Physics 195

Course Notes
Second Quantization
030304 F. Porter

1 Introduction
This note is an introduction to the topic of “second quantization”, and hence
to quantum “field theory”. In the Electromagnetic Interactions note, we have
already been exposed to these ideas in our quantization of the electromagnetic
field in terms of photons. We develop the concepts more generally here, for
both bosons and fermions. One of the uses of this new formalism is that it
provides a powerful structure for dealing with the symmetries of the states
and operators for systems with many identical particles.

2 Creation and Annihilation Operators

We begin with the idea that emerged in our quantization of the electro-
magnetic field, and introduce operators that add or remove particles from a
system, similar to the changing of excitation quanta of a harmonic oscillator.
To follow an explicit example, suppose that we have a potential well,
V (x), with single particle eigenstates φ0 (x), φ1 (x), . . . Suppose we have an
n (identical) boson system, where all n bosons are in the lowest, φ0 , level.
Denote this state by |n. We assume that |n is normalized: n|n = 1. Since
the particles are bosons, we can have n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., where |0 is the state
with no particles (referred to as the “vacuum”).
Now define “annihilation” (or “destruction”) operators according to:
√
b0 |n = n|n − 1 (1)
†
√
b0 |n = n + 1|n + 1. (2)
Note that these operators subtract or add a particle to the system, in the state
φ0 . They have been defined so that their algebraic properties are identical
to the raising/owering operators of the harmonic oscillator. For example,
consider the commutator:
[b0 , b†0 ]|n = (b0 b†0 − b†0 b0 )|n (3)
= [(n + 1) − (n)] |n (4)
= |n. (5)
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Thus [b0 , b†0 ] = 1. With these operators, we may write the n-particle state in
terms of the vacuum state by:

(b†0 )n
|n = √ |0. (6)
n!

As in the case of the harmonic oscillator, b†0 is the hermitian

√ conjugate
†
of b0 . To see this, consider the following: We have b0 |n = n + 1|n + 1.
Thus, √
n + 1|b†0 |n = n + 1, (7)
√
and hence, n + 1|b†0 = n + 1n|, or
√
n|b†0 = nn − 1|. (8)

Likewise, b0 acts as a creation operator when acting to the left:

√
n|b0 = n + 1n + 1|. (9)

We may write the n-particle state in terms of the vacuum state by:

(b†0 )n
|n = √ |0. (10)
n!

Finally, we have the “number of particles” operator: B0 ≡ b†0 b0 , with

B0 |n = n|n. (11)

Now suppose that the particles are fermions, and define fermion annihi-
lation and creation operators:

f0 |1 = |0, f0 |0 = 0; (12)

f0† |1 = 0, †
f0 |0 = |1. (13)

In the |0, |1 basis, these operators are the 2 × 2 matrices:



0 1 0 0
f0 = , f0† = . (14)
0 0 1 0
With this explicit representation, we see that they are hermitian conjugate
to each other. By construction, we cannot put two fermions in the same state
with these operators.

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 The algebraic properties of the fermion operators are different from those
of the boson operators. The commutator, in the |0, |1 basis, is


1 0
[f0 , f0† ] = = I. (15)
0 −1
Consider the anticommutator:

{f0 , f0†}|1 = (f0 f0† + f0† f0 )|1 = |1, (16)

{f0 , f0†}|0 = |0 (17)

That is, {f0 , f0† } = 1. Also,

{f0 , f0 } = 0, (18)
{f0† , f0† } = 0. (19)

The number of particles operator is F0 = f0† f0 .

Now return to bosons, and consider two levels, φ0 and φ1 . Let |n0 , n1  be
the state with n0 bosons in φ0 and n1 bosons in φ1 . As before, define,
√
b0 |n0 , n1  = n0 |n0 − 1, n1  (20)
† √
b0 |n0 , n1  = n0 + 1|n0 + 1, n1 , (21)

and also,
√
b1 |n0 , n1  = n1 |n0 , n1 − 1 (22)
† √
b1 |n0 , n1  = n1 + 1|n0 , n1 + 1. (23)

In addition to the earlier commutation relations, we have that the anni-

hilation and creation operators for different levels commute with each other:

[b0 , b1 ] = 0; [b†0 , b1 ] = 0 (24)

 
b0 , b†1 = 0; [b†0 , b†1 ] =0 (25)

We can construct an arbitrary state from the vacuum by:

(b† )n0 (b†1 )n1

|n0 , n1  = √0 √ |0, 0 (26)
n0 ! n1 !
The total number operator is now

B = B0 + B1 = b†0 b0 + b†1 b1 , (27)

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so that
B|n0 , n1  = (n0 + n1 )|n0 , n1 . (28)
In the case of fermions, we now have four possible states: |0, 0, |1, 0, |0, 1,
and |1, 1. We define:

f0† |0, 0 = |1, 0; f0† |1, 0 = 0, (29)

f0 |1, 0 = |0, 0; f0 |0, 0 = 0, (30)
f0 |0, 1 = 0; f0† |1, 1 = 0, (31)
f1† |0, 0 = |0, 1; f1 |0, 0 = f1 |1, 0 = 0, (32)
f1† |1, 0 = |1, 1; f1 |0, 1 = |0, 0, (33)
f1† |0, 1 = f1† |1, 1 = 0; f1 |1, 1 = |1, 0. (34)

But we must be careful in writing down the remaining actions, of f0 , f0† on

the states with n1 = 1. These actions are constrained by consistency with
the exclusion principle. We must get a sign change if we interchange the
two fermions in a state. Thus, consider using the f and f † operators to
“interchange” the two fermions in the |1, 1 state: First, take the fermion
away from φ1 ,
|1, 1 → |1, 0 = f1 |1, 1. (35)
Then “move” the other fermion from φ0 to φ1 ,

|1, 0 → |0, 1 = f1† f0 |1, 0. (36)

Finally, restore the other one to φ0 ,

|0, 1 → f0† |0, 1 = f0† f1† f0 f1 |1, 1 (37)

We require the result to be a sign change, i.e.,

f0† |0, 1 = −|1, 1. (38)

Since f0 is the hermitian conjugate of f0† , we also have f0 |1, 1 = −|0, 1.
We therefore have the anticommutation relations:

{f0 , f0† } = {f1 , f1† } = 1. (39)

All other anticommutators are zero, including {f0 , f1 } = {f0 , f1† } = 0, fol-
lowing from the antisymmetry of fermion states under interchange.

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 We may generalize these results to spaces with an arbitrary number of
single particle states. Thus, let |n0 , n1 , . . . be a vector in such a space. For
the case of bosons, we have, in general:

[bi , b†j ] = δij , (40)

[bi , bj ] = [b†i , b†j ] = 0, (41)
(b†1 )n1 (b†0 )n0
|n0 , n1 , . . . = · · · √ √ |0, (42)
n1 ! n0 !
where |0 represents the vacuum state, with all ni = 0. Note that these
are the same as the photon annihilation and creation operators † , Â,
 that
we defined in the Electromagnetic Interactions note, except for the 2π/ω
factor.
For the fermion case, we have the generalization:

{fi , fj† } = δij , (43)

{fi , fj } = {fi† , fj† } = 0, (44)
|n0 , n1 , . . . = · · · (f1† )n1 (f0† )n0 |0. (45)

The number operators are similar in both cases:

  †
B = Bi = bi bi , (46)
i
  †
F = Fi = fi fi , (47)
i

and [Bi , Bj ] = [Fi , Fj ] = 0.

3 Field Operators
Consider now plane wave states in a box (rectangular volume V , sides Li , i =
1, 2, 3), with periodic boundary conditions:

eik·x
φk (x) = √ , (48)
V

where ki = 2πnj /Li , nj = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .. The creation operator a†ks (a is

either b or f , for bosons or fermions, respectively), adds a particle with

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momentum k and spin projection s; the annilation operator aks removes
one. Note that φk (x) is the amplitude at x to find a particle added by a†ks .
Now consider the operator:
 e−ik·x †
ψs† (x) ≡ √ aks . (49)
k V

This operator adds a particle in a superpositon of momentum states with

−ik·x
amplitude e √V , so that the amplitude for finding the particle at x added by

√ √
ψs† (x) is a coherent sum of amplitudes eik·x / V , with coefficients e−ik·x / V .
That is, the amplitude at x is

 e−ik·x eik·x
√ √ = δ (3) (x − x ) (50)
k V V

[by Fourier series expansion of δ (3) (x − x ):

1  ik·x  3  −ik·x
g(x ) = e d (x )e g(x ), (51)
V k V

with g(x ) = δ (3) (x − x )].

The operator ψs† (x) thus adds a particle at x – it creates a particle at
point x (with spin projection s). Likewise, the operator

 eik·x
ψs (x) ≡ √ aks (52)
k V

removes a particle at x. The operators ψs† (x) and ψs (x) are called “field op-
erators”. They have commutation relations following from the commutation
relations for the a and a† operators:

ψs (x)ψs (x ) ± ψs (x )ψs (x) = 0 (53)

ψs† (x)ψs† (x ) ± ψs† (x )ψs† (x) = 0, (54)

where the upper sign is for fermions, and the lower sign is for bosons. For
bosons, adding (or removing) a particle at x commutes with adding one at
x . For fermions, adding (or removing) a particle at x anticommutes with

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adding one at x . Also,
  
 eik·x eik ·x {fks , fk† s }
ψs (x)ψs† (x ) ± ψs† (x )ψs (x) = (55)
k,k
V [bks , b†k s ]
 
 eik·x eik ·x
= δkk δss (56)
k,k
V

 eik·(x−x
= δss (57)
k V
= δ(x − x )δss . (58)

Thus, adding particles commutes (bosons) or anticommutes (fermions) with

removing them, unless it is at the same point and spin projection. If it is
at the same point (and spin projection) we may consider the case with no
particle originally there – the ψ † ψ term gives zero, but the ψψ † term does
not, since it creates a particle which it then removes.
If we suppress the spin indices, we construct a state with n particles at
x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn by:
1
|x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn  = √ ψ † (xn ) . . . ψ † (x1 )|0. (59)
n!
Note that such states form a useful basis for systems of many identical par-
ticles, since, by the commutation relations of the ψ † ’s, they have the desired
symmetry under interchanges of xi ’s.1 For example, for fermions,

ψ † (x2 )ψ † (x1 ) = −ψ † (x1 )ψ † (x2 ) (60)

gives
|x2 , x1 , x3 , . . . , xn  = −|x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn . (61)
Note also that we can add another particle, and automatically maintain the
desired symmetry:
√
ψ † (x)|x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn  = n + 1|x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn , x. (62)
1
These Hilbert spaces of multiple, variable numbers of particles, are known as Fock
spaces.

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 Now let us evaluate:
1
ψ(x)|x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn  = √ ψ(x)ψ † (xn ) . . . ψ † (x1 )|0
n!
1  (3) 
= √ δ (x − xn ) ± ψ † (xn )ψ(x) ψ † (xn−1 ) . . . ψ † (x1 )|0
n!
1  (3)
= √ δ (x − xn )|x1 , x2 , . . . , xn−1 
n!
±δ (3) (x − xn−1 )|x1 , x2 , . . . , xn−2 , xn 
+...+ 
(±)n−1 δ (3) (x − x1 )|x2 , x2 , . . . , xn  , (63)
where the upper sign is for bosons and the lower for fermions. This quantity
is non-zero if and only if x = xj (and the corresponding suppressed spin
projections are also the same). If this is the case, the n − 1 particle state
which remains after performing the operation has the correct symmetry.
Note that
1  † †
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn | = √ ψ (xn )ψ † (xn−1 ) . . . ψ † (x1 )|0
n!
1
= 0|ψ(x1 ) . . . ψ(xn ) √ . (64)
n!
Thus, by iterating the above repeated commutation process we calculate:

x1 , x2 , . . . , xn |x1 , x2 , . . . , xn  = δnn (±)P P [δ(x1 − x1 )δ(x2 − x2 ) . . . δ(xn − xn )] ,
P
(65)

where P is a sum over all permutations, P , of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn and the (−)P
factor for fermions inserts a minus sign for odd permutations.
Suppose we wish to create an n particle state φ(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) which has
the desired symmetry, even if φ itself does not. The desired state is:

|Φ = d3 (x1 ) . . . d3 (xn )φ(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )|x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . (66)

We can calculate the amplitude for observing the particles at x1 , x2 , . . . , xn

by:

x1 , x2 , . . . , xn |Φ = d3 (x1 ) . . . d3 (xn )φ(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )x1 , x2 , . . . , xn |x1 , x2 , . . . , xn 
1 
= (±)P P φ(x1, x2 , . . . , xn ). (67)
n! P

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That is, x1 , x2 , . . . , xn |Φ is properly symmetrized. If φ is already properly

symmetrized, then all n! terms in P are equal and x1 , x2 , . . . , xn |Φ =
φ(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ). If φ is normalized to one, and symmetrized, we have:

Φ|Φ = d3 (x1 ) . . . d3 (xn )φ∗ (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )x1 , x2 , . . . , xn |

d3 (x1 ) . . . d3 (xn )φ(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )|x1 , x2 , . . . , xn 
 
= d3 (x1 ) . . . d3 (xn ) d3 (x1 ) . . . d3 (xn )
1 
φ∗ (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )φ(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) (±)P P [δ(x1 − x1 )δ(x2 − x2 ) . . . δ(xn − xn )]
n! P

= d3 (x1 ) . . . d3 (xn )|φ(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )|2 (68)
= 1. (69)

We may write the state |Φ in terms of an expansion in the amplitudes

x1 , x2 , . . . , xn |Φ for observing the particles at x1 , x2 , . . . , xn :

|Φ = d3 (x1 ) . . . d3 (xn )|x1 , x2 , . . . , xn x1 , x2 , . . . , xn |Φ. (70)

That is, we have the identity operator on symmetrized n particle states:


In = d3 (x1 ) . . . d3 (xn )|x1 , x2 , . . . , xn x1 , x2 , . . . , xn |. (71)

If |Φ is an n particle state, then

In |Φ = δnn |Φ. (72)

Summing the n particle identity operators gives the identity on the sym-

metrized states of any number of particles: I = ∞n=0 In , where I0 = |00|.

4 Exercises
1. Consider a two-level fermion system. With respect to basis |0, 0, |0, 1, |1, 0, |1, 1,
construct the explisict 4 × 4 matrices representing the creation and an-
nihilation operators f0 , f1 , f0† , f1† . Check that the desired anticommu-
tation relations are satisfied. Form the explicit matrix representation
of the total number operator.

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2. You showed in Exercise 1 of the Electromagnetic Interactions course
note that under a gauge transformation:

A(x, t) → A (x, t) = A(x, t) + ∇χ(x, t) (73)

Φ(x, t) → Φ (x, t) = Φ(x, t) − ∂t χ(x, t), (74)

that the wave function (the solution to the Schrödinger equation) has
the corresponding transformation:

ψ  (x, t) = eiqχ(x,t) ψ(x, t). (75)

Generalize this result to the case of an N particle system.

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