Function-Oriented

Software Design

Anil Kumar Dudyala

Asst.Prof, Dept of IT
NIT Patna
Source
(Rajib Mall)
Introduction
Function-oriented design techniques
are very popular:
Currently in use in many software
development organizations.

Function-oriented design techniques:

Start with the functional requirements
specified in the SRS document.
Introduction
During the design process:
High-level functions are
successively decomposed:
Into more detailed functions.

Finally the detailed functions are

mapped to a module structure.
Introduction
Successive decomposition
of high-level functions:
Into more detailed functions.
Technically known as top-
down decomposition.
Introduction
SA/SD methodology:
has essential features of several
important function-oriented design
methodologies:
If you need to use any specific design
methodology later on,
You can do so easily with small
additional effort.
Overview of SA/SD
Methodology
SA/SD methodology consists of two
distinct activities:
Structured Analysis (SA)
Structured Design (SD)
During structured analysis:
functional decomposition takes place.
During structured design:
module structure is formalized.
Functional Decomposition
Each function is analyzed:
Hierarchically decomposed into
more detailed functions.
Simultaneous decomposition of
high-level data
Into more detailed data.
Structured Analysis
Transforms a textual problem
description into a graphic model.
Done using data flow diagrams
(DFDs).
DFDs graphically represent the
results of structured analysis.
Structured Design
All the functions represented in
the DFD:
Mapped to a module structure.

The module structure:

Also called as the software
architecture:
Detailed Design
Software architecture:
Refined through detailed
design.
Detailed design can be directly
implemented:
Using a conventional
programming language.
Structured Analysis vs.
Structured Design
Purpose of structured analysis:
Capture the detailed structure of the
system as the user views it.

Purpose of structured design:

Arrive at a form that is suitable for
implementation in some programming
language.
Structured Analysis vs.
Structured Design
The results of structured analysis can be easily
understood even by ordinary customers:
 Does not require computer knowledge.
 Directly represents customer’s perception of the problem.
 Uses customer’s terminology for naming different functions
and data.

The results of structured analysis can be reviewed by

customers:
 To check whether it captures all their requirements.
Structured Analysis
Based on principles of:
Top-down decomposition approach.
Divide and conquer principle:
Each function is considered individually (i.e.
isolated from other functions).
Decompose functions totally disregarding
what happens in other functions.
Graphical representation of results using
Data flow diagrams (or bubble charts).
Data Flow Diagrams
DFD is an elegant modelling
technique:
Useful not only to represent the results
of structured analysis.
Applicable to other areas also:
e.g. for showing the flow of documents
or items in an organization,

DFD technique is very popular:

It is powerful and yet simple to
understand and use.
Data Flow Diagram
DFD is a hierarchical graphical
model:
Shows the different functions (or
processes) of the system and
Data interchange among the
processes.
DFD Concepts
It is useful to consider each
function as a processing
station:
Each function consumes some
input data.
Produces some output data.
Data Flow Model of a Car
Assembly Unit
Engine Store Door Store

Partly
Assembled
Car
Fit Fit Fit Paint and
Engine Doors Wheels Test
Chassis Assembled
with Engine Car Car

Chassis Store Wheel Store

Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs)

A DFD model:
Uses limited types of symbols.
Simple set of rules
Easy to understand:
It is a hierarchical model.
Hierarchical Model
Human mind can easily understand
any hierarchical model:
In a hierarchical model:
We start with a very simple and abstract
model of a system,
Details are slowly introduced through
the hierarchies.
Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs)
Primitive Symbols Used for Constructing DFDs:
External Entity Symbol
Represented by a rectangle
External entities are real Librarian
physical entities:
input data to the system or
consume data produced by the system.
Sometimes external entities are called
terminator, source, or sink.
Function Symbol
A function such as “search-book” is
represented using a circle:
search-
This symbol is called a book
process or bubble or transform.
Bubbles are annotated with
corresponding function names.
Functions represent some activity:
Function names should be verbs.
Data Flow Symbol
A directed arc or line. book-name

Represents data flow in the

direction of the arrow.
Data flow symbols are
annotated with names of data
they carry.
Data Store Symbol
Represents a logical file:
A logical file can be:
book-details
 a data structure
 a physical file on disk.
Each data store is connected to a
process:
By means of a data flow symbol.
 Data Store Symbol
Direction of data flow arrow:
find-book
Shows whether data is being read
from or written into it.
Books
An arrow into or out of a data store:
Implicitly represents the entire data of the
data store
Arrows connecting to a data store need not
be annotated with any data name.
Output Symbol
Output produced by the system
Synchronous Operation
If two bubbles are directly connected by
a data flow arrow:
They are synchronous

Read- number Validate-

numbers numbers Valid
Data- 0.1 0.2 number
items
Asynchronous Operation
If two bubbles are connected via a
data store:
They are not synchronous.
Read- Validate-
numbers numbers
0.1 numbers 0.2 Valid
Data- number
items
How is Structured Analysis
Performed?
Initially represent the software
at the most abstract level:
Called the context diagram.
The entire system is represented as
a single bubble,
This bubble is labelled according to
the main function of the system.
Tic-tac-toe: Context Diagram

Tic-tac-
display toe
software

move
Human Player
Context Diagram
A context diagram shows:
Data input to the system,
Output data generated by
the system,
External entities.
Context Diagram
Context diagram captures:
Various entities external to the system
and interacting with it.
Data flow occurring between the
system and the external entities.
The context diagram is also called
as the level 0 DFD.
Context Diagram
Establishes the context of
the system, i.e.
Represents:
Data sources
Data sinks.
Level 1 DFD
Examine the SRS document:
Represent each high-level function as
a bubble.
Represent data input to every high-
level function.
Represent data output from every
high-level function.
 Higher Level DFDs
Each high-level function is separately
decomposed into subfunctions:
Identify the subfunctions of the function
Identify the data input to each subfunction
Identify the data output from each
subfunction

These are represented as DFDs.

Decomposition
Decomposition of a bubble:
Also called factoring or
exploding.

Each bubble is decomposed to

 Between 3 to 7 bubbles.
Decomposition
Too few bubbles make
decomposition superfluous:
If a bubble is decomposed to
just one or two bubbles:
Then this decomposition is
redundant.
Decomposition
Too many bubbles:
More than 7 bubbles at any
level of a DFD.
Make the DFD model hard to
understand.
Decompose How Long?
Decomposition of a bubble
should be carried on until:
A level at which the function of
the bubble can be described
using a simple algorithm.
Example 1: RMS Calculating
Software
Consider a software called RMS
calculating software:
Reads three integers in the range of -
1000 and +1000
Finds out the root mean square (rms)
of the three input numbers
Displays the result.
Example 1: RMS Calculating
Software
The context diagram is simple
to develop:
The system accepts 3 integers
from the user
Returns the result to him.
 Example 1: RMS Calculating
Software

Data-
items Compute-
RMS
0

User result

Context Diagram
Example 1: RMS Calculating
Software
From a cursory analysis of
the problem description:
We can see that the system
needs to perform several
things.
Example 1: RMS Calculating
Software
Accept input numbers from
the user:
Validate the numbers,
Calculate the root mean square
of the input numbers
Display the result.
 Example 1: RMS Calculating
Software
numbers
Read- Validate-
numbers numbers
0.1 0.2
Valid -
Data- numbers
items error

Display Compute-
0.4 rms
0.3
result RMS
Example 1: RMS Calculating
Software
Squared-
Calculate- sum
squared- Calculate-
sum mean
0.3.1 0.3.2

Valid - Mean-
numbers square
Calculate-
root
0.3.3

RMS
Example: RMS Calculating
Software
b
a c
Square Square Square
0.3.1.1 0.3.1.2 0.3.1.3

bsq
asq csq
Sum
0.3.1.4

Squared-sum
Example: RMS Calculating
Software
Decomposition is never carried
on up to basic instruction level:
A bubble is not decomposed any
further:
If it can be represented by a simple
set of instructions.
 Data Dictionary
A DFD is always accompanied by a data dictionary.

A data dictionary lists all data items appearing in a

DFD:
 Definition of all composite data items in terms of their
component data items.
 All data names along with the purpose of the data items.

For example, a data dictionary entry may be:

 grossPay = regularPay+overtimePay
Importance of Data
Dictionary
Provides all engineers in a project with
standard terminology for all data:
A consistent vocabulary for data is very
important
Different engineers tend to use different
terms to refer to the same data,
Causes unnecessary confusion.
Importance of Data
Dictionary
Data dictionary provides the definition of different
data:
 In terms of their component elements.

For large systems,

 The data dictionary grows rapidly in size and complexity.
 Typical projects can have thousands of data dictionary
entries.
 It is extremely difficult to maintain such a dictionary
manually.
Data Dictionary
CASE (Computer Aided Software
Engineering) tools come handy:
CASE tools capture the data items
appearing in a DFD automatically
to generate the data dictionary.
Data Dictionary
CASE tools support queries:
 About definition and usage of data items.

For example, queries may be made to find:

 Which data item affects which processes,
 A process affects which data items,
 The definition and usage of specific data items, etc.

Query handling is facilitated:

 If data dictionary is stored in a relational database
management system (RDBMS).
Data Definition
Composite data are defined in terms of primitive
data items using following operators:
 +: denotes composition of data items, e.g
 a+b represents data a and b.
[,,,]: represents selection,
 i.e. any one of the data items listed inside the square
bracket can occur.
 For example, [a,b] represents either a occurs or b occurs.
Data Definition
( ): contents inside the bracket represent
optional data
which may or may not appear.
a+(b) represents either a or a+b occurs.
 {}: represents iterative data definition,
e.g. {name}5 represents five name data.
Data Definition
{name}* represents
 zero or more instances of name data.
= represents equivalence,
e.g. a=b+c means that a represents b and
c.
 * *: Anything appearing within * * is
considered as comment.
Data Dictionary for RMS
Software
 numbers=valid-numbers=a+b+c
 a:integer * input number *
 b:integer * input number *
 c:integer * input number *
 asq:integer
 bsq:integer
 csq:integer
 squared-sum: integer
 Result=[RMS,error]
 RMS: integer * root mean square value*
 error:string * error message*
Balancing a DFD
Data flowing into or out of a bubble:
 Must match the data flows at the next level of DFD.

In the level 1 of the DFD,

 Data item c flows into the bubble P3 and the data item d
and e flow out.

In the next level, bubble P3 is decomposed.

 The decomposition is balanced as data item c flows into the
level 2 diagram and d and e flow out.
Balancing a DFD
c
b c

c1
d1

a d
e
Level 1 d
e1
e
Level 2
Numbering of Bubbles
Number the bubbles in a DFD:
 Numbers help in uniquely identifying any bubble from its
bubble number.

The bubble at context level:

 Assigned number 0.

Bubbles at level 1:
 Numbered 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, etc

When a bubble numbered x is decomposed,

 Its children bubble are numbered x.1, x.2, x.3, etc.
Example 2: Tic-Tac-Toe Computer
Game
A human player and the computer make alternate
moves on a 3 X 3 square.

A move consists of marking a previously unmarked

square.

The user inputs a number between 1 and 9 to mark a

square

Whoever is first to place three consecutive marks

along a straight line (i.e., along a row, column, or
diagonal) on the square wins.
Example: Tic-Tac-Toe Computer
Game
As soon as either of the human player or the
computer wins,
 A message announcing the winner should be displayed.

If neither player manages to get three consecutive

marks along a straight line,
 And all the squares on the board are filled up,
 Then the game is drawn.

The computer always tries to win a game.

Context Diagram for Example

Tic-tac-
toe
display software
0

move
Human Player
Level 1 DFD
game
Display-
move board
0.1 result

Validate- Check-
move winner
0.2 board 0.4

Play-
move
0.3
Data Dictionary
Display=game + result
move = integer
board = {integer}9
game = {integer}9
result=string
Summary
We discussed a sample function-oriented
software design methodology:
Structured Analysis/Structured Design(SA/SD)
Incorporates features from some important
design methodologies.
SA/SD consists of two parts:
Structured analysis
Structured design.
Summary
The goal of structured analysis:
functional decomposition of the system.
Results of structured analysis:
represented using Data Flow Diagrams
(DFDs).
We examined why any hierarchical
model is easy to understand.
Number 7 is called the magic number.
Summary
During structured design,
The DFD representation is
transformed to a structure chart
representation.
DFDs are very popular:
Because it is a very simple
technique.
Summary
A DFD model:
Difficult to implement using a
programming language:
Structure chart representation can be
easily implemented using a
programming language.
Summary
We discussed structured
analysis of two small
examples:
RMS calculating software
Tic-tac-toe computer game
software
Summary
Several CASE tools are available:
Support structured analysis and
design.
Maintain the data dictionary,
Check whether DFDs are balanced
or not.