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Introduction to Environmental Science

Lab Manual
Florida SouthWestern State College
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Table of Contents

Laboratory 1: Scientific Method Lab 3

Laboratory 2: Biochemical Cycle Lab 6
Laboratory 3: Natural Selection Lab 10
Laboratory 4: Mark and Recapture Lab 14
Laboratory 5: Human Population Lab 18
Laboratory 6: Bioaccumulation Lab 25
Laboratory 7: Carbon Fixation Lab 29
Laboratory 8: Climate Change Lab 34
Laboratory 9: Ocean Acidification Lab 43
Laboratory 10: Acid Rain Lab 49
Laboratory 11: Mining Lab 62
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Lab 1 Scientific Method Lab

1. The purpose of this lab is to use the Scientific Method to solve a problem.

A) Observe and ask questions that lead to a problem

B) Form a hypothesis
C) Test the hypothesis with a controlled experiment my making observations and gathering data.
D) Analyze gathered data
E) Reject or Accept your hypothesis
F) Form a conclusion

2. Materials
2 gloves
1 Ruler
1 Measuring Tape
2 different pieces of bubble gun labeled A and B

3. Instructions
READ directions carefully before starting the lab. Each group will need one piece of gum labeled A
and one labeled B. Make 3 observations about each brand of gum.

Observations
Gum A Gum B

1.____________________________ 1.__________________________

2.____________________________ 2.___________________________

3.____________________________ 3.___________________________

Problem: Which piece of bubble gum blows the biggest bubble?

Hypothesis: Predict which piece of gum will blow the biggest bubble and why.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Procedure:
1. The person with brand A will chew their piece of gum for 3 minutes. The person with brand B does
not begin chewing until all the tests on brand A are completed.

2. Blow a bubble.

3. Using a ruler, your partner will measure the diameter (distance across) of the bubble.
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4. Record the measurement in a data table. Repeat the process for trials 2 and 3.

5. Find the average bubble size for brand A (add all the distances up and divide by 3) and put in the
data chart.

6. Repeat steps 1-5 with brand B gum.

Data Table: Design a data collection table to fit the data you will be investigating

Conclusion: Forming a theory

What brand of gum is the best at blowing bubbles and why? Support your answer with observations
and your data.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

PART 2

Combine with another group to complete this part of the lab.

Problem: How does gum strechability relate to bubble size?

Hypothesis: Make an educated guess that would answer the above question.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Procedure:
1. The person with brand A will roll their gum into a ball.

2. Hold the gum (brand A) by using the gloves. Another person in the group would hold the same piece
of gum with another glove. Hold the gum near your chest, begin to walk slowly backwards.

3. The third person in the group should hold the meter stick and measure the distance in centimeters the
gum stretched before breaking.

4. Record the measurement in the data chart. ONLY DO ONE TRIAL

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5. Repeat #1-4 for brand B gum.

Data Table: Create a data table to fit the data you will be gathering

Conclusion:
COMPARE DATA FROM BOTH GROUPS IN PART 1 AND PART 2
How does gum stretchability relate to bubble size?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

With your lab partner, list 3 variables that may affect the outcome of this experiment.

1. ____________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________________________

Explain how the data you collected can be described as both qualitative and quantitative
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
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Lab 2 Carbon Cycle

The key to understanding the cycles of matter on Earth begins with identifying the reservoirs (where
the matter is stored), the residence times (how long matter stays in any one reservoir), and the fluxes
(how the matter moves from one reservoir to another).

Instructions: Today you are going to play a game to learn about the carbon cycle, its reservoirs,
residence times, and fluxes. By the end of this activity, you should be able to describe and explain how
the carbon cycle has changed in the last 250 years.

Around the room, there are signs for each reservoir. Under the reservoir sign, there is a die and a set of
instructions. You are a carbon atom!! You will be assigned to start at different reservoirs. Once you
get to the reservoir, record your location on the chart below. Roll the die. Depending on the number
you roll, you will go to different stations around the room. If you stay at a reservoir, RECORD THAT!
Be sure to record you flux mechanism (how you got to the new reservoir). When you have visited
every reservoir, go back to your seat and map your journey on the back of this page.

ROUND 1
STARTING RESERVOIR FLUX MECHANISM ENDING RESERVOIR
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MAP OF YOUR CARBON CYCLE

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ROUND 2
The carbon cycle you just drew represents how carbon could have cycled through the Earth’s Systems
250 years ago, before the Industrial Revolution. Things have changed. Now we are going to do the
same exercise in the modern carbon cycle. Go to your original starting reservoir and wait for
instructions.
STARTING RESERVOIR FLUX MECHANISM ENDING RESERVOIR

When you have filled in the table, go back to your seat and map your journey on the back of this page.
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MAP OF YOUR MODERN CARBON CYCLE

Write a short paragraph describing how the modern carbon cycle compares to the pre-industrial carbon
cycle:
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Lab 3 Natural Selection Lab

Organisms within populations vary in their phenotypes – the physical expression of the organism’s
genetic signature, and those differences are in part due to genetic differences. Individual organisms
differ in their genetic makeup because they carry different alleles for specific genes. For example, a
population of mice might carry both an allele for brown color fur (B) and an allele for white color (b).
In diploid organisms like mice, every individual carries two alleles at each gene, and individuals in a
population can have different allelic combinations or genotypes (BB, Bb, or bb). The gene pool, or
genetic make-up of a population, is described both by the allele frequencies (the proportion of the
alleles B and b) as well as the genotype frequencies (the proportion of the different combinations of
those alleles, BB, Bb, and bb). If the alleles are codominant (both alleles are expressed in the
heterozygote) then the phenotypes of the three genotypes will be as follows: BB will be brown, bb
will be white, and Bb will be tan or have areas that are brown and areas that are white.

Genetic differences are heritable, so they can be passed down through the generations.
Microevolution is the change in the genetic makeup of a population from one generation to the next.

Evolution refers to the changes that occur in the characteristics of populations over the course of
generations. One of the causes of evolution is the process of natural selection. According to the
theory of natural selection, the natural variation among individuals within a population of organisms
results in differences among them in their ability to survive and/or reproduce in a given environment.
Traits that increase the chance of survival and/or reproduction are called adaptations. Individuals with
adaptations tend to have greater reproductive fitness than other individuals in the population –
meaning that they have more surviving offspring. Many of these offspring carry their parents’
adaptations, so these adaptations become more common in a population while non-adaptive traits
become less common. In other words, natural selection results in a change in the characteristics of the
population – the population evolves. The traits that become common in a population through the
process of natural selection are unique. This is because adaptations are a function of the environment
that the population inhabits. In addition, the traits that become common in a population are limited
by the genetic variation that is present in the population.

For an adaptation to become common in a population through the process of natural selection, the
trait must be inherited or have a genetic basis. That is, individuals who possess the adaptation must
carry a different allele, or set of alleles, compared to those who do not possess the adaptation. The
increased fitness of individuals with a particular adaptation means that they produce a large number
of surviving offspring who carry the adaptive allele. Evolution via the process of natural selection
results in a change in the frequency of a particular allele in a population – adaptive alleles become
more common and non-adaptive ones become less common.

Predators are an environmental factor that causes natural selection – traits that allow individuals to
better avoid death through predation should spread in a population of prey species.
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Procedure I: Natural Selection (predation)

Students use the pre-counted cups of beans at your table (32 brown, 96 brown-eyed, and 72 white for
a total of 200 beans representing brown mice (BB), brown-white tan mice (Bb), and white mice (bb)).

What are the genotype frequencies of your parent population of mice?

BB _______________, Bb _______________, bb _________________

Simulate the process of natural selection by acting as a “selector,” in this case a predator. The
containers of shredded paper available at your lab table represent the habitat (living space) of the
prey population. The prey will be represented by the beans you have been working with. Tip: put the
paper into the open pan first and mix the beans into the paper.

Pick two members of the lab group to act as the “predators” in this habitat. The other two people will
be the “prey handlers.” The predators should turn away while the prey handlers hide the beans. Prey
do not have to rest on the surface of the paper, but can be buried within the habitat.

The predators will now hunt and capture as much prey as possible during a single generation time – in
this simulation, 20 seconds. To capture the prey, the predators should use keen eyesight, but also can
use their hands to “search” around the habitat – that is, to move paper. When a bean is located, it
should be placed in the corresponding bean cup (e.g. put removed brown beans back in the brown
bean cup).

When the time is up, count the number of each type of prey in the containers to determine the
number of each type of prey remaining in the habitat.

Based on your environment (white shredded paper), what mice coat color would likely be adaptive?

What do you expect of the population numbers of each species of mice? Increase/Decrease in
percentage of total mice population?
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Fill in Table 1with new population numbers.

Table 1: Predator-Prey Results Round 1

Prey Type 1 Prey Type 2 Prey Type 3
Brown Beans Tan Beans White Beans
Number in habitat at start 32 96 72

Calculate the percentage

of population in habitat at
start
Number remaining in
habitat after hunt
Calculate the percentage
of population in habitat
after first hunt

Perform a hunt of this “second generation” with the same predator and prey handler, record the
results in Table 2. Don’t change the number of beans you have in each cup from above. Simply start
the next generation (round 2 below) from the frequencies resulting from round 1 (above).

Table 2: Predator-Prey Results Round 2

Prey Type 1 Prey Type 2 Prey Type 3
Brown Beans Tan Beans White Beans
Percentage of population
in habitat after first hunt
(same as last row above)
Number remaining in
habitat after hunt
Calculate the percentage
of population in habitat
after second hunt

If you have time, hunt a

third time
Number remaining in
habitat after hunt
Calculate the percentage
of population in habitat
after third hunt
**When you complete this activity, put all beans back in their corresponding cup (e.g. put all 32
brown beans back in the brown bean cup).
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1. How did the frequencies (percentages) of the gene pairs change after each predation? Are the
gene frequencies for the third generation the same as the first generation? Which gene pair is
now occurring in the highest frequency (BB-brown, Bb-tan, or bb-white)?

2. Why do you think the gene frequencies changed? Be sure to relate your answer to natural
selection.

3. Which allele is the adaptive one and which is non-adaptive? Why?

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Lab 4 Estimating Population Densities

Estimates of plant populations are generally simplified by the fact that plants don't move and
are usually quite easy to find. Some animals, on the other hand, are mobile and in many
cases very difficult to find. For animals, special techniques of trapping and estimating are
required. All of these procedures have advantages and disadvantages. The accuracy of an
estimate of mobile animal populations depends on 1) the number of samples taken, 2) the
method of collecting the samples, 3) the proportion of the total population sampled. Additional
problems encountered when estimating population sizes in animals may be related to whether
animals become trap-happy or trap-shy, whether the animals are territorial or not, and
whether or not there is immigration and emigration to and from the population.

Objective

 Use some techniques commonly used for sampling mobile animals to estimate
population size in artificial population

 Compare our estimates with the actual values and critically examine the precision and
reliability of each technique.

Exercise 1: Mark-Recapture Technique

This method is probably the most widely used. It is especially common in studies of small
mammal and fish populations. The problem with fish is that they are underwater, so they are
hard to see. Thus, you can't make a visual census. Fortunately, many remain within home-
ranges (limited mobility) and are very easy to "live" trap.

The mark-recapture technique involves two trapping periods. During the first trapping period,
all the individuals captured are marked and then released. A second trapping period is
conducted and the proportion of marked individuals among the second set of captures is
counted. If we assume that all the animals in the population have an equal likelihood of being
captured, then the proportion of marked individuals in the second trapping will provide an
estimate of the proportion of marked individuals in the total population. Since we know how
many animals are marked, we can use this number to estimate the total population size.

A simple formula for estimating a population using the mark-recapture technique is:

Where: N = Estimated Population Total

N = MC M = Number of individuals marked from 1st capture
R C= Number of individuals captured from the 2nd capture
R= Number of animals captured on the 1st capture that were
recaptured on the second capture.
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Q1. Before you begin… Based on what you have read above what are some potential
problems with Mark-Recapture studies?

What you will need:

(1) Cup
(200) White Beans
(40) Pinto Beans
(40) Black Beans

Procedure:

Part A.

1. Put 200 white beans in a bowl.

2. Remove 40 white beans and replace with 40 pinto beans (these are your marked individuals), and
mix well. This represents your first trapping period.

3. Without looking, remove one bean.

4. Shake remaining beans.

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until 40 beans are removed. Steps 3, 4, and 5, represent your second trapping
period.

6. Count the number of pinto beans removed.

7. Record this number on your data sheet under trial 1.

8. Repeat the procedure until 8 trials are completed.

Trial 1. Pinto Beans as Marks

Trial # # Pinto Beans

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Part B. Biased Beans?

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1. Put 200 white beans in a bowl.

2. Remove 40 white beans and replace with 40 black beans (these are your marked individuals), and
mix well.

3. Without looking, remove one beans.

4. Shake remaining beans.

5. Repeat until 40 beans are removed.

6. Count the number of black beans removed.

7. Record this number on your data sheet under trial 1.

8. Repeat until 8 trials are completed.

Trial 2. Black Beans as Marks

Trial # # Black Beans

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Q2. What could cause your results to be off from the actual population?

Q3. How would sample size and population size affect these results?

Q4. How would the number of samples affect these results?

Q5. If you were predicting a large population (as in a real pond), would the number you were
off really have been that bad - relatively speaking?

Q6.. What concerns should a biologist have about a species' life history (habits) before
he/she uses this method to approximate the size of a population?
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Q7.. Even with these concerns, does this mean that tagging should not be used by
biologists?

Q8.. Tagging is used for lots of other research purposes besides estimates of population size.
Describe atleast one other use.

Q9. How would it be possible to decrease the percent error using this technique?

Q10. List three additional populations for which this technique would work well.

Q11. List three populations for which this technique would not work well.

Q12. If you were trying to estimate the population density of a real species why might you
have to sacrifice some accuracy in your estimation?
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Lab 5 Human Populations

Estimated Human Population Size

Year Population in Millions
1 170 1. In the space at the bottom of this page graph the
400 190 Human Population (in millions) over Time (Year).
800 220
2. Add a dashed line of your projection for the size of the human
1000 265 population through the year 2100.
1200 360
1400 350 3. What reasons do you have for your projection?
1600 545
1800 900
1850 1210
1900 1625
1950 2556
2000 6060
2009 6787
2025* 7957
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Human Population Growth: Doubling Time

Introduction:
Birth and death rates determine the rate of population growth. If the birth and death rates are
similar, a population experiences little or no growth. When the birth rate far exceeds the death rate, the
population soars. These rates are expressed as the number of births or deaths for every 1,000 people in
a given year. For instance, in 2007 the world’s birth rate was 21 per 1,000 and the death rate was 9 per
1,000. Using the formulas below, one can determine the world’s annual growth rate and the number of
years it will take the population to double if the growth rate remains constant.

Intrinsic rate of natural increase = (birth rate - death rate)/10 = (21 - 9)/10 = 1.2%

Doubling Time (in years) = 70/(rate of increase) = 70/1.2 = 58.3 years

Using the table below, determine the percentage of annual increase and the population doubling times
for each country.

Percent annual natural increase = (birth rate) - (death rate)

10
Doubling time (in years) = 70_______
rate of increase

Birth Rate (2007) Death Rate

Country Doubling Time
(2007)

United States 14 per 1000 8 per 1000

Kenya 40 per 1000 12 per 1000

Mexico 21 per 1000 5 per 1000

India 24 per 1000 8 per 1000

China 12 per 1000 7 per 1000

Japan 9 per 1000 9 per 1000

Germany 8 per 1000 10 per 1000

Russia 10 per 1000 15 per 1000

World 21 per 1000 9 per 1000

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Women’s Empowerment and Fertility Rates (data from nationmaster.com)

Construct a Scatter Plot of the data below. Use as much as the graph as possible.

Women’s
Total fertility
Country average age at
rate
first marriage
Argentina 23.3 2.4
Brazil 26.0 1.9
Dominican Republic 19.0 2.9
Ethiopia 16.5 5.4
Norway 28.9 1.8
Indonesia 19.5 2.4
Iraq 20.0 4.3
Japan 27.3 1.2
Mali 16.5 6.6
Australia 28 1.8
Niger 15.6 7.1
Pakistan 21.6 3.5
Greece 28.6 1.4
United States 25.1 2.1

What is the effect of age of marriage on fertility rate?

What could this mean if we want to decrease human population?

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Women’s Empowerment and Fertility Rates (data from nationmaster.com)

Construct a Scatter Plot of the data below. Use as much as the graph as possible.

Women’s Total fertility

Country
literacy rate rate
Argentina 97.1 2.4
Brazil 88.8 1.9
Dominican Republic 84.8 2.9
Ethiopia 35.1 5.4
Norway 99 1.8
Indonesia 86.8 2.4
Iraq 24.4 4.3
Japan 99 1.2
Mali 39.6 6.6
Australia 99 1.8
Niger 15.1 7.1
Pakistan 36 3.5
Greece 96.5 1.4
United States 99 2.1

What is the effect of women’s literacy rates on fertility rate?

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Why do think this correlation exists?

Human Population Growth: Power of the Pyramids

1. The table below represents the population in thousands of each age group within each gender for
the United States in 2007. In order to construct a population pyramid you must first calculate the
percentage of the population in each subgroup. For example, the United States’s total population in
2007 was 301,140,000. The population of males up to age four was 10,635,000.

10,635,000_ = 0.035 or 3.5%

301,140,000

2. Complete these calculations for each age group in the table below.

Age Group Male Population Male Population % Female Population Female Population %

0-4 10,635 10,181

5-9 10,156 9,718

10-14 10,360 9,880

15-19 11,115 10,551

20-24 10,794 10,241

25-29 10,570 10,242

30-34 9,786 9,596

35-39 10,558 10,491

40-44 10,878 11,003

45-49 11,280 11,567

50-54 10,272 10,721

55-59 8,855 9,424

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60-64 6,889 7,531

65-69 5,027 5,758

70-74 3,857 4,727

75-79 3,084 4,208

80+ 3,891 7,298

3. Using the space at the bottom of this page, construct a population pyramid for the United States
using the data in the table you constructed. An example of a population pyramid is provided below.
The figures along the X-axis represent the calculated percentages of the population, while points
along the Y-axis represent age groups. A line drawn down the middle of the graph separates the
male and female populations. You should use a different color for each side of the graph.
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80+
75-79
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
50-54
45-49
40-44
35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19
10-14
5-9
0-4

Using the U.S. population pyramid you constructed answer the following questions.

4. Is there a relatively large or a relatively small gender difference in the youngest age groups? Why is
this the case?

5. Is there a relatively large or a relatively small gender difference in the oldest age groups? Why is
this the case?
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6. What is the cause of the bulge in the middle of the pyramid?

Lab 6 Bioaccumulation
Introduction:

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) occur when toxin-producing members of the phytoplankton undergo
population explosions. Only a few species of phytoplankton produce toxins. On those occasions
when the populations of toxin producers are high, some animals within the food chain may be
damaged or killed. Toxins released by harmful algae cause problems for a variety of organisms
because they move through the marine food chain. Each phytoplankton cell produces only minute
quantities of the toxin. However, the toxin can bioaccumulate in organisms. Bioaccumulation is a
process in which materials build up in the tissues of organisms faster than they can be broken
down. In this experiment, you will carry out a simulation that shows how toxins bioaccumulate in a
marine food web. During this activity you will assume the role of an animal in the food chain. You
will be assigned one of the following by your teacher:
1. Krill
2. Small Fish
3. Large Fish
4. Adele Penguin
5. Elephant Seal

You will each be give a plastic zip lock bag to hold the “food” you have “eaten”.
Rules:
1. You can only “eat” when the teacher instructs you to do so and for the length of time you
are instructed to do so.
2. Krill can only eat phytoplankton (candy)
3. Small fish can only eat Krill
4. Large fish can only eat Small fish
5. Adele Penguins can only eat Large fish
6. And Elephant Seals can only eat Adele Penguins.
7. Krill eat by placing candy in their bags
8. All other animals eat by taking the bags of the other animals and placing the candy in their
bags.

Directions:
1. On the teacher’s signal, students who are wearing cards labeled “krill” have 30 seconds
(sec) to move around the area and graze. Grazing is simulated by picking up phytoplankton
and putting them in a bag. The bag represents the krill’s stomach.
2. After 30 sec, students who are wearing a card labeled “small fish” have 10 sec to move
around the area and eat as many krill as possible. To eat a krill, a student wearing a “small
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fish” card takes the krill’s bag of food. The “eaten” krill must sit down in their chair and
remain there through the exercise. Living krill can continue to graze on M&Ms.™
3. After small fish have been eating for 10 sec, the large fish can enter the area. Large fish
have 10 sec to move around the area and eat small fish. To eat a small fish, a student
wearing a “large fish” card takes the small fish’s bag(s) of food. The “eaten” small fish
must sit down in their chair and remain there through the exercise. Living small fish can
continue to feed on krill, and living krill can continue to graze on phytoplankton.
4. After large fish have been eating for 10 sec, the penguins can enter the area. Penguins have
10 sec to move around the area and eat large fish. To eat a large fish, a student wearing a
“penguin” card takes the large fish’s bag(s) of food. The “eaten” large fish must sit down
in their chair and remain there through the exercise. Living large fish can continue to feed
on small fish, living small fish can continue to feed on krill, and living krill can continue to
graze on phytoplankton.
5. After penguins have been eating for 10 sec, the seal has 10 sec to move around the area and
eat penguins. To eat a penguin, a student wearing the “seal” card takes a penguin’s bag(s)
of food. The “eaten” penguin sits down in their chair. Living penguins can continue to eat
large fish, large fish can continue to each small fish, small fish can continue to eat krill, and
krill can continue to eat phytoplankton. At the end of 10 sec, the experiment ends and
everyone stops moving.
6. Students who represent dead organisms should move to one side of the area and sit as a
group.
7. Students who represent living organisms should move to the other side of the area and sit
as a group. Living organisms should examine the contents of their bags to find out how
much toxin each animal consumed. To do this, each living organism should:
a. Pour the candies from all of the bags in their possession onto a sheet of notebook
paper.
b. Count all of the candies and write the total number of candies on the data table on
the board. Each student should copy these numbers and the data table.
c. Count the red and orange candies and write the total number of these colors on the
data table on the board. Each student should record these numbers on the data
table. Red and orange candies represent HABs produced in the phytoplankton.
8. Some chemicals and toxins like HABs accumulate in the bodies of animals that eat them. If
as much as 25 percent of the food an animal eats is contaminated with mercury, that animal
will die. Each student should calculate the percentage of toxic food consumed by living
animals with the following formula:
a. Percentage of toxic food=( #of red and orange candies/ Total # of candies) x 100
b. Record these percentages in your data tables.
9. All living animals that have 25 percent or more toxic food should sit with the dead animals.
All living animals with less than 25 percent toxic food should remain in an area designated
for living animals.
10. Answer the Discussion Questions.
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Data Table.
Animal Total Number of Number of Red and % of Toxic Food
Candies in bag Orange Candies in Consumed
bag

Questions:
1. Did the seal survive? Why or why not?

2. What percentage of the entire food chain died as a result of HABs?

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3. What animal would you choose to be and why?

4. Why did some animals survive the HABs?

5. Oysters are animals that filter food particles like plankton from the water. How could dining
on oysters with HAB affect a person’s health? Explain your answer.

6. How does this simulation represent what really occurs in nature? Think of at least three
similarities.

7. How is this simulation and food system different than what really occurs in nature? Are
food chains really linear? Think of at least three differences.
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Lab 7 Carbon Fixation

INTRODUCTON:
Photosynthesis is a series of chemical reactions that use the energy from sunlight to convert
water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) into glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2). Through this process
autotrophs generate Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), an essential component for synthesis of organic
molecules and growth. While only organisms in the Kingdoms Bacteria, Protista and Plantae (Fig. 1)
obtain energy through photosynthesis, the oxygen that they produce sustains life on Earth, making
organismal diversity possible.

In addition to removing approximately 200 billion tons of carbon from the atmosphere, the
oxygen autotrophs produce as a byproduct of photosynthesis is utilized by aerobic organisms for
cellular respiration. In fact, cellular respiration and photosynthesis are the exact opposite of each other
(Fig. 1); during photosynthesis the 2 electrons generated from the oxidation of water are used to reduce
carbon dioxide to glucose while in cellular respiration, glucose is oxidized to carbon dioxide and
oxygen is
reduced to water.

Photosynthesis: 6H2O + 6CO2 + light C6H12O6 + 6O2

Cellular respiration: C6H12O6+ 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

Fig 1.
In plants, photosynthesis occurs in the leaves in specific structures called chloroplasts
(Fig. 2). Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, are believed to have arisen via the endosymbiotic theory
from cyanobacteria (See Lab 2 Task sheet). As a result of this symbiotic partnership, chloroplasts
resemble bacteria structurally, i.e., they are encapsulated by a double membrane system and
they contain their own circular DNA. In 3 chloroplasts, the outer layer encloses the entire
organelle, which is filled with a semi-fluid matrix called the stroma while the inner membrane is
composed of thylakoid disks stacked into columns referred to as grana (singular = granum).
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Fig 2.

Photosynthesis is subdivided into three stages: (1) light-capturing events, (2) light-
dependent (photochemical/light) reactions and (3) light-independent (biochemical/dark) reactions
(Fig. 3). During the light-capturing portion of photosynthesis, photons of light are absorbed by the
chlorophyll present in the thylakoids, ultimately resulting in excitation of the electrons present.
Once excited, the electrons are taken up by electron acceptors to generate ATP and NADPH
during the light reactions. These products are then utilized in the dark reactions for the synthesis
of glucose from the “fixation” of carbon dioxide. The light and dark reactions are compared in
Figure 4.

Fig 3.

Fig 4.
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Light Reactions:
The light-dependent reactions are further divided into cyclic and noncyclic
photophosphorylation. For noncyclic photosynthesis to occur, the light capturing events must
take place in Photosystem II (P680), which absorbs wavelengths of light around 680 nanometers
(nm). The excited electrons are then passed through a series of electron acceptors [i.e., the
electron transport chain (ETC)] until they reach Photosystem I (P700), whose peak absorption of
light is approximately 700nm. At this point, water molecules are split to release 2 Hydrogen
molecules, 1 Oxygen molecule and 2 electrons (used to replace those being lost during the light
capturing events in Photosystem II). Meanwhile, as the excited electrons move through the ETC
from Photosystem II to Photosystem I, they cause Hydrogen molecules to move across the
thylakoid membrane into the lumen via an electrochemical gradient, ultimately resulting in the
production of ATP via chemiosmosis. Subsequent excitation of the electrons in Photosystem I
results in the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH (Fig. 5).

Fig 5.
Dark Reactions:
Plants use the products (ATP and NADPH) of the light-dependent reactions to build
carbohydrates during the light-independent reactions. The dark reactions, also known as the
Calvin Benson cycle, take place in the stroma of the chloroplasts and, as their name implies, do
not require light directly. During this stage of photosynthesis, 6 molecules of CO 2 are captured by
ribulose bisphospate carboxylase (RuBP, the most abundant enzyme on Earth) to produce 1
molecule of glucose through a series of carbon fixation reactions. This process is shown in detail
in Figure 6.
 32

Activity: Uptake of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis

In this experiment you will use Elodea, an aquatic plant, and a pH indicator, phenol red, to
demonstrate that plants use carbon dioxide (CO2). Phenol red is red in alkaline (basic) solutions
(pH > 7) and turns yellow in acidic solutions (pH < 7). To prepare for this experiment, you will blow
air into 3 tubes containing phenol red, releasing carbon dioxide 17 into the liquid in each tube.
The carbon dioxide will bind with the water in the phenol red indicator to form carbonic acid
(H2CO3).

Questions:
1. Before blowing into the test tubes, what color would you expect the solution to be?
Explain.

You will then add Elodea to two of the tubes to begin carbon dioxide fixation process (i.e.
photosynthesis). As the amount of carbon dioxide decreases, the pH is going to change, causing
the phenol red indicator to change color.

2. In what direction (higher or lower) would you expect the pH to change as Elodea fixes
the CO2?

3. After blowing into the test tubes, what color should the phenol red indicator become?
Explain.

Procedure:
1. Fill three small screw cap test tubes half way with the phenol red indicator at your station.
2. Label the tubes with tape with the test tube number and your group number.
3. Gently blow into each of the 3 tubes with a straw until the indicator turns yellow in color. You should
make sure that all 3 tubes are the same shade of yellow.
4. Add a piece of Elodea (approximately 7cm in length) to tubes 1 and 2 only.
5. Immediately screw the cap on each of the 3 tubes to prevent the escape of carbon dioxide.
6. Completely cover tube 2 with aluminum foil.
7. Record your expectations for each tube in Table 3.6.
8. Place all 3 tubes in front of the light source.
9. Observe the tubes every 15 minutes for a total of 45 minutes. Record your observations in Table
3.6.
 33

Tube # Contents Expected Results Observed Results

1 Elodea
Phenol Red
2 Elodea
Phenol Red
Foil
3 Phenol Red

Questions:
1. What was the purpose of covering tube 2 with foil?

2. What was the purpose of tube 3?

3. How long did it take to observe a color change in the phenol red? What does the color change
indicate in terms of the Elodea plant?

4. If carbon fixation occurs during the light independent stage of photosynthesis, why did the
procedure call for placement of the test tubes under the grow lights?

5. Does carbon fixation occur in humans? Can you think of any other organisms that fix carbon?

6. How does a plant use carbon? What is meant by the term carbon fixation?
 34

Lab 8 Climate Change? The Modern CO2 Record

In this lab, we will focus on the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) that scientists have
measured at permanent observatories at Mauna Loa (Hawai’i), Barrow (Alaska), and the South Pole.
We will use these data to investigate
(1) processes that might control variations in atmospheric CO2 levels during the year, and
(2) processes that might explain the long-term trend in atmospheric CO2 levels.

We will also briefly at another greenhouse gas that may contribute to climate change.
_________________________________________________________________________

In 1958, scientists (notably Professor Charles Keeling) began to use high-precision equipment (e.g.,
infrared analyzers) to measure the abundance of atmospheric CO2 at selected sites around the globe.
Among the initial sites were Mauna Loa, a 13,000-foot mountain on Hawai’i, and a station just a few
miles from the South Pole. Measurements were begun at later times at other stations (e.g., 1973 for
Barrow).

1. Familiarize yourself with the locations of these three measuring stations:

 35

2. Examine the three graphs below. The curve on each graph connects monthly measurements, though
it’s difficult or impossible to see the points for individual months at this scale.
A. What is the variable being measured? ____________________________

B. What units are used to express this variable? ________

3. Although none of the graphs shows a perfectly smooth curve, all of them show the same long term
pattern. Describe this pattern in 1-2 sentences.
36
 37

4. The numbers below show the monthly (numbered 1 through 12) readings for 2003 and 2004 at each
station. The last column is the annual average.

MLoa 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Avg

2003 374.7 375.6 376.1 377.6 378.4 378.1 376.6 374.5 373.0 373.0 374.4 375.7 375.6

2004 376.8 377.4 378.4 380.5 380.6 379.6 377.8 375.9 374.1 374.2 375.9 377.5 377.4

Barrow

2003 379.0 382.3 381.4 381.4 382.2 380.8 371.0 364.7 368.3 372.5 378.6 382.5 377.0

2004 382.6 383.2 382.2 383.8 383.5 380.5 371.8 366.5 367.9 373.5 379.2 382.3 378.1

S. Pole

2003 371.9 371.8 371.7 372.0 372.3 372.6 373.0 373.4 373.9 373.8 373.6 373.6 372.8

2004 373.6 373.4 373.8 373.9 374.1 374.5 374.8 375.4 375.5 375.6 375.5 375.2 374.6

Plot the 2004 results from all three stations on the same graph below. Connect the points for each site
with a smooth curve, and label each curve with the site name.
38
 39

Each of the three curves should clearly show a cycle known as a short-period oscillation.
You’d have gotten nearly identical curves if you’d graphed the 2003 data instead,
because the curves have 12-month periods (i.e., 12 months from peak to peak or from
trough to trough).

Our goal is to determine the cause of these short-period oscillations. Let’s analyze some
aspects of these three curves.

5. First, in what month are the maximum and minimum values recorded at each station?

6. What is the amplitude of the oscillation? In other words, what is the difference (in ppm
CO2)of the maximum and minimum value at each station?

Mauna Loa: _______ ppm Barrow: _______ ppm South Pole: _______ ppm

7. Interpret your results (in terms of the geographic locations of the three sites) to answer
the following questions.

A. Why do the oscillations occur?

B. Why do the oscillations peak when they do?

C. Why is the amplitude of the South Pole station so much smaller than that of the other
two?
 40

Now let’s look farther back in time at atmospheric CO2 levels. Though precise measurements only
began in 1958, scientists have been able to sample “fossil air” from the early 1900s and even the 1800s
in tightly sealed bottles of wine of known vintage, and in old brass buttons with sealed air gaps.

They have also been able to sample and date fossil air in ice layers. The Law Dome ice cores in
Antarctica sampled ice over a thousand years old (below).

The cores from Law Dome show that the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere was fairly constant from
1000 A.D. until about 1850, when it began to increase rapidly. Most atmospheric scientists attribute the
increase to the emissions of CO2 from the burning of fossil fuels, which accelerated dramatically in the
Industrial Revolution of the mid-1800s. However, others have suggested that
the increase is a natural phenomenon—one of Earth’s natural cycles that simply coincides with the
increased burning of fossil fuels.

In 1998, scientists drilled a 2-mile-deep ice core at Vostok, Antarctica that gives us the CO2 recordover
the last 400,000 years. [Note: 400 kyr = 400,000 yr; BP = before present.]
 41

The troughs on this graph correspond to Ice Ages, and the peaks correspond to the warmer interglacial
periods.

8. What was the highest concentration of atmospheric CO2 during any of these interglacial periods?
______ ppm

9. Using the top diagram on p. 2, estimate the current average concentration of atmospheric CO2 (use
Mauna Loa): ______ ppm

10. On the graph above, place a dot representing the modern CO2 value you estimated in #9 at age = 0.
The dot will lie above the graph. Connect this dot to the rest of the curve.

11. Over the last 30 years, the rate of increase of CO2 at Mauna Loa has been ~1.5 ppm/year. If this rate
continues, what will the level of CO2 be in 2030?
_____ ppm in 2050? _____ ppm

12. Compare the rate of CO2 increase in the last few hundred years with the rate of increase (or
decrease, for that matter) in the preceding 400,000 years.

Methane (CH4) is another effective greenhouse gas; in fact, it’s about 23 times more effective at
trapping heat than CO2 is. Fortunately, it’s much less abundant in the atmosphere (measured in parts per
billion instead of parts per million).

Unfortunately, atmospheric CH4 has increased by 250% since the late1700s (results from polar ice
cores):
 42

Methane forms when organic matter decays—which has been going on for billions of years. We need to
understand why it has increased so much in the last few centuries.

Scientists estimate that 3/4 of all methane currently emitted into the atmosphere comes from human
activities. Chief culprits are (1) decomposing landfills, (2) the processing of oil and gas, (3) “enteric
fermentation, mainly cattle,” and (4) agricultural activities like growing rice.

13. The CH4 curve shows a dramatic upswing at 1800 A.D. Applying what you know about human
history, discuss whether each of the four sources listed above is likely to have increased in the last 200
years. In other words, evaluate the proposal that the increase in CH4 is due to human activities. Identify
specific trends, activities, etc. that support your ideas.
 43

Lab 9 Ocean Acidification

Introduction
Over the last 200 years, the waters of the oceans have become more acidic—from an average pH of 8.2 to an average of 8.1.
If current trends continue, it is estimated that by the end of the century the oceans’ pH may average between 7.7 and 7.8.
This change may directly threaten the lives of many ocean organisms, and, through the food web, indirectly affect many
others, as well as land animals and people. What causes ocean acidification? How does it affect ocean organisms?

In some of the following laboratory activities, you will use Bogen universal indicator solution. This solution is added to a
colorless solution. If the color of the solution changes, then the pH has changed. Solutions with a pH of 4 or lower will be
red, while solutions with a pH greater than 10 will be violet. Between 4 and 10, the colors vary as shown below:
pH 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Color of Solution Red Orange Yellow Green Blue-Green Blue Violet

Colors of Bogen indicator in solutions of various pH

Pre-laboratory Procedures
Creating Artificial Seawater
Materials
Central materials station
Instant Ocean sea salt distilled or
deionized water spoons or scoops

For each student pair

1000-mL beaker
250-mL graduated cylinder
glass stirring rod weigh boat

Procedure
1. Use a balance to measure 25 g of Instant Ocean sea salt.
2. Pour 800 mL of distilled or deionized water into a 1000-mL beaker.
3. Add the sea salt to the water and stir with a stirring rod to dissolve it completely.
4. Set aside this solution for use in Activities 1 and 2. If you make the seawater a day or more ahead of use,cover the
solution with plastic wrap and store it as directed by your teacher.
 44

Apparatus for Producing Gases

Materials
For each student pair: plastic
test tube
2-hole rubber stopper
2 plastic pipets
10-mL syringe
airline tubing
ruler scissors

Procedure
1. From the top side of the stopper, poke a pipetinto one hole
and pull it through until approximately 2.5 cm of the pipet
protrudes out the bottom.
2. Cut the pipet to leave approximately 1.5 cmprotruding
from the top of the stopper. Discard the pipet bulb.

3. Poke a second pipet into the other hole, thistime

from the bottom of the stopper. Pull the pipet
through until approximately 2.5 cm protrudes from
the top.
4. Cut the pipet to leave approximately 1.5
cmprotruding from the bottom of the stopper.
Discard the pipet bulb.
5. Attach the tubing onto the thin end of the pipetat the top of the
stopper. If necessary to ensure a tight seal, push the pipet upward
into the tubing from the bottom. The seal must be tight, or the gases
will escape.
6. Seat the stopper securely in the mouth of a test tube.
7. Place the syringe on the larger pipet opening in the topof the stopper.
You will use this device to produce and collect gases.
8. To use the apparatus:
a. Remove the stopper.
b. Add Reactant 1 to the test tube.
c. Remove the syringe and draw up 5 mL of Reactant2 by placing
the tip of the syringe in the chemical and pulling back on the
plunger.
d. d. Replace the stopper and syringe.
Gas production apparatus
45
 46

Laboratory Procedures
Activity 1: Adding Gases to Ocean Water
Background
Earth’s atmosphere is composed of several gases. Ninety-nine percent of a dry atmosphere (without water vapor) is
composed of two gases, nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). Argon constitutes .9% of the atmosphere, and the remaining .1%
consists of trace gases, including carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Carbon dioxide is the most abundant trace gas, making up
0.0345% of the atmosphere. The percentage of the atmosphere made up of water vapor varies from 0 to 4%, depending on
weather, season, and geography.

In this activity you will explore the effects of four gases on the pH of simulated seawater. You will set up the following
chemical reactions to produce the gases:
KI
Equation: 2H2O2(aq) → O2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Description: Hydrogen peroxide decomposes in the presence of potassium iodide to form oxygen gas and water.

Equation: NaNO2(aq) + HSO3NH2(s) → N2(g) + NaHSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Description: Sodium nitrite reacts with sulfamic acid to produce nitrogen gas, sodium hydrogen sulfate, and water.

Equation: NaHCO3(s) + HCl (aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Description: Sodium hydrogen carbonate (sodium bicarbonate) reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce sodium chloride,
water, and carbon dioxide gas.

Equation: Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → H2(g) + MgCl2(aq)

Description: Magnesium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas and magnesium chloride.

Materials
Central materials station:
sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) sulfamic acid sodium
hydrochloric acid potassium iodide nitrite
hydrogen peroxide magnesium ribbon Bogen universal indicator
balance spoons or scoops
For each group:

5 plastic cups gas-production apparatus permanent marker

(created) simulated seawater stopwatch weigh
boats pipet ruler
100-mL graduated cylinder 10-mL graduated scissors
cylinder wash bottle of distilled or deionized
water glass stirring rod
 47

Procedure
1. Label four different plastic cups: nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
2. Label a fifth cup control.
3. To each of the five cups, add 4 drops of Bogen universal indicator.
4. To each, now add 70 mL of simulated seawater. Record the color of the seawater.
5. For each of the labeled cups, you will bubble the corresponding gas into the seawater for 1 minute, usingthe
gas-production apparatus that you made. Add the quantities of each chemical to the test tube and syringe
according to the following table. Do not begin the reaction yet.
Reactant 1 Reactant 2 Gas Produced
(placed in the test tube) (placed in the syringe)

1 g potassium iodide 5 mL of 3% hydrogen peroxide oxygen

0.5 g sulfamic acid 5 mL of 0.5 M sodium nitrite nitrogen

0.5 g sodium bicarbonate 5 mL of 1 M hydrochloric acid carbon dioxide

3 cm magnesium ribbon 5 mL of 1 M hydrochloric acid hydrogen

6. Place the end of the tubing into the water and press the plunger of the syringe down slowly. Ensure that the
solution does not bubble up into the tubing. If the reaction is vigorous, slow the rate at which you depress the
plunger. Note: The CO2-producing reaction tends to be especially vigorous.
7. Begin timing as soon as gas begins to be released in the solution, as shown by the bubbling at the end of the
tubing.
8. Monitor the reaction for 1 minute and then remove the tubing. Record the color of the solution in your data
table. Dispose of the chemicals according to your teacher’s instructions.
9. Rinse the apparatus with distilled or deionized water and repeat with a different set of chemicals, performing
four reactions in total.
10. After the activity, rinse your plastic cups and gas-production apparatus thoroughly with distilled deionized
water. They will be reused in later activities.
 Laboratory Questions
1. How did the gases affect the pH of the water?

2. Which gas is involved in ocean acidification? How do you know?

3. What are some natural and some anthropogenic sources of this gas?

Discussion Questions
1. The following table shows historic, current, and predicted future ocean pH values as well as approximate carbon
dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere.
Average Ocean pH Average CO2 (ppm)

Historic (1750) 8.16 280

Present (2010) 8.07 389.78

Future (2100) 7.67 650–970

a. Explain why the quantity of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been increasing since the industrial
revolution, which began in approximately 1750.

b. Explain how increased production of carbon dioxide lowers ocean pH.

c. Describe the effect of decreasing pH on marine organisms with shells or skeletons of calcium carbonate. How
might this change affect the marine food chain?
d. In addition to ocean acidification, describe another effect of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide.

e. Identify reasons for the predicted continuing increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide.

f. Explain why the prediction for 2100 shows a wide range of carbon dioxide levels.
 Lab 10 Acid Deposition
In this lab, you will measure the pH of unpolluted water and simulated acid rain and model the
effects of acid rain on human-made structures. You will also determine the buffering effects of
three types of bedrock (granite, basalt, and marble) and observe teacher demonstration tests of
the pH and alkalinity of water samples collected locally to determine their sensitivity to acid
deposition.

Background
Acid Deposition
Acid deposition consists of acidic (pH ≤ 5.0) substances or acid-forming substances that fall to
earth. These materials may be wet (e.g., rain, snow, and fog) or dry (e.g., particles of sulfate and
nitrate salts).
Despite significant reductions in air pollutant emissions, acid deposition remains a threat to
human-made structures, aquatic organisms, forests, and, indirectly, human health. Acid
deposition forms when gaseous sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides (nitrogen monoxide, nitrogen
dioxide, and dinitrogen monoxide) are released into the atmosphere. These gases react with
oxygen and water in the atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acids and sulfate and nitrate salts.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) → SO42–(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)
NO, NO2, N2O(g) + O2(g) + H2O(l) → HNO3(aq)
HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) → NO3–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Many natural events, such as volcanic eruptions, forest fires, hot springs, and natural geysers,
produce sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide gases. Human activity makes a significant
contribution. In fact, anthropogenic (human-made) input of sulfur into the atmosphere almost
equals that from natural events. For nitrogen oxides, anthropogenic imput does equal that from
natural events. The major sources of anthropogenic sulfur dioxide are coal-burning electric
utilities and industrial plants. The major sources of anthropogenic nitrogen oxides are coal-
burning electric utilities and motor vehicles.

The Hydrologic Cycle

As precipitation falls, carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere dissolves in the water and reacts
to form carbonic acid, H2CO3, a weak acid. For this reason, unpolluted rainwater is acidic, with
a pH value around 5.6.
CO2(g) + H2O(I) → H2CO3(aq)
When precipitation reaches the ground, it runs off into surface water (streams and lakes) or
infiltrates the soil. The water that infiltrates the soil percolates through permeable rock and into
groundwater. Both surface water and groundwater proceed toward the ocean. Water returns to
the atmosphere when surface water evaporates and plants transpire.

Areas Affected by Acid Deposition

The major sources of sulfur dioxide emitted in the United States are coal-burning electric
utilities (70%), whereas the major sources in Canada are industrial plants (60%). The gases
rise into the atmosphere and are carried east and northeast by prevailing westerly winds.
These winds can disperse the pollutants

hundreds of miles from their source. In fact, most of the acid deposition that affects the
northeastern U.S. and eastern Canada originates in the American Midwest. As these gases are
carried by the winds, they react to form sulfuric and nitric acids as well as sulfate and nitrate
particles. Acid deposition is a regional rather than global problem because of the limited force of
the wind currents. Even so, winds carry air pollutants over political borders and create tension
between neighboring countries. For example, tensions ran high in the late 1980s when it was
found that air pollutants originating in the U.S. were being blown into Canada.
Major areas affected by acid deposition include the northeastern section of the United States and
southeastern Canada. Acid deposition in these regions is intensified due to the large number of
factories and coal-fired power plants in the Midwest. Areas of central Europe and Scandinavia
also are affected by acid deposition due to directional winds carrying pollutants from British and
other European factories. Large parts of Asia, including India and China, are affected by acid
deposition due to their reliance on coalfired plants for energy and industrial production.

Effects of Acid Deposition

Acid deposition affects plants, human-made structures, surface water, aquatic species, and
human health. Acid deposition damages the leaves and bark of trees, impairing the plants’ ability
to photosynthesize and leaving them vulnerable to insects and disease. The acid removes the
leaves’ coating and burns them, leaving brown spots. Acid deposition leaches calcium and
magnesium from the soil, depriving already weakened trees of essential minerals. The acid’s
reaction with soil minerals releases toxic aluminum ions that can damage plant roots. Trees at
higher elevations are especially susceptible to acid damage, because cloud vapor can be 10 to
100 times more acidic than acid rain and can bathe trees in acid for days at a time. As water
evaporates from the acidic droplets on a plant, their acidity increases. Acid deposition erodes
some building materials and corrodes metals.
Many statues and buildings are made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the form of marble or
limestone.
Both marble and limestone react with acid deposition to form calcium sulfate, carbon dioxide,
and water.
CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Calcium sulfate binds soot and dust. Buildings and sculptures affected by acid deposition turn
black and must be cleaned in order to retain their intended appearance. In addition, calcium
sulfate dissolves readily in water. If the affected object is exposed to wet acid deposition or even
to pure water, it simply dissolves. The Parthenon, Taj Mahal, and Colosseum all show signs of
erosion. It is estimated that 20% of this type of erosion is due to acid deposition.
Perhaps the best-known effect of acid deposition is the acidification of surface water and the
resultant harm to aquatic species. As fish and amphibians develop, the eggs are particularly
sensitive to changes in pH. Although tolerance varies by species, a pH of 5 or lower generally
results in fish eggs’ not hatching. Suboptimal pH is not necessarily lethal, but often leads to
lower body weight and smaller size. The aluminum ions released from soil by acid deposition
may enter lakes and stimulate excessive mucus formation in fish. This mucus clogs gills and
asphyxiates many kinds of fish. A decline in pH-sensitive organisms disrupts an ecosystem and
seriously affects its food web.
Acid deposition affects factors other than pH of the water. The influx of nitrogen from nitric acid
deposition contributes to eutrophication. Symptoms of eutrophication include both toxic and
nontoxic algal blooms, declines in the health of fish and shellfish, and a decrease in dissolved
oxygen. Eutrophication brought about by anthropogenic sources such as acid rain can greatly
alter the biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency conducted a National Surface Water Survey to
identify lakes and streams suffering from chronic acidity and to determine the percentage
of these waters that were chronically acidic due to acid deposition. The survey revealed
that acid deposition is responsible for approximately 75% of acidified lakes and 50% of
acidified streams. The affected areas include the Adirondacks, mid-Appalachian highlands,
upper Midwest, and high-elevation West. In the northeastern U.S., where there is poor
buffering capacity, some lakes now have a pH lower than 5. Little Echo Pond in Franklin,
New York, is one of the most acidic lakes reported, with a pH of 4.2.

Acid deposition does not cause direct harm to people; however, the pollutants that cause acid
deposition directly affect human health. Lung cancer, asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema can be
caused and aggravated by air pollutants. For example, cases of respiratory ailments are 50%
higher in the most polluted parts of Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic than in cleaner
areas of those countries. Senior citizens, children, and people with weakened immune systems
are advised to stay inside during times of peak air pollution in many metropolitan cities.

How Is Acid Deposition Neutralized?

Surface waters and soils neutralize acid deposition in the same way they neutralize unpolluted
precipitation. In aquatic studies, this property is referred to as acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC)
or alkalinity and, in soil science, as buffering capacity. The major contributors to alkalinity in
surface water are hydrogen carbonates (HCO3–), carbonates (CO32–), and hydroxides (OH–) that
originate from minerals and rocks that the water encounters as it flows. Soils also affect ANC.
Soils that have a large buffering capacity, such as those derived from limestone bedrock, provide
lakes and streams with large ANC values. Soils with low buffering capacity, such as soils
derived from inert bedrock (granite) and thin soils (common at high elevations), afford
waterways with small ANC values. For example, approximately 500 of the streams in the mid-
Atlantic coastal plains are acidic primarily due to acid deposition. This is partially because
granite is the primary bedrock in those locations, allowing for little or no buffering of the acid
precipitation that falls there. In the New Jersey Pine Barrens, over 90% of the streams are acidic,
the highest proportion of acidified streams in the nation. More than 1,350 of the streams in the
mid-Atlantic highlands are acidic, primarily due to acidic deposition. These low pH levels are
often too acidic to support aquatic animals such as trout, bass, salamanders, crayfish, snails, and
mayflies. The environmental impact quickly rises to higher trophic levels. For example, the
Common Loon relies on fish as its main food and seldom breeds on acidic lakes (pH <5.5).
Surface waters in the high-elevation West, such as the Cascades, Sierra Nevadas, and Rocky
Mountains, also have low ANC. Ironically, the Midwest, where major air polluters are located, is
well equipped to neutralize acid deposition because its soils are derived from limestone bedrock
and have a large buffering capacity. The following are some of the common neutralization
reactions:
2HCO3–(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + SO42–(aq)
CO32–(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l) +
SO42–(aq) 2OH–(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → 2H2O(l) +
SO42–(aq)
Alkalinity is measured in either μeq/L or ppm CaCO3 (see Notes 2, 3, and 4 at the end of this
Background). In both units of measure, the greater the number, the greater the bedrock and
soil’s ability to neutralize the water’s acidity. Use the following relation to interconvert ppm
CaCO3 and μeq/L.
X ppm CaCO3 = 20X μeq/L
Water with ANC ≤0 μeq/L is acidic by definition. Water with ANC ≤50 μeq/L may experience
episodic acidification that results from snowmelt or heavy rainfall. Water with ANC ≤200 μeq/L
is sensitive to acid deposition. For example, approximately 70% of sensitive lakes in the
Adirondacks are at risk of episodic acidification. In the mid-Appalachians, approximately 30%
of sensitive streams are likely to become acidic during an episode. Episodic acidification can
cause fish kills and other ecological disruptions

Solutions
Title IV of the Clean Air Act Amendments, enacted in 1990, regulates emissions of sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxide compounds. The EPA established the Allowance Trading System in
1995. This program allocates permits called allowances to regulated companies. One allowance
is for the emission of 1 ton of sulfur dioxide per year. A company’s yearly allowances may be
used in the year allocated or saved for future use. Companies can even buy, sell, or trade
allowances. Nitrogen oxides are regulated with a rate-based regulatory system. This sets a limit
on the pounds of nitrogen oxides per million British thermal units (lb/ mmBtu) emitted by every
power plant’s stacks.
One method in which coal-fired power plants can reduce their emissions of sulfur dioxide is
through burning coal that contains less sulfur. Low-sulfur coal is 0–1% sulfur, whereas high-
sulfur coal is 2–4% sulfur. Sulfur dioxide emissions can be reduced through the installation of
wet scrubbers. Though costly to install at existing power plants, scrubbers can remove 80–95%
of emitted sulfur dioxides. Another method, fluidized bed combustion, creates an environment
in which combustion occurs at a lower temperature and flue gases come into contact with
sulfur-absorbing materials such as limestone that capture the sulfur oxides. The lower
temperatures also reduce the formation of nitrogen oxides. This process reduces emissions of
sulfur oxides by approximately 90% and nitrogen oxides by 15–35%.

Notes
1. Winds are often named for the direction from which they flow; for example, the prevailing
westerlies blow from west to east.
2. One equivalent (eq) of a substance is the quantity in moles of that substance that neutralizes
one mole of hydrogen ions, H+. For example, only one-half mole of CaCO3 is required to
neutralize one mole of hydrogen ions, because one mole of calcium carbonate neutralizes two
 moles of hydrogen ions. CO32–(aq) + 2H+(aq) → H2CO3(aq) The calcium ion does not react
with the hydrogen ion. One equivalent of calcium carbonate equals one-half mole of calcium
carbonate.
3. Parts per million (ppm) refers to the number of parts of a substance per million parts of
another substance. For example, 1.8 mg of calcium carbonate in 1.0 × 106 mg of water is 1.8
ppm. Because the density of water is 1.0 g/mL, the mass of 1 L of water is 1,000 g or 1.0 ×
106 mg. Therefore, 1.8 ppm calcium carbonate is 1.8 mg calcium carbonate per liter of water.
4. The results of alkalinity tests are recorded as ppm CaCO3. Although water may contain
chemicals other than calcium carbonate, the identity of these chemicals is unimportant; the
test results are treated as if the water contained only calcium carbonate. In this way, the test
results are standardized and may be compared directly and easily. Calcium carbonate serves as
the reference because it is ubiquitous in natural waters.

Pre-laboratory Questions
1. What is acid deposition?

2. What gases react with oxygen and water in the atmosphere to form acid deposition? What are
the acids in acid deposition?

3. What natural events produce these gases? What human events produce them?

4. A solution saturated with carbon dioxide at 25°C has a pH of 3.8. Why does unpolluted rain
not have this pH? What may happen to the pH of unpolluted rain if carbon dioxide levels in
the atmosphere continue to increase?
 Activity 1: Determining the pH of Unpolluted Rain
Materials
2 glass
test tubes
straw
pipet
bromthym
ol blue tap
water test
tube rack
graduated
cylinder
waste container for bromthymol blue waste

Procedure
1. Pipet 5 mL of tap water into the first test tube.

2. Add 1 drop of bromthymol blue, and determine if the pH of the water is acidic or basic.
Bromthymol blue is blue at or above pH 7.6 and yellow at or below pH 6.
3. Record your observations in your lab notebook.
4. Pipet 5 mL of tap water into the second test tube. Exhale gently through a straw into the water
for 30 seconds.
5. Add 1 drop of bromthymol blue, and determine whether the pH of the water is acidic or basic.
6. Record your observations in your lab notebook.
7. Dispose of the bromthymol blue waste in the designated waste container.
8. Rinse the test tubes with clean water, dry them, and return them to the Activity 1 materials
station.

Activity 2: Modeling Acid Rain

Materials
glass test
tube test
tube rack
ring stand with clamps (or test
tube tongs) bromthymol blue
match
waste container for used matches
Procedure
1. Start with a dry test tube. If necessary, shake out any water in the test tube before proceeding.
2. Place 3 drops of bromthymol blue in the test tube.
3. Tilt and rotate the test tube so that the liquid coats the inner surface of the test tube.
4. Invert the test tube and clamp it to a ring stand. Alternatively, hold it with test tube tongs.
5. Determine whether the pH of the bromthymol blue drops indicates an acid or a base.

6. Record your observations in your lab notebook.

7. Light a match and immediately hold the flame beneath the inverted test tube, allowing the
smoke to rise into the tube. Hold the match for a few seconds only, and immediately
extinguish the flame if it has not gone out already.
8. Place used matches in the match disposal container.
9. Observe the liquid drops inside the tube. Determine whether the pH of the bromthymol blue
indicates an acid or a base.
10. Record your observations in your lab notebook.
11. Rinse the test tube with water, dry it, and return it to the Activity 2 materials station.

Activity 3: Effects of Acid Rain on Human-Made Structures

Materials
half piece of
chalk piece of
mossy zinc
mortar and
pestle
50 mL of 0.05 M sulfuric acid labeled “Concentrated Acid Rain”
2 beakers
graduated
cylinder
waste
container

Procedure
1. Using a mortar and pestle, crush half of a piece of chalk into small pieces. The chalk should
be crushed, not finely ground or powdered.
2. Place the chalk in a small beaker.
3. Place the mossy zinc in the other small beaker.
4. Using the graduated cylinder, measure and pour 25 mL of the Concentrated Acid Rain into
each of the beakers.
5. Observe and compare the reactions of the samples for 5 minutes.
6. Record your observations in your lab notebook.
7. After 5 minutes, dispose of the sulfuric acid into the designated waste container and throw
away any unused chalk.
8. Thoroughly rinse the mossy zinc and the small beakers, and return these materials to the
Activity 3 materials station.

Activity 4: Effect of Soil and Bedrock on Acid Rain

Materials
3 test tubes 8–10 small marble chips
3 columns 8–10 basalt chips
3 plastic vials 8–10 granite chips
test tube rack clay sample
pH test strip vial sand sample
cheesecloth (cut into 9 6-cm square pieces) humus sample
scissors 30 mL of “Acid Rain”
pipet metric ruler
3 rubber bands permanent marking pen
6 twist ties small spoons or scoops
Procedure
Part 1: Soil
1. Prepare three different soil columns. You will place a different type of soil
(clay, sand, or humus) in each.
a. Cut the cheesecloth into nine small pieces, each approximately 6 cm ×
6 cm.
 b. Cover the bottom of each column with three layers of cheesecloth. This will prevent the
soil samples from falling out.
c. Use a rubber band to attach the cheesecloth securely to one end of each column, as
shown in the illustration. Cut away any excess cheesecloth so you can clearly see the
interior of the column.
d. Attach 2 twist ties about 3 cm from the top of each column; wrap and twist them as
shown in the illustration.
e. Use a marker to label one tube “clay,” one tube “sand,” and one tube “humus.”
f. Add 3 cm of the appropriate soil type into each labeled tube. Allow enough room for the
“Acid Rain” to be poured in at the top of the column.
2. After all three columns are ready, use a twist tie to suspend each column in a different vial.
3. Pipet 5 mL of “Acid Rain” into each soil column.
4. Let the soil columns drain while you complete Part 2 of this activity.
5. When instructed, use a pH test strip to determine the pH of the drainage from each column.
6. Dispose of the drainage (waste sulfuric acid) in the waste container provided.

Part 2: Bedrock
1. Label three test tubes with the names of three different types of bedrock, “marble,” basalt,”
and granite,” respectively.
2. Place 8 to 10 bedrock chips of the appropriate type into each labeled test tube.
3. Pipet 3 mL of “Acid Rain” into each test tube.
4. Gently mix the contents of each test tube by swirling each tube for 30 seconds.
5. Use a pH test strip to measure the pH of each solution.
6. In your lab notebook, record the pH of the “Acid Rain” after it was exposed to each type of
bedrock.
7. Dispose of the contents (waste sulfuric acid) in the waste container provided.
8. Rinse the test tubes with clean water, dry them, and return them to the materials station.
9. Return to Part 1 to test the drainage from the clay, sand, and humus soil columns.

Mapping Activity
Based on the information you have gathered during the laboratory activities on the effects of
acid deposition and bedrock types on surface waters, complete the following mapping activity.
1. Using the Bedrock map and the Precipitation pH map, predict the areas in which acid
deposition would have the greatest effect on surface water.
2. Indicate on the blank map of the U.S. and Canada the areas where acid deposition would
likely have the most effect on surface water. Create a key to indicate differing levels of
surface water pH, and use the key as a guideline for shading the map.

Laboratory Questions
1. In Activity 1, how did breathing into the tap water cause the solution to become acidic? What
does exhaling into the water simulate from the environment? Write the chemical equation that
explains the acidity of unpolluted rain.

2. In Activity 2, what gas does the burning match release? How does this simulate pollution that
occurs in the environment? Why did the pH of the indicator solution change as the match
burned? Write the chemical equations (3) that describe how this gas produces wet and dry
acid deposition.
3. In Activity 3, chalk and zinc simulate manmade structures. Explain the effects of acid rain on calcium
carbonate and metal structures. Relate this to your observations.

4. Using the data collected in Activity 4, rank the abilities of the different bedrocks to neutralize
acid, from worst to best. What would you expect the pH of surface water in areas containing
limestone bedrock to be, compared with areas

5. On the basis of your maps, in which regions would you expect acid deposition to acidify surface
waters the most?

6. What is the major anthropogenic source of sulfur-containing gas in the United States? What is
the major anthropogenic source of sulfur-containing gas in Canada? What are the two major
anthropogenic sources of nitrogen-containing gases in the United States? What is the major
anthropogenic source of these gases in Canada?
Bedrock
Precipitation pH

Data not available

4.2
4.4
4.6
4.8
≥5.0
 64

Lab 11 Mining
During this activity, you and the other members of your group will act together as a mining company.
Your objective is to locate deposits of cuprite, a copper ore, and extract the ore from your wax
landform. Once extracted, the ore must be refined into pure copper and sold at market value. Your
company has a startup budget of $5000 for research and exploration costs. Your mining operation
must make more money than is spent during the process. Your teacher will provide you with a
Topographic Map of the mining area, which shows 12 locations where riverbed sediment samples
were taken.
Use the Topographic Map to locate areas where you would like to get sediment sample readings. Each
reading costs $500. Each sample, provided by your teacher, will return a reading of “low,” medium,”
or high.” The higher the concentration of copper, the closer the sediment sample is to one or more
significant ore deposits. Keep your results a “trade secret” from other groups, and track your expenses
on your Budget Sheet.
After your group has discovered an area (or areas) that might contain cuprite, you can invest in one or
more core samples. Each core sample costs $1000. Use the borer to take a core sample from the wax
terrain mountain that you think contains cuprite. If cuprite is present, your core sample will contain
blue clay. The thicker the band of clay, the thicker the deposit of copper ore. You also might be able to
determine the depth of the deposit below the earth.
How to use the borer: At the location you wish to test, with the plunger removed, slowly push
the borer tube straight downward into the wax terrain feature until it reaches the bottom of the
cast, and then carefully withdraw the borer. Use the plunger to slowly push the core sample out
of the borer tube.

Track your expenses on your Budget Sheet. If you have not spent your entire $5000 budget, the
remainder can be added to your profits at the end of the mining project. If the exploration goes over
budget, the additional costs must be subtracted before calculating any profits. Keep your Budget Sheet
for use in the Extend activity.
65
 66

What is a Mineral?
A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic compound or element that has a characteristic chemical
composition, physical properties, and an orderly internal structure. Gold, silver, and lead are examples
of minerals that can occur in an elemental form. Mineral compounds include phosphates, quartz, and
iron ore. A compound is a combination of elements.
Ores are rocks or minerals with components that are economically valuable enough to extract from the
earth. Ore minerals are, or contain, the valuable components of ores. For example, bauxite contains
aluminum, cuprite contains copper, and acathite contains silver. Most elements mined from the earth’s
crust are found in the form of ores, which are then refined to separate them from the unwanted
material.
There are two basic types of minerals: metallic and nonmetallic.
Metals conduct electricity and tend to be shiny and opaque.Nonmetallic minerals have either a shiny or
dull look, and are often somewhat translucent. They tend to be better insulators.
Although coal is not a mineral, coal mining significantly affects the environment and it involves many
of the same techniques as mining for minerals. For these reasons, coal is discussed, along with
minerals, in the following passages.
Finding Mineral Deposits
Mining companies spend a great deal of money to prospect for commercially viable mineral deposits.
Money that is well spent brings large returns. To identify possible mining sites, companies analyze
sediment deposits of rivers and lakes, test rock samples, or use high-tech instruments that will detect
patterns of density, magnetism, or radioactivity in the earth’s crust. Once an area has indicated a high
concentration of the mineral, core samples are taken to identify the size and the depth of the deposit. A
cost analysis determines the quality and quantity of the ore mineral versus the cost of mining and
separating it.

Depending on the depth, quantity, and general location of the deposit, several different mining
techniques can be used. If the ore is found at a depth greater than 50 meters, a subsurface mine might
be designed. One example of a subsurface mine is called a room-andpillar mine. In these mines, a large
room is created as ore is extracted, but a pillar of ore is left to support the roof. One problem with this
method is that it leaves behind the valuable components of the pillar. Another subsurface mine is called
a longwall mine. A longwall tunnel connects a ventilation shaft and a freight shaft. In the longwall,
supports hold up the roof as ore is mined and then conveyed to the freight shaft. The supports are
raised as more ore is mined and the longwall tunnel gets larger. Coal and soft minerals such as salt are
chopped off in chunks by a rotating shearer in the longwall, while hard ores are blasted.

If the mineral is closer to the surface, a surface mining operation might be conducted. The miners
simply remove all the earth and rocks on top of the mineral, called overburden, and dig out the ore.
The result is a large pit or hole in the ground. Open-pit mining removes the mineral by layers, as the
hole is cut deeper into the earth’s crust. This process usually relies on explosives to loosen the rock and
then heavy machinery to remove and sort the material.
 67

Once the mineral is extracted using one of the mining methods, it is usually separated and refined in
one of several ways. One way is by smelting. As an ore mineral is melted, impurities bind to an added
material called flux, while the desired mineral sinks to the bottom and is recovered. This process uses
tremendous amounts of energy and, often, dangerous chemicals. Disposal of the waste material
presents a problem.

Every mining process has advantages and disadvantages. All the practices have some negative impact
on the environment. These impacts are usually localized but may have lasting effects. With a growing
world population and heavier demand for certain minerals, mining increases globally every year.

Pollution is a significant concern with any mining operation. Surface mining creates dust in the air as
the minerals are extracted and the overburden is moved and dumped. Mining operations are also noisy,
with heavy machinery and explosive blasts used to loosen rock. Sometimes, nearby groundwater is
affected and, occasionally, homes’ and buildings’ foundations are damaged by the underground shock
waves.

Erosion and sedimentation are other problems with mines. Exposed soils often end up in local rivers
and lakes, choking the plants and

animals found there. Water seeps into subsurface mines, where it can dissolve toxic substances. Some
mines, such as many coal mines, contain sulfur. When sulfur is exposed to water and oxygen, it creates
sulfuric acid. When the water exits the mine and flows into a stream, the stream becomes acidic and
toxic to aquatic life. This environmental problem is called acid mine drainage.

Other problems with mines include the collapse of underground shafts or even fires, in the case of coal
mines. These fires can last decades or even centuries, contributing to air pollution. Mining also
displaces wildlife and destroys habitat. In some cases, an area that has been mined may be virtually
lifeless for many years before soil begins to develop and pioneer species initiate a new cycle of
ecological succession.

There are no easy solutions to the problems of mining. Many states and the federal government have
laws and regulations to minimize the environmental impacts from mining. Unfortunately, many
developing countries do not have the same restrictions as the United States now has. Any company
wishing to establish a mine in the U.S. must go through a lengthy permitting process and adhere to all
laws, including the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act.

Today, billions of dollars are being spent on reclamation of land that has been mined. In 1977, the
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act established a protocol for mining. This act helps mitigate
mining’s effects on the land and water. Much of the current reclamation effort focuses on cleaning up
old mine areas that were established and abandoned long before the regulations were in place. Land
reclamation is a long, expensive process.
 68

1. What are two methods commonly used to prospect for minerals?

2. Describe the difference between surface mining and subsurface mining.

3. What are the advantages and the disadvantages of surface mining and subsurface mining?

Mining Operation
1. Once your group has located a mineral deposit, decide the best way to remove the ore.

a. Consider the location of the mine. Mines closer to streams have a greater impact on the
environment. You cannot mine near a river or a lake.

b. On the basis of the landscape and the depth of the ore, decide whether a surface or a
subsurface mining operation is better. Remember that land reclamation costs for surface
mining are greater than for subsurface mining.

i. Every 0.1 g of overburden (wax) removed by surface mining costs $100.

 69

ii. Every 0.1 g of overburden (wax) removed by subsurface mining costs $150.

2. Carry out your mining operation.

a. Label one weigh boat “ore” and a second weigh boat “overburden.” Then, mass each boat
and record the two values, in grams, in your lab notebook.

b. Remove the overburden (wax) and extract the ore (the blueclay). Place the overburden and
ore in the appropriately labeled weigh boats.

c. After you have recovered all the ore in the mine, weigh each
of the boats again. Subtract the initial mass of each boat from the total to obtain the mass of
overburden and the mass of ore extracted in grams (g).

3. Use the Budget Sheet to record the amount of overburden

removed and calculate the cost of mining the ore.

Refining and Reclamation

1. Refine the cuprite ore into pure copper metal. This process requires a lot of energy and sometimes
uses harsh chemicals.
Refining the ore you extracted costs $500 per 1.0 g. On your Budget Sheet, calculate the total
cost of refining all the ore you mined.

2. Once refined, the amount of pure metal obtained from the ore is about 10% of the mass of the ore.
So, for every 1.0 g of ore,
you will get 0.1 g of refined metal. The current market value for the refined metal is $5000 per
0.1 g. On your Budget Sheet, calculate the total amount of copper in grams, and the sale price of
the copper you extracted from the ore.

3. Calculate the profit your group made on the entire operation. From the total value of the metal
recovered, subtract the mining costs, refining costs, and amount you spent on research and
exploration. The additional cost of land reclamation must also be subtracted from the profits. If
your group created a surface mine, subtract $2500 from the profits; if you chose a subsurface
mine, subtract $1500. (If the mining was done close to streams or sensitive habitats, this value
may be higher.)

4. Discuss the mining operation with your group.

a. Was your team’s mine profitable?

b. What might you have done to make it more profitable?

 70

c. What are some ways to reduce the environmental impact of your mine?