects each topic listed.

Climate Change Greenhouse Gases

Define climate change: What are they?

What effect do they have on the atmosphere?

What does CO2 stand for?

Causes

Fossil Fuels Deforestation

What are the three main fossil fuels? Do trees absorb or emit CO2?
•
• What effect does deforestation have on levels of CO2 in
the atmosphere?
•

How were fossil fuels formed?

e ts s &
x t rem ven e cie n fl ict
y
E er E Sp atio n
gr Co curit
e ath Mi S e
W
Effects

ns lth &
ea a od
Oc He Fo ultur
e
ri c
Ag

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
10 Part I: Effects on Living Things

Climate Change’s Effects on Living Things

Objectives: some groups two. Explain that each group will
Students will: Work in groups to consider be learning about different organisms, or liv-
how climate change will affect a variety of ing things, that live in and around the United
plants and animals in the United States as well States. Students will make predictions about
as the services they provide to people. how climate change will affect those organ-
isms and why those effects are important to
Practice communication and presentation
people. Each group should read and follow the
skills.
instructions on the worksheets.
Visually represent connections between
3. Presentations—After students complete
climate change and its effects on plants, ani-
their assigned “Organism Profiles” and fill out
mals, and people.
their group’s section of the graphic organizer,
have each group present a three-minute sum-
Required Reading: mary of what they learned about their assigned
Students should have read the Intro- organism(s) to the class. Instruct students to
duction and Part I of the student text and individually fill in the rest of the graphic orga-
completed “Study Guide—Introduction and nizer as groups are presenting.
Part I” (TRB 6-7) or “Advanced Study Guide—
4. Diagramming Connections—After each
Introduction and Part I” (TRB-8).
group has presented, have everyone come
together in a large group. Explain that the
Videos: class will now work together to create a web
There are short, free videos designed to be diagram on the board that shows the relation-
used with this lesson at <www.choices.edu/ ships between climate change and its effects
climatechange>. on living things. Start with climate change in
the center and ask students to help you cre-
ate a diagram to show how climate change, its
Handouts:
effects, the organisms they learned about, and
“Organism Profiles” (TRB 12-25)
people are related by linking each with arrows.
“Effects of Climate Change Graphic Orga- See the incomplete sample of a web diagram
nizer” (TRB-26) on the next page for an idea of what this could
look like.
In the Classroom: Reassure students that it is okay if the
1. Focus Question—Write the question diagram gets messy. Encourage students to ref-
“What are the effects of climate change?” on erence their notes as well as the list of climate
the board. Ask students to use their reading change’s effects they generated at the start of
to generate a list of the major effects climate class. Students should be prepared to explain
change will have. Record this list on the board. the relationships depicted in the diagram.
You may also want to have students watch the “Diagramming Connections” (TRB-27)
Choices videos for this lesson and then ask if includes some ideas of terms and characters to
there are any effects of climate change stu- include in the web diagram. You can choose
dents want to add to their list. to give this sheet to students or you may want
2. Group Work—Divide the class into to use it as a guide for yourself in prompting
groups of three or four. Distribute different the class with some of the specific people and
profile and question pages from the “Organ- professions listed. You may also want to ask
ism Profiles” (sugar maple trees, honey bees, students to come up with their own characters
lobsters, cod, corn, mangroves, and salmon) to to add to the diagram or challenge them to
each group as well as the “Effects of Climate think about where they might put themselves
Change Graphic Organizer.” You may want to in the diagram.
give each group one “Organism Profile” or give
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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Part I: Effects on Living Things
11
5. Class Discussion—After finishing the In addition, if you choose to give each
diagram, have students reflect upon the pro- group of students more than one organism
cess of making predictions about how climate from the “Organism Profiles” it may be useful
change will affect living things. Did any to pair the lobsters profile with the cod profile.
themes emerge regarding how climate change’s The cod profile could also be given to a group
impacts on plants and animals relate to its that needs more of a challenge.
effects on people? Were students surprised
by any of these connections? Was it difficult
Homework:
to make predictions about how living things
Students should read Part II of the student
might be affected by climate change? Why or
text and complete “Study Guide—Part II”
why not? What other information would have
(TRB 30-31) or “Advanced Study Guide—Part
been useful in order to make more accurate
II” (TRB-32).
predictions? Is it possible to learn this type of
information, and if so, how might students go
about finding it? Extra Challenge:
Direct students to Greenpeace’s collection
of Postcards from Climate Change at <http://
Suggestions:
postcardsfromclimatechange.org>. Have
It may be helpful for students to have
students watch one or a few of the videos and
Part I of the student text available as they
identify the ways climate change is already
complete this activity. It may also be useful to
affecting plants, animals, and people in the
project or have students reference a basic map
United States and around the world. The
of the United States. Encouraging students
“Postcard from the Oregon Coast” may be
to annotate the “Organism Profiles,” mark-
especially useful. Do students see any themes
ing important concepts as well as words and
emerging regarding how climate change is af-
phrases they do not know, may also help them
fecting living things? How do the ways climate
in completing the exercise.
change affects the natural world impact hu-
man societies?

Incomplete Sample of a Web Diagram

Glaciers Sea Level

Melting Rise
Warming Mangroves
Oceans
Warming Air
Temperatures
CLIMATE
CHANGE

Extreme
Storms
Flooding

Family living near the

Florida coast

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
12 Part I: Effects on Living Things Name:______________________________________________

Organism Profile: Sugar Maple Trees

Instructions: Read the information below about sugar maple trees. Drawing on this information
as well as what you have already read about the effects of climate change, work with your group to
complete “Questions: Sugar Maple Trees.” After completing these questions, fill in the section of the
“Effects of Climate Change Graphic Organizer” about sugar maple trees and prepare a three-minute
presentation to give to the class. In the presentation, your group should summarize what sugar
maples are, how climate change might affect them, and why that is important to people.

Sugar Maple Trees

• Sugar maple trees,
which exist throughout
the northern parts of
the central and eastern
United States and fur-
ther north in Canada,
produce the sap used
in making maple
syrup. Wood from
sugar maples is also
used to make furniture,
musical instruments,
and hardwood floors
(including the floors of
basketball courts and
bowling lanes).
• Sugar maples are
known for their leaves
changing colors in
Joshua Mayer (CC BY-SA 2.0).

the fall—they go from

green to yellow, peach,
burnt orange, and red.
These colorful leaves
attract tourists to New
England, which helps
the economies of
northeastern states.
• Sugar maple trees can be tapped for syrup when they are forty to fifty years old, and they
can live to be four hundred years old. It takes a long time for them to grow and reproduce.
Also, being trees, sugar maples cannot move or change locations; in order to change where
they exist geographically, they rely on the wind to carry their seeds to new places.
• Sugar maples are highly sensitive to climate. It is especially difficult for sugar maples to
stay healthy through warm winters and summer droughts, which are becoming increasingly
common in the southern part of their range. When the trees are unhealthy, their sap con-
tains less sugar, and it takes more sap to produce each bottle of syrup. Changes in winter
and spring temperatures can also alter when the sap harvesting (or “sugaring”) season
begins and how long it lasts.

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part I: Effects on Living Things
13
Questions: Sugar Maple Trees
1. How might temperature changes associated with climate change affect sugar maple trees?

2. Why are sugar maple trees important to people?

3. Why might it be more difficult for sugar maple trees to shift their geographic range in response to
temperature changes than it would be for animals such as fish or birds?

4. Where do you think sugar maple trees will exist a century from now? Where might they no longer
exist and why?

5. It is critical for maple syrup producers to start sugaring (harvesting sap) at the right time. If they
start to harvest too early, bacteria may get into the trees and block sap from coming out. If they
start to harvest too late, they miss out on the sap from the early part of the season, which makes
the best syrup. Based on what you have read about sugar maples, how might climate change affect
the businesses of maple syrup producers?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
14 Part I: Effects on Living Things Name:______________________________________________

Organism Profile: Honey Bees

Instructions: Read the information below about honey bees. Drawing on this information as well
as what you have already read about the effects of climate change, work with your group to com-
plete “Questions: Honey Bees.” After completing these questions, fill in the section of the “Effects
of Climate Change Graphic Organizer” about honey bees and prepare a three-minute presentation to
give to the class. In the presentation, your group should summarize what honey bees are, how climate
change might affect honey bees, and why that is important to people.

Honey Bees
• Honey bees can
survive in nearly every
part of the world except
around the North and
South Poles. They came
to the United States
from Europe more than
four hundred years ago.
• While honey bees
can pollinate nearly any
flowering plant, some
crops, such as almonds,
can only be pollinated
ForestWander.com (CC BY-SA 2.0).

by honey bees. More

than $15 billion worth
of U.S. crops are polli-
nated by bees each year.
While they are heav-
ily used in industrial
agriculture, honey bees
still rely on wild plants
in order to survive.
• Honey bees gather nectar from flowers, which they use to make honey. Through this pro-
cess, honey bees get covered with plant pollen, which they transport from flower to flower,
enabling the plants to reproduce. Honey bees have coevolved with many of the plants they
pollinate so that they emerge from their hive after the winter just at the time when flowers
are blooming. It is important that this timing coincides—both so the bees can collect nectar
from the flowers as food and so the plants can successfully reproduce.
• In recent years, honey bees have been emerging from their hives earlier in the year than in
the past. Scientists have observed that this seasonal change is more pronounced near cities,
where temperatures are generally higher than in rural areas.
• Honey bees are vulnerable to extreme cold—even if one winter night gets too cold, they may
struggle to keep all the bees in the hive warm enough to survive.

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part I: Effects on Living Things
15
Questions: Honey Bees
1. How might temperature changes associated with climate change affect honey bees?

2. Why are honey bees important to people?

3. Honey bees are currently able to live in many different places around the world with a wide variety
of climate conditions. What might this suggest about honey bees’ ability to adapt to changes in
climate?

4. How might climate change affect the timing of when bees emerge from their hives in the spring?

5. Scientists believe climate change will affect the timing and seasonality of many organisms’ life-
cycles. But they also know that climate change will not affect all plants and animals in the same
ways. Why might this cause a problem for the relationship between honey bees and the plants
they pollinate? Why might this matter for large-scale agriculture in the United States?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
16 Part I: Effects on Living Things Name:______________________________________________

Organism Profile: Lobsters

Instructions: Read the information below about lobsters. Drawing on this information as well as
what you have already read about the effects of climate change, work with your group to complete
“Questions: Lobsters.” After completing these questions, fill in the section of the “Effects of Climate
Change Graphic Organizer” about lobsters and prepare a three-minute presentation to give to the
class. In the presentation, your group should summarize what lobsters are, how climate change might
affect lobsters, and why that is important to people.

Lobsters
• North American lob-
sters are most common
in the northwestern
Atlantic Ocean, from
the colder waters off
the coast of Maine to
the relatively warmer
waters off the coast of
New Jersey.
• Lobsters are econom-
Paula Ouder, Louisiana State University (CC BY 2.0).

ically very important

in the Northeastern
United States. They
are eaten as a luxury
food item and also at-
tract tourists to fishing
towns and restaurants.
Lobsters have become
a cultural symbol in
many parts of New
England.
• Lobsters have hard shells to protect them from predators like cod. In order to grow, lobsters
molt, which means they shed their shells. When a lobster comes out of its old shell, it is
soft and absorbs water to increase its body size. Lobsters are most vulnerable to being eaten
by predators or being infected with diseases while still soft after molting. Once it sheds its
old shell, a lobster will eat a lot to obtain the necessary nutrients to create a new hard shell
as quickly as possible. These hard shells cannot form if the ocean is too acidic.
• Lobsters are very sensitive to water temperature. The water in which they live needs to
be warm enough for lobsters to survive and have enough energy to molt and reproduce.
At the same time, lobsters need a lot of oxygen to be dissolved in the water in which they
live, and warmer temperatures reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen present. If they do
not have enough oxygen, lobsters may die or become more vulnerable to disease. Because
of this, lobsters need to live in water that is warm enough to molt and reproduce but cold
enough to get oxygen.
• Warmer waters make it easier for the type of bacteria that causes “lobster-shell disease” to
thrive and spread.

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part I: Effects on Living Things
17
Questions: Lobsters
1. How might increasing ocean temperatures associated with climate change affect lobsters?

2. How might increasing ocean acidity levels associated with climate change affect lobsters?

3. Why are lobsters important to people?

4. Where do you think lobsters will exist a century from now? Where might they no longer exist and
why?

5. How might warming ocean temperatures affect lobster fishers and their families in New Jersey?
How might warming ocean temperatures affect lobster fishers in Maine?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
18 Part I: Effects on Living Things Name:______________________________________________

Organism Profile: Cod

Instructions: Read the information below about cod. Drawing on this information as well as what
you have already read about the effects of climate change, work with your group to complete “Ques-
tions: Cod.” After completing these questions, fill in the section of the “Effects of Climate Change
Graphic Organizer” about cod and prepare a three-minute presentation to give to the class. In the
presentation, your group should summarize what cod are, how climate change might affect cod, and
why that is important to people.

Cod
• Atlantic cod live on
both the east and west
sides of the Atlan-
tic Ocean. In North
America, they can be
found as far south as
the North Carolina
coast and as far north
as Greenland.
• Cod have been a sta-
ple of New England’s
fishing industry since
the seventeenth cen-
August Linnman (CC BY-SA 2.0).

tury. In 1602, English

fishers even named
Cape Cod after the
highly abundant fish.
Many people still eat
cod today; it is com-
monly used in recipes
like “fish and chips.”
• Many stages of the cod life cycle—especially their reproduction, the growth and develop-
ment of young cod, and adult cod’s feeding behaviors—are highly sensitive to temperature.
They cannot survive in water that is too warm.
• Tiny organisms called phytoplankton are an important food source for young cod as they
develop and grow. Changing temperatures and circulation patterns of ocean currents may
be altering the distribution of phytoplankton. This could make it difficult for young cod to
get enough food at this important stage in their life cycle.
• Adult cod eat shellfish, such as lobsters, and smaller fish—even young cod.

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part I: Effects on Living Things
19
Questions: Cod
1. How might increasing ocean temperatures associated with climate change affect cod?

2. Why are cod important to people?

3. Recently, scientists and people who fish have noticed that many cod are disappearing from the
southern part of their range. Why might this be happening?

4. How might the disappearance of cod in some regions affect lobster populations in those areas?
How might this affect lobster fishers in those places?

5. Some lobster fishers have recently noticed more black sea bass, a fish that is usually found further
south but is known to eat baby lobsters, in the same area as lobsters. With this new information,
how might you revise your prediction from the previous question about what might happen to
lobster populations?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
20 Part I: Effects on Living Things Name:______________________________________________

Organism Profile: Corn

Instructions: Read the information below about corn. Drawing on this information as well as what
you have already read about the effects of climate change, work with your group to complete “Ques-
tions: Corn.” After completing these questions, fill in the section of the “Effects of Climate Change
Graphic Organizer” about corn and prepare a three-minute presentation to give to the class. In the
presentation, your group should summarize what corn is, how climate change might affect corn, and
why that is important to people.

Corn
• Most corn that is
grown in the United
States is grown in
the Midwest, which
has been experienc-
ing more frequent
droughts during corn’s
summer growing
season as well as more
intense rainfall in the
rest of the year.
• In the United States,
corn is used primarily
Rosana Prada (CC BY 2.0).

to feed livestock (like

cattle), to make ethanol
(a type of fuel), and for
common food ingre-
dients like corn starch
and corn syrup.
• Corn is very sensitive to temperature; it cannot grow in temperatures that are too hot. Corn
is also very sensitive to water levels; it needs a lot of water to survive, but that water cannot
come in the form of heavy rains that could wipe out the crop.
• Corn requires a lot of processing plants, storage facilities, and irrigation infrastructure.
These buildings and systems are permanent structures that cannot be easily moved.

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part I: Effects on Living Things
21
Questions: Corn
1. How might changes in temperature and rainfall associated with climate change affect corn?

2. Why is corn important to people?

3. Where is corn grown now? Where do you think corn may need to be grown a century from now
and why?

4. Why might it be especially difficult to change where corn is grown in the United States?

5. How might climate change affect corn yields? How might the amount of corn that is available affect
its price?

6. How might climate change’s effects on corn influence the price of beef?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
22 Part I: Effects on Living Things Name:______________________________________________

Organism Profile: Mangroves

Instructions: Read the information below about mangroves. Drawing on this information as well
as what you have already read about the effects of climate change, work with your group to complete
“Questions: Mangroves.” After completing these questions, fill in the section of the “Effects of Cli-
mate Change Graphic Organizer” about mangroves and prepare a three-minute presentation to give to
the class. In the presentation, your group should summarize what mangroves are, how climate change
might affect mangroves, and why that is important to people.

Mangroves
• While more than 40
percent of the world’s
mangrove forests are
found in Asia, there
are mangroves in parts
of the southeastern
United States. Man-
groves can be found
along the coasts of
Florida, Louisiana, and
Texas.
• Mangrove trees,
which live in saltwa-
ter, provide a habitat
for many types of fish,
birds, and other wild-
life, including honey
Pat Williams (CC BY 2.0).

bees. They are very

important for both
commercial and recre-
ational fishing in the
states where they are
found.
• While they are known for their ability to adapt to changing water conditions, mangrove for-
ests may still face challenges associated with climate change. If sea levels continue to rise,
mangroves may have trouble finding new places suitable for them to grow because much of
the land at higher elevations has been developed with roads and buildings.
• Mangrove forests store a lot of carbon. Mangroves can absorb over 30 percent more carbon
per acre than tropical forests, keeping that carbon out of the atmosphere. They also help
filter and clean water.
• Mangroves help slow coastal erosion and act as a buffer to storms, protecting more inland
areas from flooding.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part I: Effects on Living Things
23
Questions: Mangroves
1. How might climate change affect mangroves?

2. Why are mangrove trees important to people?

3. Why might climate change’s impacts on mangrove forests affect other plants and animals as well?

4. Why might preserving mangrove forests be useful in reducing the amount of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere?

5. Why might preserving mangrove forests be useful in protecting people from some of the effects of
climate change?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
24 Part I: Effects on Living Things Name:______________________________________________

Organism Profile: Salmon

Instructions: Read the information below about salmon. Drawing on this information as well as
what you have already read about the effects of climate change, work with your group to complete
“Questions: Salmon.” After completing these questions, fill in the section of the “Effects of Climate
Change Graphic Organizer” about salmon and prepare a three-minute presentation to give to the
class. In the presentation, your group should summarize what salmon are, how climate change might
affect salmon, and why that is important to people.

Salmon
• Some species of
salmon live in the
northern half of
the Pacific Ocean
while others live in
the northern half of
the Atlantic Ocean.
Salmon also live
in coastal and river
habitats.
• For years, salmon
has been one of the
most commonly
eaten fish in the
United States. While
Andrew Russell (CC BY 2.0).

much of this salmon

is farmed, about one-
third of the salmon
eaten in the United
States is wild, com-
ing primarily from
Alaska.
• Salmon hatch from eggs in freshwater streams. After maturing for a certain amount of
time, young salmon migrate from those freshwater streams to saltwater oceans, where
they can live for up to seven years. Once they are fully mature, adult salmon migrate back
to the same freshwater streams where they hatched in order to reproduce. This journey
takes a lot of energy to complete—many salmon die in the process. With warmer waters,
salmon’s long migration will require even more energy, causing salmon to experience
more exhaustion and stress.
• When young salmon migrate from freshwater to saltwater, they enter the ocean just at the
time when the small organisms that they eat, called zooplankton, are most abundant. It is
important that this timing aligns, so the young salmon can get enough to eat.
• Many people eat salmon, as do numerous other animals, such as seals, whales, and
bears. Adult salmon eat smaller fish, such as herring, as well as other marine animals like
shrimp, which have hard shells.

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part I: Effects on Living Things
25
Questions: Salmon
1. How might ocean temperature changes associated with climate change affect salmon?

2. Why are salmon important to people?

3. Scientists have observed that it takes salmon less time to mature in warmer waters. How might
increasing water temperatures affect the timing of young salmon’s migration into the ocean? Why
is this timing important for their survival?

4. Like people, when salmon are tired and experiencing stress, they may be more susceptible to dis-
eases. How might climate change influence salmon health?

5. Many marine animals, like lobsters and shrimp, have hard shells to protect them from being eaten
by predators. These shells are necessary for their survival. How might ocean acidification affect
these shelled animals? How might this affect salmon populations?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
26 Part I: Effects on Living Things Name:______________________________________________

Effects of Climate Change Graphic Organizer

Instructions: As you listen to your classmates’ presentations, complete the chart below. Be sure to
include at least two ways climate change will affect each organism as well as at least two reasons why
those effects matter to people.

How might climate change affect Why does this matter to

Organism name
this organism? people?

Sugar Maple

Honey Bee

Lobster

Cod

Corn

Mangroves

Salmon

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Part I: Effects on Living Things
27
Diagramming Connections
Instructions: You may wish to include some or all of the following terms in your web diagram of
climate change’s effects on plants, animals, and people.

Climate change Sugar maple A fisherman

Warming oceans Honey bee A seafood restaurant owner
Warming air temperature Lobster A cattle farmer
Extreme heat Cod A person shopping at a grocery store
Extreme cold Corn A family living near the Florida coast
Extreme storms Mangroves A worker at an ethanol production plant
Changes in rainfall Salmon A person filling up their car with gas
Glaciers melting A maple syrup producer
Sea level rise A nature photographer
Ocean acidification An almond farmer
Flooding
Drought
Seasonal changes

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
28 Part I: Films and Climate Change

Films and Climate Change

Objectives: responses from the handout. Challenge the re-
Students will: Identify the scientific porting students as well as the class to identify
research included in documentary films and the filmmaker’s point of view, the aspects of
how it is presented. climate change the film addresses, and what
scientific research or content it includes. Did
Explore the link between scientific find-
students notice any information that could
ings about climate change and society.
be debated or that conflicted with their read-
Consider the relationship between film ing? What aspects of climate change were not
and public opinion. included in the film? If you have watched the
Examine how filmmakers convey their film as a class, address these issues as part of a
ideas. class discussion.
3. The Power of Film—Ask students to list
Required Reading: the ways that film is different from the written
Students should have read the Intro- word. How might these differences help add
duction and Part I of the student text and to an understanding of an issue like climate
completed “Study Guide—Introduction and change? Could they lead to misunderstand-
Part I” (TRB 6-7) or “Advanced Study Guide— ings of climate change? Ask students to give
Introduction and Part I” (TRB-8). examples from the film they watched.
Who made the film? Why might the film-
Handouts: makers have chosen film as the means of
“Films about Climate Change” (TRB-29), to expressing their message to the public? How
be completed while watching the film(s). might the filmmakers’ backgrounds and inter-
ests have influenced the film’s message? Were
any specific organizations involved in the
Suggestions: film’s creation or promotion? What are those
Numerous films and videos about the ef- organizations’ goals?
fects of climate change have been produced in
What was most compelling about the film?
recent years. You may choose to view a variety
Scientific evidence? Imagery? Anecdotes and
of short films during class, to use class time to
stories from people in the film?
watch a single full-length documentary, or to
challenge students to examine films on their
own or in small groups. Homework:
You can find descriptions of a few possible Students should read Part II of the student
films at <www.choices.edu/climatechange>. text and complete “Study Guide—Part II”
Teachers should preview films to be sure that (TRB 30-31) or “Advanced Study Guide—Part
they are appropriate for their classrooms. II” (TRB-32).

In the Classroom: Extra Challenge:

1. Focus Question—Put the question Have students watch the video “Old
“What is the purpose of documentary film?” Weather: Citizen Scientists” at <https://www.
on the board. Lead a class brainstorm to gener- oldweather.org>. Ask students to reflect upon
ate responses or call on students to write their the variety of ways people can study climate
responses to the question on the board. Then change. How are climate models constructed?
have students watch the film(s) and complete What kinds of data can be useful in predicting
“Films about Climate Change.” future climate change? How can people gather
these data? Encourage students to explore the
2. Film and Science—If students worked rest of the site and to contribute to transcribing
in groups, ask them to present to the class on ship logs.
the film they watched, sharing some of their

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part I: Films and Climate Change
29
Films about Climate Change
Instructions: As you watch the film or short films, answer the following questions. Be prepared to
share your answers with your classmates.

1. Where does the film take place? What aspects of climate change is it dealing with?

2. What scientific research or observations does it include?

3. According to the film, how does climate change impact human beings?

4. List the main people featured in the film. What are their roles in the film?

5. List two of the most striking images of the film. What made these moments stand out for you?
a.

b.

6. Does the film have a particular point of view about climate change? What is it? Give an example of
how the filmmakers chose to portray this point of view.

7. Who is the intended audience of this film? How could you tell? Why do you think the filmmakers
chose to create a film aimed at this audience?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
30 Study Guide Name:______________________________________________

Study Guide—Part II
Vocabulary: Be sure that you understand these key terms from Part II of your reading. Circle terms
that you do not know.

vulnerability ratify geoengineering

responsibility National Adaptation Programmes National Adaptation Plans
rural of Action (NAPAs) (NAPs)
infrastructure emissions restrictions stakeholders
water scarcity mitigation sustainable development
world markets adaptation carbon neutral
develop economically energy efficiency manufacturers
economic growth renewable energy subsidies
Conference of the Parties (COP) carbon tax bargaining power
Kyoto Protocol cap-and-trade system

Questions:
1. Describe the global North and global South. Which continents does each encompass? What level of
development and wealth?
Global North:

Global South:

2. What does it mean to be vulnerable to something?

3. Give two examples from your reading of how poorer communities or countries are especially vul-
nerable to the effects of climate change.
•

4. Circle one: The countries that are most vulnerable to the effects of climate change are the
most / least responsible for the emissions that cause climate change.

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Study Guide
31
5. Describe the COP meetings. What are they and what is their purpose? Who attends?

6. a. What is the goal of mitigation policies?

b. How do carbon taxes and cap-and-trade systems attempt to achieve this goal?

7. What does adaptation mean?

8. Describe an example of sustainable development.

9. How do nongovernmental organizations work to address climate change?

10. What are the barriers to responding to climate change?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
32 Advanced Study Guide Name:______________________________________________

Advanced Study Guide—Part II

1. How do legacies of colonialism affect relations between the global North and global South?

2. How does poverty affect vulnerability to climate change?

3. Describe climate justice in your own words.

4. Do you think that responsibility for climate change should be based on current emissions, per capi-
ta emissions, or emissions accumulated over history? Provide examples to support your answer.

5. Which barrier to action on climate change do you think could most easily be overcome and why?
Which might be most challenging to overcome? Why?

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Graphic Organizer
33
Part II: Responses to Climate Change
Instructions: Use information from your reading to fill in the spaces below. In the bottom half of
the sheet, fill in each box with at least two examples.

Vulnerability Responsibility
What does it mean to be vulnerable to something? What are three ways of determining responsibil-
ity for climate change?

People in the world’s forty eight-poorest countries People in the world’s forty-eight poorest coun-
are _____ times as likely to die from climate related tries have emitted only _____ percent of total
disasters as people in wealthier countries. greenhouse gas emissions.

Mitigation Adaptation
What is the goal of climate change mitigation What is the goal of climate change adaptation
strategies? strategies?

Examples of mitigation Examples of adaptation

Local level

National
level

International
level

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
34 Part II: Policy in the Media

Policy in the Media

Objectives: opinions clear up front, and the writers try to
Students will: Practice primary source convince their readers of these views.
analysis skills by examining a set of editorial 2. Examining the Articles—Distribute the
articles. handouts. Ask students to read “Are Carbon
Consider bias, audience, and author exper- Taxes a Good Idea?” and the “Editorials.”
tise to assess reliability. Students should follow the instructions on
how to annotate the articles and then com-
Learn about persuasive techniques and
plete the “Carbon Tax Graphic Organizer” and
argument-building in editorial articles.
“Questions About the Editorials.” This can be
Compare and contrast opinions about the done individually or in small groups. You may
practicality and appeal of carbon taxes as a also want to instruct students to mark words
climate change mitigation policy. and phrases in the editorials that they do not
understand.
Required Reading: 3. Discussion on Source Analysis—After
Students should have read Part II of the they complete the handouts, ask the students
student text and completed “Study Guide— if they had any trouble deciding whether cer-
Part II” (TRB 30-31) or “Advanced Study tain phrases and sentences were opinions or
Guide—Part II” (TRB-32). facts. You may want to prompt them to discuss
whether the quotation from Source A, “this
Videos: is the perfect time to enact a sensible policy
There are short, free videos designed to be to address the dangerous threat of climate
used with this lesson at <www.choices.edu/ change,” is an opinion or a fact.
climatechange>. Invite students to share their opinions on
the following questions: Which source do you
find most convincing? Why? How might the
Handouts:
various authors be biased? How does this im-
“Are Carbon Taxes a Good Idea?” (TRB-35)
pact the degree to which you trust them? What
“Editorials” (TRB 36-40) makes a source seem reliable? Are there types
“Carbon Tax Graphic Organizer” (TRB-41) of evidence that seem more important or likely
to persuade you than others? Now that you
“Questions About the Editorials” (TRB
have read these editorials, do you think carbon
42-43)
taxes are a good idea? Why or why not?

In the Classroom:
Extra Challenge:
1. Introducing the Exercise—Review what
Invite students to write an editorial for a
a carbon tax is with the class. Ask students
local newspaper about what climate change
why this might be a controversial issue. Tell
policies they think should be adopted in their
them that we often see controversial policy
community or in the country as a whole.
ideas discussed in the media. Ask students
whether they think journalists can be objective
when dealing with an issue about which peo- Homework:
ple have such strong and differing opinions. Students should read the case studies
Should writers always strive to be objective? in Part III of the student text and complete
Why or why not? Explain that the class will be “Study Guide—Part III” (TRB 49-50) or “Ad-
looking at editorials, or opinions articles. Un- vanced Study Guide—Part III” (TRB-51). You
like news reports, editorials make the writers’ may decide to assign all the case studies to the
class or to assign a selection to each student.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part II: Policy in the Media
35
Are Carbon Taxes a Good Idea?
Instructions: Read the following introduction and then read the excerpts from editorials on car-
bon taxes. Consider how each author might answer the key question, “Are carbon taxes a good idea?”
While you are reading, underline two opinions and circle two facts in each article. After reading each
source, fill in the “Carbon Tax Graphic Organizer.” Once you are finished, answer the “Questions
About the Editorials.”

Around the world, people rely on the policies. In editorials, writers use various
media to keep them informed about the most types of evidence to try to convince the read-
important issues that affect them and their ers that their opinion is right. These might
neighbors. The information provided by the include referencing what experts have said,
media helps people form opinions and ask sharing personal stories or anecdotes, making
tough questions of their governments. In a de- comparisons to historical events, or high-
mocracy, where the interests of the public are lighting data and statistics that back up their
supposed to define how the government acts, points.
this information is vital to ensuring the coun- The following editorials address the policy
try functions well. of taxing carbon. Putting a tax on carbon
With a global problem like climate change, emissions is a mitigation policy that aims at
the media plays a particularly important role. making “dirty” energy from fossil fuels more
It gives ordinary people access to climate sci- expensive and therefore less economically
ence and predictions about climate change appealing. Some people believe that this is an
and also provides insight into what kinds of effective and fair way to reduce carbon emis-
policies could be used to address the issue. sions, while others argue that it is pointless,
Editorials or opinion articles play a key role, expensive, and damaging to the economy.
making a case for or against a certain set of

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
36 Part II: Policy in the Media Name:______________________________________________

Editorials: Source A
“A Conservative Case for Climate Action”
by Martin S. Feldstein, Ted Halstead, and N. Gregory Mankiw
Published in The New York Times, February 8, 2017.
Martin S. Feldstein was the chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers under President Ron-
ald Reagan and is a professor of economics at Harvard University. Ted Halstead is the founder and
chief executive of the Climate Leadership Council. N. Gregory Mankiw was the chairman of the Coun-
cil of Economic Advisers under President George W. Bush and is a professor of economics at Harvard
University.

C razy as it may sound, this is the perfect

time to enact a sensible policy to address
the dangerous threat of climate change. Before
Finally, regulations made unnecessary by
the carbon tax would be eliminated, including
an outright repeal of the Clean Power Plan.
you call us nuts, hear us out.... Our own analysis finds that a carbon
[A]n ideal climate policy would reduce dividends program starting at $40 per ton
carbon emissions, limit regulatory intrusion, would achieve nearly twice the emissions
promote economic growth, help working- reductions of all Obama-era climate regula-
class Americans and prove durable when the tions combined. Provided all four elements are
political winds change. We have laid out such put in force in unison, this plan could meet
a plan in a paper to be released Wednesday by America’s commitment under the Paris climate
the Climate Leadership Council…. agreement, all by itself. Democrats and envi-
Our plan is built on four pillars. ronmentalists may bemoan the accompanying
regulatory rollback. But they should pause to
First, the federal government would consider the environmental value proposition.
impose a gradually increasing tax on carbon
dioxide emissions. It might begin at $40 per These four pillars, combined, invite
ton and increase steadily. This tax would send novel coalitions. Environmentalists should
a powerful signal to businesses and consumers like the long-overdue commitment to carbon
to reduce their carbon footprints. pricing. Growth advocates should embrace
the reduced regulation and increased policy
Second, the proceeds would be returned certainty, which would encourage long-term
to the American people on an equal basis via investments, especially in clean technologies.
quarterly dividend checks. With a carbon tax Libertarians should applaud a plan premised
of $40 per ton, a family of four would receive on getting the incentives right and government
about $2,000 in the first year. As the tax rate out of the way. Populists should welcome the
rose over time to further reduce emissions, so distributive impact.
would the dividend payments.
According to a recent Treasury Department
Third, American companies exporting to study, the bottom 70 percent of Americans
countries without comparable carbon pric- would come out ahead under a carbon divi-
ing would receive rebates on the carbon taxes dends plan. Some 223 million Americans
they’ve paid on those products, while imports stand to benefit.
from such countries would face fees on the
carbon content of their products. This would The idea of using taxes to correct a prob-
protect American competitiveness and punish lem like pollution is an old one with wide
free-riding by other nations, encouraging them support among economists. But it is our
to adopt their own carbon pricing. unique political moment, combined with the
populist appeal of dividends, that may turn
the concept into reality….

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part II: Policy in the Media
37
Editorials: Source B
“Paying for It”
by Elizabeth Kolbert
Published in The New Yorker, December 2012.
Elizabeth Kolbert has been a staff writer at The New Yorker since 1999. Her works include politi-
cal profiles, book reviews, essays, and extensive writing on climate change.

I t’s been almost a century since the British

economist Arthur Pigou floated the idea that
turned his name into an adjective. In “The
is to say the fair, way to address this situa-
tion would be to make the driver absorb the
cost for his slice of the damage. This could be
Economics of Welfare,” published in 1920, achieved by a new Pigovian tax, on carbon....
Pigou pointed out that private investments Perhaps because a carbon tax makes so
often impose costs on other people. Consider much sense—researchers at M.I.T. recently
this example: A man walks into a bar. He or- described it as a possible “win-win-win”
ders several rounds, downs them, and staggers response to several of the country’s most
out. The man has got plastered, the bar owner pressing problems—economists on both ends
has got the man’s money, and the public will of the political spectrum have championed
get stuck with the tab for the cops who have to it. Liberals like Robert Frank, of Cornell, and
fish the man out of the gutter. In Pigou’s honor, Paul Krugman, of Princeton, support the idea,
taxes that attempt to correct for this are known as do conservatives like Gary Becker, at the
as Pigovian, or, if you prefer, Pigouvian (the University of Chicago, and Greg Mankiw,
spelling remains wobbly). Alcohol taxes are of Harvard.... A few weeks ago, more than a
Pigovian; so are taxes on cigarettes. The idea hundred major corporations, including Royal
is to incorporate into the cost of what might Dutch Shell and Unilever, issued a joint state-
seem a purely personal choice the expenses it ment calling on lawmakers around the globe to
foists on the rest of society. impose a “clear, transparent and unambiguous
One way to think about global warming price on carbon emissions,” which, while not
is as a vast, planet-wide Pigovian problem. an explicit endorsement of a carbon tax, cer-
In this case, the man pulls up to a gas pump. tainly comes close. Even ExxonMobil, once a
He sticks his BP or Sunoco card into the slot, leading sponsor of climate-change denial, has
fills up, and drives off. He’s got a full tank; the expressed support for a carbon tax....
gas station and the oil company share in the Several countries...already have a carbon
profits. Meanwhile, the carbon that spills out tax. Were the United States to impose one, it
of his tailpipe lingers in the atmosphere, trap- would have global significance. It would show
ping heat and contributing to higher sea levels. that Americans are ready to acknowledge,
As the oceans rise, coastal roads erode, beach- finally, that we are part of the problem. There
front homes wash away, and, finally, major is a price to be paid for living as we do, and
cities flood. Once again, it’s the public at large everyone is going to get stuck with the bill.
that gets left with the bill. The logical, which

www.choices.edu  ■ Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■ The Choices Program 
TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
38 Part II: Policy in the Media Name:______________________________________________

Editorials: Source C
“California Drivers Brace for Costly New Gas Tax”
by William La Jeunesse and Laura Prabucki
Published on FOX News website, August 2014.
William La Jeunesse and Laura Prabucki are correspondents for FOX News Channel, a U.S. news
television channel.

C alifornians already pay the nation’s sec-

ond highest gas tax at sixty-eight cents a
gallon—and now it will go up again in January
Be it a motorist that is commuting back and
forth to work or a trucker just moving goods
throughout the state of California, the cost
to pay for a first-in-the-nation climate change is immediately going to increase because
law. whatever we have to pay for in carbon cred-
“I didn’t know that,” said Los Angeles its ultimately we have to pass through to the
motorist Tyler Rich. “It’s ridiculous.” consumer.”

“I think it’s terrible,” added Lupe Sanchez, Estimates of the cost of the tax vary. The
pumping $4.09-a-gallon gas at a Chevron near California Air Resources Board, the Golden
Santa Monica. “The economy, the way it is State’s premier anti-pollution agency, predicts
right now with jobs and everything, it’s just the new tax will raise gasoline prices [by]
crazy.” twenty cents to $1.30 per gallon. A promi-
nent state senator who helped author the bill
When gas prices go up, motorists typically estimated the cost at forty cents a gallon. Envi-
blame oil companies, Arab sheiks, and Wall ronmental activists downplay the cost, but hail
Street speculators. This time they can blame the impact....
Sacramento and former Gov. Arnold Schwar-
zenegger for passing a bill requiring California By the end of the decade, the state is
to reduce carbon emissions to 1990 levels by expected to collect $5 billion in revenue by
2020. charging businesses and consumers for the
right to pollute. So far the state collected $833
The tax on carbon already raised about $1 billion by selling “carbon credits” to polluters.
billion in revenue by requiring manufactur-
ers and utilities to buy credits for each ton of “They have generated close to a billion
carbon emitted into the atmosphere. At the dollars in revenue just from the carbon tax
beginning of next year, the law will also apply credit auctions that have been going on for
to oil and gas. Refiners and distributors say over a year. Where has that money gone?”
they will pass another $2 billion in costs on— asked Rohrer.
largely to consumers. “And why do we have to tax the consumer
“Ultimately it hurts the consumer,” said to make this happen for clean air? Everyone is
California Independent Oil and Marketing for clean air but let’s not hurt the consumer in
Association spokesman Mike Rohrer. “It is the process and not giving them a full explana-
going to affect anyone who has a vehicle. tion of how this exactly works and why.”

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part II: Policy in the Media
39
Editorials: Source D
“Carbon Taxes Are the Responsible Way Forward”
by the Dhaka Tribune editorial team
Published in the Dhaka Tribune, March 24, 2016.
The Dhaka Tribune is a Bangladeshi English-language daily newspaper published nationwide
from Bangladesh’s capital, Dhaka.

T he World Bank has recently written to the

government recommending a carbon tax as
a “fiscally prudent measure.”
ister’s statement in February that there would
be no reduction in the prices of fuel oil until
the all loans of Bangladesh Petroleum Corpora-
It is a welcome sign of growing consensus tion were repaid.
about the need for taxes on fuels that generate The government should bring in carbon
greenhouse gas emissions. taxes as well as cutting costly fossil fuel subsi-
Such a move would fit in with national dies. Discouraging fossil fuel is essential to cut
policies and international agreements to pro- emissions and reduce dependence on a finite
mote renewable energy, and would also help resource which can only get costlier to import
protect government revenue and promote price in the long run.
stability. It is also vital to stimulate more invest-
Although Bangladesh’s per capita carbon ment in renewable energy.
emissions are historically negligible and not Bangladesh has already seen multiple
barriers to efforts to industrialise our economy, social and economic benefits from the millions
it is imperative we try to do so sustainably. of solar home systems set up by organisations
This is vital both to prevent the negative like IDCOL, which have brought cheap re-
consequences of climate change becoming newable electricity to rural households while
even worse and to add further moral authority limiting pressures on the grid.
to demand better from the rest of the world in A carbon tax will attract more new invest-
fighting climate change. ment to help scale up renewable generation on
It is welcome to see signs of the govern- a nationwide scale. It is an essential policy to
ment moving away from a policy of heavily help bring about the sustainable energy future
subsidising fossil fuels, such as the prime min- that Bangladesh and the world needs.

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
40 Part II: Policy in the Media Name:______________________________________________

Editorials: Source E
“Statement on the State of the Union Address”
by Peabody Energy
Published on Peabody Energy’s website, January 2014.
Peabody Energy is the world’s largest private-sector coal company. It primarily deals with the
mining, sale, and distribution of coal for electricity generation and steelmaking.

F ollowing U.S. President Obama’s State of

the Union address, Peabody Energy urges
the Administration to adopt energy policies
advanced “supercritical” generation. This is
the best technology available off-the-shelf and
the standard supported by 78 percent of the
that help families and businesses by capital- American people, according to a recent Harris
izing on greater use of coal, America’s true omnibus poll conducted on behalf of Peabody.
all-of-the-above energy advantage. Every large, new, advanced coal plant delivers
Coal is the nation’s lowest-cost and most the equivalent carbon benefit of removing 1
abundant energy resource. This past year, coal million cars from the road.
generation rebounded 5 percent due to its low- The United States should join leading
er costs, while gas generation fell 11 percent. nations such as Japan and Australia in recog-
Affordable energy access is especially nizing the importance of low-cost electricity
important at a time when a record 115 mil- and the punishing effects of flawed carbon tar-
lion Americans qualify for energy assistance, gets on families, businesses, and the economy.
48 million Americans suffer in poverty, and The U.S. carbon-based economy also ben-
more than half of Americans have said a $20 efits dramatically from coal, which fuels both
increase in their utility bills would create the essentials and conveniences of modern
hardship. society, improving health, longevity, and qual-
Peabody also encourages the Administra- ity of life. A recent study on the social cost of
tion to rethink its plan around carbon to avoid carbon concludes that the benefits from fossil
policies that will further drive up energy costs fuel energy outweigh the so-called cost of
and create a regressive tax that will hurt those carbon by a magnitude of fifty to five hundred
with low and fixed incomes the most. times, based on empirical data, not modeled
predictions.
The path to achieve our economic and
environmental goals is continued use of

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part II: Policy in the Media
41
Carbon Tax Graphic Organizer
Instructions: Fill in the graphic organizer about each of the editorials. In addition to recording
each article’s author, publication date, and where it was originally published, include whether each
source claims carbon taxes are a good idea, a summary of each article’s main argument, and a piece of
evidence used by each writer in support of his or her argument.

Are carbon taxes

Source Main argument Evidence used
a good idea?

Source A
Authors: _______________________

Date: __________________________

Publication: ____________________

Source B
Author: ________________________

Date: __________________________

Publication: ____________________

Source C
Authors:

________________________

Date: __________________________

Publication: ____________________

Source D
Author: ________________________

Date: __________________________

Publication: ____________________

Source E
Author: ________________________

Date: __________________________

Publication: ____________________

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
42 Part II: Policy in the Media Name:______________________________________________

Questions about the Editorials

1. What do the authors of Source A think an ideal climate policy would accomplish?

2. What do the authors of Source D think will be the result of taxing carbon?

3. Who does Kolbert (in Source B) say would bear the expense of carbon taxes? Who do La Jeunesse
and Prabucki (in Source C) say would bear the expense?

4. In both Source B and Source E, the authors use the word “cost.” What does the word refer to in
each source? Why do you think the authors chose this word?

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part II: Policy in the Media
43
5. Where was Source D published? How might this relate to the point of view expressed in the article?

6. How might Peabody Energy’s business interests influence its article (Source E)? Why might the
company want to convince readers to adopt the opinions expressed in its article?

7. Why do you think some readers might trust the authors of Source A (Feldstein, Halstead, and
Mankiw) to give them the best guidance on carbon taxes more than they trust the authors of
Source B (Kolbert) or Source C (La Jeunesse and Prabucki)?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
44 Part II: Data Analysis

Data Analysis: Carbon Dioxide Emissions

Objectives: students into groups of three or four. Tell them
Students will: Develop data analysis and that they are investigating evidence of CO2
graph reading skills. emissions and trying to determine responsibil-
ity for climate change.
Analyze data on the carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions of the countries in the case studies. 2. Analyzing Data—Distribute the hand-
outs and briefly introduce them to the class.
Use data to consider the question of how
Tell students to answer the questions associ-
to determine responsibility for climate change.
ated with each graph.
Return to the large group setting and have
Recommended Reading: students share their answers. Address any
Students should have read Part II of the
questions that arise about what the graphs are
student text and completed “Study Guide—
showing.
Part II” (TRB 30-31) or “Advanced Study
Guide—Part II” (TRB-32). 3. Policy Implications—Have students
consider the policy implications of the data.
Which graphs do students believe are most
Handouts: helpful for determining responsibility for
“Total CO2 Emissions in 2014” (TRB-45) climate change? Why? Challenge students to
“CO2 Emissions Per Capita in 2014” (TRB- explore the merits and drawbacks of each.
46) What additional data would be useful for
“CO2 Intensity in 2010” (TRB-47) determining responsibility and developing
“Historical Emissions of CO2 through policies to respond to climate change?
2014” (TRB-48) Ask students which data they believe
would receive the most emphasis from rep-
resentatives of the United States at a climate
Note:
change conference? China? The other coun-
The data for this exercise comes from the
tries included in the graphs?
Carbon Dioxide Information and Analysis
Center (CDIAC) at the Oak Ridge Laboratory in
Tennessee. There is additional data as well as Extra Challenge:
information about sources available at <http:// Direct students to the EPA’s Household
cdiac.ornl.gov/>. Carbon Footprint Calculator at <https://www3.
epa.gov/carbon-footprint-calculator/>. Using
this online tool, students can estimate their
Online Resources:
household’s CO2 emissions and also examine
There are short, free videos designed to be
ways to reduce those emissions. Ask students
used with this lesson at <www.choices.edu/
to compare their results to the graphs they
climatechange>.
examined in class. Encourage students to iden-
You may also find useful some of the tify other sources of CO2 emissions as well, for
interactive maps depicting different ways of example, transportation of their food supply.
measuring climate change responsibility and
vulnerability at <http://www.carbonmap.org>.
Homework:
Students should read the case studies
In the Classroom: in Part III of the student text and complete
1. Setting the Stage—Review with students “Study Guide—Part III” (TRB 49-50) or “Ad-
the dispute over responsibility for climate vanced Study Guide—Part III” (TRB-51). You
change from the reading. Why is responsibil- may decide to assign all the case studies to the
ity such a difficult issue to resolve? Break class or to assign a selection to each student.
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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part II: Data Analysis
45
Total CO2 Emissions in 2014
12,000

10,292
10,000

Data from Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC). Graph by the Choices Program.
8,000
Million Metric Tons of CO2

6,000
5,254

4,000

2,000

720
73 84 3 96
0
Bangladesh China Colombia Germany Haiti Nigeria United States

1. What information is represented on the x-axis (horizontal axis)?

2. What information is shown on the y-axis (vertical axis)?

3. Which country emitted the most CO2 in 2014?

4. How many more million metric tons of CO2 did China emit than the United States in 2014?

Bonus: Fill in the blank: U.S. emissions were _______ percent of Chinese emissions in 2014.
(Hint: divide U.S. emissions by Chinese emissions and multiply by 100.)

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
46 Part II: Data Analysis Name:______________________________________________

CO2 Emissions Per Capita in 2014

18

16.24
16

14

Data from Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC). Graph by the Choices Program.
Metric Tons of CO2 per Capita (per person)

12

10
8.91

8 7.52

1.76
2
0.48 0.55
0.26
0
Bangladesh China Colombia Germany Haiti Nigeria United States

1. What information is represented on the x-axis (horizontal axis)?

2. What information is shown on the y-axis (vertical axis)?

3. Fill in the blanks: Germany emitted ________________ metric tons of __________ per person in 2014.

4. Which country emitted the most CO2 per person in 2014?

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Part II: Data Analysis
47
CO2 Intensity in 2010

2.5

2.08 Definitions
2.0 Gross Domestic Product (GDP)—GDP
is the total value of goods and services
Metric Tons of CO2 per Thousand Dollars of GDP

produced within a country in a year.

Data from the U.S. Energy Information Administration. Graph by the Choices Program.
CO2 Intensity—CO2 intensity measures
metric tons of CO2 emissions per thousand
1.5 dollars of GDP.

1.0

0.73

0.49 0.46
0.5 0.43
0.36
0.27

0.0
Bangladesh China Colombia Germany Haiti Nigeria United States

1. Which country has the highest level of CO2 intensity?

2. Fill in the blanks: Bangladesh produces ___________ metric tons of CO2 for every ________________
dollars of GDP.

3. Why might a country have a high level of CO2 intensity?

Bonus: Fill in the blank: The U.S. has high emissions levels and a high GDP. This graph shows
that the U.S. and Haiti have similar CO2 intensities. The graph of total CO2 emissions by coun-
try shows that Haiti has low emissions levels. Given this information, Haiti’s GDP must be
_____________. Briefly explain your reasoning. (Hint: Refer back to the definition of CO2 intensity
and how it is calculated.)

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
48 Part II: Data Analysis Name:______________________________________________

Historical Emissions of CO2 through 2014

400
375.91

350
Scientists are able to estimate total
emissions of CO2 going back to 1751. CO2
300 emissions can remain in the atmosphere

Data from Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC). Graph by the Choices Program.
for up to two hundred years.
Billion Metric Tons of CO2

250

200
174.73

150

100 86.46

50

1.08 2.88 0.06 3.13

0
Bangladesh China Colombia Haiti Germany Nigeria United States

1. Which country has the highest level of historical CO2 emissions?

2. Approximately how many more billion metric tons of CO2 has the United States emitted than
China?

3. Give a one sentence explanation of why you think Bangladesh’s historical CO2 emissions are nearly
undetectable on this graph.

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Study Guide
49
Study Guide—Part III
Vocabulary: Be sure that you understand these key terms from Part III of your reading. Circle terms
that you do not know.

comprehensive malaria levees

gross domestic product (GDP) per capita parasite segregated
life expectancy elevation wetlands
population density city planning embankments
residential laws cooperative living emigrate
exported delta

Questions:
1. a. What is California’s Global Warming Solutions Act? Describe two goals or plans that are includ-
ed in the law.

b. Is this an example of mitigation of adaptation?

2. What are two main reasons that China currently emits more greenhouse gases than any other coun-
try in the world?

3. How might warming temperatures cause malaria to spread to new areas in Colombia?

4. a. What policies and features of Freiburg, Germany have resulted in fewer cars in the city?

b. Is this an example of mitigation or adaptation?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
50 Study Guide Name:______________________________________________

5. Why are coastal wetlands important in New Orleans?

6. a. Why is deforestation more common in Haiti than in the Dominican Republic?

b. What effect does deforestation have on flooding?

7. What are two reasons why women in certain regions of Nigeria are especially likely to be faced
with the negative effects of climate change?

8. a. How have a small network of women in Bangladesh worked together to be better prepared for
natural disasters?

b. Is this an example of mitigation or adaptation?

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Advanced Study Guide
51
Advanced Study Guide—Part III
1. In the Bangladesh case study, the prime minister states that many countries “face the double
burden of poverty and impacts of climate change.” How does the comparison of Haiti and the
Dominican Republic demonstrate that the burden of poverty increases vulnerability to climate
change?

2. What geographic and economic similarities do New Orleans and Bangladesh share? How do the
two places face similar challenges from climate change? How do they face different challenges?

3. How does the case of Shell in Nigeria demonstrate a clash of citizens, oil companies, and the
government on issues related to climate change? Consider the competing interests of each group,
what types of power each group has, and what actions they have taken.

4. Look at the country information boxes at the beginning of each case study. Based on this informa-
tion and the readings, which countries (out of those included in the case studies) do you think
are the most responsible for climate change? What information did you use to draw your conclu-
sions?

5. Look at the country information boxes at the beginning of each case study. Based on this informa-
tion and the readings, which countries do you think are both least responsible for climate change
and also have the fewest financial resources to deal with the challenges of climate change? What
information did you use to draw your conclusions?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
52 Graphic Organizer Name:______________________________________________

Part III: Case Studies

Instructions: Fill in the boxes below on the case studies. In each box, include at least two specific
examples. In the far right column, also mark mitigation efforts with an “(M)” and adaptation efforts
with an “(A).”

How is this place experiencing How is this place responding to

climate change? climate change?

California,
United States

China

Colombia

Freiburg,
Germany

New Orleans,
Louisiana,
United States

Haiti

Nigeria

Bangladesh

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Part III: Looking at the Case Studies
53
Looking at the Eight Case Studies
Objectives: or show the images to the class. Assign each
Students will: Analyze photographs relat- group a case study and have them choose four
ing to the case studies in Part III. photos from that case study to analyze. In-
struct students to examine each image closely
Formulate ideas about life and society in
and to answer the questions on the handout. If
different places.
students have been assigned a particular case
Consider the benefits and limitations of us- study to read, be sure that they are looking at
ing photographs as a source for learning about the photographs that correspond to that case.
climate change.
Note: Teachers should point out that it is
important to be careful about drawing conclu-
Required Reading: sions from photos, and remind students that
Students should have read Part III of they cannot be certain that a photo is an ac-
the student text and completed the “Study curate or complete reflection of reality. While
Guide—Part III” (TRB 49-50) or the “Advanced photos can provide clues about societies and
Study Guide—Part III” (TRB-51). how people live, students should be aware
that photos, like written documents, show
Handouts: only a small piece of a bigger picture.
“Looking at the Case Studies” (TRB-54) 3. Presentations and Class Discussion—
After the small groups complete the questions,
have everyone come together in a large group.
Online Resources:
Ask students to display their photos to the
This lesson requires that students have
class and share their observations.
access to the internet or the ability to project
a slideshow of the photographs in the class- After students present their findings, have
room. The slideshow can be found at www. students reflect on what they learned from the
choices.edu/climatechange>. photos. Did any of the photos change students’
ideas or assumptions about certain places?
Have the photographs raised any new ques-
Note: tions about vulnerability and responses to
This lesson can also be used as an intro- climate change? Where do students think they
duction to the case studies before students might find answers to these questions?
read Part III of the student text.
What are the benefits of using photographs
as a resource for learning about other countries
In the Classroom: and societies? What are the limitations of us-
1. Reviewing the Reading—Begin class ing photographs as a source for learning about
by briefly reviewing with students what they climate change? How might photos present a
know about vulnerability. What makes a par- selective or misleading portrait of a place or
ticular place or people vulnerable to climate society? Do students think it is important to
change? Discuss how both geography (loca- consider the point of view of the photographer
tion, landscape) and society (wealth, career when analyzing photos? Did the photographer
diversity, infrastructure) have an impact on have a purpose in taking these photographs?
people’s ability to cope with and respond to
the effects of climate change.
Homework:
2. Exploring the Case Studies—Divide Students should read “Options in Brief” in
the class into small groups and distribute the the student text.
handout. Direct students to the slideshow

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
54 Part III: Looking at the Case Studies Name:______________________________________________

Looking at the Case Studies

Instructions: Examine your photos and answer the following questions for each. Your group will
be asked to share its impressions with the class. Keep in mind that photos cannot give you a complete
picture of any place or society, and you should be careful about drawing conclusions from the photo-
graphs.

1. Describe the photo (the setting, architecture and landscape, what is happening, etc.). If there are
people in the photo, what are the they doing? How would you describe their appearance (age,
expressions, body language, clothing, etc.)?

2. How does this photo relate to what you know about the place it portrays?

3. Does this image offer any clues about life in this place? For example, does the photo reveal any-
thing about wealth, employment, religion, transportation, or geography?

4. Does this image raise questions for you about this place and its experiences with climate change?

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Options: Organization and Preparation
55
The Options Role Play:
Organization and Preparation
Objectives: 2a. Option Groups—Form three groups of
Students will: Analyze the issues that five to six students each. Assign an option to
frame international climate change negotia- each group. Distribute “Presenting Your Op-
tions. tion” and “Expressing Key Values” to the three
option groups. Explain that the option groups
Identify underlying values of the options.
should follow the instructions in “Presenting
Integrate the arguments and beliefs of the Your Option.” Note that the option groups
options and the reading into a persuasive, should begin by assigning each member a role
coherent presentation. according to the instructions on their handout
Work cooperatively within groups to orga- (students may double up). Inform students that
nize effective presentations. each option group will be called on during the
upcoming simulation to present the case for its
assigned option to a group of climate change
Required Reading: stakeholders.
Students should have read Part III and
“Options in Brief” in the student text and com- 2b. Stakeholders—Distribute “Speak-
pleted “Study Guide—Part III” (TRB 49-50) or ing for Climate Change Stakeholders” and
“Advanced Study Guide—Part III” (TRB-51). “Stakeholder Perspectives” to the remaining
students, and assign each student a stakehold-
er. While the option groups are preparing their
Handouts: presentations, these students should answer
“Presenting Your Option” (TRB-56) for the the questions on the worksheet (using a sepa-
option groups rate sheet of paper if necessary) and develop
“Expressing Key Values” (TRB-57) for the clarifying questions for each option. Remind
option groups these students that they are expected to turn in
“Speaking for Climate Change Stakehold- their questions at the end of the simulation.
ers” (TRB-58) for the stakeholders 3. Understanding the Options—Give all
“Stakeholder Perspectives” (TRB 59-62) students a copy of “Options: Graphic Orga-
for the stakeholders nizer.” As they prepare for the simulation,
students should begin to fill in the graphic or-
“Options: Graphic Organizer” (TRB-63) for ganizer and use it to help them organize their
all students thoughts. They should complete the worksheet
during the role play.
In the Classroom:
1. Planning for Group Work—In order Suggestions:
to save time in the classroom, form student See our video “Tips for a Successful Role
groups before beginning this lesson. During Play” <www.choices.edu/pd/roleplay.php>.
this lesson, students will be preparing for the
upcoming simulation. Remind them to incor-
porate information from the reading into the Homework:
development of their presentations and ques- Students should complete preparations for
tions. In addition, discuss with students the the simulation.
concepts of stakeholders, COP delegates, and
COP observers (defined in the “Speaking for
Climate Change Stakeholders” handout).

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
56 Options: Organization and Preparation Name:______________________________________________

Presenting Your Option

Preparing Your Presentation • The political expert is responsible for
Your Assignment: Your group is sched- explaining how past and present in-
uled to appear at the next COP meeting, ternational politics affect your group’s
where a new international agreement on position.
climate change is to be discussed. This agree- • The economics expert is responsible
ment must be effective in addressing climate for explaining how the world economy
change, and it must promote justice. Your impacts your group’s position.
assignment is to persuade the participants that
• The communications director is re-
your option should form the basis of a treaty to
sponsible for presenting your group’s
replace the Kyoto Protocol. You will be judged
flyer.
on how well you present your option.
In your presentation, be sure to use quo-
Message to the Public: People around the
tations and evidence from your reading and
world are interested in what types of agree-
outside sources to help explain the views of
ments are being discussed at the COPs, but
your group. Before preparing your sections of
many are not able to directly be part of the de-
the presentation, work together to address the
liberations. Some people visit the venue of the
questions below. The “Expressing Key Values”
conferences to access information about the
worksheet and the “Options: Graphic Organiz-
discussions, but most of the world hears about
er” will help you organize your thoughts.
the deliberations through the media. As a pre-
senter at the COP, you will also be responsible
for informing the general public about your Making Your Case
views. You will create a flyer to relay your After your preparations are complete,
position to the international media and share your group will deliver a three-to-five minute
it during your presentation. presentation to those attending the COP meet-
Organizing Your Group: Each member of ing. The “Expressing Key Values” worksheet,
your group will take on one of the following “Options: Graphic Organizer,” and other notes
roles: may be used, but you should speak clearly
and convincingly. During your presentation,
• The group director is responsible for you should try to identify the weak points of
organizing your presentation to the the other options. After all of the groups have
participants at the COP meeting. presented their options, students acting as par-
• The scientific expert is responsible for ticipating country delegates and independent
explaining how your group’s posi- observers (“stakeholders”) will ask you ques-
tion relates to scientific evidence and tions. Any member of your group may respond
research about climate change. during the question-and-answer period.

Consider the following questions as you prepare your presentation:

1. According to your option, what is “justice”?

2. What policies does your option believe the international community should pursue?

3. How does your option draw on scientific, historical, and political evidence?

4. How does your option connect to the perspectives of different participants in the COP and appeal
to people around the world?

5. How might your option be challenged or resisted?

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Options: Organization and Preparation
57
Expressing Key Values
Values play a key role in defining the territories without interference from other
decisions the international community makes. countries. The UN also values preventing war
What do we believe about ourselves and and promoting human rights for all, which in-
about others? What matters most to us? When clude the rights to clean water, food, adequate
strongly held values come into conflict, which housing, and economic development.
are most important? Some values fit together well. Others are
Most often, we think of values in connec- in conflict. International organizations, gov-
tion with our personal lives. Our attitudes ernments, and citizens are constantly forced
towards our families, friends, and communi- to choose among competing values in their
ties are a reflection of our personal values. ongoing debates about international law and
Values also play an important role in our civic agreements.
life and influence our political beliefs. In a de- Each of the three options for the future
mocracy, our values often affect who we elect of global action on climate change revolves
to represent us in government. Governments around a distinct set of values. Your job is to
have their own sets of values as well, based identify and explain the most important values
on national interests. Even global governance of your option. These values should be clearly
bodies, like the United Nations (UN), are expressed by every member of your group.
founded on a set of values that influence all of This worksheet will help you organize your
their actions and legislation. The UN values thoughts.
the right of national governments to rule their

1. Summarize your option.

2. What are the two most important values underlying your option?
a.

b.

3. According to your option, why should these values be the guiding force for a new agreement on
climate change?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
58 Options: Organization and Preparation Name:______________________________________________

Speaking for Climate Change Stakeholders

Your Role meeting, you are expected to evaluate each of
The COP meetings are unique interna- the options and decide which group presented
tional conferences in that they make space its option most persuasively. Your teacher will
for many different voices to be heard—from give you an evaluation form to help you do
large, powerful countries to small, community- this.
led organizations. These different bodies are
called “stakeholders” because they have an Your Assignment
interest, or “hold a stake,” in the issues being While the three option groups are organiz-
discussed. ing their presentations, you should prepare
Stakeholders contribute a variety of in- two questions regarding each of the options.
sights and highlight particular concerns when The questions should reflect the values,
new international agreements are being con- concerns, and interests of your assigned
sidered. They have different roles in the COP stakeholder. Your teacher will collect these
negotiations. Observers (representatives from questions at the end of the meeting.
nongovernmental organizations or technical Your questions should be challenging and
experts) have a chance to make a case for the critical. For example, a good question for Op-
people or research they are representing. Del- tion 1 from the ambassador from Tuvalu might
egates (ambassadors of national governments) be:
directly take part in the decision making and
determine the final outcome of the nego- If we don’t limit the emissions of
tiations. Both delegates and observers have countries that are in the process of industri-
particular goals, and they attempt to ensure alizing, won’t the risks of dangerous climate
that their perspectives are heard during the change continue to grow?
deliberations and incorporated into the COP’s During the meeting, the three option
final agreement. This involves questioning the groups will present their positions. After their
feasibility and appropriateness of the options presentations are completed, your teacher will
that are put on the table. call on you and the other stakeholders to ask
Speaking on behalf of your assigned stake- questions. The “Evaluation Form” you will
holder’s views, you will take part in a meeting receive is designed for you to record your im-
of the COP. You will listen to the presentations pressions of the options from the perspective
of three distinct options for the international of your assigned stakeholder. After this activ-
agreement that will determine how the global ity concludes, you and your classmates may be
community responds to climate change for called upon to explain your positions on how
the coming decades. At the conclusion of the to deal with the issue of climate change in a
fair and effective manner.

Consider the following questions as you read your stakeholder’s perspective:

1. What are the pressing concerns and values of your stakeholder?

2. How does the daily life of your stakeholder, or the people they represent, affect their views?

3. What type of international agreement would your stakeholder see as fair and effective?

4. What policies would your stakeholder want the COP to prioritize in dealing with global climate
change?

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Options: Organization and Preparation
59
Stakeholder Perspectives
Ambassador from Tuvalu (Delegate) to move to other countries where business
You are an ambassador from Tuvalu, a would be cheaper to operate. This would put
small island nation in the southern Pacific your government further in debt and make
Ocean. Climate change is a threat to the very fewer jobs available for U.S. citizens.
existence of your country and your people’s At the same time, the vulnerability of
way of life. All of Tuvalu is less than four me- many U.S. cities and populations to the effects
ters above sea level. Rising sea levels and more of climate change cannot be disputed. Clearly,
frequent and intense storms could put your climate change is a problem that needs to
entire country underwater. As the salt water be dealt with, and U.S. voters are becoming
from the ocean climbs higher, it is threatening increasingly concerned about what their gov-
your people’s access to freshwater and their ernment will do to address it. The democracy
ability to grow crops. For hundreds of years, that the United States prides itself on requires
the people of Tuvalu have depended on fishing the U.S. government to consider the public’s
as a major source of food. Tuvaluans each eat views. Furthermore, you believe the United
about one pound of fish a day, but changing States must take the lead in all global prob-
ocean conditions are making it difficult for lems in order to assure its place in the world
people who fish to support their families. and spread its principles of democracy and
Your citizens are already experiencing freedom. The fact that the United States is a
these many effects of climate change, and they big emitter (and has been for a long time) puts
need help to adapt. Unless industrialized na- your country in a unique position to be able
tions drastically reduce their greenhouse gas to make a substantial difference in preventing
emissions now, you know Tuvaluans’ way of climate change.
life could disappear forever. Your people do
not want to leave their homes, but unless con- Ambassador from China (Delegate)
crete action to prevent climate change is taken, You are an ambassador from China, one
all of your citizens could become refugees. of the most rapidly growing economies in the
Tuvalu has not contributed the greenhouse world. Your country’s economic development
gases that have caused this problem, and you is dependent on increasing industrial activity,
are angry that your country is paying the high- and you want to ensure that it can do this in
est price. the same way that richer countries have—by
using fossil fuels for energy. As China’s in-
Ambassador from the United States (Delegate) dustries grow, the country is using more and
You are an ambassador from the United more fossil fuels, and you are aware that it is
States. The economic health of your coun- now the leading greenhouse gas emitter on the
try is of utmost importance to you. Oil and planet. But this is because of China’s boom-
vehicles are two of the United States’ largest ing population. China is not emitting the most
exports, which means that any mitigation greenhouses gases per person, and you want to
efforts around the world are likely to have defend the right of Chinese citizens to pursue
negative effects on the U.S. economy. Your big- prosperity.
gest concern, however, is that an international At the same time, you are concerned about
agreement will not treat all countries equally. the potential impacts sea level rise will have
You are worried that an international agree- on China’s cities. If Chinese people have to
ment targeting only industrialized countries migrate to different parts of the country be-
will result in U.S. goods being too expensive cause of climate change, they would struggle
for the global market and will push companies to find housing, and their children would not

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
60 Options: Organization and Preparation Name:______________________________________________

be permitted to go to school in a zone where advocating solutions to environmental prob-

they are not registered residents. You are also lems and promoting world peace. You believe
conscious of the global implications of climate that climate change is unquestionably the
change and intend for China to take the lead number one threat to the planet.
in renewable energy, using it as another way to Greenpeace and its millions of supporters
grow the national economy. This will also help around the world are determined to realize a
you reduce the terrible pollution problems that world free of fossil fuels. This cannot come
heavy coal usage has created in China’s cities. from dangerous and untested geoengineering
schemes that you argue are promoted by the
Ambassador from Haiti (Delegate) fossil fuel industry so it can continue making
You are an ambassador from Haiti, one of money. It can only be through the widespread
the most vulnerable countries in the world use of renewable energy sources like solar and
to climate change. In fact, you are already wind power or, better yet, reduced dependen-
experiencing many of its harmful effects. In cy on energy as a whole. This kind of shift in
recent years, intense droughts and powerful how the world uses energy would also move
hurricanes have caused massive destruction us away from nuclear power and its dangerous
and many deaths in your country. You know environmental and health effects. You demand
climate change will only increase the strength that all countries take on binding emissions
and frequency of these types of devastating restrictions and that industrialized countries
extreme weather events. provide the funding for climate change adap-
tation in poorer nations by diverting money
Action on climate change is vitally im-
from military spending. You do not believe
portant for the lives of your citizens, but Haiti
that oil and coal producers should be allowed
cannot afford to take on the costs associated
such a strong voice in international negotia-
with either mitigation or adaptation. Nearly
tions, because they do not have the interests of
60 percent of your country’s population lives
humanity at heart.
in poverty, struggling with hunger and disease
every day. You know that pursuing economic
development is essential to improve the Representative from Oxfam (Observer)
lives of your people. Economic growth will You are a representative from Oxfam, a
help Haitians gain access to their most basic global nonprofit organization working to fight
needs—like clean water, food security, and poverty around the world. You are deeply
health. It will create opportunities for people concerned about the basic human rights of
to have more stable jobs that are less vulner- the world’s poor and are worried that climate
able to a changing climate and that do not change will further endanger these rights.
further damage the environment. You are de- You have worked first-hand with farmers in
termined to bring economic opportunity to the many countries who are struggling to adapt
people of Haiti, but you know that this must to changing climate conditions—they can no
be done with the well-being of the environ- longer tell when is the best time to plant their
ment in mind. You believe the international seeds and are seeing dramatic crop losses. You
community must take immediate action to are concerned about the many people, espe-
prevent further dangerous climate change and cially women, in the poorest countries of the
to help your country deal with its effects. world who rely on growing their own food to
survive. Climate change is threatening these
people’s lives and could drive others into des-
Representative from Greenpeace (Observer)
perate poverty as food prices increase.
You are a representative from Green-
peace, an international NGO that for forty You realize that climate change is an ur-
years has worked to expose governments and gent global problem that requires leaders from
corporations when they fail to protect the around the world to come together and reach
environment. You have dedicated yourself to an international agreement. You want global

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Options: Organization and Preparation
61
leaders to put equal emphasis on mitigation it has become increasingly clear that climate
and adaptation, and helping the world’s poor change affects human health, you have grown
pursue sustainable development is a must. more worried about the health challenges poor
You firmly believe that the needs of the poor people face. Climate change could result in
must be prioritized. more people being injured in extreme weather
events, particularly in poor parts of the world
where medical treatment is difficult to access.
Representative from BP (Observer)
For these people, climate change could easily
You are a representative from the large oil
cause their deaths.
corporation, BP. The success of your business
depends upon ensuring that no mandatory You believe that physical and mental well-
limits are placed on the use of fossil fuels. As a ness is a human right and want to ensure that
company from the global North, you are deep- climate change does not undermine your ef-
ly aware of the importance of fossil fuels to forts to pursue global health. You believe that
this part of the world and want to ensure that national governments and the international
it remains a market for your oil. The economic community have a responsibility to protect all
development of poorer countries is also impor- human rights, including the right to health,
tant to you because they can become your new and that an international agreement must
customers. BP often provides jobs and buys acknowledge this responsibility. In particular,
equipment from local businesses in regions you believe that adaptation efforts should be
where oil is extracted, helping improve local established to ensure the health and wellbe-
economies. Because of this, reductions in BP’s ing of those most vulnerable to the effects of
oil-extracting activities could lead to greater climate change.
global unemployment and poverty.
In 1997, your company made a statement Climate Scientist from University
acknowledging that the use of fossil fuels has of Buenos Aires (Observer)
an impact on the climate, and since then you You are a science professor at the Uni-
have been funding research into renewable versity of Buenos Aires in Argentina. Your
energy technologies and geoengineering. You research focuses on studying the atmosphere,
are intrigued by sustainable development be- specifically how climate change affects tem-
cause fossil fuel reserves will not last forever, perature and rainfall in South America. From
so your company may eventually need to your studies and computer models, it appears
find new opportunities in the energy market. very likely that in the coming decades, average
However, you believe that you should be able temperatures will rise, rainfall patterns will
to continue selling fossil fuels without legal re- change dramatically, and extreme weather will
strictions in order to increase your company’s become more common. You have also worked
profits. You do not want BP to bear the ex- with a team of scientists from many other
pense of any climate change policies. You will countries to write UN documents summarizing
continue to participate in voluntary cap-and- the most up-to-date scientific knowledge about
trade programs and relief efforts to prove that climate change. From talking with these col-
there is no need for a binding international leagues, you know that scientists around the
agreement. world share your concern about the potentially
disastrous effects the changing climate will
have.
Representative from Partners
in Health (Observer) You are often frustrated at how little
You are a representative from Partners government leaders appear to take science
in Health, an international organization that into account, and you worry about how to
aims to bring healthcare to the needy. You effectively communicate your findings to the
work with sick people around the world who general public. You believe that it is impor-
do not have easy access to medical care. As tant for policies to be grounded in scientific

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
62 Options: Organization and Preparation Name:______________________________________________

evidence, and as a result hope governments Consultant from Green Mountain

around the world will contribute money to cli- Energy (Observer)
mate change research. However, you are highly You are a consultant from Green Mountain
skeptical of geoengineering techniques and Energy, a company that provides clean, renew-
the huge risks and unknown effects they could able energy to individuals and companies in
have. You hope these dangerous fantasies of various regions of the United States. You see
geoengineering do not take away funding and emissions reductions, especially in indus-
attention from the research you and your col- trialized countries like the United States, as
leagues conduct. essential in preventing harmful climate change
and also as a business opportunity. If more
people and companies are forced to reduce
Representative from the Congress of South
their greenhouse gas emissions, they will start
African Trade Unions (COSATU) (Observer)
demanding that their electricity suppliers give
You are a representative from COSATU,
them clean energy produced from renewable
a trade union organization that defends the
sources like solar and wind. This would mean
interests of South African workers. You are
more customers for you and more jobs in the
concerned about how large scale mitigation
renewable energy sector.
efforts could threaten job security and stan-
dards of living for mining and manufacturing But you believe that moving away from
workers. For instance, you worry that carbon fossil fuels can be an economic win for your
taxes would increase the cost of goods while customers too. You believe that when the
workers’ salaries remain low, and as a result, businesses you work with advertise their
workers would be unable to afford the things emissions reductions, they will be able to con-
they need in their everyday lives. nect to increasingly environmentally-aware
customers who will chose them over other
Because South Africa is a newly indus-
companies that still rely on dirty fossil fuels.
trializing nation in the global South, it is
While the businesses and individuals you
only just starting to get to a point of lifting its
serve may initially have to pay more for your
population out of poverty. Any agreement on
renewable energy services, you help custom-
climate change would have to guarantee that
ers find ways to reduce their overall energy
South Africa could continue to develop so that
usage so they can pay smaller electric bills
more jobs could be available for its citizens.
each month. And as more people switch to
At the same time, you are aware that members
zero-emissions energy sources, the prices will
of South Africa’s working class are extremely
continue to go down.
vulnerable to the effects of climate change.
The low-skilled workers you represent often
have poor housing and cannot afford health
care or transportation to evacuate an area fac-
ing extreme weather. Because of this, you often
support efforts by the South African govern-
ment to establish concrete climate change
policies.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Options: Graphic Organizer

According to
Who does this option, are What are this
According to this How does this option this
option think should international option’s views
option, what is think adaptation
face emissions agreements an on economic
“justice”? should be paid for?
restrictions? effective way to deal development?
with climate change?

www.choices.edu 
Option 1:
Past Emitters
Must Pay
Name:______________________________________________

■ Watson Institute for International and

Option 2:
Responsibility
Must be
Shared by All

Public Affairs, Brown University 

Option 3:
Economic

■ The
Growth and
Development
Must Come
First

Choices Program 
Graphic Organizer
Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
63
TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
64 Options: Debate and Discussion

The Options Role Play: Debate and Discussion

Objectives: international community. They are not speak-
Students will: Articulate the issues that ing for any one particular country. Encourage
frame current international discussions on the group members to speak clearly and con-
climate change. vincingly.
Explore, debate, and evaluate multiple Throughout the course of the simulation,
perspectives on future climate change agree- all students should completely fill out “Op-
ments. tions: Graphic Organizer.”
Sharpen rhetorical skills through debate 3. Class Discussion—Following the
and discussion. presentations, invite the stakeholders to ask
clarifying questions. Make sure that each
Cooperate with classmates in giving a per-
stakeholder has an opportunity to ask at least
suasive presentation.
one question. The questions should be evenly
distributed among all three option groups. If
Handouts: time permits, encourage members of the op-
“Evaluation Form: Stakeholders” (TRB-65) tion groups to challenge the positions of the
other groups. During the questioning, allow
In the Classroom: any member of the option groups to respond.
1. Setting the Stage—Organize the room (As an alternative approach, permit questions
so that the three option groups face a row of following the presentation of each option.)
desks reserved for the students representing
the stakeholders. Distribute “Evaluation Form: Homework:
Stakeholders” to the stakeholders group. The Students should read all three options in
worksheet should be completed as homework. the student text and complete “Focusing Your
2. Managing the Simulation—Explain that Thoughts” (TRB-68). Stakeholders should also
the simulation will begin with three-to five- complete “Evaluation Form: Stakeholders”
minute presentations by each of the option and be prepared to share their answers with
groups. Remind students that they should the class.
present the options from the perspective of the

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Options: Debate and Discussion
65
Evaluation Form: Stakeholders
Instructions: Answer the questions below from the perspective of your assigned stakeholder.

Stakeholder: ___________________________

Part I
What was the most persuasive argument What was the most persuasive argument
presented in favor of this option? presented against this option?

Option 1: Option 1:

Option 2: Option 2:

Option 3: Option 3:

Part II
Which option do you think your stakeholder would most strongly support? Why?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
66 Synthesis: Taking Action

Taking Action on Climate Change

Objectives: take on, and how it would measure its success
Students will: Articulate their opinions on and evaluate its programs. Each group could
the international response to climate change then do a more formal presentation, as if to
based on personally held values, evidence, the board of a foundation from which they are
and political understanding. seeking funding. You could invite other school
faculty to act as members of the board and to
Compare and contrast values and assump-
evaluate the presentations.
tions with classmates.
Work collaboratively to identify their top
two concerns about climate change and design In the Classroom:
an organization that would address those 1. Debriefing the Role Play—Call on stake-
priorities. holders to share their evaluations of the option
groups. Which arguments were most convinc-
Create effective and convincing marketing ing? Which policies were most appealing?
materials for the organization they design. Remind students that during this discussion
they should continue to speak from the per-
Required Reading: spectives of their stakeholders.
Students should have read all three 2. Students Express Their Views—Stu-
options in the student text and completed “Fo- dents should have completed “Focusing Your
cusing Your Thoughts” (TRB-68). Thoughts” prior to class. Ask them to identify
the beliefs that they most strongly support.
Handouts: Encourage them to clarify the connection be-
“Your Own Option” (TRB-69) tween their values and beliefs.

“Creating Your Own NGO” (TRB 70-71) Distribute “Your Own Option” to students.
Tell students that they are going to deliberate
with their classmates prior to creating their
Online Resources: own option. (See Guidelines for Deliberation
Short, free videos that can help students at <http://www.choices.edu/deliberation> for
think about ways to respond to climate change suggestions on deliberation.)
and a variety of actions their NGOs could
Encourage students to carefully consider
take can be found at <www.choices.edu/
the perspectives of their classmates, to clarify
climatechange>.
the connection between their values and their
In addition, students can view the web- policy recommendations, and to incorporate
sites of nonprofits for examples of mission these ideas on the “Your Own Option” work-
statements and publicity strategies <http:// sheet. Give students three to five minutes to
topnonprofits.com/lists/best-nonprofits-on-the- complete their own option.
web/>.
Invite them to share their own policy rec-
ommendations with the class. What concerns
Note: guided the formulation of their option? How
This lesson could become the foundation might various stakeholders view their options?
of a long-term project. In their groups, stu- How important is climate change mitigation
dents could write a grant proposal, including compared with adaptation? What types of
more in-depth descriptions of the organiza- responses are the responsibility of the interna-
tion’s mission, the context of the problem it tional community? Of individual countries?
would work to address, the projects it would

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Synthesis: Taking Action
67
Encourage students to clarify the connec- What is the intended result of their organiza-
tion between their values and their policy tion’s work? Who would benefit? Where would
recommendations. Ask them to identify which it be based and why? How might the organiza-
beliefs in “Focusing Your Thoughts” they tion attract supporters and public attention?
most strongly support. You may wish to make
a chart on the board that summarizes student
Suggestions:
opinions.
You may wish to group students based on
3. Designing Your Own Organization— the priorities they identified in the “Focus-
Explain that each group will now have the ing Your Thoughts” and “Your Own Option”
opportunity to design its own NGO to address worksheets. It may also be useful to have art
the issue of climate change. Lead the class in a supplies (colored pencils, construction paper,
brief brainstorm about the many potential as- etc.) available for students if possible.
pects of climate change an organization could
focus on. Do students want to focus on raising
awareness about climate change in a particular
Extra Challenge:
1. Encourage students to explore experi-
community? Working with corporations to de-
ences of and responses to climate change in
crease their CO2 emissions? Providing disaster
their own communities. For example, how
relief? Alleviating poverty? Lobbying policy
might national efforts to reduce greenhouse
makers locally or at international conferences?
gas emissions affect the local environment and
Once a range of ideas have been generated, economy? Have local businesses developed
distribute “Creating Your Own NGO” and di- new products and services to reduce reliance
vide the class into groups of 3-4 students. Tell on fossil fuels?
students that they should work in groups to
2. Have students research and contact lo-
complete the handout and that they will also
cal organizations devoted to combating climate
produce a publicity tool for their organiza-
change in some way. Students could interview
tion (a poster, brochure, or sketch of a website
leaders of local NGOs about the work their
layout), which they will present to the class.
organizations are doing. Major corporations,
Remind students that their organization is
especially those involved in the energy busi-
not expected to address all aspects of climate
ness, are also active in environmental issues.
change, but rather to focus on the one or two
top priorities their group identifies. 3. Students could write a letter based on
their option to the editor of a local newspa-
4. Closing Discussion—After students
per, a member of Congress, or the president.
complete “Creating Your Own NGO,” invite
Suggest that students incorporate the top two
each group to present their organization to the
priorities they identified in class into their
class. How did each group create its priorities?
letters.
Why did they focus on the issue they chose?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
68 Synthesis: Taking Action Name:______________________________________________

Focusing Your Thoughts

Instructions: You have had an opportunity to consider three options for climate change policy.
Now it is your turn to look at each of the options from your own perspective. Think about how the
options address your concerns and hopes. You will find that each has its own risks and trade-offs,
advantages and disadvantages. After you complete this worksheet, you will be asked to develop your
own option.

Ranking the Options

Which of the options below do you prefer? Rank the options from “1” to “3.”

_____ Option 1: Past Emitters Must Pay

_____ Option 2: Responsibility Must Be Shared by All

_____ Option 3: Economic Growth and Development Must Come First

Beliefs
Rate each of the statements below according to your own personal beliefs:
1 = strongly support 2 = support 3 = oppose 4 = strongly oppose 5 = undecided

_____ Climate change poses a grave and immediate threat to all life on earth.
_____ Poverty, violence, poor education, and broken healthcare systems around the world are more
urgent issues than climate change.
_____ Climate change is a global problem that can only be effectively addressed through international
cooperation.
_____ International negotiations move too slowly to have an impact and do not take into account local
needs.
_____ Individual countries should not be held responsible for dealing with problems affecting the
citizens of other countries.
_____ Wealthier countries should be required to help poorer countries cope with the effects of climate
change.
_____ Countries today must be held accountable for their past greenhouse gas emissions.
_____ Sustainable development is the only fair, safe, and realistic way to grow economically.
_____ Climate change mitigation through reducing CO2 emissions is unrealistic.
_____ Economic development in poorer countries is the most effective form of climate change adapta-
tion.
_____ Mitigation can only be effective if everyone is doing it.
_____ Technology to effectively counter the effects of climate change will be developed and can be
relied on.
_____ People today need to make sacrifices in their way of life to safeguard the world for future gen-
erations.

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Synthesis: Taking Action
69
Your Own Option
Instructions: In this exercise, you will offer your own recommendations for the basis of a new in-
ternational agreement on climate change. You should create an option that is logical, persuasive, and
reflects your personal beliefs. Your responses to “Focusing Your Thoughts” and your deliberations
with your classmates will help you identify the guiding principles of your proposal.
1. What values should form the basis of the next international climate treaty?

2. What issues should the international community prioritize in this treaty?

3. What international policies should the UNFCCC adopt to put your values into action?

4. What are the two strongest arguments opposing your option?

a.

b.

5. What are the two strongest arguments supporting your option?

a.

b.

6. How would your suggestions for a treaty affect:

a. Countries in the global North?

b. Countries in the global South?

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
70 Synthesis: Taking Action Name:______________________________________________

Creating Your Own NGO

Instructions: In this exercise, you will work with your group to determine your top priorities
with respect to climate change and to design a nongovernmental organization (NGO) to address them.
Keep in mind that your organization will not be able to address all aspects of climate change. Its goals
must be realistic in scope, for your organization will only have a small staff and a limited budget.
Your organization will need a name, logo, mission statement, 1-3 concrete projects or programs, and a
publicity tool. The publicity tool can take the form of a poster, brochure, or website layout.

1. In what location, region, or community will your organization work?

2. List four major challenges related to climate change that this community faces. These can include
both the dangerous effects of climate change and barriers to an effective response.
a. c.

b. d.

3. Rank the challenges you listed above according to urgency and importance by writing numbers
next to each (1 = highest priority) and circle the 1-2 challenges your organization will work to ad-
dress.

4. What is the overarching goal of your organization? Use this overarching goal to write a 1-2 sentence
mission statement for your organization. Mission statements are short and to the point, and it is
okay if your mission statement refers to larger issues that your individual organization will not be
able to completely address. For example, the mission of CARE, an international humanitarian or-
ganization, is as follows: “CARE works around the globe to save lives, defeat poverty, and achieve
social justice.” You may want to refer to one of the challenges you listed in Question 2 in crafting
your mission statement.

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 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
Name:______________________________________________ Synthesis: Taking Action
71
5. How will your organization pursue this mission? List 1-3 specific projects or programs your NGO
will take on. These should be concrete and realistic, given the size of your organization.

6. What is your organization’s name? Try to choose a name that conveys your organization’s mission
and that will be easy for the public to remember.

Creating a Publicity Tool

On a separate sheet(s) of paper, create a publicity tool for your organization. This could be a post-
er, brochure, or sketch of a website layout. Make sure your publicity tool includes your organization’s
name, logo, and mission. The logo should be simple, memorable, and take into account your target
audience (for example, a logo for an organization that works primarily with government officials may
look different from one that works primarily with young people or the general public). It should be
easy for someone who sees your publicity tool to quickly get a sense of what your organization does,
what problem(s) it is trying to address, and why its work is important. While you want your publicity
tool to be informative, you should also limit the amount of text you include.

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TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
72
Key Terms
Introduction and Part I
emissions nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) climate model
agenda corporations consensus
delegates justice ecosystems
Earth Summit carbon dioxide (CO2) smog
United Nations Framework fossil fuels climate change refugees
Convention on Climate global warming acidic
Change (UNFCCC) extreme weather event urban
greenhouse gases hurricane species migration
international community deforestation crop yields
activists industrialization authoritarian
voluntarily glaciers displacement

Part II
vulnerability ratify geoengineering
responsibility National Adaptation Programmes of National Adaptation
rural Action (NAPAs) Plans (NAPs)
infrastructure emissions restrictions stakeholders
water scarcity mitigation sustainable development
world markets adaptation carbon neutral
develop economically energy efficiency manufacturers
economic growth renewable energy subsidies
Conference of the Parties (COP) carbon tax bargaining power
Kyoto Protocol cap-and-trade system

Part III
comprehensive exported delta
gross domestic product malaria levees
(GDP) per capita parasite segregated
life expectancy elevation wetlands
population density city planning embankments
residential laws cooperative living emigrate

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
 Climate Change and Questions of Justice TRB
73
Issues Toolbox
United Nations Framework Nongovernmental organizations
Convention on Climate Change (NGOs):
(UNFCCC): NGOs are nonprofit, private organizations
This agreement represents the starting with a particular interest in a public policy
point for international efforts to stabilize issue. Environmental NGOs attended the
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmo- Earth Summit and continue to attend the COP
sphere without harming food production or meetings to interact with government repre-
preventing sustainable development. sentatives and to provide information. NGOs
not only lobby governments to achieve their
goals, but more and more they fulfill some
The precautionary principle: roles of government by pursuing their goals
A guiding principle of the UNFCCC that
in the field. One example of an environmen-
states that a lack of full scientific certainty
tal NGO is 350.org, which is well known for
about climate change should not be used as a
its work in raising awareness about climate
reason to delay acting when there is a threat of
change through mass public action.
serious or irreversible damage.

Sustainable development:
Common but differentiated Sustainable development brings together
responsibilities: the need for economic growth and envi-
Another guiding principle of the UNFCCC ronmental stewardship. It is a way of using
that states that while both industrialized and resources that protects both environmen-
poorer countries have a responsibility for the tal and human well-being in the long term.
environment, the wealthier, industrialized Sustainable development aims to meet the
nations should take the lead in combating economic and social needs of the present gen-
climate change. eration without compromising or depleting the
resources available for future generations.
Conference of the Parties (COP): Those who promote sustainable develop-
This is the governing body of the UNFCCC. ment say that international cooperation and
It is made up of the nations that have ratified assistance to poorer countries is crucial for
the UNFCCC. The COP’s function is to meet success. At the 2012 United Nations Confer-
regularly and to oversee the implementation ence on Sustainable Development in Rio de
of the UNFCCC. The Kyoto Protocol was Janeiro (twenty years after the 1992 Earth
developed at one of these sessions. Summit in Rio), world leaders reaffirmed their
dedication to sustainable development. They
Treaties, Conventions, Protocols: also demonstrated support for the creation of
Treaties, conventions, and protocols are “Sustainable Development Goals” to serve as
all types of international agreements. While the guiding framework for international devel-
individual country leaders, such as the U.S. opment beginning in 2015.
president, may sign these types of internation-
al agreements, they generally do not become
law in each country until other governing bod-
ies in those countries, such as the U.S. Senate,
ratify them.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
TRB Climate Change and Questions of Justice
74
Assessment Guide for Oral Presentations
Group assignment:

Group members:

Excellent Good Average Needs Unsatisfactory

Group Assessment Improvement
1. The group made good use of its
5 4 3 2 1
preparation time.

2. The presentation reflected

5 4 3 2 1
analysis of the issues under
consideration.

3. The presentation was coherent

5 4 3 2 1
and persuasive.

4. The group incorporated relevant

5 4 3 2 1
sections of the reading into its
presentation.

5. The group’s presenters spoke

5 4 3 2 1
clearly, maintained eye contact,
and made an effort to hold the
attention of their audience.

6. The presentation incorporated

5 4 3 2 1
contributions from all the mem-
bers of the group.

Individual Assessment
1. The student cooperated with 5 4 3 2 1
other group members.

2. The student was well-prepared to 5 4 3 2 1

meet his or her responsibilities.

3. The student made a significant 5 4 3 2 1

contribution to the group’s pre-
sentation.

The Choices Program  ■  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown University  ■  www.choices.edu
Prepare Students for College,
Career, and Civic Life
Choices' inquiry-based approach to real-world issues promotes the skills required
by the C3 Framework.

Critical Thinking
Guided by compelling questions, students examine historical
context, analyze case studies, consider contrasting policy
options, and explore the underlying values and interests that
drive different perspectives.

Textual Analysis
Students examine primary and secondary sources and
evaluate evidence to understand multiple perspectives on
complex international issues.

Creativity and Innovation

Students form original ideas and express them creatively
through writing, drawing, and role play.

Communication
Students construct, present, and critique arguments using
written, oral, and digital communication.

Collaboration
Students engage in deliberative discussions, build on each
other’s ideas, formulate persuasive arguments, and express
their own views.

www.choices.edu
Climate Change and
Questions of Justice
Climate Change and Questions of Justice explores the
causes and effects of global warming and delves into
questions of who is most responsible for and vulnerable to
the changing climate. Students grapple with how to respond
to climate change at local, national, and international levels
in ways that are both effective and fair.

Climate Change and Questions of Justice is part of a

continuing series on current and historical international
issues published by the Choices Program at Brown
University. Choices materials place special emphasis on the
importance of educating students in their participatory role
as citizens.