SOCRATES (470-399 BCE)

 Father of Western Philosophy

 3 sons and 3 known students(Aristophanes, Plato, Xenophon)
 He wrote nothing
 Reason for imprisonment(false God)

 the only true wisdom is to know that you know nothing
 Body and soul are two different entities
 The soul is superior over the body
 The soul is immortal and the body is not

PLATO
 Born in 427 BCE into an Athenian family
 His real name is Aristocles
 The name Plato started as a nickname “Platos”, meaning broad given by his wrestling teacher
because of his physique
 He is a prolific writer
 His philosophy was greatly influenced by the political situation of his time
 Discovered the behavior of the Thirty Aristocrats who were cruel, self-centered and greedy
 Believed that “The average people in the community lack wisdom and self-restraint because they
make emotional responses rather than an rational considerations that should have been rooted
from a objective view of what is good for the society”

The Body
 Plato believed that the body existed only in the physical world (World of Appearances)
and only concerned with the material world, and through which we are able to experience the
world we live in. He also consider this as mortal and when it dies, it is truly dead.
The Soul
 The human soul is not just a part of the person. It is the whole of the human person. By
nature, the human person is soul only. There was a time when the soul pre-existed in the world
of forms. After the fall of man, the soul was exiled to the material world, and thus, imprisoned in
the body. This idea of the pre-existence of the human soul was not actually original of Plato. It
was propounded earlier by Phythagoras and Empedocles.
 The human soul is composed of three distinct faculties, which comprise the three levels
of knowledge and desire. These three levels are. 1. Sensation 2. Opinion 3. Mind or intellect

The Body and the Soul

 Plato's concept of the body and the soul offered a major insight on the relationship
between the body and soul of man. And his idea of the separation of soul and human
body established the concept of dualism and this idea was appreciated in later
philosophical and religious writers, especially early Christian writers.
St. Augustine
St. Augustine of Hippo (November 13 354 – August 28 430 AD)
 He was a Roman African, early Christian theologian and Neoplatonic Philosopher from Numidia
whose writings influenced the development of the Western Church and Western Philosophy,
and indirectly all of Western Christianity. St. Augustine of Hippo (November 13 354 – August 28
430 AD)
 He was a Roman African, early Christian theologian and Neoplatonic Philosopher from Numidia
whose writings influenced the development of the Western Church and Western Philosophy,
and indirectly all of Western Christianity.
 He was the bishop of Hippo Regius in North Africa and is viewed as one of the most important
church fathers of the Latin Church for his writings in the Patristic Period.
 ‘The City of God’, ‘De Doctrina Christiana’, and ‘Confessions.

 He believed that the soul and the body make up a human.

 He asserted that the soul is immortal because it possesses truth, because the soul is capable of
grasping scientific truth, and because truth is immortal, the soul too is immortal.
 He defines what constitutes a man to be a whole man.
 An individual human person is an essential body and soul composite. The soul apart from the
body and body apart from the soul cannot be recognize as the whole man.
 The man has to have both the body and soul together as unity.
 For him, the souls are created but immaterial substance simultaneously that bears the image of
God.
 He believed that the soul is immortal but he did not believed that when the body died the soul
hops from other body.

Rene Descartes

 Born on March 31, 1596 and died February 11, 1650 because of pneumonia.
 Father of Modern Philosophy
 French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist
 Cogito Ergo Sum “I think; therefore I am.”
 Physical Body
 Mortal, non thinking entity
 Descartes’ definition of body is extended in occupying space. It is source of Newton’s
definition, but without mass and Newton’s definition was the source of what was later
defined as “matter”, in contrast with “energy”.
 Thinking self (Soul)
 Immortal and conscious being
 Descartes attributes soul only to humans, as the source of self-animation.
 He believed that animals were God made machines, and so they were not really self-
animated.

 Soul and body are independent to one another.

JOHN LOCKE

1632-1704

 Born on august 29, 1632 in wrington, somerset , england

 HE WAS A BRITISH PHILOSOPHER, OXFORD ACADEMIC AND MEDICAL RESEARCHER

 ONE OF THE ,MOST INFLUENTIAL PEOPLE OF THE 17TH CENTURY

 Hailed as the “Father of liberal philosophy

 Died on october 28, 1704 in High laver, essex at the age of 72

 Personal identity is a matter of psychological continuity

 Consciousness and memory

 Memory as the source of the enduring self

 The Prince an the Cobbler

 Locke raised an important problem for physical continuity theory by distinguishing the man and
the person

 Locke developed this distinction by using the example of the prince and the cobbler.

 He imagines a prince and a cobbler who have had a complete exchange of personalities or a
transfer of souls.

 Would the prince continue to be the same person if he suddenly had the mind of someone else?

“For since consciousness always accompanies thinking, and it is that, that makes everyone to be,
what he calls ‘self’; and thereby distinguishes himself from all other thinking things, in this alone
consists personal identity…as far as this consciousness can be extended backwards to any past
action or thought so far reaches the identity of that person”

DAVID HUME

 Born: May 7, 1711 (Edinburgh, Scotland)

Died: August 25, 1776 (Edinburgh)
 Youngest son of Joseph Hume and Catherine Falconer
 Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist known especially for his
philosophical empiricism and skepticism.
 “Humans are creatures more of sensitive and practical sentiment than of reason. “
 Tried to describe how the mind works.
  He concluded that no theory of reality is possible; there can be no knowledge of
anything beyond experience.
 The Existence of Souls and Resurrection
Immortality of the Soul. In his essay, “Of the Immortality of the Soul,” Hume presents
many pithy and brief arguments against considerations of an afterlife. He offers them
under three broad headings, metaphysical, moral, and physical.

Metaphysical
• the soul is immaterial, and that it is impossible for thought to belong to a material substance.
• Matter, therefore, and spirit, are at bottom equally unknown, and we cannot determine what
qualities inhere in the one or in the other.
• The Soul therefore if immortal, existed before our birth; and if the former existence no ways
concerned us, neither will the latter. -- Animals undoubtedly feel, think, love, hate, will, and
even reason, tho' in a more imperfect manner than men; are their souls also immaterial and
immortal?
Moral
• If the reason of man gives him great superiority above other animals, his necessities are
proportionably multiplied upon him; his whole time, his whole capacity, activity, courage, and
passion, find sufficient employment in fencing against the miseries of his present condition, and
frequently, nay almost always are too slender for the business assigned them.
• The one sex has an equal task to perform as the other; their powers of reason and resolution
ought also to have been equal, and both of them infinitely greater than at present.
• Death alone was the punishment of those whose who denied their guilt, however fully proved.
Physical
• Sleep, a very small effect on the body, is attended with a temporary extinction, at least a great
confusion in the soul.
• The existence therefore of the one must be dependant on that of the other.
• The souls of animals are allowed to be mortal; and these bear so near a resemblance to the
souls of men, that the analogy from one to the other forms a very strong argument.

GILBERT RYLE

• Gilbert Ryle was born on 19 August 1900 in Brighton, England, one of ten children in a
prosperous family.

• He was educated at Brighton College and, in 1919, he went to Queen's College, Oxford,
initially to study Classics, although he was soon drawn to Philosophy.

• A capable linguist, Ryle was recruited to intelligence work with the Welsh Guards during
World War II, and rose to the rank of Major by the end of the War. He returned to Oxford in
 1945 where he was elected Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical
Philosophy and Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.

• He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1945 to 1946, and editor of the
philosophical journal "Mind" for nearly twenty-five years from 1947 to 1971.

• A confirmed bachelor, he lived after his retirement in 1968 with his twin sister, Mary, in the
village of Islip, Oxfordshire.

• Ryle died on 6 October 1976 at Whitby in North Yorkshire, after a day's walking on the moors.

• In his writing, Ryle had a literary and instantly recognizable style. He is mainly known for his
book, "The Concept of Mind" (1949), but he also wrote a collection of shorter pieces
called "Dilemmas" (1954), as well as "Plato's Progress" (1966) and "On Thinking" (1979). "The
Concept of Mind" in particular was recognized on its appearance as an important contribution
to philosophical psychology and Philosophy of Mind, and an important work in the Ordinary
Language Philosophy movement.

• In his "The Concept of Mind" of 1949, Ryle attacked the body-mind Dualism (the ghost in the
machine).

Ryle believed that the classical theories (whether Cartesian, Idealist or Materialist) made a
basic "category-mistake" by attempting to analyze the relation between "mind" and "body"
as if they were terms of the same logical category.

He argued that philosophers do not need a "hidden" principle to explain the supra-
mechanical capacities of humans, because the workings of the mind are not distinct from the
actions of the body, but are one and the same.

 In Ryles words:

“Human bodies are in space and are subject to the mechanical laws which govern all
other bodies in space and are accessible to external observers. But minds are not in space,
their operations are not subject to mechanical laws, and the processes of the mind are not
accessible to other people—it’s career is private. Only I am able to perceive and experience
the states and processes of my own mind”

 From his perspective, the self is best understood as a pattern of behavior,

the tendency or disposition for a person to behave in a certain way in certain
circumstances.
 Ryle believes that the mind is a concept that expresses the entire system of thoughts,
emotions, actions, and so on that make up the human self.
PAUL CHURCHLAND

 DUALISM

- the idea that the mind and body are separate.

Paul Churchland said, “I don’t think so!”

• MATERIALISM

- belief that nothing but matter exists.

 ELIMINATIVE MATERIALISM

- The mind is the brain and “folk psychology” that we currently used to think about one self
and mind will replace

Paul Churchland’s statements proving dualism is fake:

1. The mind’s process is dependent of the brain’s process.

2. The brain is not just a meditative tool.

3. The brain affects the mind.

4. Activities in the mind are just brain processes.

5. Therefore substance duality is fake.

MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY

- Born on March 14, 1908 in Rochefart, France

- Died on May 1961 in Paris, France

- He was an educator, philosopher, political scientist, academic

author, editor, and journalist

- He lost his father in WW1 and served infantry in WW2

- Elected chair of Philosophy in 1952 until his death

- Began teaching in high school philosophy in 1930

“The body is our general medium for having a world.”

  His primary concern was the clarificarion of the relationship between consciousness
and the world.
 He perceived things as intertwined to each other and he was an anti-cartesian.
 He continuously opposed the philosophy of Rene Descartes.

The Body and The Soul

 The fusion of the body and soul is an a priori unity.

o a priori knowledge or justification is indepent of experience (for example, “All
bachelors are unmarried”).
 Describes that the body and soul flow into each other to become aligned. Then interpreted
the notion as a Gestalt.
o Gestalt theory emphasizes that the whole of anything is greater than its parts.

The Body as Body-subject

 The body is already soul-like and its not like any other objects in the world. Our bodies cannot
leave us.
 The living body already is the soul actuating itself in matter, pertaing to a man's body as not
just the body but the whole man.
 Man is an incarnate spirit and the body is the conditions for his relations to the world.

The Fusion of Body and Soul

 Human are not machines steered by souls. Soul are given to as subjects of sensation and
perception.
 The body is not an instrument of the soul, and that the soul does not just occupy one part
of the body but is throughout the body.
 The sensing soul is not hidden away in the body but intermingled and confounded with it.

Sigmund Freud

FATHER OF PSYCHOANALYSIS

• Austrian Neurologist

• Born on May 6, 1856, in Freiberg, Moravia.

• He had two half-brothers, Emmanuel and Philipp. His mother was the same age as them.

• After his fathers death he had mixed feelings of love and admirations while having very
different thoughts of shame and hate.

• Studied a new promising

drug, cocaine.
Contributions

• The Conscious, Pre-conscious and Unconscious Mind

• The Id, Ego, and Superego

• Life and Death Instincts

• Psychosexual Development

• Defence Mechanisms

• Therapy Chair

LEVEL OF MENTAL LIFE

1. UNCONSCIOUS

Contains all the feeling, urges or instinct that are beyond our awareness but it affect our
expression, feeling, action

2. PRECONSCIOUS

Facts stored in a part of the brain, which are not conscious but are available for possible use in
the future

3. CONSCIOUS

Only level of mental life that are directly available to us The awareness of our own mental
process

THREE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY

 The Id operates largely according to the pleasure principal where by its tow main goals are the
seeking of pleasure and the avoidance of pain.
 The Ego is a where of reality and operates the reality principal, it recognizes what is real and
the behaviors have consciences and it controls higher mental process of reasoning and
problem solving
 The Superego contains our are values and social morals. They come from the rules of right and
wrong from our childhood that our parents taught us.

 Life Instincts (Eros)

Instincts that deal with basic survival, pleasure, and reproduction

 Death Intincts

(Thanatos)

Unconscious desire to Die

Defence Mechanism

Psychosexual Stages
 Therapy Chair

•Client must be a voluntary client, not involuntary

•This is because the client will have to give commitment in the process

•After a few face-to-face session, therapist will move on to the next stage where the client are
needed to lie on a couch and engage in ‘free association’

• It’s an intensive process where client will meet up 4-5 sessions per week

Freud's other Big Ideas

• Ambivalence- love and admiration mixed with very contrasting feelings of shame and hate

• Oedipus complex- wishing ones real father was dead, because he is a rival for ones mother's
affections.

• Today, Sigmund Freud remain as the most recognizable name in psychology

• Contribute to a whole school of thought which is psychoanalysis

• Although many of Freud's ideas are abstracted and seem very strange, most of his ideas and
theories are still used to determine the human psyche
• The bases of modern psychology is based on his theories which make his ideas still very
relevant today.