Power+Electronics+for+Technology+By+Ashfaq+Ahmed+ 1 PDF

To my wonderful parents Basheer and Farhath,
my loving wife Nadira, an d my beautiful children
Saba, Asad, and Fahad

Contents
1 Power Electronics 1
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 What Is Power Electronics? 2
1.3 Why Power Electronics? 3
1.4 Power Semiconductor Switches 6
1.5 Power Losses in Real Switches 7
1.6 Types of Power Electronics Circuits 13
1.7 Applications of Power Electronics 15
1.8 Problems 15
1.9 Equations 17
2 Power Diodes 18
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 The PN Junction Diode 19
2.3 The Voltage-Current Characteristic of a Diode 19
2.4 The Ideal Diode 20
2.5 The Schottky Diode 21
2.6 Diode Circuit Analysis 22
2.7 Diode Losses 25
2.8 Principal Ratings for Diodes 27
2.9 Diode Protection 28
2.10 Testing a Diode 29
2.11 Series and Parallel Operation of Diodes 29
2.12 Problems 35
2.13 Equations 37
3 Power Transistors 38
3.1 Introduction 39
- 3.2 Power Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) 40
3.3 Power Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistors (MOSFETs) 52
vii
viii Contents
3.4 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) 62

3.5 Unijunction Transistors (UJT) 65
3.6 Problems 70
3.7 Equations 71
4 Thyristor Devices 73
m-----------
4.1 Introduction 74
4.2 The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) 74
4.3 SCR Characteristic Curves 76
4.4 Testing SCRS 78
4.5 SCR'Ratings 79
4.6 Junction Temperature Rating 90
4.7 Increasing SCR Ratings 90
4.8 Series and Parallel SCR Connections 91
4.9 Power Loss 97
4.10 SCR Protection 99 •
4.11 Gate Circuit Protection 100
4.12 SCR Gate-Triggering Circuits 101
4.13 Triggering SCRs in Series and in Parallel 106
4.14 SCR Turn-Off (Commutation) Circuits 107
4.15 Other Types of Thyristors 111
4.16 Problems 119
4.17 Equations 120
5 Single-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers 122

IB
5.1 Introduction 123
5.2 The Haif-Wave Rectifier (One-Pulse Circuit) 123
5.3 Full-Wave Center-Tapped Transformer Rectifier (Two-Pulse
Rectifier) 132 ,
5.4 The Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier 140 , :
5.5 Problems 147
5.6 Equations 148
Contents ix
6 Single-Phase Controlled Rectifiers 150

■--------
6.2 Half-Wave Controlled Rectifiers 151
6.3 Full-Wave Controlled Center-Tap Rectifiers 158
6.4 Full-Wave Controlled Bridge Rectifiers 166
6.5 Half-Controlled or Semi-Controlled Bridge
Rectifiers 175
6.6 Dual Converters 180
6.7 Problems 181
6.8 Equations 186
m
mr'm
7 Three-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers 188
m ... —
7.2 Three-Phase Half-Wave (Three-Pulse) Rectifiers 189
7.3 Three-Phase Pull-Wave (Six-Pulse) Bridge Rectifiers 198
7.4 Twelve-Pulse Rectifier Circuits 210
7.5 Problems 213
7.6 Equations 214
8 Thre6-Phase Controlled Rectifiers 216

■ .........
8.1 Introduction 217 «
8.2 Half-Wave (Three-Pulse) Controlled
Rectifiers 217
8.3 Full-Wave (Six-Pulse) Controlled Bridge
Rectifier 230
8.4 Full-Wave Half-Controlled Bridge Rectifiers with FWD 254
8.5 Twelve-Pulse Bridge Converters 26Q
8.6 Problems 262
8.7 Equations 265
x Contents
9 DC Choppers 268
S3------
9.2 The Principles of Basic DC Choppers 269
9.3 Step-Down (Buck) Choppers 273
9.4 Step-Up (Boost) Choppers 284
9.5 Buck-Boost Choppers 295
9.6 Problems 300
9.7 Equations 302
10 Inverters 304
m........
10.2 The Basic Inverter 305
10.3 Voltage Source Inverters (VSI) 307
10.4 Inverter Voltage Control Techniques 318
10.5 Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) 321
10.6 Pulse-Width Modulated (PWM) Inverters 324
10.7 Other Basic Types of Single-Phase Inverters 328
10.8 The Basic Principle of the Three-Phase Bridge VSI
Inverter 329
10.9 The Ideal Current Source Inverter (CSI) 347
10.10 Problems 350
10.11 Equations 351
11 AC Voltage Controller 353

11.2 AC Power Control 354
11.3 Integral Cycle Control 357
11.4 ACPhaseControl 359
11.5 Three-Phase AC Phase Control 369
11.6 Half-Controlled AC Voltage Controllers 387
11.7 Cycloconverters 394
11.8 Problems 405
11.9 Equations 408
Contents xi
12 Static Switches 410

12.2 Comparison of Static and Mechanical Switches 411
12.3 Static AC Switches 412
12.4 Three-Phase Static Switches 416
12.5 Hybrid Switches 419
12.6 The Solid State Relay (SSR) 419
12.7 Static Tap-Changing Control 420
12.8 The Static VAR Controller (SVC) 421
?
12.9 Problems 423
' 12.10 Equations 424
index 425
Preface
This book introduces the subject of power electronics, that is, the switching
control and conversion of electrical power using semiconductor devices. The
increasing demand for efficient conversion and control of electrical power has
made this area of electrical engineering extremely important and has resulted in
the development of new power devices, circuits, and control schemes that con
tinue to extend power electronics technology to new areas of application.
The main objective of this book is to present an easily understood expla
nation of the principles of power electronics to satisfy the needs of two- and
four-year programs in electrical engineering technology (EET). The book is pri
marily intended to be used as a text in an introductory course about semicon
ductor switches and their applications to power control. Its scope extends from
the fundamental principles and concepts to the general applications of power
electronics.
Chapter 1 gives an introduction and an overview of power electronics.
Chapters 2, 3, and 4 are devoted to introducing the major power semiconduc
tor devices and their behavior and voltage-current characteristics. Chapters 5 to
12 introduce the reader to the analysis and operation of various power conver
sion circuits—AC/DC, DC/DC, DC/AC, and AC/AC—that have applications at
high power levels. The topics covered focus on the application of power elec
tronics devices in rectifiers, inverters, AC voltage controllers, cycloconverters,
and DC choppers. Emphasis is placed on circuit topology -and function. Voltage
and current waveform analyses of the outputs begin wjith simple resistive loads
and continue to more practical inductive loads. The equations that govern the
behavior of these circuits are formulated to provide the fundamentals for ana
lyzing power electronics circuits.
The text assumes that the students have a good understanding of basic
mathematics as well as a basic background in circuit theory and solid-state elec
tronics fundamentals. The material presented here has been developed from
class notes for a power electronics course taught by the author in the Electrical
Engineering Technology Department at Purdue University-Calumet, Hammond,
Indiana. The text is considered appropriate for a one-semester junior-level
course.
PREFACE xiii
■----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- :— :----------------------------------
Features
■ The book includes many worked examples to illustrate concepts intro

duced in the text. These examples also form the basis for several prob
lems at the end of each chapter for student practice.
■ Because the book is primarily intended for students in a technology
program, emphasis is placed on applications.
■ This textbook should fill the gap between books written for engineer
ing students and books written at the technician level.
■ Material is presented methodically by giving the background theory
before moving on to specific applications.
■ Only a basic knowledge oF mathematics is required. The mathematical
rigor has intentionally been limited to ensure that the student learning
the subject for the first time does not find the information made
ambiguous by complex theory.
■ A generous quantity of illustrations provides most important information
in diagram form.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank Prentice Hall editor, Charles Stewart, and his assis
tant, Kim Yehle, for their assistance, patience, and flexibility during the progress
of this text. I would like to thank the following reviewers for their invaluable
feedback: Venkata Anandu, Southwest Texas State University; Shamala Chicka-
menahalli, Wayne State University; Mohammad Dabbas, ITT Technical Insti-
tute-Florida; and Alexander E. Emanuel, Worcester Polytechnic Institute. The
author’s deepest appreciation goes to his wife, Nadira, for her support, under
standing, and encouragement during the many hours of work involved in the
successful completion of this project.
Asbfaq Ahmed, P.E.
Munster, Indiana
Power Electronics
Chapter Outline
1.1 Introduction 1.5 Power Losses in Real Switches

1.2 What Is Power Electronics? 1.5.1 Conduction Loss
1.5.2 Switching Loss
1.3 Why Power Electronics?
1.3.1 A Rheostat as a Control 1.6 Types of Power Electronics Circuits
Device 1.7 Applications of Power Electronics
1.3.2 A Switch as a Control 1.8 Problems
Device
1.9 Equations
1.4 Power Semiconductor Switches
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, the student should be able to

■ define the term power electronics determine power loss in real switches
■ list the advantages of using a switch to list the various types of power electronic
control electric power circuits
■ list the various types of power list typical applications of power
semiconductor devices electronics
1
2 CHAPTER 1 Power Electronics
gg--------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------- .-----------------------------------:-------------------------------------------------
1.1 Introduction
Applications of solid-state electronics in the electrical power field are steadily

increasing, and a course in power electronics is now a common feature of many
electrical engineering technology curricula. The term pow er electronics Was been
used since the 1960s, after the introduction of the silicon controlled rectifier
(SCR) by General Electric. Power electronics has shown rapid growth in recent
years with the development of power semiconductor devices that can switch
large currents efficiently at high voltages. Since these devices offer high relia
bility and small size, power electronics has expanded its range and scope to
such applications as lighting and heating control, regulated power supplies,
variable-speed DC and AC motor drives, static VAR compensation, and high-
voltage DC transmission systems.
■---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.2 What Is Power Electronics?

The broad field of electrical engineering can be divided into three major areas—
electric power, electronics, and control. Power electronics deals with the appli
cation of power semiconductor devices, such as thyristors and transistors, for the
conversion and control of electrical energy at high power levels, This conver
sion is usually from AC to DC or vice versa, while the parameters controlled are
voltage, current, or frequency. For example, simple rectification from AC to DC
is power conversion, but if voltage level adjustment is applied to rectification,
both conversion and control of electrical power are involved. Therefore, power
electronics can be considered to be an interdisciplinary technology involving
three basic fields, power, electronics, and control, as shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1
Power electronics: a combination
of power, electronics and control
This book will cover the use of power semiconductor devices in applica
tions such as rectification, inversion, frequency conversion, DC and AC drives,
and power supplies. In power electronics, devices such as diodes, transistors,
thyristors, and triacs are used mainly as switches to perform the on-off action
that is basic to power electronics circuits.
1.3 Why Power Electronics?
Transfer of electrical power from a source to a load can be controlled either by

varying the supply voltage (by using a variable transformer) or by inserting a
regulator (such as a rheostat, variable reactor or switch). Semiconductor devices
used as switches have the advantage of being relatively small, inexpensive,
and efficient, and they can be used to control power automatically. An addi
tional advantage of using a switch as a control element (compared to using
adjustable resistance provided by rheostat or potentiometer) is shown in the
following section.
1.3.1 A Rheostat as a Control Device

Figure 1.2 shows a rheostat controlling a load. When Rx is set at zero resistance,
fbll power is delivered to the load. When is set for maximum resistance, the
power delivered is close to zero. For maximum power transfer to the load, /?,
must equal RL. Under this condition, the rheostat consumes as much power as
the load—the efficiency of conversion is only 50%. Moreover, the rheostat must
be physically larger than the load to dissipate additional heat.
Figure 1.2
A rheostat controlling a load
In applications where the power to be controlled is large, the efficiency of

conversion is important. Poor efficiency means large losses, an economic con
sideration, and it also generates heat that must be removed from the system to
prevent overheating.
CHAPTER 1 Power Electronics
Example 1.1 A DC source of 100 V is supplying a 10-Q resistive load. Find the power deliv
ered to the load (PL), the power loss in the rheostat (PR), the total power sup
plied by the source (F t), and the efficiency 11, if the rheostat is set at:
a) 0 Q
b) 10 £2
c) ioo n
Solution a) voltage across the load VL = 100 V
power supplied to the load PL = 1002/10 = 1 KW
power dissipated in the rheostat PR = 0 W
power supplied by the source PT = Ph + PR = 1 KW
efficiency T, = A . ioo = 100%

•Pr
b) voltage across the load VL = 10 * 100/20 = 50 V
power supplied to the load pL = 502/10 = 250 W
power dissipated in the rheostat PR = 250 W
power supplied by the source PT = PL + PR = 500 W
efficiency * 100 50%
c) voltage across the load Vh = 10 * 100/110 = 9 v

power supplied to the load PL = 92/10 = 8.1 W
power dissipated in the rheostat Pr = 91 * 19/100 = 82.8 W
power supplied by the source PT = PL + PR = 90.9 W
efficiency Pi.
T] = 100 = 8.9%
It is clear from this example that the efficiency of power transfer from the
source to the load is very poor—note that it is only 50% in case (b).
1.3.2 A Switch as a Control Device

In Figure 1.3, a switch is used to control the load. When the switch is on, max
imum power is delivered to the load. The power loss in the switch is zero since
it has no voltage across it. When the switch is off, no power is delivered to the
load. Again, the switch has no power loss since there is no current through it.
The efficiency is 100% because the switch does not waste power in either of its
two positions.
The problem with this method is that unlike a rheostat, a switch cannot
be set at intermediate positions to vary the power. However, we can create the
same effect by periodically turning the switch on and off. Transistors and SCRs
used as switches can be automatically turned on and off hundreds of times a
second. If we need more power, the electronic switch is set on for longer peri
ods and off for shorter periods. When less power is needed, it is set off
longer.
Figure 1.3
A switch controlling a load
Example 1.2 A DC source of 100 V is supplying a 10-0 resistive load through a switch. Find
the power supplied to the load (PL), the power loss in the switch (Ps), and the
total power supplied by the source (PT), if the switch is:
a) closed
b) open
c) closed 50% of the time
d) closed 20% of the time
Solution a) With the switch closed,
voltage across the load VL = 100 V
power delivered to the load PL = 1002/10 = 1 KW
power loss in the switch Ps = 0 W
power supplied by the source PT = 1 KW
With the switch open,
voltage across the load VL = 0 V
power delivered to the load 0 w
power loss in the switch P$ = 0 w
power supplied by the source PT = 0 w
With the switch closed 50% of the time (see Figure 1•4),
average voltage across the load ^L = 50 V
average power delivered to the load • Pi = 502/10 == 250 W
power supplied by the source PT = 250 W
With the switch closed 20% of the time,
average voltage across the load vL= 20 V
average power delivered to the load Pt = 202/10 == 40 W
power supplied by the source PT = 40 W
Figure 1-4 Voltage

See Example 1.2
100 V
Time
2T 3T
As this example shows, all the power supplied by the source is delivered to the
load. The efficiency of power transfer is 100%. Of course, in this example the
switch is assumed to be ideal, but when we use a transistor as a switch, the
result is very close to ideal circuit operation.
11 -...—------------ .................. , ............................ ........................ ............... ....
1.4 Power Semiconductor Switches
Power semiconductor switches are the most important elements in a power

electronics circuit. The major types of semiconductor devices used as switches
in power electronics circuits are:
diodes
bipolar junction transistors (BJD
metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFET)
insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBT)
silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR)
triacs
gate-turnoff thyristors (GTO)
MOS-controlled thyristors (MCT)
In power electronics, these devices are operated in the switching mode. These
switches can be made to operate at high frequencies to convert and control
electrical power with high efficiency and high resolution. The power loss in the
switch itself is very small since either the voltage is nearly zero when the switch
is on or the current is nearly zero when the switch is off.
We will treat these switches as ideal (the limitations of an actual switch are
covered in the next section). An ideal switch satisfies the following conditions:
1. It turns on or turns off in zero time.

2. When the switch is on, the voltage drop across it is zero.
3. When the switch is off, the current through it is zero.
4. It dissipates zero power.
In addition, the following conditions are desirable:
5. When on, it can carry a large current.

6 . When off, it can withstand high voltage.
7. It uses little power to control its operation.
8 . It is highly reliable.
9. It is small in size and weight.
10. It is low in cost.
11. It needs no maintenance.
1.5 Power Losses in Real Switches
An ideal switch is shown in Figure 1.5. The power loss generated in the switch
is the product of the current through the switch and the voltage across the
switch. When the switch is off, there is no current through it (although there is
a voltage Vs across it), and therefore there is no power dissipation. When the
switch is on, it has a current (^//?L) through it, but there is no voltage drop
across it, so again there is no power loss. We also assume that for an ideal
switch the rise and fall time of the current is zero. That is, the ideal switch
changes from the off state to the on state (and vice versa) instantaneously. The
power loss during switching is therefore zero.
Figure 1.5 /=o i

Power losses in an ideal
switch
Unlike an ideal switch, an actual switch, such as a bipolar junction tran

sistor, has two major sources of power loss: conduction loss and switching loss.
1.5.1 Conduction Loss

When the transistor in Figure 1.6(a), is off, it carries a leakage current (/LEak)-
The power loss associated with leakage current is PQFP = Vs * 4eak- However,
since the leakage current is quite small and does not vary significantly with volt
age, it is usually neglected and thus the transistor power loss is essentially zero.
When the transistor is on, as in Figure 1.6(b), it has a small voltage drop across
it. This voltage is called the saturation voltage cecsat))- The transistor’s power
dissipation or conduction loss due to the saturation voltage is:
•Pon = Vcecsad * k 1*1

where
j _ Vs~ V c e ( $ a t ) — Vs , 1 2
C *L
Equation 1.1 gives the power loss due to conduction if the switch remains on
indefinitely. However, to control the power for a given application, the switch
is turned on and off in a periodic manner. Therefore, to find the average powei
loss we must consider the duty cycle:
1.3
Similarly,
n _ \r * f * ÔFF 1.4
/ OFF(avg) - ■'S ''LEAK j
Here, the duty cycle d is defined as the percentage of the cycle in which the
switch is on:
*on___ _ kM
ton + Adff T
+ +
(a) Transistor off (b) Transistor on
Figure 1.6
Power losses in a transistor switch
1.5.2 Switching Loss

In addition to the conduction loss, a real switch has switching losses because it
cannot change from the on state to the off state (or vice versa) instantaneously.
A real switch takes a finite time ^swcon) to,turn on and a finite time /swcoff) to
turn off. These times not only introduce power dissipation but also limit the
highest switching frequency possible. The transition times fsW(on> and ?Swcoff)
for real switches are usually not equal, with %W(on) generally being larger. How
ever, in this discussion we will assume that /swcon) is equal to S wcoff)- Figure
1.7 shows switching waveforms for (a) the voltage across the switch and (b) the
current through it. When the switch is off, the voltage across it is equal to the
source voltage. During turn-on, which takes a finite time, the voltage across the
switch decreases to zero. During the same time, the current through the switch
increases from zero to Ic . The transistor has a current through it and a voltage
across it during the switching time; therefore, it has a power loss.
Figure 1.7
Waveforms during switching operation: (a) voltage across the switch; (b) current
through the switch; (c) power dissipated in the switch
To find the power dissipated in a transistor during the switching interval,

we multiply the instantaneous value of Ic and the corresponding value of VCB.
The instantaneous power curve is shown in Figure 1.7(c). The energy dissipated
in the switch is equal to the area under the power waveform. Note that the
maximum power is dissipated when both the^current and the voltage are pass
ing through their midpoint values. Therefore, the maximum power loss when
switching from the off state to the on state is:
■fswON(max) —O'5 ^CE(max) 0.5 max)

It is interesting to note that the power curve looks essentially like $ rectified
sine wave. The average value of this waveform is
-Psw ON(avg)= 0 . 6 3 7 * P 5W ON(max)

= 0 .6 3 7 * 0 . 5 FcECmax) * 0 .5 W )
— 0 . 1 6 7 ^CE(max) -^C(max)
or
^SW ON(avg)“ ^ Ê(m ax) -^C(max) *7
T h e e n e r g y l o s s ( p o w e r * t i m e ) d u r in g t u r n - o n w ill b e P sw 0 N(avg) * %wcon)
^ SW ON = ^CE(max) * -fccmax) * %W(ON) (jQ U les) 1 .8
A s im ila r a n a ly s is g i v e s t h e e n e r g y l o s s d u r in g t u r n o f f a s
^SW OFF = "jT VcFXmax) * ^C(max) * %W(OFF) ( jo u l e s ) 1 .9
T h e t o t a l e n e r g y l o s s in o n e c y c l e d u e t o s w it c h in g is g i v e n b y
1
Wsw = ON + ^ SW OFF + ^CE(max) * -fc(max) * [%W(ON) + ^SW(OFF)]
T h e a v e r a g e p o w e r d is s i p a t i o n in t h e s w it c h w ill b e
i 3sw = - “ = W W */
1
•Psw = ^CE(max) * -fc(max) * [^SW(ON> + *SW(OFF)] * /
where 7'is the switching period and /is the pulse repetition rate (frequency of
switching). Note that
T — Jo n + ^swcon) + * o f f + ^sw (off)
I f w e le t
^SW(ON) = ^SW(OFF) = ^SW
th e n
Psvr — J'CECmax) * -fc(max) * ( 2 tSw ) * f 1 .1 0
T h e t o t a l p o w e r l o s s in s w i t c h is
PT = P DN(avg) + P DFF(avg) + ^SW 1 .1 1

~ P DN(avg) + Psw
= d * VcE(sat) * k + ~ * ^CECmax) * -fc(max) * fSW * / 1 .1 2

Example 1.3 In Figure 1.5, Vs is 50 V, /<*, is 5 £2, and the swjtch is ideal with no switching
loss. If the on-state voltage drop is 1.5 V and the leakage current is 1.5 mA, cal
culate the power loss in the switch when it is:
a) on
b) off
Solution a) conduction current = ^ ^ = 9.7 A
power loss during on state PQn = 1-5 * 9.7 = 14.55 W

b) power loss during off state Por.r = 50 * 0.0015 = 75 mW
For normal load conditions, the power dissipation during the off state can be
neglected in comparison to the power loss during the on state.
Example 1.4 Calculate the maximum and average power loss for the switch in Example 1.3
if the switching frequency is 500 Hz with a duty cycle of 50%.
Solution switching period T= 1/500 = 2 ms
duty cycle d = 50%
on time /on = 1 ms
off time = 1 ms
average power loss during on state = PON * -^7- = 14.55 * 0.5 = 7.27 W
average power loss during off state = POFF * = 0.075 * 0.5 = 0.037 W
average power loss for one cycle = Powavg) + -POFF(avg) = 7.27 + 0.037 = 7.3 W
The maximum power dissipation (from Example 1.3) = 14.55 W.
Example 1.5 In Figure 1.6, K, is 120 V, RL is 6 £2, and the transistor is ideal with no conduc
tion loss. If tsW(ON) = 4w(off) = 1-5 M-s, calculate the average switching power
loss at a switching frequency of 1 kHz.
S o lu tio n /c(max) = 1 2 0 /6 = 2 0 A
/ W ON(avg) = “ V b (max) * /c(max) = (1 2 0 * 2 0 )/6 = 4 0 0 W
The energy loss is

^ S W O N = P sw O N (a vg ) * fc w (O N ) = 4 0 0 * 1 .5 (1 0 ) = 0 .6 (1 0 3) J
The energy loss during turnoff is

WW OFF = 0 .6 (1 0 3) J
The total energy loss in one cycle due to switching is given by

\rsw = \FSW ON + \rsw o ff = 2 * 0 .6 (1 0 _3> = 1.2(10~3) J
The average power dissipation during switching will be

Psw = * / = 1.2(TCT3) * 1000 = 1.2 W
Example 1.6 A transistor switch with the following characteristics controls power to a 25-kW
load, as shown in Figure 1.6:
Crated = 50 A
W d = 500 V
^LEAKAGE = 1
1/CE(SAT) = 1-5 V
turn-on time /swcon) = 1.5 f-iS
turnoff time ^W(off) = 3.0 (4.S
The source voltage V$ is 500 V, and RL is 10 Q. If the switching frequency is 100

Hz with a duty cycle of 50%, find:
a) on-state power loss
b) off-state power loss
c) maximum power loss during turn-on
d) energy loss during turn-on
e) energy loss during turnoff
f) on-state energy loss
g) off-state energy loss
h) total energy loss
i) average power loss
Solution /C(max) = 500/10 = 50 A

T= 1/100 = 10 mS
With d = 50%
= t>FF = 5 mS
a) on-state power loss = 1.5 * 50 = 75 W
b) off-state power loss = 500 * 1(10~3) = 0.5 W
c) maximum power loss during turn-on = (^ ) = w
d) energy loss during turn-on = -7 500 * 50 * 1.5(1 0^6) = 6.25 mj

6
e) energy loss during turnoff = -7 500 * 50 * 3.0O0-6) = 12.5 ml

6
0 on-state energy loss = 75 * 5(10 3) = 375 mj
g) off-state energy loss = 0.5 * 5(10~3) = 2.5 mj
1.6 Types of Power Electronics Circuits 13
h) total energy loss per cycle = (6.25 + 12.5 + 375 + 2.5) mj = 396.25 mj
396.250O'"3)
l) average power loss = — — -— ^— = 39-6 W
Example 1.7 In Example 1.6, repeat parts (d) through (i) if the switching frequency is
increased to 100 kHz with a 50% duty cycle.
Solution T= 1/(100 * 103) = 10 jiS
Since the period is quite small, we do not neglect ^w(0n> and *sw(off>:
T—tsw(oN) ~ kwcoFF) = (10 —1-5 —3) M-S = 5-5
Therefore, with d - 50%,
fc>N= Adff = 2.75 (XS

d) energy loss during turn-on = 6.25 mj (from Example 1.6(d))
e) energy loss during turnoff = 12.5 mj (from Example 1.6(e))
f) on-state energy loss = 75 * 2.75(10-6) = 0.206 mj
g) off-state energy loss = 0.5 * 2.75(10~6) = 1.375 mj
h) total energy loss per cycle = (0.206 + 1.375 + 6.25 + 12.5) mj = 20.33 mj
•n . 20.33(10-3) wr
l) average power loss = ^qqq-6^ = 2033 w
It is clear from these examples that at low switching frequency, the on-state
power loss dominates the total losses. As we increase the switching fre
quency, the switching power loss becomes dominant. The average power
dissipation also becomes very high (2033 W) at higher frequency. Obviously,
the 50 A transistor cannot dissipate the heat generated and will overheat.
The maximum frequency at which the switch can operate therefore depends
not only on the power dissipation in the switch but also on the switching
speed. The current rating of the switch must also be increased at higher
frequencies.
1.6 Types of Power Electronics Circuits
Power electronics circuits (or converters, as they are commonly called) can be
divided into the following categories:
1. Uncontrolled rectifiers (AC to DC): an uncontrolled rectifier converts a

single-phase or three-phase AC voltage to a fixed DC voltage. Diodes
are used as the rectifying element to provide power conversion.
2. Controlled rectifiers (AC to DC): a controlled rectifier converts a single

phase or three-phase fixed AC voltage to a variable DC voltage. SCRs
are used as the rectifying element, providing both power conversion
and control.
3. DC choppers (DC to DC): a DC chopper converts a fixed DC voltage
to a variable DC voltage.
4. AC voltage controllers (AC to AC): an AC voltage controller converts a
fixed AC voltage to a variable AC voltage at the same frequency. There
are two basic methods used in AC voltage controllers—on-off control
and phase control.
5- Inverters (DC to AC): an inverter converts a fixed DC voltage to a fixed
or variable single-phase or three-phase AC voltage and frequency.
6. Cycloconverters (AC to AC): A cycloconverter converts a fixed voltage
and frequency AC to a variable voltage and frequency AC. This con
version can also be obtained indirectly by first rectifying AC to DC,
then inverting back to AC at the desired frequency.
7. Static switches (AC or DC): A power device (SCR and TRIAC) can be
operated as an AC or DC switch, thereby replacing traditional mechan
ical and electromagnetic switches.
Table 1.1 Some applications of power electronics

Power converter Applications
Uncontrolled rectifier DC source for electronic circuits
Controlled rectifier DC m otor speed control from an AC source

Speed control o f portable pow er tools
High-voltage DC transmission
DC chopper DC motor speed control from a DC source

Switching pow er supply
AC voltage controller Light dimmer switch

Control of heaters
Speed control o f domestic appliances
Reactive pow er control
Smooth starting of induction motors
Inverter Uninterruptible pow er supply (UPS)

Speed control o f three-phase AC m otors
Induction heating
Cycloconverter Speed control of AC motors

Constant frequency source for aircraft
Static switch Replacement for mechanical and electrom agnetic

switches
1.8 Problems 15
g ------------------ --------------- ------------ ------------------- --------------- -----,— _— -------------------- -—
1.7 Applications of Power Electronics

Power electronics finds application in any field that requires electric power con
version and control. Power electronics-systems are therefore found in a wide
range of consumer and industrial equipment—from small, less-than-one-horse-
' power motors used in domestic appliances to several-hundred-horsepower-
capacity industrial motor drives; from low-power regulated DC power supplies
to more than one-thousand-megawatt high-voltage DC transmission systems;
from low-power light dimmers to hundreds-of-megawatt-capacity static VAR
compensators in power systems. Table 1.1 provides some idea of the magnitude
and importance of power electronics.
m------------------------ -------- ------------------ ---------------------------------------------- ------- !— --------------------------

1.8 Problems
1 .1 What is power electronics?
1.2 What is the most efficient method of controlling electric power?
1 .3 What is the disadvantage of using a rheostat to control electric power to a
load?
1 .4 Explain why a switch is superior to a rheostat for controlling electric
power to a load.
1 .5 A 20-il rheostat is connected to a 30-£2 load resistor. If the source voltage
is 120 V, find the power dissipated by the rheostat.
1 .6 A switch controls a 20-Q heater connected to a 208 V AC source. If the
switch is on, find the power consumed by the heater and switch.
1.7 Repeat Problem 1.6 if the switch is off.
1 .8 An ideal switch controls a 20-Q load connected to a 120 V AC source. If
the switch is on 20% of the time, find the power consumed by the load.
1.9 Figure 1.8 shows an ideal switch with no switching loss. If the on-state
voltage drop is 2.0 V and the leakage current is 1 mA, calculate the power
loss in the switch when it is:
a) on
b) off
Figure 1.8
See Problem 1.9
+
ioo v > 10 a
1 .1 0 List the characteristics o f an ideal switch.

1 .1 1 List some common applications of power, electronics in the following
areas:
a) residential
b) industrial
c) commercial
d) electric utility systems
e) telecommunications
0 aerospace
g) transportation
1 .1 2 If the source voltage in Figure 1.8 is 150 V and the load resistance is 1 Q,
calculate conduction loss, switching loss, and total losses for the duty
cycles, apd frequencies given in Table 1.2. Use I'cecsat) = I-1 Wcon) =
1.0 jxS, aiftl %w(off> ~ i ■5 uS.
Table 1.2
Frequency Duty cycle Conduction loss Switching loss Total loss
1 kHz 20%
1 kHz 50%
1 kHz 75%
2 kHz 20%
2 kHz 50%
2 kHz 75%
1 .1 3 If the source voltage in Figure 1.6 is 120 V and the load resistance is 10 Q,
calculate switching power loss when %w = 1 (is and the transistor is turned
on and off at a frequency of 5 kHz;
1 .1 4 A rheostat controls power supplied by a 100 V DC source to a 10-£2 resis
tive load. The rheostat resistance is varied in steps from zero to 100 £1.
Write a computer program that calculates the power supplied from the
source, the power dissipated in the rheostat, the power consumed by the
load, and the efficiency. Tabulate and plot your results.
1.9 Equations 17
■---- ;--------------------
1.9 Equations
PoN ~ ^CE(SAT) * k 1*1
j _ Ks ~ ^CEfSAT) s-. I s j 2
C A'l
-PoNCavg) = ^CECSAT) * Ic * ~ ^ 7 = ^CE(SAT) * k : * d 1 .3
■PoFF(avg) = Ks * 4 e AK * 1*4
*ON _ JoN j ^
ton + ÔFF 7*
•fsw ONCmax) = 0 - 5 ^CECmax) * 0 .5 /c(max) 1 *6

_ 1
•Psw ON(avg) = ^CE(max) ^C(max) 1 *7
l^SWON = "g ^CE<max) * ^C(max) * fcw(ON) 1 *8
^SW OFF = ’g" ^CECmax) * -fccmax) %W(OFF) 1*9
■Psw = 'g ^CE(max) * -t(max) * ( 2 %w) * / 1 .1 0
Pr = -PonCavg) + -POFF(avg) + Psw 1 .1 1
Pr = d * ^ce(SAT) * -fc + *T * ^CE(max) * -fc(max) * %W * f 1 .1 2

Power Diodes
Chapter Outline
2.1 Introduction 2.8.3 Reverse Recovery Time (t„)
2.2 The PN Junction Diode 2.8.4 Maximum Junction Temperature
(Tj(max))
2.3 The Voltage-Current Characteristic 2.8.5 Maximum Surge Current (/FSM)
of a Diode
2.9 Diode Protection
2.4 The Ideal Diode 2.9.1 Overvoltage
2.5 The Schottky Diode 2.9.2 Overcurrent
2.9.3 Transients
2.6 Diode Circuit Analysis
2.6.1 Diodes in DC Circuits 2.10 Testing a Diode
2.6.2 Diodes in AC Circuits 2.11 Series and Parallel Operation of
2.7 Diode Losses Diodes
2.11.1 Series Connection of Diodes
2.8 Principal Ratings for Diodes
2.11.2 Parallel Connection of Diodes
2.8.1 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
2.8.2 Maximum Average Forward 2.12 Problems
Current (/f(avg)max) 2.13 Equations
Learning Objectives
A fter completing this chapter, the student should be able to
m describe the characteristics and m describe how to test diodes

operation of the diode m describe how to protect diodes
■ analyze diode circuits m explain how diodes can be connected in
m determ ine power loss in diodes series and in parallel to increase their
m list th e principal ratings of diodes rating
18
2.3 The Voltage-Current Characteristic of a Diode 19
2.1 Introduction
Power diodes play an important role in power electronics circuits. They are
used mainly in uncontrolled rectifiers to convert AC to fixed DC voltages and as
freew heeling diodes to provide a path for the current flow in inductive loads.
Power diodes are similar in function to ordinary PN junction diodes; however,
power diodes have larger power-, voltage-, and current-handling capabilities.
2.2 The PN Junction Diode

Diodes can be made of either of two semiconductor materials, silicon and ger
manium. Power diodes are usually constructed using silicon. Silicon diodes can
operate at higher current and at higher junction temperatures, and they have
greater reverse resistance.
The structure of a semiconductor diode and its symbol are shown in Fig
ure 2.1. The diode has two terminals— an anode A terminal (P junction) and a
cathode K terminal (N junction). When the anode voltage is more positive than
the cathode, the diode is said to be forward-biased, and it conducts current
readily with a relatively low voltage drop. When the cathode voltage is more
positive than the anode, the diode is said to be reverse-biased, and it blocks the
current flow. The arrow on the diode symbol shows the direction of conven
tional current flow when the diode conducts. <
, Figure 2.1
The structure and symbol of ______
a diode j P | n~|—
(Anode) (Cathode) + VAK ■
“
(a) PN junction (b) Symbol
■ —-------------------------------------------------— -------- ’------------------------------ --------------------------------- —- ‘

2.3 The Voltage-Current Characteristic of a Diode
m l| ! Figure 2.2 shows the V-I characteristic of a diode. When forward-biased, the
p diode begins to conduct current as the voltage across its anode (with respect to
« -| its cathode) is increased. When the voltage approaches the so-callecl knee volt-
5E g age, about 1 V for silicon diodes, a slight increase in voltage causes the current
% r. to increase rapidly. This increase in current can be limited only by resistance
tf2 ' connected in series with the diode.
20 CHAPTER 2 Power Diodes
Figure 2.2 +iA(A)

The V-l characteristic of a
diode
Breakdown Voltage
Forward voltage drop
or
(knee voltage)
Peak Reverse Voltage
-I A
When the diode is reverse-biased, a small amount of current called the reverst
leakage current flows as the voltage from anode to cathode is increased; this
simply indicates that a diode has a very high resistance in the reverse direction
This large resistance characteristic is maintained with increasing reverse voltage
until the reverse breakdown voltage is reached. At breakdown, a diode allows
a large current flow for a small increase in voltage. Again, a current-limiting
resistor must be used in series to prevent destruction of the diode.
2.4 The Ideal Diode
In power electronics we deal with high voltages and currents. Therefore, the
detailed characteristic of a diode (for example, Figure 2.2) is not important; we
can treat a diode as an ideal element. Figure 2.3 shows the ideal characteristic
of a diode. Note that when the diode is forward-biased, it has no voltage across
it. The current through the diode then depends on the source voltage and othei
circuit elements. When the diode is reverse-biased, it has no current through it.
The voltage across the diode then depends upon the source voltage and othei
circuit elements.
Figure 2.3 >d

An ideal diode
characteristic
‘d
Zero voltage
(on)
Zero voltage
(oft)
2.5 The Schottky Diode 21
This characteristic of an ideal diode makes it similar to a switch that conducts

current in only one direction. The switch can turn on and turn off by itself,
depending on the polarity of the voltage. Figure 2.4(a) shows a forward-biased
diode, and Figure 2.4(b) shows its switch-equivalent circuit. When a diode’s
anode is more positive than its cathode, it can be considered to act like a closed
switch. Figure 2.4(c) shows a reverse-biased diode, and Figure 2.4(d) shows its
switch equivalent. When the diode’s anode is more negative than its cathode, it
can be considered to act like an open switch.
Figure 2.4 Closed switch

Switch-equivalent circuits of K
an ideal diode
/
+ vD - Vv = 0 lD
(a) Forward-biased diode (b) Switch-equivalent circuit
Open switch
- vD + >D ~ 0
(c) Reverse-biased diode (d) Switch-equivalent circuit
2.5 The Schottky Diode

The Schottky diode is a low-voltage, high-speed device that works on a differ
ent principle from that of the PN junction diode. It is constructed without the
usual PN junction. Instead, a thin barrier metal (such as chromium, platinum, or
tungsten) is interfaced with the N-type semiconductor. This construction results
in a low on-state voltage (about 0.6 V) across the diode when it conducts. Fur
thermore, it can turn off much faster than a PN junction diode, so switching fre
quency can be high. However, the reverse leakage current is much higher, and
the reverse breakdown voltage is lower compared with that of a PN junction
diode. Schottky diodes are therefore used as rectifiers in low-voltage applica
tions where the efficiency of conversion is important. These diodes are also
widely used in switching power supplies that operate at frequencies of 20 kHz
or higher.
Example 2.1 A Schottky diode rated at 40 V and 25 A has ail on-state voltage of 0.5 V and a
reverse leakage current of 50 nA. Find the on-state and off-state power loss at
rated conditions.
Solution on-state power loss = 25 * 0.5 = 12.5 W
off-state power loss = 40 * 50 (10-9) = 2 (XW
CHAPTER 2 Power Diodes
Example 2.2 Repeat Example 2.1 for a PN junction diode rated at 40 V and 25 A, with an on-
state voltage of 1.1 V and a reverse leakage current of 0.5 nA.
Solution on-state power loss = 25 * 1.1 = 27.5 W
off-state power loss = 40 * 0.5 CIO”9) = 0.02 p.W
The on-state power loss of the Schottky diode is less than half that of the PN junc
tion diode, which is quite significant when efficiency is a concern. There is, of
course, a higher power dissipation in the off state due to a higher leakage cur
rent; however, the total power loss is still less than that of the PN junction diode.
Diode Circuit Analysis
2.6.1 Diodes in DC Circuits

To analyze diode circuits, the state of the diode (on or off) must first be found.
The diode can then be replaced by the switch-equivalent circuit shown in Fig
ure 2.4. However, in some circuits it may be difficult to figure out which switch
equivalent to use (for example, in circuits with more than one source or with
more than one diode in series). In these circuits it is helpful to replace the
diode(s) mentally with a resistive element and note the resulting current direc
tion due to the applied voltage. If the resulting current is in the same direction
as the arrow on the diode symbol, the diode is on.
Example 2.3 For the circuit shown in Figure 2.5, find the diode current (/D), the diode volt
age (V^), and the voltage across resistor ( Vj{).
Figure 2.5 + vn
See Example 2.3
Solution Since the current established by the source flows in the direction of the diode’s
arrow, the diode is on and can be replaced by a closed switch.
voltage across the diode VD = 0 V
voltage across the resistor VR = Es ~ VD = 20 - 0 = 20 V
current through the diode /D = V^/R = 20/100 = 0.2 A
2.6 Diode Circuit Analysis 23
Example 2.4 Reverse the diode in Figure 2.5 and repeat Example 2.3.
Solution The direction of current is now opposite to the arrow. The diode is off and can
be replaced by an open switch.
current through the diode /D = 0 A
voltage across the resistor V^ = /D* i ? = 0 V
voltage across the diode Vd = 2%- Vr = 20 - 0 = 20 V
Example 2.5 For the circuit shown in Figure 2.6, find the current (/) and voltages V0> Vlt and V2.
Figure 2.6 i + v,
See Example 2.5 AMr
«, = 5k
R2= 2 k < . V 2
£ ,-z^7 20V
5V-^-E,
Solution The two sources are aiding each other in the closed loop; the diode is on and
can be replaced by a closed switch.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL),
E, - Vl - V2 + Ei = 0
E1 -K R i) - KR2) + E2 = 0
Solving for I,
r Ei + Ei 25 ■ , r
I - —----- - = —- = 3.5 mA
Ri + 7k
= /*/?! =17.5 V
V2 = /* R2 =»7.0 V
V0 = V2 —Ei = l —5 = 2V
2.6.2 Diodes in AC Circuits

AC circuits have a voltage that varies with time. Therefore, there may be times
when the AC voltage forward-biases a diode and times When it reverse-biases
the same diode. Circuit analysis can be done separately for positive and nega
tive half-cycles. It must be noted when the voltage polarity across the diode
forward-biases it and when it reverse-biases it. The diode can then be replaced
by its switch-equivalent circuit.
Figure 2.7
Diode in an AC circuit
Example 2.6 Find the switch-equivalent circuit of a diode with an AC source voltage V"s, as
shown in Figure 2.7.
Solution During the positive half-cycle, the anode is more positive than its cathode, and
therefore the diode is forward-biased. We can replace the diode with a closed
switch.
During the negative half-cycle, the anode is more negative than its cath
ode, and therefore, the diode is reverse-biased. We can replace the diode with
an open switch.
Example 2.7 For the circuit shown in Figure 2.8, draw the waveforms of the voltage across
the resistor ( 14) and the voltage across the diode (1^).
Figure 2.8
See Example 2.7
3. +
120 V 60 Hz * < l k vR
!©
Solution During the positive half-cycle, the diode is forward-biased and can therefore be
replaced by a closed switch. The voltage across the diode is zero, and the volt
age across the resistor is the same as the source voltage. During the negative
half-cycle, the diode is reverse-biased and can therefore be replaced by an open
switch. The voltage across the resistor is zero, and the voltage across the diode
is the same as the source voltage.
The waveforms of Vr and VD are shown in Figure 2.9.
2.7 Diode Losses 25
Figure 2.9
Waveforms of \/R and VD
2.7 Diode Losses

The total power loss that occurs in a diode is the sum of the on-state, off-state,
and switching losses:
Pr = / o n + ^ o f f + /sw 2.1
where
toN 2.2
P0N = V F * IF *
T
* ÔFF 2.3
P q ff — V r * Ir
Psw — P SW (ON) + PsW(OFF) 2.4

1
*r(MAX) 4(MAX) * tp * f 2.5
2.6
In these equations,
Vp = forward voltage
/F = forward current
= reverse voltage
4 = reverse leakage current

tON = time of diode conduction
/off = time during which diode is reverse-biased
tp = switching time in forward direction
% = switching time in reverse direction
Example 2.8 In the circuit shown in Figure 2.8, Vs = 400 V,/= 10 kHz, d = 50%, and ID= 30 i
If the diode has the following characteristics, find the total power loss in tt
diode.
Ff = 1 .1 V
JR = 0.3 mA
tp = 1 us
tR = 0.1 (is
Solution T = 1//= 0.1 ms
T - tON + tp + +
f0 FF
T— — ?R 100 - 1 - 0.1
t< fopF '■ )xs = 49.45 M-s
40 4s (i a-6')
“ON ' 1.1 * 30 * - , \ J = 16.32 W
0.1 (10~3)
P o ff = 400 * 0.3 (10~3) * 49 45 Cr S ;’- = 0.06 W

0.1 ( 10~3)
1.1 (KT6)
SW ' * 400 * 30 * ■44 W
0.1 CIO”3)
PT = 16.32 + 0.06 + 44 = 60.38 W
Example 2.9 Repeat Example 2.8 with / = 100 kHz.

Solution r = 1//= 10 (is
1 0 - 1.1
*ON —Adff - (is = 4.95 |xs
4 95 n ft-6')
Pon = 11 * 30 * = 16.32 W
10 (10 )
, 4 95 (10-6)
P(wv : 400 * 0.3(10 ) * ? , ~ = 0-06 W
10 (10 )
i 11 n o 'j
Psw z * 4nn * ♦ - - - - - - - _— = 440 W
6 10 ( 10^ )
PT = 16.32 + 0.06 + 440 = 456.40 W
The total power loss is almost eight times that in Example 2.8.
2.8 Principal Ratings for Diodes 27
2.8 Principal Ratings for Diodes
2.8.1 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)

The p e a k inverse voltage rating of a diode is the maximum reverse voltage that
can be connected across a diode without breakdown. If the PIV rating is
exceeded, the diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction and can be
immediately destroyed. PIV ratings extend from tens of volts to several thou
sand volts, depending on the construction. The PIV rating is also called the
p e a k reverse voltage (PRV) pr breakdow n voltage V(BR).
2.8.2 Maximum Average Forward Current (/f(avg)max)

The maximum average forward current is the maximum current a diode can
safely handle when forward-biased. Power diodes are presently available in rat
ings from a few amperes to several hundred amperes. If a diode is to be used
economically, it must be operated near its maximum forward current rating.
2.8.3 Reverse Recovery Time (trr)

The reverse recovery time of a diode is of great significance in high-speed
switching applications. A real diode does not instantaneously switch from a
conduction to a nonconduction state. Instead, a reverse current flows for a short
time, and the diode does not turn off until the reverse current decays to zero,
as shown in Figure 2.10. The diode initially conducts a current /F; when the
diode is reverse-biased, this current decreases and reverse current IR flows. The
time interval during which reverse current flows is called the reverse recoveiy
time. During this time, charge carriers that were stored in the junction when
forward conduction terminated are removed.
Figure 2.10
Reverse recovery
characteristics
Diodes are classified as “fast recovery” or “slow recovery” types based on

their reverse recovery times. Recovery times range from a few microseconds in
a PN junction diode to several hundred nanoseconds in a fast-recovery diode
like a Schottky diode. The PN junction diode is normally sufficient for rectifica
tion of a 60 Hz AC signal. Fast-recovery diodes with low t„ are used in high-
freduency applications such as inverters, choppers, and uninterruptible power
supplies (UPS).
2.8.4 Maximum Junction Temperature (rj(max))

This parameter defines the maximum junction temperature that a diode can
withstand without failure. The rated temperatures of silicon diodes typically
range from -40°C to +200°C. Operation at lower temperatures generally results
in better performance: Diodes are usually mounted on heat sinks to improve
their temperature rating.
2.8.5 Maximum Surge Current (/FSm)

th e IfSM (forward surge maximum) rating is the maximum current that the diode
can handle as an occasional transient or from a circuit fault.
si............ ............ . " ........*.....— —...... ................. ............ .......—.—.......... ....— 1 .... ..
2.9 Diode Protection

A power diode must be protected against overvoltage, overcurrent and tran
sients.
2.9.1 Overvoltage
When a diode is forward-biased, the voltage across it is low and poses no prob
lems. A reverse-biased diode acts like an open circuit. If the voltage across the
diode exceeds its breakover voltage, it breaks down, resulting in a large current
flow. With this high current and large voltage across the diode, it is quite likely
that the power dissipation at the junction will exceed its maximum value,
destroying the diode. It is a common practice to select a diode with a peak
reverse voltage rating that is 1.2 times higher than the expected voltage during
normal operating conditions.
2.9.2 Overcurrent
Manufacturer’s data sheets provide current ratings based on the maximum junc
tion temperatures produced by conduction losses in diodes. In a given circuit,
it is recommended that the diode current be kept below this rated value. Over
current protection is then accomplished by using a fuse to ensure that the diode
current does not exceed a level that will increase the operating temperature
beyond the maximum value.
2.9.3 Transients
Transients can lead to higher-than-normal voltages across a diode. Protection
against transients usually takes the form of an RC series circuit connected across
the diode. This arrangement, shown in Figure 2.11, snubs or reduces the rate of
change of voltage and is commonly called a snubber circuit.
Figure 2.11
A snubber circuit
2.10 Testing a Diode

An ohmmeter can be used to test power diodes easily and safely. The
diode-switch-equivalent circuits shown in Figure 2.4 can be used to determine
how diodes can be tested. Connect the ohmmeter so that it forward-biases the
diode; this should give a low resistance reading. The actual reading will depend
on the current flow through the diode from the internal battery of the ohmme
ter. Reversing the leads should give much higher resistance or even an infinite
reading. A high resistance reading in both directions suggests an open diode,
while a very low resistance reading in both directions suggests a shorted diode.
2.11 Series and Parallel Operation of Diodes
The maximum power than can be controlled by a single diode is determined by

its rated reverse voltage and by its rated forward current. In high-power appli
cations, a single diode may have insufficient power-handling capability. To
increase power capability, diodes are connected in series to increase the volt
age rating or in parallel to increase the current rating. A series/parallel arrange
ment of diodes can be used for high-voltage and high-current applications.
2.11.1 Series Connection of Diodes

In very high-voltage applications, the reverse-voltage rating of a single diode
may not be sufficient. A series connection of two or more diodes (see Figure
2.12), is then used to increase the voltage rating. However, the reverse voltage
may not be equally divided between the two diodes: the diode with the lower
leakage current can have excessive reverse voltage across it. Even if we use
same number-type diodes, their V-I characteristics may not be identical, as illus
trated in Figure 2.13. The current rating of the diodes in series is the same as
the current rating of one o f the diodes. In the reverse direction, both series
diodes have the same reverse leakage current, but, as shown, they have differ
ent values for reverse voltage. In such a case diode Dj may exceed its reverse-
voltage rating.
Figure 2.12 ■Ijy = leakage current

Series connection of diodes
Figure 2.13 *D
V-I characteristics of two
diodes
VD
Forced voltage sharing can be obtained by connecting voltage-sharing resistors

of appropriate value across each series diode. Figure 2.14 shows the effect of
placing resistors across the diode. To be effective, the resistors must conduct a
current much greater than the leakage current of the diodes. These sharing
resistors will consume power during reverse-bias operation, so it is important to
use as large a resistance as possible.
In addition, there can be excessive reverse voltage across a diode due to

different reverse recovery times. A capacitor connected in parallel with each
diode (see Figure 2.15) will protect the diode from voltage transients.
The value of the voltage-sharing resistor can be obtained as follows:
The source current is
r _ ^D1 j . r - r
4 - + jdi - + •'D2
Solving for R,
R= ~ f D2 2.7
*D2 “ b l
The power dissipated in R is
P r = * R + I 2m * R
Figure 2.14
with resistors added
Figure 2.15
with resistors and capacitor
added
J2 CHAPTER 2 Power Diodes
Example 2.10 Two diodes with voltage ratings of 800 V and reverse leakage currents of 1 mA
are connected in series across an AC source whose peak value is Vscmax) - 980
V. The reverse characteristics, are as. shown in Figure 2.13. Determine
a) the reverse voltage across each diode
b) the value of the voltage-sharing resistor, so that the voltage across any diode
is no more than 55% of V^(ma)0
c) the total source current and power loss in the resistors
Solution a) With no force sharing, the current through the diodes is the leakage current.
Therefore, at 1 mA, from Figure 2.13,
VDl = 700 V
FD2 = 280 V
b) With forced voltage sharing, such that
Vm = 55% * 980 = 539 V
Vm = 900 - 495 = 441 V
We obtain from the graph
/D1 = 0.7 mA
ID2 = 1 .4 mA
Using Equation 2.7,
^ni ~ ^D2
Id2 ~ -fei
= 140 K
c) The current through R is
4 1 = 539/140K = 3.85 mA
/R2 = 441/140K = 3.15 mA
source current = 0.00385 + 0.0007 = 4.55 mA
or
source current = 0.00315 + 0.0014 = 4.55 mA
.Pr = I2Ri * R + I2ki * R = 2-1 + 0.44 = 2.54 W
2.11.2 Parallel Connection of Diodes

If the load current is greater than the current rating of a single diode, then twc
or more diodes can be connected in parallel (see Figure 2.16) to achieve £
higher forward-current rating. Diodes connected in parallel do not share the
current equally due to different forward-bias characteristics. The diode with th<
lowest forward voltage drop will try to carry a larger current and can overheat.
Figure 2.17 shows the V-I on-state characteristics of twd diodes. If these two
diodes are connected in parallel at a give voltage, a different current flows in
each diode. The total current flow is the sum of Im and ID2•The total current
rating of the pair is not the sum of the maximum current rating for each but is
a value that can be just larger than the rating of one diode alone.
Figure 2.16
Parallel connection of
diodes
D2
xz a,
Figure 2.17 /(A)

V-I characteristics of two
diodes
Parallel diodes can be forced to share current by connecting a very small resis
tor in series-with each diode. In Figure 2.18, the current-sharing resistor R establishes
values of Im and /D2 that are nearly equal. Although current sharing is very effective,
the power loss in the resistors is very high. Furthermore, it causes an increase in volt
age across the combination. Unless using a parallel arrangement is absolutely nec
essary, it is better to use one device with an adequate current rating.
Figure 2.18
Parallel connection of
diodes with added resistors
^ |^D2
+
V
'■>»\z>, Dt \ / V»2
The value of the current-sharing resistor can be obtained as follows

V = V m + Im * R = V m + Im * R
Solving for R,
Vp2 ~ ^D1
4>i - 4)2
PK = I2m * R + I 2u2* R 2.10

The voltage afcross the diode combination is
V= Vbl + /D1 R = Fd2 + 4)2 * 2.11
Example 2.11 Two diodes having the characteristics shown in Figure 2.17 are connected in
parallel. The total current through the diodes is 50 A. To enforce current shar
ing, two resistors are connected in series. Determine:
a) the resistance of the current-sharing resistor, so that the current through any
diode is no more than 55% of I
b) the total power loss in the resistors
c) the voltage across the diode combination (V )
Solution a) With forced current sharing, such that
Im = 55% * 50 = 27.5 A
/D2 = 50 - 27.5 = 22.5 A
2.12 Problems 35
We obtain from Figure 2.17,
Vdi = 1-3 V
Vm = 1.6 V
V= VD1+ I m ' R = VD2 + Im * R ,
= 1.3 + 27.5 R = 1.6 + 22.5 R
Solving for R,
R = 0.06 £2
b) The power dissipated in R is
= I2m * R + I 2D2 * R = 27.52 * 0.06 + 22.52 * 0.06 = 75.8 W
c) The voltage across the diode combination is
V = V m + Im R = V D2 + ID2R
= 1.3 + 27.5 * 0.06 = 1.6 + 22.5 * 0.06
= 2.95 V
2.12 Problems
2.1 What type o f semiconductor material is used in power diodes?
2.2 What are the main advantages of silicon diodes?
2.3 What condition forward-biases a diode?
2.4 What-condition reverse-bidses a diode?
'• I
2.5 What is the voltage across an ideal diode that is forward-biased?
2.6 Draw the switch-equivalent circuit of a forward-biased diode.
< 2.7 Draw the switch-equivalent circuit of a reverse-biased diode.
2.8 Define the PIV rating of a diode.
2.9 How can a diode be tested using an ohmmeter?
2.10 For the circuit shown in Figure 2.19, find ID. What is the maximum reverse
voltage across the diode?
Figure 2.19 + VD-

See Problem 2.10 -N -
2.11 For the circuit shown in Figure 2.20, find Ilt I2, /D, and VD.
ion
Figure 2.21
See Problem 2.12
2.13 For the circuit shown in Figure 2.22, drawn the waveform for I.
Figure 2.22
See Problem 2.13
-A M r
io n
D> V . Z X d2
2.14 For the circuit shown in Figure 2.23, find (a) the maximum forward cur
rent that the diode should handle (b) the maximum reverse voltage tha
the diode should withstand.
Figure 2.23
See Problem 2.14
i kn
+ o- -A/W
V
2.13 Equations 37
2 .1 5 From various manufacturers’ data sheets, obtain the following ratings for
some currently manufactured power diodes: (a) peak reverse voltage (b)
maximum forward current (c) maximum operating junction temperature
(d) maximum on-state voltage drop at rated current (e) maximum reverse
leakage current (0 maximum switching frequency (g) turn-on time (h)
turnoff time
2.16 Write a computer program to plot the V-I characteristic of a diode. '■
2.13 Equations
P-V ~ Pon + -Poff + Psw 2.1

— 1/ * T * 2.2
r ON ~ VF *r j,
p — y * T * - S EE. 2.3
OFF — R *R y,
-fsw = ^SWCON) + -PsWOFF 2.4
^SW(ON) — g ^F(MAX) * ^F(MAX) * tf * f 2.5
1
^SW(OFF) = g" ^(MAX) * 4'(MAX) * ^R * f 2.6
y - ._ ^D1
yDl — Hl)2
KD2 2y
4)2 ~~ /^di
4)2 R1
r2 *
PR = 1fI 2R1*
R1 * R + l \R22 * R
+ 1 2.8
Vd i2——
R = —u ~ Vd
o xi 2 .9
/4>i
d i -—4>2
4>2 ,
=.•I1r22.m * j2
P* *
Di i? R ++ I12D2* R
D2 * i? 2.10
F = VD1 + /D1i?= Vm + I m R 2.11
Power Transistors
■-------------------
Chapter Outline
3.1 Introduction 3.3.5 MOSFET Losses

3.2 Power Bipolar Junction Transistors 3.3.6 The Internal Body Diode of
a Power MOSFET
(BJTs)
3.3.7 MOSFET Protection
3.2.1 BJT Volt-Ampere Characteristics
3.3.8 Safe Operating Area (SOA)
3.2.2 Biasing a Transistor ;
3.3.9 MOSFETs in Series and in Parallel
3.2.3 Power Loss in BJTs
3.2,4 Testing a Transistor 3.4 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistors
3.2.5 BJT Protection (IGBTs)
3.2.6 Power Transistor Ratings 3.4.1 Operating Principles
3.2.7 Safe Operating Area (SOA) 3.4.2 The IGBT Voltage-Current
3.2.8 Secondary BreakdQwn Characteristic
3.2.9 Darlington Connection 3.4.3 The Ideal IGBT Characteristic
3.2.10 Series and Parallel Connection of 3.4.4 IGBT Losses
Transistors 3.5 Unijunction Transistors (UJT)
Power Metal-Oxide Semiconductor 3.5.1 Biasing the UJT
Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETS) 3.5.2 Testing a UJT
3.3.1 MOSFET Voltage-Current 3.5.3 Using a UJT Circuit to Trigger
Characteristics a Thyristor
3.3.2 The MOSFET Transfer 3.6 Problems
Characteristic
3.3.3 The Ideal MOSFET Characteristic 3.7 Equations
3.3.4 A MOSFET as a Switch
38
3.1 Introduction 39
Learning Objectives

■ describe the characteristics and semiconductor field-effect transistor
operation of the bipolar junction (MOSFET)
transistor (BJT) list the power losses in a MOSFET
■ list the power losses in a BJT describe how to protect MOSFET
■ describe how to test BJTs explain how MOSFETs can be connected
■ describe how to protect BJTs in series and in parallel to increase their
■ list the principal ratings of BJTs ratings
■ explain how BJTs can be connected in describe the characteristics and
series and in parallel to increase their operation of the insulated-gate bipolar
ratings transistor (IGBT)
■ describe the characteristics and list the power losses in an IGBT
operation of the metal-oxide
3.1 Introduction
Transistors with high voltage and current ratings are known as power transis-
_ tors. A transistor is a three-layer PNP or NPN semiconductor device with two
junctions. Transistors have two basic types of applications: amplification and
switching. In power electronics, where the main objective is the efficient con
trol of power, transistors are invariably operated as switches. They are mainly
used in chopper and inverter applications.
Diodes are uncontrollable switches having ohly two terminals. They only
respond to switch the voltage across them. Transistors, on the other hand, have
three terminals. Two terminals act like switch contacts, while the third is used
to turn the switch on and off. Thus, the control circuit can be independent-of
the circuit being controlled.
Two types of power transistors are extensively used in power electronics
circuits: the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and the metal-oxide semiconductor
field-effect transistor (MOSFET). Until the development of the power MOSFET,
the BJT was the device of choice Jn~pos£gr electronics applications.
The switching speed of a BJT is many times slower than that of a MOS
FET of similar size and rating. A BJT is a current-controlled device, and a large
base current is required to keep the device in the on state. In addition, to obtain
fast turnoff, a higher reverse base current is required. These limitations make
the base drive circuit design more complex and therefore more expensive than
that of the MOSFET. Power MOSFETs, on the other hand, are voltage-controlled
40 CHAPTER 3 Power Transistors
devices. They are preferable to BJTs in high-frequency applications where

switching power loss is important. However, the on-state voltage drop of the
power MOSFET is higher than that of a BJT of similar size and rating. There
fore, in high-voltage applications where on-state losses are to be minimized, a
BJT is preferred at the expense of poor high-frequency performance.
The invention of insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) was partly driven
by the limitations of BJTs and MOSFETs. IGBTs provide high-voltage capability,
low on-state losses, simple drive circuitry, and relatively fast switching speeds.
IGBTs are therefore becoming an ideal choice for high-voltage applications
where conduction losses must be kept low.
■-------------- ;------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -----

3.2 Power Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
Power transistors are available in both NPN and PNP types. However, we will
concentrate on the NPN device, since it has a higher current and voltage rating
than the PNP device. The structure and symbol of an NPN transistor are shown
in Figure 3.1. This type of transistor is called a bipolar junction transistor {BJT).
BJT is usually referred to as a transistor.
A transistor has three terminals: the base (B), the collector (C) and the
emitter (E). The collector and the emitter in a transistor are not reversible. In
fact the transistor’s characteristics and ratings change significantly when these
two terminals are reversed. If the arrowhead on the emitter points toward the
base, the transistor is a PNP1transistor. If the arrow points away from the base,
it is an NPN transistor. t j
When a transistor is used as a switch to control power from the source to
the load, terminals C and E are connected in series with the main power circuit,
while terminals B and E are connected to a driving circuit that controls the on
and off action. A small current through the base-emitter junctions turns on the
collector-to-emitter path. This path may carry many times more current than the
base-emitter junction.
Figure 3.1 Collector

An NPN transistor and its C
symbol
N
B _
P
Base
N
E
Emitter
(a) Structure
3.2 Power BJTs 41
,3.2.1 BJT V-I Characteristics

Since most applications of power transistors have a common emitter connec
tion, the characteristic will be explained for that configuration. Figure 3-2 shows
the V-I characteristic of a transistor. There are three regions of operation, the
cutoff, saturation, and active regions. If the base current /B is zero, the collector
current /c is negligibly small and the transistor is in the cutoff region, which is
the off state of the transistor. In this region both the collector-base and base-
emitter junctions are reverse-biased and the transistor behaves as an open
switch. On the other hand, if the base current /B is sufficient to drive the tran
sistor into saturation (the collector current is very hjgh and VCE is approximately
zero), then the transistor behaves as a closed switch. In the saturation region,
both junctions are forward-biased. In the active region of operation, the base-
emitter junction is forward-biased while the collector-base junction is reverse-
biased. The active region is used for amplification and is avoided in switching
applications.
Note that the V-I characteristic does not show any reverse region. A BJT can
not block more than about 20 V in the reverse direction. Therefore BJTs are not
used to control AC power, unless a reverse shunting diode is connected between
the emitter and the collector to protect the transistor from reverse voltages.
Figure 3.2 'c ^.Saturation voltage VCE(SAT)

BJT V-I characteristic
'B7
lB6
!B5
Saturation -
(on)
Active 7B4
region hi
!B2
hi
Ib =i
Cutoff (off) Leakage
current
Since transistors are used mainly as switches, the idealized transistor character
istic is of prime importance. Figure 3 3 shows the V-I characteristic of a BJT
Figure 3.3
Idealized characteristic of
a transistor
I
42 CHAPTER 3 Power Trllhsistors
operating a§ a switch. When the transistor is off, there is no collector current no t

matter what the value of VCE is. When the transistor is on, the voltage VCE is |
zero no matter what the value of the collector current is. A transistor has excel- f
lent characteristics as an ideal switch. J
3.2.2 Biasing a Transistor 1

When a transistor is used as a controlled switch, the base current is provided ]
by the control circuit connected between the base and the emitter. The collec- ;
tor and the emitter form the power terminals of the switch. Figure 3.4 shows j
how an NPN transistor is biased. The input base current 4 determines whether j
the transistor switch will be off (with no current to the load JRq) or on (allow- i
ing current to flow).
Figure 3.4
Biasing a transistor
Figure 3 5 shows the DC load line, which represents all possible operating
points. Point is the ideal operating point for the switch when it is on. Here
the collector current Ic is equal to VccJR q, and the voltage across the collector-
emitter is zero.
Point P4 is the ideal operating point for the switch when it is off. Here the
collector current 4 is.zero and the voltage across the collector-emitter is equal
to the supply voltage Vcc.
The line drawn between points Px and P4 is the load line. The intersection
of the load line with the base current is the operating point of the transistor.
The operating point is determined by the circuit that is external to the transis
tor, i.e., Vcc and %
Point P2, where the load line intersects the 4 = 0 curve, is the actual oper
ating point at cutoff. At this point, the collector current is the leakage current.
The voltage across the collector-emitter terminal can be found by applying Kir-
choff's voltage law (KVL) around the output loop:
Vce ~ ~ VpE —0
Vat = Vac ~ k R c 3.1
3.2 Power BJTs 43
Point P3, where the load line intersects the /B = /Bfsat) curve, is the actual
operating point when the BJT is on. Point Pi is called the saturation point. An
on transistor has a small voltage drop across its collect-emitter terminals; this
voltage is called the saturation voltage VÊ(sat). The collector current is at a max
imum here and is given by
T VCC ~ ^CECsaO VCC a ?

/c<sa0" Rc r Rc 3-
The minimum base current required to ensure satisfactory operation is given by
r - A xsa O _ ^CC * st
B~ P “ P *c
where P is the DC current gain given by Ic//B.
Any value of IB higher than the value calculated using Equation 3 3 will
ensure a saturated on state. In fact, to accommodate any changes in Ic above
the required value, it is desirable to use a little higher value of base current than
is obtained by the above formula. A high base current also reduces the turn-on
time and therefore reduces power dissipation. ,
Figure 3.5 /C(A)

Saturation
DC load line
(on)
B (SAT)
=0.6 A
V'c e ( V )
All operating points between cutoff and saturation are in the active regions
of a transistor. In this region, both /c and VCE are relatively high, resulting in
high power dissipation in the transistor.
3.2.3 Power Loss in BJTs

There are four sources of power loss in a transistor: conduction or on-state loss,
leakage or off-state loss, turn-on switching loss, and turnoff switching loss.
Power losses in the transistor when it is on or off are low, but there are
appreciable power losses during switching and they cannot be neglected. More
over, the switching losses depend on the frequency— they are directly propor
tional. In fact, in applications using BJTs, the switching losses tend to limit the
highest switching frequency achievable.
3.2.3.1 Power Loss in the BJT in the On State

Because base current is required to keep a power transistor on, the power loss
in the base drive circuit should be considered. The power loss in the base is
Pft = ^BE(SAT) 4
The power loss in the collector is
P q = ^CE(SAT) 4
The total power loss in the transistor in the on state is given by
ZoN = ÊCSAT) 4 + ^BE(SAT) 4
If the base power loss is small compared with the collector power losses,
^ O N * ^CE(SAT) 4 3 *4
3.2.3.2 Power Loss in the BJT in the Off State

When the BJT is in the off state, the power loss PQFF is given by
P 0 FF = Vce * 4 ~ K :c * /leakage 3-5
3.2.3.3 Energy Loss in the BJT During Turn-on

Energy loss in the transistor during turn-on is given by
w, — —- Jc(mx), t
"(SW -O N ) ~ (J r
V-,
where t( is the collector current rise time (typically 1—2 jXs).
3.2.3.4 Energy Loss in the BJT During Turnoff

Energy loss in the transistor during turnoff is given by
1*7 _ ^CC 4 (max) f a

"'(SW -OFF) — g V " •*• /
where tf is the collect-emitter voltage fall time (typically 1-3 (is).

If the transistor is switched on and off in a periodic manner; the average
power that results depends on the frequency of these switching operations. The
total average power dissipation in the transistor is given by
/T(avg.) = { / o n * *ON + /OFF * k >FF + ^(SW-ON) + ^CSW-OFF)} f 3 -8
Example 3.1 In Figure 3-4, Fcc is 120 V, Rq is 20 Q, and the V-I characteristic of the transis
tor is as shown in Figure 3.5. Find the load current and the power loss for the
following base currents:
a) /B = 0.6 A
b) /B = 0.4 A
c) 4 = 0.2 A
d) /B = 0.0 A
3.2 Power BJTs 45
Solution a) For IB = 0.6 A,

^CE » 1 V
Ic = (120 - l)/20 = 5.95 A '
P on = 1 * 5.95 = 5.95 W
b) For 4 = 0.4 A,
FCE = 2 V
Ic = (120 - 2)/20 = 5.9 A
PON = 2 * 5-9 = 11.8 W
c) For /B = 0.2 A,
^ce = 50 V
Ic = (120 - 50)/20 = 3.5 A
P = 50 * 3-5 = 175 W
d) For /B = 0.0 A,
Ic = 0 A
VCE = 120 V
POFF = 120 * 0 = 0 W
Note that in parts (a) and (b) of this example the base current is sufficient to ensure
operation in the saturated region. In this region, the voltage across the transistor is
very small and the load current is very close to its maximum value for the given load
resistance. However, with a decrease in base current to 0.2 A, the transistor is no
longer in the saturated region. There is now a large increase in the voltage across
the transistor, with a corresponding decrease in load current. More importantly, the
power loss in the transistor during conduction is very high under this condition.
Example 3.2 In Figure 3.4, Fcc = 208 V, Rc = 20 £2, FCE(SAT5 = 0.9 V, = 1,1 V, and
P = 10. Find:
<0 Ic
b) 4
c) the power loss in the collector (Pc)
d) the power loss in the base (-Pu)
Solution a) 7c = i c c ji J c K s m = m .z A-2 = 1036 a

$2 20
b) 4 = 7C/P = 10.36/10 = 1.36 A
c) Pc — ^ce(sat/c
= 0.9 * 10.36
= 9.32 W
d) P b = ^BECSAT) 4
= 1.1 * 1.36
CHAPTER 3 Power Transistors
Example 3.3 In Figure 3-4, Vcc = 200 V, Rc = 20 £2, t( = 1.0 fis, and tf = 1.5 |J.S. If the switch
ing frequency is 5 kHz, find:
a) the turn-on energy loss
b) the turnoff energy loss
c) the switching power loss
Solution Jccmax)
CCmax) “ —
^ =—
2 0 = 10 A
a) V , = » f ^ = 3 3 3 .3 , J
b) 09^ 1 .5 6 0 ^ , 500
c) W(sw) = (333.3 + 500.0) p j = 833.8 |Jj

^swcavg.) = 833.3(10~6) * 5(10-3) = 4.2 W
3.2.4 Testing a Transistor

The state of a transistor can be tested using an ohmmeter. Figure 3.6 shows the
schematics of an NPN transistor along with its diode analogy. This analogy can
be used to see how to test a transistor with an ohmmeter.
Figure 3.6
Diode analogy of an NPN
transistor
When forward-biased, the base-emitter and base-collector junctions should

give a relatively low resistance, while both junctions should register a much
higher resistance if reverse-biased. The resistance between the collector and the
emitter (Rev) can also be tested. In both directions, this resistance is much
higher than the forward resistance of either junction. In silicon transistors, Rce
may read infinity on some ohmmeters. Faulty power transistors often appear
shorted from collector to emitter, even when both junctions test all right.
The type of transistor can also be found by simply noting the polarity of
the ohmmeter leads as applied to the base-emitter junction. If the positive lead
is connected to the base and the negative lead to the emitter, a low resistance
3.2 Power BJTs 47
reading suggests an NPN transistor, while a high reading indicates a PNP tran
sistor.
3.2.5 BJT Protection

A transistor must be protected against excessive currents and voltages to pre
vent damage. When transistors are used at high frequencies, the switching
losses are high because of the transition through the active region. Therefore,
thermal conditions are especially important.
3.2.5.1 Overcurrent Protection

When the transistor is in the on-state, the collector current Ic increases as the
voltage VCE increases. Therefore, the power dissipation ( VCE * /c) also increases
and the junction temperature rises. This results in a decrease in the effective
resistance, since a BJT has a negative temperature coefficient. The decrease in
resistance causes a higher collector current, more power dissipation, and a fur
ther rise in temperature, which continues the process. This positive feedback
can lead to thermal runaway that will eventually destroy the transistor.
Since thermal runaway takes only a few microseconds, fuses cannot be
used to protect a BJT. A better way to protect the transistor is to turn the device
off when Vq? and /c rise above a reference level.
Protection against severe faults can be ensured by using a shorting switch
in parallel with the transistor. The shunt switch is turned on by a signal from
the control circuit upon detection of a severe fault, thus providing an alternate
path for the fault current.
3.2.5.2 Overvoltage Protection

If the collector-base-reverse-bias voltage exceeds a certain limit (>1000 V) when
the transistor is off, the minority carrier flow can cause avalanche breakdown,
resulting in very high current. The resulting high power dissipation can easily
damage the transistor. An antiparallel diode connected across the transistor can
be used for protection.
3.2.5.3 Reverse Blocking Voltage Protection

A transistor does not have reverse blocking capability. Therefore, it must be
shorted by an antiparallel diode if it is used in an AC circuit.
3.2.5.4 Snubber Circuits

A snubber circuit is used to limit the voltage on the device during switching
transients. A typical snubber circuit for a BJT is shown in Figure 3.7. It consists
of a diode (D), a resistor (/?), and a capacitor (C). When the transistor is on, the
voltage across it and the snubber circuit is close to zero. During turnoff, the
diode turns on and the capacitor starts charging. When the transistor is off, the
capacitor is charged to full blocking voltage. Therefore, the capacitor diode
combination slows the rate of rise of voltage across the transistor. The capaci
tor discharges the next time the transistor is on. The resistor limits the peak
value of the discharge current through the transistor.
Figure 3.7
Snubber circuit
3.2.6 Power Transistor Ratings
3.2.6.1 Collector-Emitter Saturation Voltage (VCE(SAT))

When the transistor is fully on, it has a small voltage drop across its collector-
to-emitter terminals. This voltage drop is called the saturation voltage (VÊ(SAX)),
This on-state voltage is usually very small—in the 1-2 V range. The conduction'
power loss in the transistor depends on this voltage.
When using a power transistor as a switch, the base current must be
high enough to force the transistor into the collector saturation region. This
is desirable to reduce K:EfSAT) and thus reduce power dissipation during the
on time.
; • ■).
V
3.2.6.2 DC Current Gain (hfe)
The ratio of the DC value of the collector current Ic to the corresponding DC
value of the base current IB is called the DC current gain (bpE or p).
hFE = l J h 3.9
Unlike signal transistors, for which hm of more than 200 is common, the cur
rent gain of a power transistor is usually between 5 and 50 at the rated current,
so these devices are usually connected in a Darlington configuration (see Sec-i
tion 3.2.9).
3.2.6.3 Switching Speeds

Power transistors switch on and off much faster than thyristors. They may switch
on in less than 1 (is and turn off in less than 2 (is. Therefore, a power transistor
can be used in applications where the frequency is as high as 100 kHz. J
3.2.6.4 Forward Blocking Voltage 1

A transistor has a maximum collector-to-emitter voltage that it can withstand; j
above this voltage, breakdown at the collector junction will occur. This voltage I
is specified as Vcecsu) or VCEO, that is, maximum V£E with the base open. Power j
transistors with ratings as high as 1400 V are available. j
3.2 Power BJTs 49
3.2.6.5 Collector Current Rating

The collector current rating is the maximum permissible continuous collector
current (/Ccmax))-
3.2.6.6 Maximum Permissible Junction Temperature

The maximum permissible junction temperature (7Jmax) is typically 125°C.
3.2.6.7 Power Dissipation

The maximum power rating of a transistor is specified as PD(maX).

To ensure the safe operation of the transistor, manufacturers specify boundaries
on the Vce curve versus the /c curve to define the safe Operating area (SOA). A
typical SOA is shown in Figure 3-8.
A transistor can withstand a maximum collectOr-to-emitter voltage VÊ(SU).
This voltage is the maximum voltage limit shown by the vertical line 1 in Fig
ure 3-8. Since normal operation is above the cutoff region, line 2 defines that
boundary. Similarly, the saturation region defines the line 3 boundaiy.
The maximum allowable collector current 7Cmax forms the upper boundary
(4) of the SOA. The maximum power dissipation Pmax = VCI1 * Ic forms the
boundary indicated by line 5 in Figure 3.8. The final boundary line 6 of the SOA
depends on secondary breakdow n (discussed in the next section), which occurs
when both voltage and current are high during turnoff.
Figure 3.8
Safe operating area (SOA)
of a BJT
fulse operation
Power limit (5)
Saturation - Secondary
limit (3) breakdown limit (6)
------- Voltage
breakdown limit (1)
Cutoff limit (2)
The SOA is important mainly for power transistors that operate in the
active, region. When used as a switch, a BJT operates in the cutoff and satura
tion region, and the transistor is in the active region only for a short period dur
ing switching. For pulse operation, the SOA is extended to a rectangle within
limits.
SO CHAPTER 3 Power Transistors
3.2.8 Secondary Breakdown

BJTs fail under certain high-voltage and high-current conditions. If high voltage
and high current occur simultaneously during turnoff, power dissipation will
cause the device to fail. Figure 3.9 shows the turnoff characteristic of a power
transistor. If we remove the base current (/u) to turn off the transistor, the volt
age across the transistor ( Vcv) increases. When it reaches the DC supply voltage
(VccX the collector current C 0 falls. The power dissipation (P) during turnoff is
shown in Figure 3-9 by the dashed line. Note that the peaks of VCE and /c occur
simultaneously, and this may lead to transistor failure. Snubbers can be used
with power transistors to avoid the simultaneous occurrence of peak voltage
and peak current.
Figure 3.9
Secondary breakdown
3.2.9 Darlington Connection

The current gain (P> of a power transistor can be as low as 5. To obtain higher
current gains, a Darlington connection of two BJTs (see Figure 3-10) can be
used. Current gain in the hundreds can be obtained in a high-power Darlington
transistor. To turn the Darlington switch on, it is only necessary to provide a
very small input at the base o f Qj, to enable it to provide a higher base current
Figure 3.10
The Darlington connection
3.2 Power BJTs 51
to Q2. The base current needed to drive the pair is much less than what is nec
essary to drive Q2 alone. A smaller base current allows a reduction in the cur
rent rating of the base drive circuit. The pair of transistors can be fabricated on
one chip, or two discrete transistors can be physically connected to form a Dar
lington pair.
The Darlington configuration has two disadvantages. The first is that this
configuration results in a higher on-state voltage drop (Vqecsat))- A Darlington
pair can have an on-state voltage drop between 2 and 5 V, depending on its
current and voltage rating. On-state losses are therefore higher. The second dis
advantage of the Darlington connection is its slower switching speed.
Example 3.4 Find the overall gain of the Darlington connection.

Solution Pi = h:i/hi
P2 = l a ! hvi
Overall,
P = Iq/kl
Now
k, ~ Ic\ + ^C2
Therefore,
P — -k l + I< Z 2 _ I g + ^C2
ki 4i
•*B1 %2
•'B2 -'111
Now
h z = h i —k i + 4 i
so
*131
= P i + P 2 (P i + 1) = P i + P2 + Pi P2
= PiP2
Exam ple 3.5 In Figure 3-10, Qx is rated at 20 A with pi = 20, and Q2 is rated at 100 A with
P2 = 10. Find the base current required to turn the Darlington pair on. What is
the base current requirement if Q2 is used alone?
Solution Overall,
P = 20 * 10 = 200
■
‘t = ^C2 = 20 + 100 = 120
Im = /c/p = 120/200 = 0.6 A
If Q2 is used alone,
4 = 100/10 = 10 A
Clearly, the base drive circuit for the Darlington pair will be quite small.
3.2.10 Series and Parallel Connection of Transistors

For high-voltage and high-current applications, a single transistor may not be f
sufficient. Then transistors can be connected in series or in parallel to increase
the blocking voltage or conduction current, respectively. Proper consideration
should be given to the sharing of voltage or current between devices to make
sure that the individual components operate within their limits. Care must be
taken when BJIs are connected in parallel to share the current, since they suf
fer from thermal runaway. Their forward voltage drop decreases with increas
ing temperature, causing a diversion of current to a single device,
m— ■
—■——----------------------------------------- — ----------------------------- --------
3.3 Power Metai-Oxide Semiconductor
Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs)
A power MOSFET is similar to a small signal MOSFET except for its higher volt
age and current ratings. It is a fast-switching transistor, characterized by a high
input impedance, suited to low-power (up to a few kilowatts), high-frequency
(up to 100 kHZ) applications. It has important applications in switching power
supplies, in which high switching frequency means that components are smaller
and cheaper, and in speed control of small motors using pulse width modulation.
MOSFETs are available in both the N-channel and P-channel type. How
ever, N-channel devices are available with higher current and voltage ratings.
Figure 3.11 shows the symbol of a N-channel MOSFET. It has three terminals:
the gate G, the source S and the drain D. The source is always at the potential
nearest the gate. The drain is connected to the load. To turn the device on, the
drain is made positive with respect to the source and a small positive voltage
(Fgs) is applied to the gate. Having no voltage at the gate turns the switch off;
that is, the gate voltage controls the on and off conditions.
In both the on and the off states, the input resistance is extremely high and
the gate current is essentially zero due to the insulated gate. This allows gate con
trol circuits that are simple and efficient compared with tfyose necessary to drive
a BJT. The MOSFET is capable of faster transitions between the on and off states
than a BJT and thus has replaced it in high switching frequency applications.
3.3 Power MOSFETs (Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors) 53
Figure 3.11 D (drain)

Circuit symbol of an
N-channel power MOSFET
At higher switching frequencies, MOSFET switching losses are negligible com

>e pared with those of a BJT. However, conduction, i.e., on-state voltage drop, is
se: high (approximately 4 V at rated current), therefore conduction loss is high.
>n,
;e:
3.3.1 MOSFET Voltage-Current Characteristics
K',
f- The V-I characteristic of a power MOSFET is shown in Figure 3-12. It shows the
s-: relationship between drain-source voltage (Vj)s) and drain current (JD) for dif
ferent values of VGS. As the gate voltage increases from zero, the drain current
does not increase significandy. The MOSFET turns on when V^s exceeds a value
called the threshold voltage ( VT]rl), which is commonly 2-4 V for high-voltage
MOSFETs. The device is considered to operate in the enhancement mode, since
the application of a positive voltage greater than Vm produces a conducting N-
channel. This channel basically acts like a resistance and provides a path for
current flow from drain to source. The gate source voltage controls the drain
current. The higher the value of VGS, the higher the drain current. However, for
a given value of VqS, there is a limit to the maximum current that can flow. If
we keep on increasing Vbs> the drain current (/D) will increase rapidly until we
reach a saturation value (/Dss). After that, there will be no further significant
increase in current for that particular value of V^s. If the power MOSFET is used
as a switch, it should be operated in the unsaturated region to ensure a small
Figure 3.12 Id Constant-resistance or unsaturated region

V-I characteristic of a
- Active region -
power MOSFET
Increasing
VGS
___r BVn
Cutoff region
(Vgs<Vth>
voltage drop across the device when it is in the on state. Once the saturation?
value is reached, a further increase in VDS will only cause an increased voltage^,
drop across the device and increased power dissipation in it, without anr
increase in current.
For a given gate voltage, there are three separate operating regions o n '
the V-I characteristic: the cutoff region, the active region, and the constant- i
resistance (or ohmic, or unsaturated) region.
The cutoff region or off state of the MOSFET exists as long as Vas <
This condition holds for any value of drain-to-source voltage (Vbs) until the
breakdown voltage B V^ss is reached. At this voltage, current can increase *
rapidly and can damage the device. A MOSFET must therefore be operated such (
so that the drain-to-source voltage Vbs is maintained below the value of BV^SS,
For values of Vqs greater than the MOSFET can operate in the active
region or in the ohmic region,
In the active region, the MOSFET is operated as an amplifier. Here Vbs > ^th- '
For a given V^s, the drain current remains nearly constant irrespective of the
drain-source voltage. The drain current (/D) is controlled by Vqs, so the voltage
Vbs and the drain current (/D) can both be high simultaneously. The associated 1
power loss Vm * /D can be large, so this region is not used in power electronics
applications.
The region of interest in power electronics is the ohmic region, where the 1
drain current increases in direct proportion to the drain-source voltage and the
MOSFET is in the on state. Here VdS > 0. The ratio of voltage ( FDS) to current >
(/D) in this region is called the on-state drain-to-source resistance (j^scon)), and i
it is almost constant. This region is similar to the saturation region of the BJT. •
'^DS(ON) = -^DS(ON) 4> 3-10
A typical value of i?DS(ON> >s 0.5 £2. To make sure that the MOSFET remains in
the ohmic region for all desired values of /D, it is best to use a higher value of \
VGS than is necessary in the active region. This value is around 10 V. However.
VJjs should not exceed 20 V—if it does, the MOSFET will be destroyed. A sim- ’
pie way to limit Kqs is to connect a 20-V Zener diode across the gate-source ter
minal.
■ii
3.3.2 The MOSFET Transfer Characteristic
When the MOSFET is used as a switch, its basic function is to control the drain
current by the gate voltage. Figure 3.13 shows the transfer characteristic, which
is a plot of drain current (/D) versus gate voltage ( VGS) at a fixed drain voltage
The actual curve can be approximated by the linearized characteristic indicated
by the dashed line in Figure 3.13- The drain current is zero until we reach the
threshold voltage, then the current increases linearly with voltage. The slope is
the transconductance gm.
Iq —0 for VqS < Vffi
4> = <@mCVqs — I'm) f°r Vqs >
Figure 3.13
> tt
Transfer characteristic
Ul.
)n
it
B'j
ici
sei
3.3.3 The Ideal MOSFET Characteristic
SS': A MOSFET power switch has the ideal characteristic shown in Figure 3.14. With
VC no signal applied to the gate, the device is off. The drain current (/D) is zero
and the voltage Vbs is equal to the value of the supply voltage. A voltage at the
rH'. gate (V£jS), turns the device on, and the drain current is limited by the load
he resistance. The voltage (VoS) across the MOSFET is zero.
The two MOSFET states correspond to the two states of an on-off switch.
ed; Although a MOSFET is not an ideal switch, it is sufficiently close to the ideal
ics*
requirements to be a very useful and practical device.
he;
he
Figure 3.14
:n( Ideal characteristic
nd
in;
of
rer|
in-
cr-
3.3.4 A MOSFET as a Switch
When a power MOSFET is used as a switch and is in the on condition, it is
forced to operate in the ohmic region. This ensures that voltage drop across the
device is low, so that the drain current is determined by the load and the power
air loss in the device is small.
ldi ' The condition for MOSFET operation in the ohmic region is given by:
g<-
tedj Vns 5= K:;s ~ ^"TH
th and Vns
ds >
■0 3.11
the; Therefore for switching applications, the on-state resistance CRDS(on)) is a very
; is important parameter, since it determines the conduction power loss for a given
value of the load (drain) current. The lower the value of /?ds(on)> the lower
the on-state voltage drop, the lower the power dissipation, and the higher the
current-carrying capability of the device.
The forward voltage drop is

VP —
= I■D
'D* a
R,DS(ON)
Internal power dissipation is

P = Id2 * ^dscon)
When the MOSFET is off, the drain current is zero and the voltage VdS equals
the value of the supply voltage. Under this condition the resistance between the
drain and source Rm is very high.
The condition for MOSFET operation in the cutoff region is given by:
Vos ^ 0 and VGS < VTH 3.12
3.3.5 MOSFET Losses

There are four sources of power losses in the switching MOSFET: the conduc
tion or on-state loss, the off-state loss, the turn-on switching loss, and th<
turnoff switching loss.
3.3.5.1 Conduction or On-State Loss

A MOSFET has relatively high on-state losses given by:
Pqn = b 2 &oscon) 3.1:
where Tis the total period.
3.3.5 2 Off-State Loss

The off-state loss is given by
PqFF = ^DS(max) 4>SS 3.1'
3.3.5.3 The Turn-on Switching Loss

The energy loss in the MOSFET when it switches from the off state to the 01
state is given by
T¥7 — ^DSCmax) A) ts 3.1
where tt is the rise time of the drain current (/D).
3.3.5.4 The Turnoff Switching Loss

The energy loss in the MOSFET when it switches from the on state to the ol
state is given by:
3.1
where is the fall time of the drain current (/D).

3.3.5.5 Switching Pow er Loss

The switching power loss is
Psw —( Won + -v*W *f 3.17'
where / i s the switching frequency.
3.3.5.6 Total Pow er Loss in th e MOSFET
Py = Pqh + PoVF + -PsW 3.18
It is important to point out that the total power loss in a MOSFET is higher than
in a BJT at low switching frequency, due to the higher conduction loss of the
MOSFET. However, as the switching frequency is increased, BJT switching
losses increase more than those of the MOSFET. Therefore, for high-frequency
applications, it is desirable to use a MOSFET.
Exam ple 3.6 In Figure 3.15, the DC supply voltage K, is 120 V and the load resistance i?L is
10 Q. The MOSFET parameters are t, = 1.5 jlS and */?ds(on) = 0.1 Q. If the duty
cycle d = 0.6 and the frequency of switching is 25 kHz, find
a) the power loss in the on state
b) the power loss during the turn-on interval
Figure 3.15
See Example 3.6
Solution ID - Vy[Rt + /<DSfON)

= 120/10 + 0.1
= 12 A
a) the switching period T= 1 //= 1/25K = 40 fxS
on time ton = d* r= 0.6 * 40 p.s = 24 M-S
energy loss during on-time ÔN = k -^DS(ON) * AdN
= 122 * 0.1 * 24(10^) = 345.6 jij
power loss during on-time ^ o n = Won * / = 345.6(10^) * 2(103)
= 8.6 W
b) energy loss during turn-on WON = - 2Q* 12 1.5 * 10-6 = 360 HJ

6
power loss during turn-on Pon = WbN • / = 360C10-6) * 25(103) = 0.9 W
Example 3.7 A MOSFET has the following parameters: /Dss = 2 mA, /?ds(on) = 0-3 Q., duty
cycle d = 50%, /D = 6 A, V^,s = 100 V, £r = 100 ns, and t{ = 200 ns. If the fre
quency of switching is 40 kHz, find the total power loss.
Solution r= 1/ / = 1/40C103) = 25 \xs
foN = foFF = 12.5 |XS
P .. 62 * 0.3 - 12.5 (IQ-6) ..
PoN“ 25 (10-6) ~ 5'4W
100 * 2(10~3) * 12.5 (10-6)
25 (10-6)
100 * 6 * 100 CIO"9) „
•Pswcon) = ------------ g------------ 40(10 ) = 0.4 W
psw(oin * 10 0 - S .LI200 ( 10 -*) . 40(10S) = .M w

6
Pr = 5.4 + 0.1 + 0.4 + 0.8 = 6.7 W
Example 3.8 Repeat Example 3-7 for a switching frequency of 100 kHz.
Solution T= 1/ / = 1/ 100 Q 0 3) = 10 M-s
k>N = toff = 5 |is (since the duty cycle is still 50%)
A)N and Foff are independent of frequency. Therefore, they remain the same.
P 3W (o n ) = ( 1 Q 9 ) * 1 0 0 ( 1 0 3) = L O W
0
P sw co ff) = -1" —- .*-|-°° * 100 ( 10 3) = 2.0 W
Pr = 5.4 + 0.1 + 1.0 + 2.0 = 8.5 W (27% more than in Example 3.7)
3.3.6 The Internal Body Diode of a Power MOSFET

If we reverse-bias the source (make the source positive with respect to the
drain), the MOSFET cannot block this voltage; that is, the MOSFET has no
reverse-voltage blocking capability. This is due to the intrinsic antiparallel diode
within its structure. It provides a direct internal path for the current to flow in
the reverse direction (from source to drain) across the junction, which becomes
forward-biased. This integral diode, called thg body diode and shown in Figure
3 .16 , is very useful for piost switching applications, since it provides a free
wheeling current path.
Figure 3.16 D
Body diode
Go------------ H
3.3.7 MOSFET Protection

A MOSFET, like all other semiconductor devices, must be protected against
overvoltages, overcurrents, and transients. MOSFETs can be protected by
removing the gate voltage, thus turning the device off. In fact, MOSFETs are
available with built-in current and temperature sensors and gate-drive circuits
that remove the gate voltage in case of 6 vercurrents or transients.
3.3.7.1 Overvoltages
Overvoltages do not affect a MOSFET when it is on, since the device acts like
a short circuit. However, in the off state, overvoltages that appear across the
drain-source and across the gate-source affect the MOSFET directly.
In the off state, the MOSFET will operate in the active region if VJXS
exceeds BV^ss- In this region, the voltage (V^s) and the current (ID) can be high
simultaneously, and the associated power loss VDS * ID can damage the MOS
FET. This situation is easily avoided by making sure that the supply voltage is
less than the MOSFETs breakover voltage. Protection against external overvolt
ages is accomplished by connecting a nonlinear resistor called a varistor across
the MOSFET. In case of an overvoltage close to across the MOSFET, the
resistance of the varistor decreases and allows a path for the current flow.
3.3.7.2 Overcurrents
An oVbrcurrent in a power MOSFET will cause the junction temperature to
the exceed its normal value of 150°C. This overheating will eventually cause
no destruction of the MOSFET. One simple means of protection is to ensure that
)de the current flow through the MOSFET does not exceed 75% of its rated value.
- in This method allows a safety factor of about 25% if the source voltage increases
nes or if the load impedance is decreased inadvertently. Some manufacturers use
ure built-in current sensors. An overcurrent that results in a rise in temperature can
■ee- be sensed, and if the temperature exceeds a predetermined level, the MOSFET
can be turned off by removing the gate signal.
m CHAPTER 3 Power Transistors

The safe operating area (SOA) shows the operational limits of the MOSFETj
Manufacturers’ data sheets provide the maximum allowable drain current?
Ob(max)) that the device can handle. The power dissipation must be limited sol
that the junction temperature 7J does not exceed its maximum allowable value!
of 150°C. The maximum drain-to-source voltage limit also defines the boundary!
of acceptable operation. A typical SOA is shown in Figure 3-17. The limits for|
current and power are higher for pulsed operation than for DC. These limits!
also depend on the pulse duration, as shown in the figure. The shorter the con-f
duction time, the larger the permitted power dissipation. For a sufficiently short |
pulse duration, it is even possible to operate at point P, where maximum val
ues of '/DS and ID occur simultaneously. There is no secondary breakdown phe- i
nomenon in power MOSFETs, so they can withstand simultaneous application *
of high current and voltage without undergoing destructive failure. |
Figure 3.17
Safe operating area of a
MOSFET
3.3.9 MOSFETs in Series and in Parallel

MOSFETs with high pow er ratings are still not available. Therefore, they are !
connected in series or in parallel to increase their voltage or current ratings. |
3.3.9.1 MOSFETs in Series j

MOSFETs are available with voltage ratings as high as 1200 V. However, if a sin - 1
gle MOSFET’s voltage rating is lower than the source voltage, we can connect
two or more MOSFETs in series to handle the higher voltage. A resistor con
nected in parallel can be used to share voltage equally.
3.3.9.2 MOSFETs in Parallel

MOSFETs can be connected in parallel to share the load current if the current
rating of a single MOSFET is less than that required by the load. MOSFETs con
nected in parallel share the current equally due to the positive temperature
coefficient of Z?d s ( o n ). s o there is no need for series current-sharing resistors.
If two MOSFETs are connected in parallel, the device with the lower resis
tance jRDS(on) will try to draw more current than the other. Since P = /D2
the device conducting the higher current will dissipate more power, raising the
junction temperature, and in turn increasing the on-state resistance (i?Ds(oN))>
which will limit the current. This self-limiting characteristic forces an even dis
tribution of current in the two MOSFETs.
Example 3.9 In Figure 3-18, find the power dissipated by each MOSFET.
O-
Figure 3.18
See Example 3.9
O-
Solution Using the current divider rule,
/n
'max
Substituting the given values,
4iax
[max - t r * 10 = 6.67 A
yj.o
J U = 10 - 6.67 = 3.33 A
P\ = /max
'max2 * ^ i n = 6.67" * 0.1 = 4.45 W
p2 = /min2 * iâx = 3-332 * 0.2 = 2.22 W
Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
The Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) combines the low on-state voltage
drop and high off-state voltage characteristics of the BJT with the excellent
switching characteristics, simple gate-drive circuit, and high input impedance of
the MOSFET, IGBTs are available in current and voltage ratings well beyond
what is normally available for power MOSFETs. For example, the POWEREX
IGBT CM 1000HA-28H has a voltage -rating of 1400 V and current rating of
1000A. IGBTs are replacing MOSFETs in high-voltage applications where con
duction losses must be kept low. Although the switching speeds of IGBTs are
higher (up to 50 kHz) than those of BJTs, they are lower than those of MOS
FETs. Therefore, the maximum switching frequencies possible with IGBTs are
between those of BJTs and MOSFETs. Unlike the MOSFET, the IGBT has no
internal reverse diode, so its reverse-voltage blocking capability is very poor.
The maximum reverse voltage it can withstand is less than 10 V.
Figure 3-19 shows the circuit symbol of an N-channel IGBT and its equiv
alent connection of MOSFET and BJT. An IGBT has three terminals: the gate,
the collector, and the emitter.
Figure 3.19 C (collector)

(a) The IGBT (b) Equivalent
MOSFET-BJT connection
BJT
3.4.1 Operating Principles

The operation of the IGBT is very similar to that of the power MOSFET. To turn
on the IGBT, the collector terminal (C) must be positively biased with respect
to the emitter terminal (E). A positive voltage VG applied to the gate will turn
on the device when the gate voltage exceeds the threshold voltage (VJjecth)).
The IGBT is turned off by simply removing the voltage signal from the gate ter
minal.
3.4 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) 63
3.4.2 The IGBT Voltage-Current Characteristic

The IGBT V-I characteristic shown in Figure 3.20 is a plot of the collector cur
rent CO versus the collector-to-emitter voltage (VCE). When there is no voltage
applied to the gate, the IGBT is in the off state. In this state, the current (7C) is
zero and the voltage across the switch is equal to the source voltage. If a volt
age vg > Vgikth) is applied to the gate, the device turns on and allows current
Ic to flow. This current is limited by the source voltage and the load resistance.
In the on state, the voltage across the switch drops to zero.
Figure 3.20
IGBT V-I characteristic
KCE
3.4.3 The Ideal IGBT Characteristic

An ideal IGBT, when on, has no voltage across it while the current is deter
mined by /c = Vs/Rl . When off, it can block any positive or negative voltage.
Figure 3-21 shows the ideal V-I characteristic.
Figure 3.21 ic
Ideal IGBT V-I characteristic
On
Off
Example 3.10 In Figure 3.22, the source voltage is 220 V and the load resistance is 5 O. The
IGBT is operated at a frequency of 1 kHz. Find the on time for the pulse if the
power required to the load is 5 kW.
Figure 3.22
See Example 3.10
Solution T = 1/ / = 1 ms
1/ _ ÔN
L(avg.)
1/ 2
p _ Jk ay g
L Ri
Therefore,
p _ ^ fc)N
L R iJ
.5.M OO r^
ON Ks2 220
3.4.4 IGBT Losses

The energy loss in the IGBT during the turn-on process is given by:
^ „ ^ C E (m a x ) -^C finax) V_)N ^
The average power dissipated due to the turn-on process is

Po n = W o n * / sw 3.20
where / w is the IGBT switching frequency.
The energy loss during the turnoff time (/off) is the same as that for turn
on and is given by:
■ \yr _ ^ C E (m a x ) ^ C ( m ax ) ^QFF 2
ÔFF — g D.&L
Example 3.11 In Figure 3.22, Fs = 220 V, Rt = 10 Q, f sw = 1 kHz, and d = 0.6. If the IGBT has
the following data:
toN = 2.5 |-lS, Zqpf = 1 (AS, and T^cecsat) = 2-0 V
find:
a) average load current
b) conduction power loss
c) switching power loss during turn-on
d) switching power loss during turnoff
Solution a) /c(max) = = 21.8 A
Ic (avg.) = d * /ccmax) = 0.6 * 21.8 = 13.08 A

b) conduction power loss = Vc m m * /c(avR)
= 2 * 13.08
= 26.16 W
c) switching power loss during turn-on =
220 * 21.8 « 2.5(10^) , ^
2W
d) switching power loss during turn-off = ^ Kmax)—
, . 103 , 0,8v
3.5 Unijunction Transistors (UJT)

The unijunction transistor (UJT) is a three-terminal device with an emitter (E) and
two bases: base one (Bj) and base two (B2). The emitter is a P-type material, while
the main body of the UJT is an N-type material. Therefore, a PN junction exists
between the emitter and the body of the UJT. The UJT is used for generating trig
ger pulses for larger devices such as SCRs and triacs. Figure 3-23 shows the struc
ture, the schematic symbol and the V-I characteristics of the UJT. Its control termi
nals (E and Bj) are also its power terminals. Terminal B2 is used for biasing.
With no emitter bias at terminal E, VEm = 0 and the UJT has a certain inter
nal resistance between B2 and Bi. This resistance is called the interbase resis
tance (i?B), and at 25°C it is of the order of kilohms. It is made up of two resis
tances, Rm and Rm (see Figure 3-24). The ratio of Rm to RB is called the
standoff ratio rj, because its value determines the reverse bias that the equiva
lent PN diode junction experiences.
(Base 2)
fB,
(Base 1)
(a) (b)
Figure 3.23
The UJT (a) structure; (b) schematic symbol; (c) characteristic
n = *BL = _ _ & L _ 3 .2 2
Rr Rbi + Rbi
The value of T| lies between 0.5 and 0.8. A typical value for most UJTs is 0.6.
3.5.1 Biasing the UJT

Figure 3.24 shows how the UJT is normally biased. If terminals B2 and Bj are
positively biased with a voltage source 1^ B, the resistances Km and i ?B1 act as a
voltage divider, such that the voltage at the t) point is
Vital - r\ ^bb 3.23
Therefore, to forward-bias the diode D and turn the UJT on, the emitter voltage
VE must be greater than a value called the peak voltage ( I p , which is given by
Figure 3.24
Biasing a UJT B,
Vp~ Vb + 11 .^BB 3.24

where Vb is the PN-junction barrier potential (0.7 V for silicon). After the UJT
turns on, the UJT acts like a forward-biased diode and resistance Rm reduces to
a very low value, almost zero. Km is not affected by this and is fixed at its orig
inal off-state value; Figure 3.25(a) shows the equivalent circuit of the UJT when
it is on.
If VE is less than V'P, the emitter is reverse-biased, the UJT turns off, and
only a small reverse leakage current will flow. Figure 3.25(b) shows the equiv
alent circuit of the UJT when it is off.
Figure 3.25
Equivalent circuits for a UJT:
(a) on; (b) off
E D E D
B2
o
5,
(a) (b)
3.5.2 Testing a UJT

The equivalent circuit of a UJT (Figure 3-25),’ a diode, and two resistors can be
used to show how to test the UJT with an ohmmeterr There are five resistances
to check when testing a UJT:
1. Bx to B2 (tfB)
2. E to Bt with D forward-biased Q?B1F)
2. E to Bj with D reverse-biased (/s’BW)
4. E to B2 with D forward-biased (i?B2F)
5. E to B2 with D reverse-biased (RB2r)
Rb1r and RB2R should be extremely large compared with the other three resis
tances. Rb is the same in either direction; it is the third-largest resistance (about
5-10 kQ for most UJT). RB1F and KH2r have the smallest values. These resis
tances vary widely since the resistance of a forward-biased diode depends on
the current through it. Assuming equal current flow, Rb2¥ is about 20% smaller
than i?B1F.
&8 CHAPTER 3 Power Transistors
3.5.3 Using a UJT Circuit to Trigger a Thyristor

A UJT is an ideal device to use in relaxation oscillators for firing an SCR. Figure,
3.26 shows the UJT oscillator circuit. When the switch S is closed, capacitor £
begins to charge through resistor R at a rate that depends on the time constant
T= RC. When the capacitor voltage (Vc = V?) reaches the peak voltage Vp, the
UJT will fire. This places a low resistance across C, and it very quickly dis
charges through Rx. This turns the UJT off, and C begins to charge again to
repeat the cycle.
Figure 3.26
A UJT circuit for triggering
a thyristor
The burst of current can be used to trigger a thyristor or turn on a tran

sistor. The frequency of oscillation is given approximately by:
f= V T 3.25
wheree T, the time it takes to turn on the UJT, is given by:

1
T= RC In RC 3.26
1 “ 11
Example 3.12 A 15-V source is connected across B2-Bj. If tj = 0.6, find the emitter voltage
needed to turn the silicon UJT on.
Solution The voltage across Rm is
.V rbi = 0.6 * 15 = 9 V
Therefore the voltage at the r| point is 9 V with respect to ground. This

places +9 V on the cathode of the silicon. It takes about 0.7 V to forward-
bias and turn this diode on. Therefore, the emitter voltage must be greater
than VP = 0.7 + 9 = 9-7 V to Are the UJT. Note that if the emitter voltage 4s
less than 9-7 V, it will reverse-bias the device and only a small reverse leak
age current will flow.
Example 3.13 In Figure 3.26, FBB = 15 V, R = 45 kO, C= 0.1 flF, R2 = 270 O, = 90 £2, t| = 0.6,
and the device is silicon.
a) Draw the output waveform.
b) Find the frequency.
Solution a) The voltage-divider circuit of R2, Rx, and the UJTs Rm and Rm set up 0.6 *
15 = 9 V at the UJT’s t) point. When’ the capacitor charges to a voltage
greater than 9-7 V, the UJT turns on. This places the resistance across C\
and it quickly discharges, turning off the UJT. C begins to charge again, and
the cycle repeats. The voltage across the capacitor Vc is shown in Figure
3.27. Its sawtooth waveform is caused by relatively slow charging and quick
discharging. During the quick discharge, a large current through Rx causes a
voltage spike at the output VOX}T, as shown in Figure 3-27.
Figure 3.27
Output waveform vc
b) / = RC 222 Hz
45C103) * 0.1(10“6)
3 .6 Problem s
3.1 List the terminals of a bipolar junction transistor.

3-2 Describe how the base-emitter junction and the collector-base junction
must be biased to turn on the BJT.
3.3 Describe how the base-emitter junction and the collector-base junction
must be biased to turn off the BJT.
3.4 Which terminal is at the most negative voltage in an on PNP transistor?
3-5 Which two BJT terminals act like the switch contacts?
3.6 Which two MOSFET terminals act like the contacts of a switch?
3.7 What two UJT terminals are the control terminals?
3.8 What is terminal B2 used for on a UJT?
3*9 In Figure 3.4, Vcc = 200 V, Rq = 20 £2, P = 20, Vqj(sat) = 1-0 V, and Vbecsat) =
1.2 V. Find:
(a) the minimum value of IB required to ensure a saturated on state
(b) the on-state power loss in the transistor
3.10 In Figure 3.4, Vcc = 200 V and Rc = 20 £1 The BJT is turned on and off
at a frequency of 5 kHz, Jswcon) is 1 (XS and /swcopf) is 1.5 (AS. Find the total
switching power loss.
3.11 A BJT switch controls DC power to a 5-£2 resistive load. The DC source
voltage K; = 120 V, VcmkT} = 1.2 V, VbE(SAT) = 1-5 V, the base resistance =
1.5 £2, and the base bias voltage Vm = 5 V. If the frequency is 5 kHz with
^sw(on) = 1 Rs and ^wcoff) = 1-5 |iS, find
(a) P
(b) power loss in the BJT
3.12 A BJT switch controls DC power to a 5-0 resistive load. If the DC source
voltage V"s = 120 V, VCE(SAT) = 1.2 V, and turn-on time is 1 (As, find:
(a) the BJT on-state losses
(b) the energy loss in the BJT during the turn-on process
3.13 In Figure 3-4, Fcc = 200 V, = 20 £2, RB = 5 £2, p = 30, and ,Vm = 0.6 V
when the switch is on. Find the minimum input voltage required to turn
the switch on.
3-14 In Figure 3.4, Vcc = 300 V and Rc = 20 £2. The BJT is turned on and off
at a frequency of 2 klfz, ^sw<o\) is 10 Lis, ^sw<'offs is 1.2 jxs, and Vce(sat) =
1.6 V. Find the total switching power loss.
3.15 A MOSFET switch controls power to a 5-£2 resistive load, The DC source
voltage Vs = 120 V, /<’Ds(on) = 0.1 £2, switching frequency = 25 kHz, =
150 ns, and the duty cycle = 0.6. Find:
(a) the energy loss during the on time
(b) the power loss in the switch when it is on
3.7 Equations 71
3.16 An IGBT switch controls power to a 15-0 resistive load. The DC source
voltage = 440 V, Vcecsat) = 1-5 V, the switching frequency = 2 kHz,
toN = 20 ns, and the duty cycle = 0.6. Find
(a) the IGBT minimum current rating
(b) the on-state power loss
(c) the turn-on power loss
3.7 Equations
^CF. — Vcc ~ 3 .1
T ■ VCC ~ ^CE(SAT) ^CC ,
■'C(SAT) - _ ~ ,,
*<C
t — la s x n _ ^cc -» -x
P “ P*: 3-3
/o N “ ^CECSAT) Jc 3 .4
ÔFF = Vce * I c ~ ^CC * leakage 3 -5
117 — ^CC ^C(rnax) f -2 s
**(SW -O N) ~ ft T
W/ — ^CC /c(max) * 1*1

"SWCOFF) “ g f ?*'
Pr(a v g .) = [ / on * Ad N + / ’o f f * ÔFF + W (S W -O N ) + ^C S W -O F F )l f 3-8

bf:E = / c//b 3 -9
Pdp = P i + P 2 + P i P 2
^ D S (O N ) = /'O S (O N ) 4 ) 3.10
^ds — 'I'gs ~ ^th and VJ)S > 0 3 -1 1
PqS > 0 an d VqS < Vj^ 3 -1 2
/ o n = 4 )2 ^ b s (O N ) 3 .1 3
r
c
/o ff - ^DS(max) kss ^ 3-14
T
WON = l l)S'nu;xl /p tr 3.15
117 — ^DS(max) A) 3.16

"OFF ~ g
/ 3sw = (WbN+ W b ir)* / 3.17

Pf - /o n + /o f f + Psw 3.18
I>7 __ ^ E1max) ^'(niax) 4 ?N

ÔN ~ ^
P DN — ^ O N * 7SW
Wr — ^('Ffmax) h'JnvAx) ^T>FF

OFF — g
« _ jS m . _ ___^£1___
i?B -^Bl + ^B2
^RBl = "H ^BB
Vp = Vh + l\ Vm
f = 1/7*
r=i?CIn— — » £<7
1 -T1
Thyristor Devices
Chapter Outline
4.1 Introduction 4.10.3 l2t Rating

4.2 The Silicon C o ntro lled Rectifier (SCR) 4.11 G ate Circuit Protection
4.2.1 Description 4 .1 2 SCR G ate-Triggering Circuits
4.2.2 Two-Transistor Model of the SCR 4.12.1 DC Signals
4.3 SCR Characteristic Curves 4.12.2 Pulse Signals
4.3.1 The Ideal Characteristic 4.12.3 AC Signals
4.4 Testing SCRs 4 .13 Triggering SCRs in Series and in
Parallel
4.5 SCR Ratings
4.5.1 Subscripts for SCR Ratings 4 .1 4 SCR Turnoff (C o m m utatio n ) Circuits
4.5.2 SCR Current Ratings 4.14.1 Capacitor Commutation
4.5.3 SCR Voltage Ratings 4.14.2 / Commutation by External
4.5.4 SCR Classification According to Source
Frequency and Switching Speed 4.14.3 Commutation by Resonance
4.5.5 SCR Rate-of-Change Ratings 4.14.4 AC Line Commutation
4.5.6 Gate Parameters 4 .1 5 O th e r Types o f Thyristors
4.6 Junction Tem peratu re Rating 4.15.1 The Silicon Controlled Switch
(SCS)
4.7 Increasing SCR Ratings
4.15.2 The Gate Turnoff Thyristor
4.8 Series and Parallel SCR Connections (GTO)
4.8.1 SCRs in Series 4.15.3 TheDiac
4.8.2 SCRs in Parallel 4.15.4 TheTriac
4.9 Power Loss 4.15.5 The MOS-Controlled Thyristor
(MCT)
4.10 SCR Protection
4.10.1 Overvoltage Protection 4 .16 Problems
4.10.2 Overcurrent Protection 4.17 Equations
74 CHAPTER 4 Thyristor Devices
Learning Objectives
A fte r com pleting this chapter, th e student m list th e p o w er losses in SCRs

should be able to
H explain how to protect SCRs
■ d efin e th e te rm thyristor m describe the basic forms o f SCR g ate -
s describe th e o p eratio n o f the silicon trig g ering circuits
controlled rectifier (SCR) ■ describe some common SCR
a in te rp re t th e V-I characteristic curve o f com m utation circuits
an SCR m describe the operation o f th e GTO
m d efin e some im p o rta n t electrical ■ describe the operation o f th e triac
param eters associated w ith SCRs • describe the operation o f b reakover
m explain h o w to test an SCR trig g e r devices such as diacs and SCSs
■ list th e principal ratings o f SCRs ■ describe the operation o f th e MOS-
m describe h o w SCRs can be connected in controlled thyristor
series and in parallel to increase th e ir
ratings
4.1 Introduction
" '
Thyristors are four-layer PNPN power semiconductor devices used as electronic
switches. Their main advantage is that they can convert and control large
amounts of power in AC or DC systems while using very low power for con- *:
trol. This chapter will introduce the thyristor family, which includes the silicon
controlled rectifier (SCR), the gate-turnoff thyristor (GTO), the triac, the diac, the J
silicon controlled switch (SCS), and the MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT). The
SCR is the most important member of the family and is emphasized in this chap- ;
ter. SCRs are widely used in such applications as regulated power supplies, sta-
tic switches, choppers, inverters, cycloconverters, heaters, lighting, and motor E
control.
4.2 The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is the most popular electrical power con
troller due to its fast switching action, small size, in d high current and high volt
age ratings.
4.2 The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) 75
: 4.2.1 Description
The structure of an SCR is shown in Figure 4.1(a), and Figure 4.1(b) shows
J the electrical symbol. It has three terminals: the anode (A) and the cathode
f (K) are its power terminals, and the gate (G) is the control terminal. When
! the SCR is forward-biased, that is, w hen the anode is made /positive with
; respect to the cathode, a positive voltage on the gate with respect to the
? cathode turns on (triggers) the SCR. However, the current through the SCR
cannot be turned off using the gate. It is turned off by interrupting the anode
current. In a manner similar to that of a diode, the SCR blocks current in the
! reverse direction.
Figure 4.1 (anofje)

The SCR (a) PNPN structure A
(b) symbol
G c
(gate)
K
(cathode)
(a) (b)
4.2.2 Two-Transistor Model of the SCR

The most common explanation of the positive feedback action that results when
tic an SCR switches can be illustrated using the two-transistor model shown in
ge Figure 4.2. The SCR can be represented as two separate complimentary transis
fl tors, an NPN (Qx) and a PNP (Q2) transistor. The collector of Qi is the base of
an Q2, and the base of Qi is the collector of Q2. A positive voltage on the gate
he forward-biases the base-emitter junction of transistor Qu turning it on. This
he
»P- Figure 4.2
ta- The SCR two-transistor
tor model (a) PNP-NPN
transistor analogy (b) SCR
transistor analogy
p
B
N N
Gc P P
B
C N
on-
olt-
(a)
?6 CHAPTER 4 Thyristor Devices
w
allows current through the NPN collector (the PNP base). If the SCR anode is
positive, the PNP emitter-base junction is forward-biased, turning it on. After the
PNP transistor is turned on, it in turn supplies the NPN with base current. This
regenerative process, called latching, continues until both transistors are driven ‘
into saturation. Removal of the gate voltage will not turn the SCR off. Qi sup
plies Q2 with base current and Q2 supplies Q1 with base current. The SCR [
remains on until its principal current (current from anode to cathode) is inter- i
rupted. I
It is important to note that to turn the thyristor on, the gate requires a |
small-magnitude positive pulse for only a short period of time. Once the device |
is on, the gate signal serves no useful purpose and can be removed. f
H------------ :-------------------------------------
4.3 SCR Characteristic Curves
The volt-ampere characteristic of an SCR is shown in Figure 4.3. When the SCR
is forward-biased, a small forward current called the off-state current flows
through the device. This region of the curve is known as the forward blocking
region. However, if the forward bias is increased until the anode voltage
reaches a critical limit called the forw ard breakover voltage ( Vmo), the SCR turns
on. The voltage across the SCR then drops to a low value, the on-state voltage
(1-3 V), and the current increases sharply, limited only by the components in
series with the SCR.
As can be seen from the three characteristic curves, the value of Vmo can
be controlled by the level of the gate current. If the gate-cathode junction is
Figure 4.3 Forward conduction

Characteristic V-l curves of +Â region (on state)
an SCR
t
Reverse breakdown
4.3 SCR Characteristic Curves 77
forward-biased, the SCR is turned on at a lower breakover voltage than with the
gate open (/G = 0). As the gate current is increased, the breakover voltage is
decreased and the SCR characteristic closely resembles that of an ordinary
diode. The only difference in the three curves is in the forward-blocking region.
The Iq = 0 curve shows that the SCR can be turned on with no gate current, but
this is not a desirable characteristic in SCRs. In practice, the SCR is made to
switch on by applying a gate signal. At a low gate current Ggi), the SCR turns
on at a lower forward-anode voltage. At a higher gate current (/G2), the SCR
fires at a still lower value of forward-anode voltage.
The reverse characteristic is similar to that of a common PN junction
diode. When the SCR is reverse-biased (that is, when the anode is made nega
tive with respect to the cathode), there is a small reverse leakage current (4). If
the reverse voltage is increased until the voltage reaches the reverse breakdown
voltage ( V(BR)R), the reverse current will increase sharply. If the current is not
limited to a safe value, the device can be destroyed. Care must be taken to
make sure that the maximum reverse voltage across an SCR does not exceed its
breakdown voltage.
Essentially, the SCR acts like a switch. When the applied voltage is below
the breakover point, the switch is off. When the applied voltage reaches the
breakover point or if a positive signal is applied to the gate, the switch is on.
The SCR remains on as long as its anode current IA stays above a certain value
called the holding current (/H).
After the SCR has been turned on, the gate loses control, that is, even if
the gate current is reduced to zero, the SCR remains on. The SCR can only be
turned off by removing the supply voltage, or reducing the anode current to a
level below the holding current. If the source is AC, the SCR is reverse-biased
during the negative half-cycle and therefore turns off “naturally.”
4.3.1 The Ideal Characteristic

The SCR can be represented by the idealized characteristic shown in Figure 4.4.
It has three basic operating states. The forward blocking (off) state, the forward
conduction (on) state, and the reverse blocking (off) state. The gate signal
: Idealized characteristic
of an SCR
Forward conduction
On state
Reverse blocking Forward blocking

7B CHAPTER 4 Thyristor Devices
switches the SCR from the forward blocking state to the forward conducting |f
state. The ideal SCR behaves like a diode after it has been turned on. $
» ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- :---------- :-------------------------------------- :-------------------------------------------------------- :----------------------------------------------------- :-------------------------------------------------------------------------- ' .!■
4.4 Testing SCRs
An SCR can be tested by forward-biasing it, supplying the gate with a trigger
voltage, and noting whether the SCR stays on after the gate-voltage is removed.
Small SCRs that have low holding currents can be tested easily with a digital
multimeter.
Figure 4.5 shows how to test an SCR with an ohmmeter. To test the SCR,
connect the positive ohmmeter lead to the anode and the negative lead to the
cathode. This forward-biases the SCR. However, the ohmmeter should give a
very high reading since the SCR is off. Then short the gate to the anode. This
supplies the trigger signal to the gate, and the SCR should turn on. The resis
tance should decrease and should stay low even after the gate lead is removed
from the anode. During the test, the anode and cathode must remain connected
to the ohmmeter.
Figure 4.5 A
Testing an SCR with an
ohmmeter
If the SCR turns on before the gate voltage is applied, it is shorted from
anode to cathode. If it does not turn on after the gate voltage is applied, it is
open. If it turns on during a gate trigger but turns off immediately when the
gate lead is removed, its condition is doubtful. The current supplied by the
ohmmeter may not be sufficient to keep the SCR ab6 ve its holding current level
Reverse-bias the SCR by connecting the cathode to the positive ohmmeter
lead and the anode to the negative lead. The ohmmeter should show an infi
nite reading. If the gate is shorted to the anode, the ohmmeter should still indi
cate infinity.
Care must be taken with this method of testing. If the voltage applied by the
ohmmeter to the gate-cathode junction is too high, the device may be destroyed.
SCRs can be tested more reliably by using a curve tracer to give the exact
values of certain voltages or currents. Nevertheless, for a quick check of an SCR,
an ohmmeter works quite well.
4.5 SCR Ratings 79
*■»
*—---------- :------------:------- 'I.. ....:------— —
4.5 SCR Ratings
The ratings of a semiconductor device give the values for the various conditions
that a manufacturer recommends for reliable operation of the device. The use
of a device beyond the limits defined by its ratings usually leads to destruction.
Therefore, a device should never be used beyond its rating limits.
4.5.1 Subscripts for SCR Ratings

Most of the important SCR ratings are given in terms of voltage ( V) or current
(/). Each rating is accompanied by one, two, or three subscripts, whose mean
ings are listed in Table 4-1.
4.5.2 SCR Current Ratings
4.5.2.1 M ax im u m R epetitive RMS C u rren t Rating

The forward (anode-to-cathode) current that an SCR can safely carry depends
on the maximum junction temperature (7p A major requirement in SCR appli
cations is that the junction temperature not exceed its maximum value. It is not
Table 4-1 Subscript notations
A anode or ambient
AVE average
c case
D forward blocking region (no gate voltage)
F forward
G gate
H holding current
j junction
K cathode
L latching
M maximum
O open third terminal (for example, gate open)
pk peak
R reverse (when used as the first subscript) repetitive (when used as the
second subscript)
S shorted (when used as the first subscript) surge (when used as a second
subscript)
T total or maximum (when used as the first subscript) triggered (when used
as a second subscript)
CHAPTER 4 Thyristor Devices
easy to measure and control directly. However, we can easily, measure and I
control the SCR voltages and currents that contribute to Tj. The largest contrib-' ;
utor to 7] is repetitive RMS on-state current IT(rms).
The RMS (or effective) current is used to rate the device, sihce it deter
mines the heat dissipation. However, the DC or average current delivered to the
load is usually more important. Therefore, manufacturers give their data ini
terms of average current ( / tcave>)> which is called rated average on-state current.
/•ixave) is the maximum average current value that can be carried by the SCR in
its on state. Average current is equal to RMS current in a pure DC circuit. How
ever, the average value of a pulse is much lower than its RMS value.
Determining the RMS value of a npnsinusoidal waveform like the one
shown in Figure 4.6 is quite difficult. We can simplify the calculations by
approximating the nonsinusoidal waveform by a rectangular waveform whose
height is equal to the peak value and whose width is equal to the pulse dura
tion. This approximation will give a higher RMS value, but it leaves a slight
safety factor.
Figure 4.6
Approximation of the SCR
waveform (a) actual
waveform (b) approximation
After approximating, the RMS value of the current can be found from
r -----
_ 11m h
1 4.1
where tQis the pulse duration, T is the pulse-repetition time, and /m is maximum
current. The average value of the pulse is given by
-ZAVE ' 4.2
The fo rm factor (fa) is defined as the ratio of the RMS current to the average ' !
current
RMS
fo 4.3 i
•(\VE
4.5 SCR Ratings 81
Table 4-2 Conduction angle versus form factor
Conduction angle (9) Form factor (fa)
20° 5.0
40° 3.5
60° 2.7
80° 2.3
100° 2.0
120° 1.8
140° 1.6
1.4
O
O
rH
180° 1.3
If we know the form factor for a given waveform, the RMS current can be eas
ily obtained from
4mS = foÂVe) 4.4
The given current rating of a particular SCR is usually its maximum repetitive
RMS current (/trms)- Care should be exercised if the current rating given is DC
or average. The RMS rating /TRMS is then
^T(RMS).= ■/jC^rcAVE)) 4.5
Table 4-2 gives the form factor as a function of conduction angle (0). The con
duction angle is the duration for which the SCR is on. It is measured as shown
in Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7 lh
Conduction angle
itieasurement
Example 4.1 Find the form factor of the waveform shown in Figure 4.8(a).
Figure 4.8 /(A)

Approximating a
nonsinusoidai waveform
(a) actual (b) approximation
i(ms)
Solution Approximate the waveform as shown in Figure 4.8(b).

Using Equation 4.1, I'!
•'RMS ■
(10)2 ,
6
= V 333
= 5.8 A
Using Equation 4.2
r _ /m.fft.
•*AVE “ j,
_ ( 10)2
(f
= 3.3 A
Using Equation 4.3,
f _ ^RMS
Jo — „
U ve
= 1.7
Example 4.2 Find the RMS current in an SCR circuit when a DC ammeter reads
conduction angle of 60 °
4.5 SCR Ratings S3
Solution For a conduction angle of 60°, the form factor from Table 4—2 is
fo = 2.7
Using Equation 4.4,
4 ms = 2.7 (100) = 270 A
4.5.2.2 Surge Current Rating (/FM o r /TSM)

The surge current rating of an SCR (/FM or /XSM) is the peak anode current an
SCR can handle for a brief duration. These durations must be isolated by
enough time for the SCR junction to return to its rated operating temperature.
The surge current rating may be five to twenty times as large as the repetitive
RMS current rating (/T(rms>)- An SCR is designed to withstand a maximum of 100
surges during its operating life because it may be left with some kind of dam
age due to excessive exposure to high temperatures. To prevent damage to the
SCR, the surge current rating and repetitive current rating should not be
exceeded.
4.5.2.3 Latching C urrent (lL)

A minimum anode current must flow through the SCR in order for it to stay on
initially after the gate signal is removed. This current is called the latching cur
rent (4 ). If this current is not reached while the gate signal is being applied,
the SCR may turn on, but it will turn off when the gate signal is removed.
4 .5.2.4 H olding C urrent (lH)

After the SCR is latched on, a certain minimum anode current is required to
maintain conduction. If the anode current is reduced below this critical value,
the SCR will turn off. The lowest value of current, just before the SCR turns off,
is the holding current (/H). Both holding and latching currents decrease when
the temperature increases aqd vice versa. The ratio of the two currents (/H and
4 ) is approximately 2:1. These values are quite small compared to /TRMS- 4i or
IL may pose a problem in circuits where the load current is much lower than
4 r m s or the SCR is operated | t low temperatures.
Example 4.3 'Find the maximum value of the load resistor that ensures SCR conduction in the
circuit shown in Figure 4.9. The SCR has a holding current of 200 mA.
Figure 4.9
See Example 4.3
Vs = 208 V - ± r
G
V
K
t;
Solution In order for the SCR to remain on, the anode current must not fall below 200'-?!
mA. Therefore,
W = -^ = ^ - 1040 0
4.5.3 SCR Voltage Ratings j

The SCR voltage rating is a measure of the maximum voltage that can be I
applied across the device without causing a breakdown. The various rating-, I
related to voltage are discussed next. I
*
• Jt
4.5.3.1 Peak R epetitive Forw ard Blocking V o lta g e (U drm)
The peak repetitive forward blocking voltage (Vdrm) is one of the basic SCR rat
ings. It is the maximum instantaneous voltage that the SCR can block in the for
ward direction. VrDRM is selected to be less than the forward breakover voltage4;
(I' fboX see Figure 4.3. If the VJ)RMrating is exceeded, the SCR will conduct even
without a gate voltage.
4.5.3.2 Peak R epetitive Reverse V o ltage (VmM)

Like diodes, SCRs have a peak inverse voltage rating. It is caljed the peak repet- ;
itive reverse voltage rating ( VrRM). It is the maximwm instantaneous voltage that i
an SCR can withstand, without breakdown, in the reverse direction. I
The I^ rm ° f any SCR is lower than its Vrrm. Therefore, an SCR should not *
be subjected to a peak voltage greater than yDRM. This will automatically satisfy |
the rating. If the VJiRM rating is exceeded, the SCR is likely to be damaged,
and Vrrkj both tend to (increase as temperature increases.
4 .5.3.3 N o n rep e titiv e Peak Reverse V o ltag e (\/RSM)

I
The nonrepetitive peak reverse voltage rating ( VRSM) is the maximum transient
reverse voltage that the SCR can withstand. SCRs can safely block nonrepetitive
voltages, so this rating is generally 10- 20 % higher than the repetitive voltage rat
ing. V^sm can be increased by inserting a diode of equal current rating in series ;
with the SCR,
4.5.4 SCR Classification According to Frequency

and Switching Speed f
SCRs are classified into two categories that reflect both frequency and switching |
speed ratings: slow-switching or phase-control-Vfpe SCRs and fast-switching or f
inverter-type SCRs. Phase-control SCRs have a large turnoff time and therefore t
have lower frequency capabilities. Inverter-type SCRs must be used in high- {
frequency operations, since the required circuit turnoff time becomes a signifi- j
cant portion of the total cycle time. j
4.5 SCR Ratings 85
Manufacturers provide the ratings associated with speed in terms of the

frequency (fmax) at which maximum anode current 7max or maximum power dis
sipation CPmax) decreases to zero, turn-on time (ton), anc* turnoff time (ôff)*
4.5.5 SCR Rate-of-Change Ratings
4.5.5.1 The Critical Rate o f Rise o f th e O n-State Current

ej (di/dt rating)
s| When the SCR initially conducts, the anode current is concentrated in a rela-
{ tively small area beside the gate. A certain time is required for the conduction
| to spread out evenly to cover the whole body. However, if the rate at which the
j anode current increases is much greater than the rate at which the conduction
| area increases, the initial small area overheats, and this can destroy the SCR.
t* | Manufacturers set a safe value for the rate o f change o f anode current that their
r* I devices can withstand. This value is the critical rate o f rise o f the on-state cur-
>e J rent, commonly referred to as the di/dt rating of the device. It is expressed in
:n j amperes per microsecond (A/jis).
| To prevent damage to SCRs by a high di/dt value, a small inductance (Z)
* is added in series with the device. Inductance opposes any change in current,
thus slowing down the rise of anode current. The required inductance (Z) can
^ i be found from Equation 4.6:
iat l/„
I /.>— — 4. 6
I (.di/dt)max
tot
sty | where
:d .'
L is inductance (in |iH)
(di/dt)miix is the rate-of-change-of-current rating of the SCR (in A/jis)
Vp is the peak value of the source voltage (in V)
snt
ive
Example 4.4 In Figure 4.10, the load resistance (i?i) is 10 Q. and the AC source voltage (Vp
rat-’
is 208 V. Find the value of L required to limit the circuit di/dt to 20A/^ls.
ries.i
Figure 4.10
See Example 4.4
ling}
? orl
fore
ig h - f
nifi-f
Solution
Vp = V 2 (208) = 294 V
Using Equation 4.6,
I - ----- =14 j
20
4.5.5.2 The Critical R ate o f Rise o f th e O ff-S ta te V oltage

(dv/dt rating )
The application of a fast-rising forward voltage across an SCR under off-Jsl
conditions results in the flow of current across the junctions into the gate lav*;
This current, which is equivalent to an externally supplied gate current, will tiff
the SCR on if it exceeds the critical value. The steeper the waveform, the xred:
the likelihood that the device will trigger below its forward voltage rating^
high rate of rise of forward^Voltage {dv/dt) due to switching or surges c\ui
cause unscheduled firing/It also limits the maximum frequency that can be- Sj:
nected to the device.
The dv/dt rating gives the maximum rise time of a voltage pulse that 3
be applied to the SCR in the off state without causing it to fire. It is specified*
volts/jiS. A high dv/dt rating is desirable for many applications where the deira
is likely to see a fast-rising pulse. m
The RC snubber circuit shown in Figure 4.11 is used to prevent unschi
uled firing in circuits with high values of dv/dt. Because capacitance is oppo|
tion to a change in voltage, a ^mall capacitance across the SCR reduces the rat
at which the voltage across the SCR can change. An approximate value for.f
capacitance (C) can be obtained by finding the time constant (T) and dividir
it by the load resistance (#,.): v
i
I
'max
Then
> _____ UKM
i?L RiCdv/df)max
Figure 4.11
A snubber circuit to reduce
dv/dt
4.5 SCR Ratings 87
When the SCR is off, the capacitor charges up in a positive direction up to the
instant of SCR turn-on. When the SCR is triggered on, the capacitor discharges
and adds to the di/dt presented by the original circuit. Therefore, a small resis-
,tor (Bs) is added in series with the capacitor to slow the capacitor discharge and
limit the current transient at turn-on.
An approximate value of iS, can b e obtained from Equation 4.9. This equa
tion actually gives the minimum resistance required, so a value greater than this
is usually used. A suitable value w ould be 100 Q.
^DRM 4.9
lat«. (di/dt)„
•yet,; Although the addition of Rs protects the SCR from high values of di/dt, it low
turn ers the dv/dt capability of the SCR. To extend dv/dt, a small diode Ds is con
ater’ nected across Rs. During times when dv/dt is high, the diode shorts Rs, but dur
>• h> ing times of high di/dt, the diode is off.
hus
»n-,
Example 4.5 An SCR has FDRM = 600 V, (dv/dt) nmx = 25 V/|iS, and ( d i / d t ) = 30 A/(xS. It is
can used to energize a 100-Q resistive load. Find the minimum values for an RC
i in.
snubber circuit to avoid unintentional triggering.
/ice. Solution Using Equation 4.7,
!
, 600 V
led-J 24 (is
osk “ 25 V/ns ~
rate| Using Equation 4.8,
the!
iingf 24 x 10 -6
C= 0.24 (.IF
100
Using Equation 4.9,

4.7!
600 V
i.5 mQ
30 A/|ls
Example 4.6 In Figure 4.12, the source voltage is 120 V and the load resistance is 10 i l The
SCR can withstand a dv/dt value of 40 V/(iS. If the snubber discharge current
must be limited to 3 A, find the value of the snubber resistor and capacitor.
Figure 4.12
See Example 4.6
■*
Solution The peak value of the source voltage is:

Vp = V 2 * 120 = 169.7 V
The minimum time is
^ 169.7 V
4.24 (is
40 V/jis
Therefore,
424^101
10 ^
If the SCR is turned on at the instant the source voltage is at its peak value, tjf
voltage across the capacitor is 169.7 V. To limit the snubber discharge currei£
to 3 A, the value of Rs is ‘I
* =i ^ = 42 .4 a
3 s
4.5.6 Gate Parameters
There are six important gate ratings, classified in terms of current and volti
The following four are maximum gate ratings. When any of these are exceed
the SCR may be destroyed.
4.5.6.1 Maximum Gate Peak Inverse Voltage (Vgrm) |

Vgrm is the maximum value of negative DC voltage that can be applied witho\
damaging the gate-cathode junction. *
4.5.6.2 Maximum Gate Trigger Current gtm (/ ) f

/GTM is the maximum DC gate current allowed to turn on the device. |
4.5.63 Maximum Gate Trigger Voltage (VGTM)

VGTM is the DC voltage necessary to produce /GTM.
4.5.6.4 Maximum Gate Power Dissipation (PGM)

PGm is the maximum instantanteous product of gate current and gate voltage i
can exist during forward-bias. If VGTM and /GTM are used at their extreme lin
simultaneously, F G m i s certain to be exceeded.
The last two gate ratings are the smallest voltage and current needed
trigger the SCR. The gate trigger must exceed both to fire the SCR.
4.5.6.5 Minimum Gate Trigger Voltage (\/GT)

VqT is the minimum DC gate-to-cathode voltage required to trigger the SCR.
voltage applied between the gate and the cathode must exceed this value whilfl
providing adequate gate current to turn the SCR on. 1
<
4,5 SCR Ratings 89
4.5.6.6 M in im u m G ate Trigger C u rren t (/GT)

/GT is the minimum DC gate current necessary to turn the SCR on.
Most SCRs require a gate current of 0.1-50 mA to fire. The magnitudes
of the gate current and voltage required to trigger an SCR vary inversely with
the temperature. At higher ambient temperatures, both gate-trigger require
ments decrease. At lower temperatures, these requirements increase. Worst-
case triggering conditions occur, therefore, at the minimum operating temper
ature.
Example 4.7 For the circuit in Figure 4.13 what is the minimum yoltage (VjN) that will fire the
SCR, if the gate current needed to fire the SCR is 15 mA.
Figure 4.13
See Example 4.7
Solution Since there is a regular PN junction between the gate and cathode, the gate-
cathode voltage must be slightly greater than 0.6 V to forward-bias the junction.
Let us assume a forward-bias voltage V0 of 0.7 V. Then
VRG +
= IoT (100) + 0.7
= (15 * 10“3)(100) + 0.7
= 1.5 + 0.7 = 2.2 V
Example 4.8 An SCR has the following ratings:
anode-cathode voltage drop = 1.5 V

gate-cathode junction voltage = 0.6V
gate current = 40 mA
If the SCR draws a current of 20 A, find:

a) the on-state power loss
b) the power loss in the gate
51
Solution i
a) on-state power loss = 20 * 1.5 = 30 W ■ j
b) gate power loss
^ g = ^ g * /g
= 0.6 * 0.04
= 24 mW
■----- ;....... ..... ............ —------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ■!

4.6 Junction Temperature Rating
In all semiconductor devices, the most important consideration is junction tem

perature (7p. It not only defines the maximum and minimum limits but also
determines whether the device can withstand prolonged operation. If the junc
tion temperature in an SCR exceeds its maximum rating, the breakover voltage
drops noticeably and the off-state current and reverse leakage current increase
rapidly. The turnoff time also increases significantly. On the other hand, if the
junction temperature falls below its minimum limit, the SCR may not trigger at all.
■---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4.7 Increasing SCR Ratings
To ensure that SCR maximum ratings are not exceeded, an SCR with sufficient
ratings must be chosen. We can increase SCR ratings by using external cooling
to remove the heat produced by losses in the SCR. Adding external circuitry can
also increase the voltage- and current-handling capabilities, and ratings can be
extended by connecting SCRs in series and in parallel.
The reliability and life of semiconductor devices often depend on how
well they are cooled. The power wasted as heat in t)ie device also lowers effi
ciency. Usually SCRs dissipate about 1% of the total power. SCRs should be
located in well-ventilated, cool places away from other heat-generating devices.
In most situations, the SCR case is not effective in carrying away the heat
from the junction, so suitable heat dissipation devices like heat sinks should be
provided. A heat sink is made of a metal, normally copper or aluminum, that is
a good conductor of heat. It is quite thick where it contacts the SCR and thin
where it contacts the air. This design provides a large surface area from which
the heat can pass by convection and radiation to the surrounding air. To help
heat conduction, silicon grease infused with metallic oxides is normally used
between the adjoining surfaces of the SCR and the heat sink. The outside sur
face normally has parallel fins to let convection currents of air flow freely. For
cooling larger SCRs, the.convection flow can be further improved by using a fan
or forced air. Water cooling is also used with very high power dissipating
devices.
4.8 Series and Parallel SCR Connections 91
SCR ratings can be extended by adding external circuitry. For example,

using an RC snubber circuit to extend the dv/dt capability and series inductance
to extend the di/dt rating have already been mentioned. The l/DRM of an SCR
can be increased by placing a resistor across the gate and cathode; this also
decreases / H and 4 ; however, the gate drive requirement increases. K!SM can be
increased by inserting a diode of equal current rating in series with the SCR.
4.8 Series and Parallel SCR Connections
The maximum power that can be controlled by a single SCR is determined by

its rated forward current and rated forward blocking voltage. To maximize one
of these two ratings, the other has to be reduced. Although SCRs are currently
available with very high voltage ratings, in many applications, such as trans
mission lines, the required voltage rating exceeds the voltage that can be pro
vided by a single SCR. Then it is necessary to connect two or more SCRs in
series. Similarly, for very high current applications, SCRs have to be connected
in parallel. For high-voltage, high-current applications, series-parallel combina
tions of SCRs are used.
4.8.1 SCRs in Series

If the input voltage is higher than the voltage rating of a single SCR, two or
more SCRs can be connected in series to increase their forward blocking capa
bility. As in any other device, the characteristics of two SCRs (even two SCRs of
the same make and rating) are different. Two SCRs in series divide the voltage
between them in inverse proportion to their leakage currents. This leads to' an
unequal distribution of voltage across the two series SCRs. Figure 4.14 shows
the leakage currents of two identical SCRs, SCR! and SCR2, each having a for
ward blocking voltage VBO, When two such SCRs axe connected in series, the
same current flows through the two devices; however, the voltage across SCRt
Figure 4.14
The sharing of voltages
si between tw</series-
l { connected SCRs, SCR-, and
SCR2 .
il
01
i!
( Vi) is higher than that across SCR2 ( V2) because the leakage current for SCRi is
smaller than that of SCR2 for the same voltage. Therefore, the two SCRs do not 1
share the supply voltage equally. The maximum voltage that the SCRs can block
is only V\ + V2, not 2Vbo. To use the full forward blocking capabilities of each
SCR, the forward blocking voltage must be equally distributed.
A nearly equal distribution of voltages during blocking is easily accom
plished by connecting voltage-equalizing resistors Ri and R2 (Figure 4.15(a)) in
parallel with each SCR such that each parallel combination has the same resis
tance. However, when a num ber of SCRs are connected in series, this method
becomes uneconomical. A second approach, which permits a reasonably uni
form distribution of voltages, is to use the same value resistance in parallel with
each SCR. This allows a different but fixed voltage to appear across each SCR.
In this arrangement (Figure 4.15(b)), the SCR with the lower leakage current will
have a greater portion of the blocking voltage than the SCR with the higher
leakage current.
SCRl SCR2
(a) (b)
Figure 4.15
(a) Resistance equalization (b) voltage equalization
Let us assume that the leakage current of SCR](/SCRi) is greater than the leakage
current of SCR2 (Isckz)- SCR2 will be required to have the larger voltage ( VJ.
V2 = I2R
The voltage across the series combination is
Vm = V 2 + ItR
Applying Kirchoff s current law (KCL) to the middle node,
kcm + h = 4cr2 + h
h e m + 4 cr2 = h ~ h = A /
4.8 Series and Parallel SCR Connection 93
or
k = h - A/
Vm - V2 + C li- A/)J?
= V2 + I2R - A I R
= V2 + V2 - AIR
= 2 V2 - AIR
Unequal voltage distribution among SCRs in series also occurs during turn-ons
and turnoffs. One SCR may turn on or turn off before the other. The off SCR
will then be subjected to the full source voltage. Shunt capacitors are very effec
tive in equalizing voltages during switching. The capacitor also forces voltage
sharing during sudden changes in supply voltage. A resistor is added in series
with the capacitor to limit the current and di/dt (due to discharge of the capac
itor through SCR) during turn-on. This Cs and 7^ combination, shown in Figure
4.16, is essentially a snubber circuit. A diode (D) connected across #s shunts it
for forward voltages.
Figure 4.16
RC equalization for SCRs
connected in series
Example 4.9 The voltages across two SCRs connected in series are 200 V and 180 V. Calcu
late the value of the required equalizing resistor if the SCRs have a maximum
difference of 1 mA in latching current. Also find the power dissipated by the
blocking resistors.
Solution
4.8.2 SCRs in Parallel

When the load current exceeds the rating of a single SCR, SCRs are connected'
in parallel to increase their common current capability. If SCRs are not perfectly
matched, this results in an unequal sharing of current between them. Figure
4.17 shows the V-I characteristics of two SCRs, SCR, and SCR2. The ratings of ■
the SCRs are the -same. W hen these SCRs are connected in parallel, they will,
have equal voltage drops V"SCK across them. However, due to their mismatch in ,
characteristics, SCR2 is carrying the rated current (/2), while SCR, is carrying a
current Ix, which is much less than its rated value. The total rated current of the
parallel connection is only Ix + /2 instead of 2 I2.
Figure 4.17 ' a(A)

Current sharing between
two parallel SCRs (a) tw o
SCR1
SCRs in parallel (b) on-state
characteristics
Matched-pair SCRs are generally available for parallel connection, but they are
very expensive. With unmatched SCRs, equal current sharing is enforced by
adding a low-value resistor or inductor in series with each SCR. Forced current
sharing using equal-value resistors is shown in Figure 4.18. The basic require
ment is to make current lx close to I2; a maximum difference of 20% is accept
able. If we assume the voltage Vx across SCR! to be greater than the voltage V2
across SCR2, the value of R can be obtained from
1XR+ V = I2R+ V2
4.11
Figure 4.18 r h SCRj

Forced current sharing using
AA/V..~ ^ -- - [>F
resistors
4,8 Series and Parallel SCR Connections 95
Example 4.10 In the circuit in Figure 4.18, the source voltage is 500 V and the load resistance
is 5 £1 Two SCRs with the characteristic shown in Figure 4.17(b), each rated at
70 A, are connected in parallel'to share the load current. Find the value of the
resistor that will give the proper current sharing. Also find the voltage drop
across the parallel combination and the power dissipated by the current-sharing
resistors.
Solution The load current is

/L= 500/5 = 100 A
Let us choose a current difference of 15% between the two SCRs, so
I2 = 50 + 15 = 65 A
/i = 50 - 15 = 35 A
From the characteristic curve,
vt = 1.6 v
V2 = 1.5 V
Therefore,
h ~h 6 5 -3 5
The voltage drops across the two resistors are:
/
ItR= 35 (0.0033) = 0.12 V
I2R= 65 (0.0033) = 0.22 V
The voltage drop across the parallel branch, is
Vx + I XR= V2 + I2R
= 1.6 + 0.12 = 1.5 + 0.22 = 1.72 V
The power loss in the resistor is
I*r = 352 (0.0033) = 4.1 W
?2r = 652 (0.0033) = 14.1 W
Equalization using resistors is inefficient due to the extra power loss in the resis
tor. Moreover, resistors do not compensate for unequal SCR turn-on or turnoff
times. One of the SCRs may turn on or turn off before the other. In either case,
the on SCR must carry the full-load current momentarily until both are switched,
and it can easily be damaged due to overloading. Figure 4.19 shows a center-
tapped reactor in which die SCR carrying the greater current will induce a volt
age proportional to the imbalance in current and with the polarity shown. Volt
age in reactor Z, opposes the flow of current, and voltage in L2 causes an
increase, of current flow through the S C R that o r i g i n a l l y carried tie ° ^

rent. As a result, a balanced current distribution is achieved. e r
although expensive, are more efficient.
Figure 4.19
Current sharing in SCRs w ith
parallel reactors
Since the main problem in high-current applications is For e -

temperature, SCRs used in parallel must be derated by at leas •^ ^
pie, two 50-A SCRs connected in parallel may carry only 85 ( •
addition, the SCRs are normally mounted on a common heat
temperatures.
Example 4. 11 For the circuit in Figure 4.18, find the value of the current shari g ^ ^n(j
Vs = 1000 V, Rt - 1 and the rated current of each SCR is
pow er loss in the resistors.
Solution Choose
1.55 V
Vi = 1.45 V
4 =1000/1 = 1000 A
Let one thyristor carry
h - 400 A
Therefore
/2 = 1000 - 400 = 600 A
1.55 - 1,45 : 0.5
R-
200
P LOSS ; (600)2(0.0005) + (400)2(0.0005) - 260 W
4.9 Power Loss 97
4.9 Power Loss

D uring a sw itching cycle, art SCR e x p e rien c es po w er losses from th e follow ing
sources:
1 . on-state power loss

2 . off-state power loss
3 . switching power loss
4. gate-trigger loss
The off-state power loss when the SCR is blocking in either direction and trig
gering losses is small enough to be ignored under normal operating conditions.
For low operating frequencies (below 400 Hz), the switching loss is also small.
Therefore, the main source of power loss is the on-state power loss. This loss can
be calculated by multiplying the on-stage voltage by the on-state current.
Switching power losses increase in high-frequency operations, particularly
at turn on. Switching loss can be found by multiplying the instantaneous volt
age by the instantaneous current.
Example 4.12 An SCR has the following ratings:

RMS current 50 A
/ tcrms ) =
blocking voltage VRRM= 500 V
forward voltage drop at rated current 1^CR = 1.5 V
leakage current at rated voltage /rrm = 5 mA
turn-on time /on = 5 (Xs
turn-off time kyvr = 25 jxs
If the SCR controls'a 25-kW load at rated voltage and current, find the total
power losses for a switching frequency of 100 Hz.
Solution on-state power loss = 50 * 1.5 = 75 W
off-state power loss = 500 * 5 ( 10~3) = 0.25 W
switching power loss
average power loss during switching = j- (500 * 50) = 1.04 kW
energy dissipated during turn-on interval = 1.04 (103) * 5 (10 ) = 5.2 mj

energy dissipated during turnoff interval = 1,04 (103) * 25 ( 10~6) = 26 m j’
time period T= 1/ / = 1/100 = 10 ms
assuming a duty cycle of 50%, on-time = off-time = 5 ms
on-state energy dissipation = 75 * 5 ( 10~3) = 375 mj
off-state energy dissipation = 0.25 * 5 ( 10~3) = 1.25 mj
total energy dissipation per cycle = (0.0052 + 0.026 + 0.375 + 0 .00125 ):

J = 0.409 J
average power dissipation = 0.409/10 (10~3) = 40.9 W
Example 4.13 Rfepeat Example 4.12 for a switching frequency of 50 kHz.

Solution The on-state power loss is the same, 75 W. The off-state power loss is also the
same, 0.25 W. The switching power loss is
average power loss during switching (same) = 1.04 kW
energy dissipated duriiig turn-on interval (same) = 5.2 mj
energy dissipated during turnoff interval (Same) = 26 mj
time period T = 1 //= 1/50 (l-O3) = 20 [is
with a duty cycle of 50%, on-time = off-time = lb |is
on-state energy dissipation = 75 * 10 (10""6) = 0.75 mj
off-state energy dissipation = 0.25 * 10 ( 10-6) = 2,5 fij
total energy dissipation per cycle = (5.2 + 26 + 0.75 + 0.0025) mj = 31.95 mj
average power dissipation = 31.95 * 10~3/20 (10-6) = 1.6 kW
At the higher switching frequency, the total power dissipation increases to 1.6 kW,
the switching power loss being the dominant factor. The 50-A SCR obviously
cannot dissipate the enormous amount of heat that is generated. The higher the
switching frequency, the higher the power dissipation during switching—this
power dissipation limits the maximum frequency of operation. Furthermore, the
current rating of the device must be increased at higher frequencies.
The limiting frequency above which the switching power loss becomes a
dominant factor can usually be estimated from:
on-state + off-state power loss averaged over a cycle ^ ^
energy dissipated during switching per cycle
Example 4.14 Find the limiting switching frequency of the SCR in Example 4.12.
Solution With a 50% duty cycle, the on-state + off-state power loss averaged over a cycle is
= 37.625 W
energy dissipated during switching per cycle is: (5.2 + 26) mj = 0.03 J
limiting frequency = 37.625/0.03 « 1250 Hz
4.10 SCR Protection 99
4.10 SCR Protection

To obtain satisfactory and reliable SCR operation, it is necessary to provide pro
tection against overvoltages and overcurrents. Under overload or other abnor
mal operating conditionSj an SCR may carry current many times greater than its
rated value and can be destroyed permanently. Overvoltages, which arise from
nonideal operation of the devices and from transients, may exceed the rated
voltage of the SCR.
The SCR should be protected against any unusual transient conditions.
Selecting an SCR rating based on abnormal operating conditions is not eco
nomical. Usually some safety margin is provided by choosing devices with rat
ings larger than those satisfactory for normal operation.
4.10.1 Overvoltage Protection

Overvoltage is one of the most important causes of SCR failure. An overvoltage
is a voltage that exceeds the rated peak value of the supply voltage. Overvolt
ages are caused mainly by switching disturbances, usually due to the energy
stored in the inductive components. The effect is to produce a transient voltage
whose peak may exceed the rated forward blocking voltage of the SCR.
Depending on the intensity of the overvoltage and the energy that it represents,
the SCR may experience false triggering or may be permanently destroyed due
to reverse breakdown.
To protect an SCR against overvoltages, a diode is connected in series with
the SCR. The reverse voltage will be shared between the diode and the SCR.
However, this method is inefficient since the voltage drop across the diode
when conducting will introduce power loss. Another simple method is to
choose an SCR with a higher voltage rating by introducing a voltage safety fac
tor (Vp):
y = __________ t y M(PtV) of the SCR 4
F peak value of the voltage applied to the SCR
Semiconductor devices are normally rated, for economic consideration,
with a voltage safety factor of 1.5. Any overvoltages must be limited to less
than this value. Protection against overvoltages can also be achieved by using
an RC snubber circuit across the overvoltage source. The RC circuit will sup
press the transient overvoltage by absorbing its energy. Another method is to
connect a nonlinear resistor called a varistor across the SCR. The varistor pro
vides a low-resistance path to the transient voltage and thus bypasses the
device.
Example 4.15 Find the PIV rating of an SCR connected across a 220-V AC source. Use a safety
factor of 1.5.
Solution
= V 2 * 220 = 311 V
V''pp ee a
a kk ■
PIV
KF = — - = 1.5
311
PIV= 1.5 * 311 =466.5 V
4.10.2 Overcurrent Protection

An overcurrent can occur due to source failure during inversion, overload, or a
short circuit. The SCR is usually protected by using conventional protective
devices such as overcurrent relays, fast-acting fuses, and high-speed circuit
breakers. The protective device is required to carry continuously the normal
current that the SCR is rated to carry but to open the circuit in case of a short
circuit or fault before the SCR is overheated and damaged.
4.10.3 f t Rating
The energy that must be dissipated by a fuse comes from either the power
source or the energy stored in the inductive components of the circuit. The heat
energy to be dissipated by the fuse is equal to f t . Therefore, the I2t rating
defines the thermal capacity of fuses and is used in the protection of SCRs. Dur
ing overloads, faults, and short circuits, the SCR must withstand conditions lead
ing to high junction temperatures. The f t rating for the SCR allows selection of
the correct protection to avoid overheating the junction.
Manufacturers of fuses and SCRs specify in their data the f t ratings of
their devices. The f t rating of the SCR is based on the device operating at max
imum rated current and maximum junction temperature. Because fuses and
SCRs are rated on a common basis, it is only necessary to select a fuse with an
f t rating less than the f t rating of the SCR for proper protection. I is the RMS
value of the current, and t is the time in seconds.
4.11 Gate Circuit Protection
The gate-pulse generating circuit must be protected against induced voltage

transients. It is also necessary to separate it from the power wiring as widely as
possible. Electrical isolation between the SCR and the gate circuit is usually pro
vided by a pulse transformer or an optocoupler.
The pulse transformer, which has a ferrite core, has a primary winding and
one or more secondary windings, which permit simultaneous gate pulses to be
applied to SCRs in series or parallel connections. The most commonly used
optocouplers consist of a combination of a light-emitting diode (LED) and a
photo transistor assembled in a single package. This arrangement allows cou
pling of a signal from one circuit to another, while providing almost complete
electrical isolation between the two circuits.
4.12 SCR Gate-Triggering Circuits
For proper operation of circuits using SCRs, the trigger circuits should supply the
firing signal at precisely the correct time to assure turn-on when required. In gen
eral, the firing circuit used to trigger an SCR must meet the following criteria:
1. produce a gate signal of suitable magnitude and sufficiently short rise

time
2. produce a gate signal of adequate’duration
3. provide accurate firing control over the required range
4. ensure that triggering does not occur from false signals or noise
5. in AC applications, ensure that the gate signal is applied when the SCR
is forward-biased
6. in three-phase circuits, provide gate pulses that are 120° apart with
respect to the reference point
7. ensure simultaneous triggering of SCRs connected in series or in parallel
Three basic types of gate-firing signals are normally used: DC signals,

pulse signals, and AC signals.
Triggering requirements are normally provided in terms of DC voltage and
current. Since pulse signals are ordinarily used for firing SCRs, it is also neces
sary to consider the duration of the firing pulse. A trigger pulse that has a mag
nitude just equal to the DC requirements must have a pulse width that is long
enough to ensure that the gate signal is provided during the full turrt-on time
of the SCR. As the magnitude of the gate signal increases, the turn-on time of
the SCR decreases and the width of the gate pulse may be reduced. For highly
inductive loads, the pulse width must be made long enough to ensure that the
anode current rises to a value greater than the latching current of the SCR.
4.12.1 DC Signals
Figure 4.20(a) shows a simple circuit that applies a DC signal from an external
trigger circuit. The switch S is closed to turn the SCR on. Closing the switch
applies a DC current to the gate of the SCR, which is forward-biased by the
source (Vs)- Once the SCR is conducting, the switch can be opened to remove
the gate signal. Diode D limits the magnitude of a negative gate signal to ~ 1 V,
and the resistor i<b is used to limit the gate current. Figure 4.20(b) shows an
alternative circuit that provides the gate signal internally from the main power
source. The two circuits operate in essentially the same way.
Applying a constant DC gate signal is not desirable because of the gate
power dissipation, which would be present at all times. Also, DC gate signals
are not used for triggering SCRs in AC applications, because the presence of a
positive signal at the gate during the negative half-cycle would increase the
reverse anode current and possibly destroy the device.
Figure 4.26-
DC gating signals (a) from a separate source (b) from the same source
Example 4.16 The SCR in Figure 4.20(a) has a maximum gate current of 100 mA and a maxi
mum VGK of 2 V. If Eq is 15 V, find the value of KG that will provide sufficient
current for tum-on, Also find the power dissipated by the gate.
Solution Applying KVL around the input loop,
E c - h * Rg - V gk = 0
ig * rg = eg - vgk
^ _ Ec ~ VgK 15
130 £1
100(10"3)
Any value of Rq greater than 130 O will satisfy the gate current require
ment for turn-on. However, Fq cannot be made infinitely large since the mini
mum gate current requirement must also be satisfied,
The power dissipated by the gate is
Pc, » VGK * IG
= 2 * 100(10~3)
= 0.200 W
Example 4.17 The SCR in Figure 4.21 has a minimum gate current o f 100 mA and a minimum
VGK of 2 V, If jRs s? 20 Q and J?G == 30 Q,. find the value of the trigger voltage
( ^trig) that will provide sufficient current for turn-on.
Solution Applying KVL around the input loop,
^ tr ig t Is * ~ Vg k — Q
Vxrig = /s * Rs + VGK
Figure 4.21
See Example 4.17
TRIG
Applying KCL at the gate node,

4 = 4 g + Ig
Therefore,
''t r i g = + + VGK
= (— + 0 .1 ) 2 0 + 2
A 30 )
= 5.33 V
4.12.2 Pulse Signals

To reduce gate power dissipation, SCR firing circuits generate a single pulse or
a train of pulses instead of a continuous DC gate signal. This allows precise
control of the point at which the SCR is fired. In addition, it is easy to provide
electrical isolation between the SCR and the gate-trigger circuit. Electrical isola
tion by means of a pulse transformer or optical coupler is important if several
SCRs are gated from the same source. Isolation also reduces unwanted signals,
such as transient noise signals, that could inadvertently trigger a sensitive SCR.
Figure 4.22(a) shows the most1common method of producing pulses—
using a unijunction transistor (UJT) oscillator. This circuit is ideal for triggering
an SCR. It provides a train of narrow pulses at Bx. When the capacitor is
charged to the peak voltage ( Vp) of the UJT, the UJT turns on. This places a low
resistance across the emitter-base 1 junction, and emitter current flows through
the primary of the pulse transformer, applying a gate signal to the SCR. The
pulse width of the output signal can be increased by increasing the value of C.
One difficulty with this circuit is that due to the narrow pulse width, a latching
current may not be attained before the gate signal is removed. An RC snubber
circuit can be used to remove this problem.
(a) (b )'
Figure 4.22 a
SCR trigger circuits using a UJT oscillator m
m
The operation of the circuit shown in Figure 4,2203) is similar. The width
and rise time of the pulse can be improved by using the output across Rx to drive
a transistor Q connected in series with the transformer primary. When the pulse
from the UJT is applied to the base of Q, the transistor saturates and the supply
voltage Vs is applied across the primary. This induces a voltage pulse at the sec
ondary of the pulse transformer, which is applied to the SCR. Wheti the pulse to
the base of Q is removed, it turns off. The current paused by the collapsing mag
netic field in the transformer induces a voltage of opposite polarity across ithe pri
mary winding. Diode D provides a path for current flow during this time.
Diac
- ..... „— g— ^
’K
+ Ir
p c ;
r Vc r
(a)
Figure 4.23
(a) An SCR trigger circuit using a diac (b) waveforms
A similar circuit using a diac (Figure 4.23 (a)) charges a capacitor slowly
over a period of time determined by the RC time constant. After the capacitor
has been charged to a voltage equal to the breakover voltage of the diac, it
switches the diac into conduction. The capacitor is then rapidly discharged into
the gate terminal of the SCR. After a short interval, the diac turns off and the
cycle repeats. This arrangement requires a relatively low power to charge the
capacitor from the DC source, but it supplies a large power for a short time for
reliable SCR turn-on. The waveforms are shown in Figure 4.23 (b).
The trigger circuit in Figure 4.24 uses an optocoupler to obtain electrical
isolation between the control circuitry and the load. Triggering via optocoupler
also prevents false triggering from noise or transients. This triggering technique
is especially popular in solid-state relays.
Figure 4.24
An SCR trigger circuit using
an optocoupler
4.12.3 AC Signals
The most common method of controlling SCRs in AC applications is to derive
the firing signal from the same AC source and to control its point of application
to the SCR during the positive half-cycle. A simple resistive trigger circuit is
shown in Figure 4.25(a). During the positive half-cycle, the SCR is in the for-
(a)
Figure 4.25
AC signals (a) resistive phase control (b) RC phase control
ward blocking state. At some value of Fs, the gate current is high enough to
turn the SCR on. The exact moment of firing of the SCR is controlled by rhjeo-
stat R2. Diode D ensures that only positive current is applied to the gate. In Fig
ure 4.25(b), an /?<? circuit produces the gating signal. The voltage across Clags
the supply voltage by an amount that depends on the value of (Rx + R2) and C.
Increasing Il2 increases the time it takes for the voltage Vc to reach a level at
which there is sufficient gate current to turn on the SCR.
Example 4.18 A gate-triggering circuit for an SCR provides a train of pulses with a frequency
of 100 Hz and a pulse width of 2 ms. If the pulse has a peak power of 2 W,
find the average power dissipated by the gate.
Solution pulse period T = 1 //= 1/100 = 10 ms
duty c 4 l^ jrf= Ton/T = 2/10 = 0.2 ',
P a o » J = 9-2 * 2 = 0.4 W
4.13 Triggering SCRs in Series and in Parallel
SCRs connected in series or parallel should be triggered from the same source
and at the same instant. This can be achieved by using a relatively high gate-
trigger vbltage that fires the SCRs faster resulting in a uniform turn-on time. A
pulse transformer is used to ensure that all gates are triggered simultaneously.
Figure 4.26 shows a gate-trigger pulse transformer with properly insulated mul
tiple secondary' windings. The transformer also provides electrical isolation so
-—| Load |— o
SCR,
J
Firing
pulse
VSCRj
Trigger Firing
pulse pulse
V SCR,
Firing
pulse
(a)
Figure 4.26
Simultaneous triggering o f SCRs (a) triggering SCRs in series (b) triggering SCRs in
parallel
4.14 SCR Turnoff (Commutation) Circuits 107
• > that the trigger source is not loaded heavily, thus preventing other SCRs in the
group from firing.
»- -------------------------- . .............. ...................... .............. — ......................................................................

4.14 SCR Turnoff (Commutation) Circuits
If an SCR is forward-biased and a gate signal is applied, the device turns on.
However, once the anode current IA is above the holding current, the gate loses
control. The only way to turn the SCR off is to reduce the anode current below
the holding current value or to make the anode negative with respect to the
cathode. The process of turnoff is known as commutation. In AC applications,
,the required condition for turnoff is achjeyed when the source reverses during
the negative half-cycle, This method is called natural or, line commutation. For
DC applications, additional circuitry must be used to turn the SCR off. These cir
cuits first force a reverse current through the SCR for a short period to reduce
the anode current to zero. They then maintain the reverse bias for the neces
sary time to complete the turnoff. This process is called forced commutation.
It should be noted that if a forward voltage is applied instantly after the
anode current is decreased to zero, the SCR will not block the forward voltage
and will start conducting again, even though it is hot triggered by a gate pulse.
It is therefore important to keep the device reverse-biased for a finite time,
called the turnoff time (/off), before a forward anode voltage can be applied.
The turnoff time of an SCR is specified as the minimum period between the
instant the anode current becomes zero and the instant the device is able to
block the forward voltage.
SCR turnoff can be accomplished in the following ways:
1. diverting the anode current to an alternate path

2. shorting the SCR from anode to cathode
3. applying a reverse voltage (by making the tathode positive with respect
to the anode) across the SCR
4. forcing the anode current to zero for a brief period
5. opening the external path from its anode supply voltage
6. momentarily reducing the supply voltage to zero
The most common methods of achieving commutation are discussed

briefly in the following subsections.
4.14.1 Capacitor Commutation

In DC circuits, the SCR can be turned off by switching the anode current to an
alternate path for sufficient time to allow the SCR to recover its blocking ability.
A simple circuit using a transistor switch Q is shown in Figure 4.27. When the
SCR is on, the transistor is in the off state. To turn the SCR off, a positive pulse '
is applied to the base of Q, turning it on. The anode current is diverted to the *
transistor. When the anode current falls below the holding current, the SCR t,
turns off. The transistor is held on just long enough to turn off the SCR. This is
not a useful method for repetitive on-off operations since the SCR Is not actu- :
ally reverse-biased and turnoff is therefore slow.
Figure 4.27 R
SCR turnoff circuits using a ----W vr
transistor switch
Off pulse
In another method, the SCR can be turned off by applying a reverse bias
for enough time to allow the SCR to recover its forward blocking ability. A typ
ical commutation circuit includes a commutation capacitor C and an auxiliary
SCR2, as shown in Figure 4.28. When the main SCR! is conducting, capacitor C
charges to the source voltage Vs through Ru initially with the polarity shown.
At this instant, SCR2 is off. To turn SCRj off, SCR2 is triggered. When SCR2 turns
on, the capacitor is switched across SCRi, applying a reverse voltage across it.
If SCRi is reverse-biased long enough, it will turn off.
Figure 4.28
SCR turnoff circuits using a
commutation capacitor
Auxiliary
scr2
1
To ensure successful commutation, the value of the capacitance C can be
determined by:
C> 4.14
0.693 Ri.
where
C = commutation capacitor in jiF

RL s? load resistance in Q
/off - turnoff time in M-S
4.14 SCR Turnoff (Commutation) Circuits 109
Example 4.19 In the circuit in Figure 4.28, the source voltage is 220 V and the load resistance
is 10 £1 If the turnoff time for the SCR is 10 (is, find the minimum value of
capacitance that will ensure commutation.
Solution The minimum value of C is:
c = — km.— = IP J10._) _ 144
0.0693 Rl 0.693 * 10 ^
A suitable value of C would be 1.5 (xF.
4.14.2 Commutation by External Source

In this type of commutation circuit, the commutation energy is obtained from
an external source in the form of a pulse. A simple circuit is shown in Figure
4.29. The pulse generator reverse-biases the SCR and thus turns it off. The pulse
width must be such that the SCR is reverse-biased for a period greater than the
turnoff time of the SCR.
SCR
---- ►
\ \ .
'SCR
SCR
..... 7 vs
.... n
(a) (b)
Figure 4.29
Commutation by external source (a) circuit (b) waveforms
When the SCR is triggered by applying a gate signal, current flows through
the SCR, the secondary of the pulse transformer, and the load. To turn the SCR
off, a positive pulse from the pulse transformer is applied to the cathode of the
SCR. The capacitor is charged to only about 1 V and can be considered a short
circuit for the duration of commutation.
4.14.3 Commutation by Resonance

The natural resonance set up in an LC circuit can be used directly to turn off
an SCR, eliminating the need for an external source, Figure 4,30 shows a sim
ple series resonant turnoff circuit. The underdamped LC resonating circuit in
series with the load applies a reverse voltage to the SCR to turn it off.
Figure 4.30
Series resonant turnoff SCR
circuit
The parallel resonance commutation circuit shown in Figure 4.31 can also
be used to turn an SCR off. The capacitor C is initially charged during the SCR
off period to the source voltage with the polarity indicated. When the SCR is
turned on, the capacitor discharges through the LC resonant circuit and applies
a reverse voltage across the SCR to turn it off. Once the SCR is turned on, it
conducts till the capacitor charges again to Vs and starts discharging through the
SCR and L, Then it automatically turns off.
Figure 4.31
Parallel resonant turnoff
circuit
4.14.4 AC Line Commutation

This commutation method is used in circuits with an AG source. Figure 4.32
shows a typical line commutated circuit and its associated waveforms. Load cur
rent flows in the circuit during the positive half-cycle. The SCR is reverse-biased
during the negative half-cycle of the input voltage. With zero gate signal the
SCR will turn off if the turnoff time of the SCR is less than the duration of the
half-cycle, that is, for a period 772, The maximum frequency at which this cir
cuit can operate depends on the turnoff time of the SCR.
Figure 4.32
AC line commutation
Kt
4.15 Other Types of Thyristors
We have now discussed the standard thyristor, the silicon controlled rectifier, in
some detail. The other important members of the thyristor family are the gate
turnoff GTO thyristor and the triac. There are also several low-power devices
belonging to this family that are mainly used in trigger circuits to turn the thyris
tor on, The principal ones are the silicon controlled switch (SCS) and the diac.
The MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT) is a new but very promising switching
device.
4.15.1 The Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS)

The silicon controlled switch (SCS) is a four-layer PNPN device. Figure 4.33
shows the structure and the symbol for the device. The SCS has two gates, an
anode gate (AG) and a cathode gate (KG).
Figure 4.33 Anode (A)

The SCS (a) structure
(b) symbol
>
Anode
N
Cathode 0 P Gate (AG)
Gate (KG) I<
Cathode (K)
(a) (b)
Figure 4.34 shows the electrical equivalent circuit. As shown, both transis
tor bases are accessible for applying gate pulses. Like an SCR, an SCS can be
turned on by applying a positive pulse at the cathode gate. The device can also
be turned on by applying a negative gate pulse at the anode gate. If the SCS is
on, a positive pulse at the anode gate or a negative pulse at the cathode gate
is required to turn it off. Usually, the turn-on anode gate current is larger in
magnitude than the required cathode gate current.
Figure 4.34
Equivalent circuit for an SCS
4.15.2 The GateTurnoff Thyristor (GTQ)

The gate turn off thyristor is a power semiconductor switch that turns on like a
normal SCR, that is, with a positive gate signal. In addition, it can be turned off
by means of a negative gate current. Both on-state and off-state operations of
the device are therefore controlled by the gate current. A second very important
characteristic of the GTO is its improved switching characteristics. The turn-on
time is similar to that of the SCR, but the turnoff time is much smaller. This
allows the use of GTOs in high-speed applications. However, the voltage a n d ,
current ratings of available GTOs are lower than those of SCRs. GTOs also have
higher on-state voltage drops and less leakage current. GTOs are used in motor
drives, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), static volt amperes reactive (VAR)
compensators, choppers, and inverters at high power levels.
The structure of a GTO, shown in Figure 4.35(a), is essentially the same
as that of an SCR. The symbol for the GTO is shown in Figure 4.35(b). If the
anode (A) is made positive with respect to the cathode (K) and a positive gate
signal is applied to the gate, the GTO turns on. It remains on until the anode
. current falls to a value below the holding current. To turn the device off, a neg
ative gate signal is applied to the gate.
Figure 4.35 Anode

o
Gate turnoff thyristor
(a) structure (b) symbol
Gate o -
Cathode
(a)
The ideal V-I characteristic of the GTO is shown in Figure 4.36. If there is
no gate signal, the device remains off for either polarity of anode-cathode volt
age. In the forward direction, if a positive signal7G is applied to the gate, the
Figure 4-36
GTO ideal V-I characteristic
AK
GTO turns on. It remains on, even if the gate signal is rem oved if -
signal -I G is applied to the gate, the GTO turns off. It. stays off Untij ne
gate signal is reapplied. Like an SCR, the GTO can still be turned off l
ing the anode current to a value below the holding current. r
The major disadvantage of the GTO is the increase in the m a » •
the gate current required to turn on or turn off the device, compared ■
SCR. Usually, more gate current is needed to turn off the device than
on. The GTO also has reduced reverse voltage blocking capability Th
an inverse diode must be used across the SCR (as shown in Figure 4 3 7 ) j[e
is likelihood thdt a high reverse voltage may appear across the devic >*
power losses are also somewhat higher than those of the SCR due to '
conduction loss. However, these disadvantages far outweigh its conve-f
when used in DC applications that would require additional components 11
off the device if an SCR were used.
Figure 4.37
GTO snubber circuit
- Snublvr
GTOs are subjected, to large power losses w hen a sharp rise voltage'
applied. To prevent this, a polarized snubber consisting of capacitors, resin/
and a diode is connected in parallel with the GTO (see Figure 4.37). The s-
ber circuit also limits d v /d t across the GTO during turnoff.
4.15.3 The Diac j

A diac is a three-layer, two-terminal semiconductor switch. It operates like;
diodes connected back-to-back in series. The only way to turn the device 6i|
by exceeding the breakover voltage. It can be switched from the off to thes
Figure 4.38 Anode 1 Anode 1

<jp 9
Diac (a) structure (b) symbol
.*1
—---- J p.1
N2
P2 f
<h
Anode 2 Anode 2
(a) (b)
state for either polarity of applied voltage, making it usefu) in AC applications.

Figure 4.38 shows the structure and the symbol for the device. Its terminals are
called anode 1 and anode 2.
Figure 4.39 shows the V-I characteristic of a diac. When anode 1 is at a
higher potential than anode 2, a small leakage current flows up to the
breakover voltage FBo, beyond which the diac conducts. The voltage across the
diac drops to a low value and stays relatively constant. However, the current
can increase rapidly to a high value, limited Only by the external circuit. When
anode 2 is at a higher potential than anode 1, similar behavior takes place. The
breakover voltages are very close in magnitude in either direction, varying only
about 10% from each other. Diacs are extensively used to trigger larger devices
such as SCRs and triacs.
Figure 4.39
V-I characteristic of a diac
4.15,4 The Triac

The triac is simply a diac with a gate terminal added to control the turn-on. It
is able to conduct current in both the forward and the reverse directions and
can be controlled by a positive or a negative gate signal. This makes it useful
for AC power control. Like an SCR, a triac has three terminals, but they are
called main terminal 1 (MTj), main terminal 2 (MT2), and gate. The structure
and symbol for the device are shown in Figure 4.40(a) and (b), respectively. A
triac is also called a bidirectional SCR, since it can be considered an integration
of two SCRs connected back-to-back in parallel, as shown in Figure 4.40(c).
Figure 4.41 shows the voltage-current characteristic of the triac. The char
acteristic is identical to that of an SCR for either polarity of applied voltage to
the terminals MTi and MT2. The breakover voltage of the triac can also be con
trolled by application of a positive or negative signal to the gate. As the mag-
MT,
Main terminal 1
o
— JL
N SCRj A
~N \P / ' N >G
Gate (G) o
Main terminal 2
6
m t2
I
m t2
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.40
The Triac (a) structure (b) symbol (c) SCR equivalent circuit
nitude of the gate signal increases, the breakover point of the triac decreases,
Once the triac turns on, the gate signal can be removed, and just like an SCR,
the triac remains on until the main current falls below the holding current. The
four operating modes for turn-on are summarized in Table 4-3.
Figure 4.41 /
Triac V-I characteristic
MT2 positive
MT2 negative
A triac is more economical and easy to control, but if the power to be regulated
is greater than the triac’s rating, a pair of SCRs can be used, In fact, due to the
higher dv/dt capabilities and lower turnoff times of the SCR, high-power circuits
normally employ two SCRs to achieve the function of a triac.
One limitation of the triac is its slow speed, which limits the operating fre
quency to a few hundred hertz, Triacs are therefore exclusively used to regulate
4.15 Other Types o f Thyristors 117
Table 4-3 Operating modes of the triac
Positive Positive
Positive Negative
Negative Positive
Negative Negative
60-Hz AC voltage in applications such as light dimming, speed control of

motors, and heating control and'in solid-state AC relays.
4.15.5 The MOS-Controlled Thyristor (MCT)

The MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT) is a new device that combines the charac
teristics of a MOSFET and an SCR. It has a low forward voltage drop in the on
state and a low turnoff time. It has high di/dt and dv/dt capabilities. It is simi
lar in functionality to the GTO but has a lower turnoff gate current requirement.
Its main disadvantage is that its reverse voltage blocking ability is very low.
Figure 4.42 shows the symbol and equivalent circuit for the MCT. In an
MCT, an SCR and two MOSFETs are combined into a single device. The two
MOSFETs have the same gate terminal, which is the gate of the MCT. They also
have the same source terminal, which is the anode of the MCT. The N-channel
MOSFET Q offi which is connected between the anode and one of its internal
layers, turns the SCR off while the P-channel MOSFET QON, connected between
the gate and anode, turns it on.
Figure 4.42 A
The MCT (a) symbol
(b) equivalent circuit. A
(anode}
■V
CHAPTER 4 Thyristor Devices |
v'lfl
S
Unlike a GTO, which is turned on and off by establishing a gate current, M
the MCT is switched by establishing the proper voltage from gate to anode. J
When the gate-to-anode voltage is approximately -5V, Qon turns on and sup-'f
plies gate current to the SCR. This turns on the SCR. The MCT is turned off by fj
applying a gate-to-anode voltage of approximately +10V, which turns Qqfp on. |
This shunts current away from the SCR and turns it off.
4.15.5.1 The M CT V-I Characteristic

Figure 4.43 shows the V-I characteristic of an MCT. If the anode (A) is made
positive with respect to the cathode (K), when no voltage is applied to the gate,
the MCT remains in the blocking state, allowing only a small leakage current
(7LEak)- The MCT remains in the off state until a breakover voltage VBO is
reached, at which point the MCT breaks down. However, the MCT is not turned
on this way.
Figure 4.43
MCT V-I characteristic
AK
If the cathode (K) is made positive with respect to the anode (A) with
either positive or negative voltage applied to the gate, the MCT breaks down at
a low voltage. This situation is to be avoided.
The normal way to turn the device on is to forward-bias the MCT by mak
ing the anode positive with respect to the cathode and. applying a negative volt
age to the gate and anode. When on, the voltage drop across the MCT (VqN) is
very small (about 1 V) and the anode current is limited only by the load resis
tance. Once the MCT turns on, removal of the gate voltage will not turn it off.
If the MCT is on, the application of a positive voltage to the gate turns the
device off until a negative voltage is applied to the gate again.
4.16 Problems 119
4.16 Problems
4.1 What is the main difference between a diode and an SCR?
4.2 What two conditions must be met to cause an SCR to turn on?
4.3 After an SCR is turned on, what effect does the gate current have on
the SCR?
4.4 How does the breakover voltage vary with the gate current?
4.5 How can an SCR be turned on with its gate terminal open?
4.6 What requirements should be satisfied by a gate trigger?
4.7 Explain the operation of an SCR using the twO-trarisistor model.
4.8 Find the average and RMS values of the current waveform shown in Fig
ure 4.6, using the approximation method. Im is 80 A, tQ is 4 ms, and T is
20 ms.
4.9 Find the RMS current of an SCR if the average DC current is 80 A, with a
conduction angle 0 of 20°.
4.10 Find the RMS current of an SCR if the average DC current is 120 A, with
a conduction angle 0 of 40°.
4.11 Sketch the output-current waveform of an SCR controlling a load when
Vdrm is slightly exceeded, causing breakover with no gate trigger.
4.12 When is the holding current of an SCR greater, at -30°C or +30°C?
4.13 Define Ih. When does the holding current pose a problem?
4.14 Explain the meaning of the di/dt rating of an SCR. What is likely to happen
to an SCR when (di/di)„m is exceeded? How can the effects be reduced?
4.15 Explain the meaning of the dv/dt rating of an SCR. What is likely to happen
to an SCR when (dv/dt),m>, is exceeded? How can the effects be reduced?
4.16 Find the minimum value of the series inductanqe L required to protect an
SCR from excessive di/dt. The SCR has a di/dt rating of 10 A/îs, and the
AC source voltage is 220 V.
4.17 Why is a snubber required across a thyristor? Sketch a snubber circuit and
explain how it works.
4.18 Find values of an RC snubber circuit,-if the SCR has the following ratings:
Kdrm = 200 V
(dv/di)m2lX = 200 V/fis
(di/dt) = 100 A/|i.s
Rl = 10. Q
4.19 What is the difference between an inverter-type SCR and a phase-control-

type SCR?
4.20 Draw four SCRs in series and external circuitry to equalize voltages.
4.21 Describe the various m ethods used to turn on an SCR,
4.22 Describe the various m ethods used to turn off SCRs in DC circuits.
4.23 Draw the symbol of a triac and identify its terminals.
4.24 Sketch the V-I characteristic of a triac.
4.25 List the four operating m odes of a triac.
4.26 Draw the symbol of a diac and identify its terminals.
4.27 Sketch the V-I characteristic of a diac.
4.28 Describe the operation of a GTO.
4.29 What is the main advantage of a GTO over a conventional SCR?
4.30 Draw the symbol of an MCT and identify its terminals,
4.J1 Describe the operation of an MCT.
4.32 Sketch the V-I characteristic of an MCT.
■--------------------
4.17 Equations
4.1
4.2
4.3
■4ms _ f o (âv e ) 4.4
^TRMS = foU-lXME>) 4.5
4.6
(' d I , / ''/O n ,a x
'max
4.7
'max
c > — > ~-----m£^- 4.8

Rl RL(dv/dt),'max
4.9
2V2 - Vm
4.17 Equations 121
on-state + off-state power loss averaged over a cycle

4.12
energy dissipated during switching per cycle
v _ . Vrrm (PIV) of the SCR
4 .1 3
F peak value of the voltage applied to the SCR
✓7>----feff— 4.14
0 .6 9 3 i?L
Single-Phase
Uncontrolled Rectifiers
Chapter Outline
5.1 Introduction 5.3.1 With a Resistive Load

5.2 The H alf-W ave R ectifier (One-Pulse 5.3.2 With an Inductive (RL) L o a d
Rectifier) 5.4 The Full-W ave B ridge R e c t i f i e r
5.2.1 With a Resistive Load 5.4.1. With a Resistive Load
5.2.2 With an Inductive (RL) Load 5.4.2. With an Inductive (RL) L o a d
5.2.3 With an Inductive Load and a 5.5 Problems
Freewheeling-Diode (FWD)
5.6 Equations
5.3 Full-W ave Center-Tapped Transform er
Rectifier (Two-Pulse Rectifier)
Learning Objectives
A fte r com pleting this chapter, th e student s j be able to
m describe w ith th e hel(3 o f w aveform s the ■ describe w ith th e help o f w a v e f o r m s

operation o f a h alf-w a ve uncontrolled operation o f a fu ll-w a v e u n c o n t r o l l e
rectifier w ith resistive and inductive rectifier w ith resistive a n d i n d u c t i v e
loads loads
■ explain w h a t is m e an t by a free w h ee lin g ■ discuss th e advantages o f a f u l l - w a v
diode rectifier over a h a lf-w a v e r e c t i f i e r
m explain th e d ifference b e tw e e n a h alf
w ave and a full-w a v e rectifier
5.2 The Half-Wave Rectifier (One-Pulse Rectifier) 123
5.1 Introduction
Rectification is the process of converting alternating current or voltage into
direct current or voltage. An uncontrolled rectifier uses only diodes as the rec
tifying elements. The DC output voltage is fixed in magnitude by the amplitude
of the AC supply voltage. However, the DC output is not pure—it contains sig
nificant AC components called ripple. To eliminate this ripple, a filter is inserted
after the rectifier.
In this chapter, we will study single-phase, uncontrolled rectifiers ranging
from a simple half-wave rectifier using a single diode to more complex full-
wave bridge rectifiers using several diodes. We will assume that the diodes used
have the same ideal characteristics as those in Figure 2.3.
5.2 The Half-Wave Rectifier (One-Pulse Rectifier)
5.2.1 With a Resistive Load

A simple half-wave rectifier circuit supplying a purely resistive load is shown in
Figure 5.1(a). The source voltage is a sine wave with a maximum value Vm and
period T. During the positive half-cycle, when the voltage at the anode is pos
itive with respect to the cathode, the diode turns on. This allows current
through the load resistor R. Thus, the load voltage (v„) follows the positive half
sine wave. During the negative half-cycle, the voltage at the anode becomes
negative with respect to the cathode and the diode turns off. Then no current
flows through R. The output voltage (v0) is shown in Figure 5.1(b), which also
shows the load current.
The half-wave rectifier thus changes AC power to DC. The output voltage
is pulsating DC containing a large ripple. Therefore, one-pulse circuits have lim
ited practical value for high-power applications.
The quantities of interest in this circuit are average or DC load voltage and
load current. ,
Average load voltage is given by:
v*o(avg.)
= v jft 5-1
= 0,318 Vm
where
V$ = the RMS value of supply voltage
Vm = the maximum value of supply voltage.
24 CHAPTER 5 Single-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers
+ vD .
-f o- —O j !o
AC supply
(a)
Figure 5.1
Half-wave rectifier with resistive load (a) circuit (b) wavefornrts
The current waveform has the same shape as the voltage waveform, so a rela
tion similar to Equation 5.1 holds for the average load current
ô(avg ) “ 4 / r c
= 0.318 Im 5.2
where Jm = VJR,
The root-mean square CRMS) current is given by:
U 2 5.3
The result in Equation 5 3 is characteristic of the half-wave circuit waveform.
The waveform of the diode voltage (Figure 5-1 (b)> shows that the diode
must be able to withstand a reverse voltage that is equal to the peak source
5.2 The Hslf-Wave Rectifier (Orte-Pulse Rectlfifer) 125
voltage. This voltage is used to select the proper diode in a given circuit. The
PIV (or PRV) rating for the diode is therefore given by:
PIV rating: > 5.4
The purpose of a rectifier is to convert AC power into DC power. Since we are
assuming ideal devices, with no pow er loss ini the rectifier the net power flow
at the AC input terminal avetaged over a full cycle must equal the DC power
output. The DC (average) power output to the load is given by:
•ô(avg.) — KjCavg.) -fc(avg.)

V J _ _ub__
vm * _an
Jm. V
rm * Vrn
ua. 55
% n %z * R
__ vKm2
~ n 2 *R
The AC power input is given by:
P hC - ^R M S * 4 m s i
for a period from 0 to n (half-cycle) is VJ2. Therefore,
p V
- _rn « iTn . ----Lm
V * V
----e g V2
AC 2 2 4 *R 4R
The rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of DC output power to AC input
power:
io c -a i 5.7
r hC
The form factor is a measure of the goodness of the shape of the output volt
age. Ideally, the DC output voltage of a rectifier should be constant. In practice,
rectifiers provide outputs that are incomplete sing waves. The form factor is
defined as the ratio of the RMS output voltage to the average value of output
voltage:
form factor (FF) = 5.8

’ o(avg.)
The ideal value of FF is unity. FF is unity if the output voltage is a constant DC

value, for which K>RMS = K><avg>
The output voltage of a rectifier contains both DC and AC (ripple) com
ponents. The frequency and magnitude of the ripple voltage is an important fac
tor in the choice of rectifiers. The higher the frequency and the smaller the mag
nitude of the ripple, the easier it is to filter the ripple to within acceptable limits.
The pulse number is the ratio of the fundamental ripple frequency of the
DC voltage to the frequency of the AC supply voltage.
, fundamental ripple frequency „„
pulse number = ------ —--------- ~r—— ------ 5-9
AC source frequency
■t
126 CHAPTER 5 Single-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers ‘
The ripple factor is the ratio o f the RMS value of the AC component to the DC
component.
ripple factor =
4 dc l*
Ideally the ripple factor should be zero.. The ripple factor can be determined by
first finding the power dissipated in the load resistor R:
P, = 4msR = I2nc.R+ ilcR
or
r2
^RMS ~ ‘TDC
2
r2
J ac_ _ /12HMS _
12
*DC
/2 r2 r2
•*DC ■'DC *DC
t2
<N
■'RMS _
S '
1
ii
r2
I DC
RF = 1m s - - 1 5.10
Example 5.1 A half-wave rectifier shown in Figure 5.1(a) is connected to a 50 V AC source.

If the load resistance is 100 Q, find
a) the maximum load voltage
b) the average load voltage
c) the maximum load current
d) the average load current
e) the RMs load current
f) the PIV rating for the diode
g) the DC (average) power output
h) the AC power input
i) the rectifier efficiency
j) the form factor
k) the pulse number
1) the ripple factor
m) the conduction angle
Solution a) maximum load voltage
V;n = V 2 50 = 70.7 V
b) average load voltage
ôCavg.) = 0-318 Vm
= 0.318 * 70.7 , '
= 22.5 V .........
c) maximum load current

4 = V J R ^ 70.7/100 = 707 mA
d) average load current 4 (a v g .) 0.318 * 0.707 = 225 mA
e) RMS load current 4 rms I J 2 = 0.707/2 = 353.5 mA
0 PIV rating for the dioae PIV > Vm 70.7 V
g) DC power output PDC

v; 70.7
= 5.1 W
r r * loo
h) AC power input 70.72

r AC 12.5 W
4 R 4 * 100
_D C
i) rectifier efficiency
ÂC
4
%
0.405 or 40.5%
j) form factor
p p _ JjbBMS. VJ2
**-=- = n/2 = 1.57
ô(avg.)
fundamental ripple frequency _ 60

k) pulse number
AC source frequency 60
360 °
or = 1
360'
1) ripple factor RF
- JV W
JDC - - 1
(/m/2)2
1
(/m/rc)2
V (it/2 )2 - 1
1.21
m) conduction angle
Example 5.2 In Figure 5.1(a), the source voltage is 120 V with a resistive load of 10 £2. Find
a) the maximum load current
c) the average load current
d) the RMS load current
e) the power absorbed by the load
f) the power factor
g) the PIV rating for the diode
CHAPTER 5 Single-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers
Solution The peak value of the source voltage is , ,

Vm = V 2 VRMS = (1.414X120) = 169.7 V
a) maximum load current /„, = 14/R = 169-7/10 = 16.97 A
b) average load voltage l^cavg.) = 0.318 Vm - 0.318*169.7 = 54.0 V
c) average load current /o(avg.) = 0.318 Im = 0.318*16.97 = 5.4 A
d) RMS load current /RMS = /m/2 = 16.97/2 = 8.49 A
e) power absorbed by the load P = /j(MS R = 8.492 * 10 = 720 W
f) apparent power S = VJ(MS*/RMS = 120*8.49 = 1018.8 VA
r . P 720
power factor - = = 0.707
g) PIV rating for diode: > 169.7 V
5.2.2 With an Inductive (RL) Load

The half-wave circuit with an inductive (RL) load, which is the practical case, is
shown in Figure 5.2(a). Let us analyze the operation of this circuit.
a) As in the case of a resistive load, the diode turns on when its anode
becomes positive with respect to the cathode. The voltage across the load is
therefore the same as the positive half-cycle of the AC source.
b) During this time, energy is transferred from the AC source and is stored in
the magnetic field surrounding the inductor.
c) The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously. Therefore the
current increases gradually until it reaches its maximum value. Note that the
current does not reach its peak when the voltage is at its maximum. This is
consistent with the fact that the current through an inductor lags the voltage.
d) When the source voltage decreases, the current starts decreasing gradually,
becoming zero when all the energy stored by the inductor is released to the
circuit. The load current therefore exists for a little more than half the entire
period.
e) At the same time, the collapsing magnetic field links with the inductor and
induces a voltage that opposes the decrease in the applied voltage.
f) As soon as the current is zero, the diode is reverse-biased, The diode then
remains off for the rest of the negative cycle. Figure 5.2(b) shov s the wave
forms.
During the interval from 0 to jc/2 , the source voltage increases from
zero to its positive maximum, while the voltage induced, across the inductor
Vi opposes the change of current through the load. In the time interval jc/ 2
to Tt, the source voltage decreases from its positive maximum value to zero.
At the same time, the induced voltage has reversed polarity and opposes the
decrease in current; that is, it now aids the diode forward current.
Figure 5.2
Half-wave rectifier with inductive load (a) circuit diagram (b) voltage and current
waveforms
At K, the source voltage reverses and starts to increase to its negative
maximum value. However, the voltage induced'across the inductor is still
positive and will sustain forward conduction of the diode until the induced
voltage decreases to zero, at which point the diode blocks. Note that
although the diode is reverse-biased, there is a current flow through the
diode until the angle 0 = rt + <J> is reached. This is the result of the energy
stored in the magnetic field being returned to the Source.
The waveform of voltage across the resistor is the same as the wave
form o f = ia K). The difference between and va is the voltage across
the inductor (see Figure 5.2(b)).
g) If we increase the load inductance Z, the diode will conduct current for more
time during the cycle.
If we assume L to be infinite, the current that flows through the diode would
be completely smooth and therefore continuous. In this situation, the diode
would be on for the full cycle, the voltage across the diode would be zero, and
the values of vs arid v0 would be equal. The circuit would no longer rectify, so ;
the current would be alternating. This is not possible, therefore the output cur
rent must be zero for some duration that is less than half a cycle. The aversi ■■
output voltage therefore depends on the relative inductance and resistance of -
the load. The waveforms show n in Figure 5.2(b) are drawn for the case in
which the average output voltage is not zero and the current is therefore not
continuous.
The average value of the load voltage is given by;
t W > = ~r£L(l-cos 0) 5.11 I

2K
where 0 = it + is the conduction angle, (<& depends on the values of L and R).
It should be clear from the above that as:
<6 approaches 180°, Vâvg.> approaches zero
0 approaches 360°, Kxavg.) approaches zero.
In other words, the inductive load reduces the average load voltage.
Note that if 0 = 180°, then V^(avg) = Vm/n (Equation 5.1).
W ) = “ ^ < > cos 6) 5.12
For high-power applications, one-pulse circuits have limited practical use due to
their low output voltage and the large ripple that is contained in the DC output
voltage.
5.2.3 With an Inductive Load and a Freewheeling Diode

(FWD)
The circuit in Figure 5.2 can be modified to produce the circuit shown in Fig
ure 5.3, which is of practical use in low-power applications. It is still considered
a half-wave rectifier, although the load current can flow for the entire cycle.
The second diode D2, which is added in parallel with the load, is known
as a freewheeling-diode (FWD). This diode; prevents negative voltage from
appearing across the load, and as a result, it increases the average output volt
age (Kkavg.)) across the load as well as the average current /o(aVg.). During the
negative half-cycle of the supply voltage, the FWD conducts and provides an
alternate path for the load current. During this interval of FWD conduction, the
main diode Di is reverse-biased and stops conducting, and thus the source cur
rent is zero for this half-period. The FWD helps to prevent the load current from
ever going to zero and thus reduces the ripple,
The load voltage waveform is the same as in the half-wave circuit with a
resistive load. The average load voltage is similarly V^/n, as given by Equation 5.1.
The voltage and current waveforms shown in this figure assume a large
load inductance. The larger the load inductance, the smoother the load current
becomes.
Figure 5.3
Inductive load with a FWD (a) circuit diagram (b) typical Waveforms with large
inductive load
Example S.3 In the circuit shown in Figure 5.3, Vs = 240 V and 7?= 10 £2. If the load induc
tance is large, find
a) the average load voltage
b) the average load current
c) the RMS value of load current
d) the power supplied to the load
e) the ripple factor
f ) the power factor
Solution
Vm = V 2 (240) = 339.4 V
a) average load voltage
V W ) = °-318 * 339.4 = 108 V
132 CHAPTER S Single-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers
b) average load current

■'o(avg.) 108/10 = 10.8 A
c) Due to the large value of the load inductance, the load current is nearly con
stant. The RMS value of the load current therefore equals its average value.
d) Power supplied to the load
2 D—(10.8)2 ’ 10= 1166.4 W
Pt —/rms-K
e) ripple factor
Vrms 2 ~ 1 - 1(339.4/2)1
RF: 1.211
J'dc _ V 108
0 Power factor
P 1166.4
:0.45
S 240 * 10.8
5 .3 Full-Wave Center-Tapped Transformer Rectifier OWo-Pulse

Rectifier)
A single-phase, half-wave rectifier is not very practical due to its low average
output voltage, poor efficiency, and high ripple factor. These limitations can be
overcome by full-wave rectification. Full-wave rectifiers are more commonly
used than half-wave rectifiers, due to their higher average voltages and currents,
higher efficiency, and reduced ripple factor.

Figure 5.4(a) shows the schematic diagram of the full-wave rectifier using a
transformer with a center-tapped secondary. The source voltage and load resis
tor are the same as in the half-wave case, During the positive half-cycle (Figure
5.4(b)), diode Dj conducts and D2 is reverse-biased. Current flows through the
1:2 1:2
-Oh
Vs * 'o vs
+
-AAAr* A /W
-V q +
D2
+ •“
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5.4
Full-wave center-tap rectifier (a) circuit (b) equivalent circuit during the positive
half-cycle (c) equivalent circuit during the negative half-cycle
5.3 Full-Wave Center-Tapped Transformer Rectifier (Two-Pulse Rectifier) 133
Figure 5.4
(d) Voltage and current
waveforms
(d)
load, causing a positive drop. During the negative half-cycle (Figure 5.4(c)),
diode D2 conducts and D, turns off. Current flows through J?. maintaining the
same polarity for the voltage across the load (see Figure 5.4(d)). Therefore, the
load voltage waveform consists of successive half-cycles of a sine wave, result
ing in a higher average value and higher ripple frequency.
Average and RMS values are similar tot hose for the half-wave case:
K xavg.) = (2 vm)/it = 0 .6 3 6 Vm 5.13
Note that the full-wave average is twice the half-wave average—this is obvious
by inspecting the two graphs of voltage versus time. Similarly, the average load
current is given by the same factor, so
4 (a v g .) = (2 I J / n = 0 . 6 3 6 7m = ^ 5.14
K
The RMS output current is given by
L
■'oRMS 1 = 0.707 4 5.15
V2
The graph of the voltage across the diode in Figure 5.4(d) shows that each
diode must withstand a reverse voltage equal to 2Vm. The PIV rating for the
diodes used in this circuit is therefore given by:
PIV rating for diodes: > 2 Vm 5.16
The average diode current is
•^DlCavg.) ~ ^D2(avg.) “ ô(avg.)/2 ” /m/ 5*17
The RMS diode current is
4>rms = -4/2 5.18
The average or DC power delivered to the load is given by
•ôCavg.) = ô(avg,) 4avg.)
2 Vm + 2 Im 4 V m *Vm
n n n2 * R
-2
_ i_ Z L 5.19
n2 * R
The AC power input is given by
T
P\C — I^RMS * •*RMS
* rW.,
V 2
•
14
II
2 * R
— y2
vm
5.20
~ 2R
Example 5.4 The full-wave rectifier shown in Figure 5.4(a) is supplied from a 120 V, 60 Hz
source. If the load resistance is 10 ft, find
d) the average diode current
e) the RMS load current
f) the power to the load
g) the PIV rating for the diode
h) the ripple frequency
Solution ' Peak voltage:
Vm = V 2 Frms = (1.414X120) = 169.7 V .
a) maximum load current
4, = V JR = 169.7/10-s 16.97 A
b) average load voltage
K,(avg.) = 0.636 r m = 0.636 * 169.7 = 108 V
c) average load current
U avg.) = 0.636 Jm = 0.636 * 16.97 = 10.8 A
d) average diode current
^DKavg.) —^D2(avg,) —4(avg.)/2 —10.8/2 = 5.4A
e) RMS load current
/ orms = 4 / V 2 = 16.97/V2 = 12.0 A
f) power to the load
I 2 R = 122 (10) = 1440 W
g) PIV rating for diode = 2 Vm = 339.4 V
h) Since two cycles of output occurs for every cycle of1input,
ripple frequency = 2 * frequency of the ac input = 2 * 60 Hz = 120 Hz
Example 5.5 The full-wave rectifier shown in Figure 5.4(a) is supplied from a 50 V source. If
the load resistance is 100 £2, find
b) the maximum load current
d) the RMS value of load current
e) the PIV rating for the diode-
■f) the average power delivered to the load
g) the AC power input
h) the rectifier efficiency
CHAPTER 5 Single-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers
i) the form factor

j) the pulse number
k) the ripple factor
1) the conduction angle
m) the power factor
Solution Peak voltage
Vm = V 2 (50) = 70.7 V
a) average load voltage V^vg.) = 0.636 Fm = 0.636 * 70.7 = 45 V
b) maximum load current = V J R = 70.7/100 = 707 mA
c) average load current 4cavg.) = 0.636 * 0.707 = 450 mA
d) RMS load current 4 rm s = /m/ V 2 = 0.707/1.414 = 500 mA
e) PIV rating for the diode PIV k 2 Vm = 141.4 V
f) average power delivered to the load
4 V2.
P , . = 7.
°Cavg.) n2..im
, R
_ 4 (70 7)2
rt2 * 100
= 20.25 W
70.7
g) AC power input Pac = = 25 W
2 2 * 100
h) rectifier efficiency t| = ■(avg.)

P ac
V2
4 —Lia
7C2 * R
_8_
~ x2
= 0.810 or 81%
p p __ ■w.iw.s;
*o(KMS~) __ .ix.
50 - u i
0 form factor
Kxavg) 45
fundamental ripple frequency _ 12 q/60
j) pulse number p-. AC source frequency
360°
or fi =2
lm 0
k) ripple factor r2
*DC
(0,5)
/ (0.45)2
= 0.484
l) conduction angle 0 - 180°
m) power factor PF = (V « X W 2 ) 2/7C = 0.64

. ( V 2V 2)(/oa‘g/ V 2)

Adding an inductance in series with the load resistance changes the voltage and
current waveform, as shown in Section 5-2.2. Note that the load current contin
ues to flow for a period of time after the diode is reverse-biased, and this results
in a decrease in the magnitude of the average output voltage.
Figure 5.5 shows a center-tap full-wave rectifier with an inductive load and
its associated voltage and current waveforms. As can be seen in Figure 5.5(b),
‘s 1:2 *1
+ o- -tx -
_ _ ^ / w --------- onrp-
-c*-
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.5
Center-tap rectifier with an inductive load (a) circuit diagram (b) voltage and
current waveform
the load current is at its maximum when the source voltage (fs) is zero. When
vs increases in magnitude during the interval from 0 to n/2, the inductor
opposes the flow of current and stores energy in its magnetic fields. At n/2,
when va has reached its maximum, the load current is at its minimum. In the
interval between n/2 and n, where the source voltage decreases in magnitude, .
the induced voltage across the inductor opposes ainy decrease in the load cm-
rent by aiding the source voltage. Therefore, the load current increases to a •
maximum value when vs = 0. The process continues for every half-cycle of the
rectified sine wave, The load current, never reduces to zero since the eneitjv
stored in the magnetic field maintains the current flow.
The equations are similar to those for the center-tap rectifier with a resis
tive load. The average value of the load voltage is:
W ) = (2 W * = 0-636 Vm 5.21
Figure 5.6
Current Waveforms for a
highly inductive load
D, on D2 on D, on
The average value of the load current is:
5.22
If the load inductance is sufficiently large, the load current is nearly constant, as
The RMS value of the load current is:
/ q(RMS) ô(avg.) I'oC avg.)/-^ 5.23
T
■'D(RMS) ~
—
~ 5.24
Example 5.6 The full-wave rectifier shown in Figure 5.5(a) is supplied from a 115 V source.
If the load resistance is 100 £1, find
a) the output DC voltage
c) the power delivered to the load
d) the AC input power
e) the rectifier efficiency
f) the ripple factor
g) the form factor
Solution The peak voltage is
> m= V 2 (115) = 162.6 V
a) The output DC voltage is
* W ) = °-636 Vm = 0.636 * 162.6 = 103.4 V
b) The average load current is
4( avg .) = 103.4/100 = 1.03 A
c) power delivered to the load
Pl I’oCavg.) -fc(avg.)
= 103.4 * 1.03
= 107 W
d) AC input power
P ac — I 'r m s * 4 m s
2R
_ ( 162.6)2
2 ( 100)
= 132.2 W
e) rectifier efficiency r|
f) ripple factor
RF =
= 0.48
g) form factor
*
5.4 The Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

Full-wave rectification can also be obtained by using a bridge rectifier like the
one shown in Figure 5.7. This full-wave bridge rectifier uses four diodes. Dur
ing the positive half-cycle of the source voltage (Figure 5.8(a), diodes D2 and
D3 are forward-biased and can therefore be replaced by a closed switch. The
load current flow during this period is through D2 and the load R and then
through D3 and back to the source. This causes a positive drop across R.
Figure 5.7 's

A full-wave bridge rectifier
circuit
1:1
Figure 5 8 (b) shows the full-wave bridge circuit during the negative half
cycle of the source voltage. Now diodes Dj and Dâre forward-biased and can,
therefore be replaced by closed switches. The load current path is now through
D4, through R, and then through D'i to the source. The current path through R
is in the same direction as before, so there is a positive drop across R during
both half-cycles. Thus the full-wave bridge rectifier causes the load current to
flow during both half-cycles. Figure 5.9 shows the appropriate waveforms.
The average and RMS values of voltage and current are similar to those for
the full-wave center-tap case. However, the waveform of the voltage across the
diode in Figure 5.9 shows that each diode must withstand a reverse voltage
equal to only.
5.4 Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier 141
Figure 5.8
Bridge rectifier (a) positive half-cycle
(b) negative half-cycle
Figure 5.9
Bridge rectifier waveforms
PIV rating for diodes > Vm 5.25

Because there are two paths for the load current, the average diode current is
just half of the average load current:
4 > (a v g .) — -âvg . ) / 2 5.26
Example 5.7 The full-wave bridge rectifier of Figure 5.7 is supplied by a 120 V source. If the
load resistance is 10.8 Q., find
a) the peak load voltage
b) the DC voltage across the load
c) the DC load current
d) the average current in each diode
e) the average output power
f) the rectifier efficiency
g) the ripple factor
h) the power factor
Solution a) peak load voltage Vm V 2 Krms = (1.414X120) = 170 V
b) DC voltage across the load K.(avg.) = 0.636 * 170 = 108 V
c) DC load current -fc(avg.) 108/10.8 = 10 A
d) average current in each diode Since the diodes carry the load current on
alternate half-cycles, '
4>(avg.) = 4(avg,)/2 = 1 0 /2 = 5 A
e) average output power r o(avg.) ô(avg.) * ô(avg.) ' 108 * 10 = 1080 W
f) rectifier efficiency Tj = 8/m2 = 0.81 or 81%
Vm ts r i2 o n
g) ripple factor RF 2- 1 = 2 - 1 = 0.482
L ^D cJ V LioaJ
F P ô(avg.) * -4>(avg.) 108 * 10

h) power factor 0.9
r - s I ’RMS *4 ms 120 » 10
Example 5.8 The full-wave bridge rectifier of Figure 5.7 is supplied by a 120 V, 60 Hz source.
If the load resistance is 10 find
b) the maximum load current
e) the power to the load
f) the PIV rating for the diodes
g) the average diode current
Solution The peak load voltage is

Vm = V 2 = 1.414 * 120 = 170 V
a) average load voltage K*avg.) = 0.636 * 170 = 108 V
V 17()
b) maximum load current /m = —m = —— = 17 A
R 10 .
c) average load current /o(avg.) = 0.636 * 17 = 10.8 A
d) RMS load current = 17/V2 = 12.0 A
e) power to the load /|mS R = 122 * 10 = 1440 W
0 PIV rating for diodes Vm = 170 V
g) average diode current /D<avg.) = 4 ( a v g. / 2 = 1 0 .8 /2 = 5.4 A
h) Since two cycles of output occur for every cycle of input,
ripple frequency = 2* frequency of the AC input = 2 * 60 Hz = 120 Hz
Example 5.9 The full-wave bridge rectifier of Figure 5.7 is supplied by a 50 V source. If the
load resistance is 100 Q, find
a) the average voltage across the load
b) 'the average load current
c) the RMS current
d) the pulse number
e) the conduction angle
f) the PIV rating for diodes
g) the form factor
h) the ripple factor
Solution The peak load voltage is: = V 2 KRMS = 1.414 * 50 = 70.7 V
a) average voltage across the load K>(avg.) =* 0.636 * 70.7 = 45 V
b) average load current /o(avg.> - 45/100 = 0.45 A
c) RMS current / rmS = = 0.5 A
d) pulse number p = 2 •
e) conduction angle 0 = 180°
f) PIV rating PIV = Km = 70.7 V
g) form factor FF = ..^ <MS..=?•— .= 1-11

ô(avg.) 45
2
^R M S [5 0 1
h) ripple factor RF = 2 - 1 = 1 ~ 1 0 .4 8 3
- Vuc - V L45J
'
144 CHAPTER 5 Single-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers 31 ’

Adding an inductance in series with the load resistance changes the voltage and '
current waveform. Figure 5.10 shows a bridge rectifier with an inductive load.
Let us assume the inductance L to be approximately equal to R. The load cur
rent no longer consists of half sine waves, but the average current is still the
same as given by Equation 5.22:
The AC line current is no longer sinusoidal but is approximately a square wave,

Figure 5.11 shows the voltage aiid current waveforms.
Figure 5.10
Bridge rectifier circuit
(alternative drawing) with
inductive load
If we increase the load inductance until it is much,larger than R, the rip

ple across the load becomes small. If we assume an infinite load inductance j (he
load current becomes constant and the circuit behavior is as shown by ihe
waveforms in Figure 5.12. Diodes D2 and D3 conduct a constant load current on
the positive half-cycle, while diodes Dx and D4 do the same on the negative
half-cycle.
The source current is given by:
— 5*27
Although not a sine wave, the AC source current is an alternating waveform of

rectangular shape. The load is always connected to the source, but the connec
tion is reversed on alternate half-cycles.
The output voltage (v0) is a hall-wave rectified waveform. Its average value
can be determined from
K>(avg.) — ^L(av'X-) ^RCavg.) 5.28
Figure 5.11 Figure 5.12

Waveforms for Figure 5.10 (L * R) Waveforms for Figure 5.10 (L » R)
where % is the voltage across the resistive portion of the load and i\_ is the
induced voltage across the inductance. In periodic operation, t i (avg), the aver
age voltage across an inductor, must be zero. Therefore
^RCavg.) Vo(avg.) ~ (2 Vjn ) /7 T
= 0.636 Vm 5.29
The average load voltage is the same as for the'resistive case. The average load
current can be determined from
4(avg.) — ^R(avg .} / R
= 0.636 ( V J ® 5.30
Since the load current now is essentially constant, its RMS, maximum, and aver
age values are the same:
/rMS ~ A>(max ) ~ 4(avg.) 5*31
Since the diodes in the bridge conduct on alternate half-cycles, the average cur
rent ir\ each diode is
Axavg.) " 4(avg.)/2 5 32
and the RMS current in each diode is
/D(RMS) = - ^ f 5.33
Example 5.10 A full-wave bridge rectifier with an RL load is connected to a 120 V source. If
the load resistance is 10 £2 ajndZ » R, find
a) the average load voltage 1 1i
d) the RMS value of load current
e) the average current in each diode
f) the RMS current in each diode
g) the power supplied to the load
Solution The peak load voltage is
Vm = V 2 V^s = (1.414X120) = 170 V
a) average load voltage Kxavg.) = 0.636 * 170 = 108 V
b) average load current Vo(ivg)/R = 108/10 = 10.8 A /
c) maximum load current = average load current = 10.8 A
d) RMS value of load current = average load current = 10.8 A
e) average current in each diode 4>(avg.) = 4(avg./2 - 10.8/2 - 5.4 A
f) RMS current in each diode / D( r m s ) = = 7.6 A
g) power supplied to the load I^MSR = 10.82 * 10 = 1167 W
5,5 Problems
5.1 Define a rectifier.
5.2 Sketch the schematic of a half-wave rectifier and explain its operation.
5.3 A half-wave rectifier has an average output voltage of 120 V. Find the PIV
rating required for the diode.
5.4 A half-wave rectifier has a source voltage of 120 V. If the load resistance
is 20 Q, find
(a) the average load voltage
(b) the maximum diode current
(c) the average diode current
(d) the PIV rating for diode
(e) the average load power
(f) the ripple factor
(g) the form factor
5.5 A half-wave rectifier with an inductive load and a FWD has an input volt
age of 120 V, a load resistance of 5 £2, and a load inductance of 20 mH.
Find
(b) the average load current
(c) the diode current and voltage ratings
5.6 What are the main advantages of a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave rec
tifier?
5.7 In a full-wave center-tap rectifier, Vs = 208 V and the load resistance R =
100 £1. Find
(a) the maximum load voltage
(b) the average load voltage
(c) the maximum diode current
fd) the average diode current
(e) the PIV rating for diode
(f) the RMS valup of the output voltage
(g) the. ripple factor
5.8 A 2:1 step-down transformer supplies a full-wave center-tap rectifier from
a 400 V source. If the load resistance R = 500 Q and L = 1 H, find

(d) the power delivered to the load
5.9 For a single-phase full-wave rectifier with an RL load, the voltage across
the entire secondary winding is 400 V. If the load resistance is 100 Q, find
(b) the RMS load voltage ?
(d) the average diode current
5.X0 Sketch the output waveform of Figure 5.7 with all diodes reversed.
5-11 In a full-wave bridge rectifier, Vs - 240 V and the load resistance R = 10
Q. Find
(c) the RMs load current
(d) the average diode current
(e) the average output power
(f) the PIV rating for diode
5.12 Sketch the output waveform of Figure 5.13. Find the average output volt
age and the PIV rating for the diodes.
5.6 Equations
I'oCavg.) ' 0.318 Vm 5.1'

-fc(avg.) 5.:
4 rm s = 4 / 2 . 5.3
PIV rating: > Vm 5.4
n V2
' rn
‘ o(avg.) - n2 , R 5.5
V2
■ m. 5.6
4R
5.6 Equations 149
t, =■£**>• 5.7
AC
form factor (FF) = 5,3

ôCavg.)
pulse number = jHL^m enta 1 ripple frequency
AC source frequency
RF = .. 5 10
yl i l c - 1 5
v
ô(avg.) = -£H.l-CO S 0 ) 5 .1 1
y
4 avg.) = 0) 5*12
K jfa v g .) = (2 VJ,,)/?! — 0 .6 3 6 Vm 5-13
4 (a v g .) = (2 4 )/jt = 0.636 4 = 1/111 5.14
laR M S = = 0 .7 0 7 4 5 .1 5
PIV rating for diodes: > 2 V m 5.I6

4>l(ave.) ■^D2favej 4(avej/2 Im/7Z 5*17
4>(rms) = 4 /2 5-18
4 t/ 2
■ô(avg.) = ~2 5.19
V2
•P a c = — 5.20
Vo(avg) = (2 Vm)/jc = 0 . 6 3 6 Vm 5.21
/o(avg.) = ^ = 0 .6 3 6 - ^ _ 5 .2 2 .
^(RMS) ~ 4(avg.) = K)(avg.)/^ 5.23

jfcKRMS) = 4cavg./V/2 5.24
PIV rating for diodes: >Vm 5.25
4)(avg.) ~ 4avg.)/2 5*26
i = h f~.ii - iz - U 5.27
Kiiavg.) ^ Hcavg.) + '"Rfavg ) 5-28
^RCavg.) — V^(avg.) = (2 l4 )/jt 5*29
4avg.) ~ ^R(ayg.)/^ 5*30
^*MS ~ 4max.) = 4avg.) 5-31
■fc(avg.) ~ 4av g .)/2 5.32
W ) =^ 5.33
Rectifiers
Chapter Outline
6.1 Introduction 6.4 Full-W ave Controlled Bridge Rectifiers
6.2 H alf-W ave Controlled Rectifiers 6.4.1 With a Resistive Load
6.2.1 With Resistive Load 6.4.2 With an Inductive (RL) Load
6.2.2 With an Inductive (RL) Load 6.4.3 With a Freewheeling Diode
6.2.3 With a Freewheeling Diode 6.5 H alf-C ontrolled or Sem icontrolled
6.3 Full-W ave Controlled Center-Tap Bridge Rectifiers
Rectifiers 6.6 D ual Converters
6.7 Problems
6.3.3 W ith a Freewheeling Diode 6.8 Equations
Learning Objectives
A fte r com pleting this chapter, th e student should be able to
describe w ith th e help o f w aveform s th e bridge rectifier w ith resistive and

o p eratio n o f a half-w ave controlled inductive loads
rectifier w ith resistive and inductive discuss th e advantages and
loads disadvantages o f a center-tap converter
describe w ith th e help o f w aveform s th e versus a bridge converter
o p eratio n o f a fu ll-w a v e controlled describe th e op eratio n o f a h a lf
cen ter-tap rectifier w ith resistive and controlled bridge r e c tifie r .
inductive loads
describe th e op eratio n o f a dual
describe w ith th e help o f w aveform s th e converter
o p eratio n o f a fu ll-w av e controlled
150
6.1 Introduction
> To build a controlled rectifier or a phase-controlled rectifier, the diodes in the
rectifier circuit in Chapter 5 are replaced by SCRs. These circuits produce a vari
able DC output voltage whose magnitude is varied by phase control, that is, by
controlling the duration of the conduction period by varying the point at which
a gate signal is applied to the SCR.
Unlike a diode, an SCR will not automatically conduct when the anode-to-
cathode voltage becomes positive— a gate pulse must be provided. If we adjust
the delay time of the gate pulse, and if this process is done repeatedly, then the
rectifiers output can be controlled. This process is called p h ase control.
Controlled rectifiers, or converters, as they are generally called, are broadly
classified into full-controlled and half-controlled types. The full-controlled or
two-quadrant type uses SCRs as the rectifying devices. The DC current is unidi
rectional, but the DC voltage may have either polarity. With one polarity, the
flow of power is from the AC source to the DC load—this is called rectification.
With a reversal of the DC voltage by the load, the flow of power is from the
DC source to the AC supply; this process is called inversion.
If we replace half of the SCRs with diodes, the circuit is classified as a half
controlled or semiconverter circuit. Such a circuit also allows the average value
of the DC output voltage to be varied by phase control of the SCR. However,
the polarity of the DC output voltage and the direction of current cannot
change, that is, the flow of power is from the AC source to the DC load. Con
verters of this type are also called on e-qu adran t converters.
Controlled rectifiers provide DC power for various applications, such as
DC motor speed control, battery charging, and high-voltage DC transmission.
Phase control is suited for frequencies less than 400 Hz, typically 60 Hz. The
main drawback of phase control is radio frequ en cy interference (KFI). The
chopped half-sine wave produces strong harmonics that interfere with radio,
television, and other communication equipment. -
In this chapter we will study controlled rectifiers, ranging from the sim
plest configuration, the half-wave rectifier (which is seldom used in power elec
tronics applications because of the high ripple voltage content of its output), to
the center-tap and the bridge rectifier circuit.
■--------------------------- :----------- ----- ------ ---------- ------------------------------------------------------------;-------

6.2 Half-Wave Controlled Rectifiers

Figure 6.1(a) shows a half-wave controlled rectifier circuit with a resistive load.
During the positive half-cycle of the supply voltage, the SCR is forward-biased
and will conduct if a trigger pulse is applied to the gate. If the SCR turns on at
tol load current flows and the output voltage vQ will be the same as the input
152 CHAPTER 6 Single-Phase Controlled Rectifiers
voltage. At time t = %, the current falls naturally to zero, since the SCR ls
reverse-biased. During the negative half-cycle, the SCR blocks the flow <>l cur.
rent, and no voltage is applied to the load. The SCR stays off until the gate Mg.,
nal is applied again at (t0 + 2n). The period from 0 to tQ in Figure 6.1(b) rep.
resents the time in the positive half-cycle when the SCR is off. This angl^
(measured in degrees) is called the firin g angle or delay angle (a). The SCR
conducts from ta to 7t; this angle is called the conduction angle (0).
The average or DC value of the load voltage is given by
1 ^ ,( 1 + cos op
VoD(avg.) ' 6.1
2 rc
5p*r^- *
Figure 6.1
Half-wave controlled rectifier (a) circuit (b) voltage and current waveforms
where
Vm = maximum value of the AC source voltage = V 2 K,
Vs = RMS value of the AC source voltage
Similarly, the average output current is
7m(l + cos a)
-fcCavg.)
2 it
1 4 ,(1 + cos a)
6.2
2k R
The RMS value of the load current is given by
11/2
cc sin 2 a
4 ms — 6.3
n 2it
These equations tell us that the magnitude of the output voltage is controlled
by the firing angle. Increasing a by firing the SCR later in the cycle lowers the
voltage, and vice versa. The maximum output voltage, Vô = occurs when
a = 0°. This is the same voltage as for a half-wave diode circuit. Therefore, if
the SCR is fired at a = 0°, the circuit acts like a diode rectifier.
The normalized average voltage is
V J l + cos a)/2 k 1 + cos a
“ ^ o fa v g .)/ K :lo 6.4
V jn
Vn as a function of a is known as the control characteristic of the rectifier and
is shown in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2
Control characteristic for a
half-wave rectifier
Example 6.1 A half-wave controlled rectifier is supplied from a 120 V source. If the load
resistance is 1 0 £2 , find the load voltage arid power to the load for the follow
ing delay angles;
a) a = 0 °
b) a = 45°
154 CHAPTER 6 Single-Phase Cohtrolled Rectifiers
c) a = 90°
d) a = 135°
e) a = 180°
Solution peak load voltage = Vm.= V 2 Vs = 1.414 * 120 = 170 V
a
average 1load u
voltage = —“ ( 1 + cos a)
Vm----------------
2n
a) For a = 0°, we get
W 1 7 0 1 34, V
Ph= ^ (avg.)/i?= 54.02/10 = 293 w ' ;

b) For a = 45°, we get
^ 17 0O r 45 . ) , 46 2v
Pi = ô(avg.)/R = 46.22/10 = 213 w

c) For a = 90°, we get
= 27.1 V
Ph = 73.2 W
d) For a = 135°, we get
W ) = 7-92 V
PL = 6.3 W
e) a = 180°, we get
W ) =0 v
pL = o w
Therefore, the power can be varied from zero to a maximum of 293 W.
Example 6.2 A half-wave controlled rectifier connected to a 150 V, 60 Hz source is supply

ing a resistive load of 10 £2. If the delay angle a is 30°, find:
e) the power supplied to the load
f) the conduction angle
g) the ripple frequency
h) the power factor
Solution peak load voltage = Vm = V z Vs = 1.414 * 150 = 212 V

a) maximum load current
Vm( l + cos a ) _ (212) (1 + cos 30°) = y

b) average load voltage =
2% 2n
(/m)( 1 + cos q) _ ( 2 1 .2 ) ( 1 + cos 30°) _ g 3 A

c) average load current =
d) RMS load current
_ ( 2 1 .2 ) /L 30 ■, sin 6 0 '
2 VL 180 2 it
= 10.5 A
e) power supplied to the load = 7rMS R = 10.52 (10) = 1094 W
f) conduction angle
6 . = 180° - q = 180° - 30° = 150°
g) ripple frequency
f r - input supply frequency = 60 Hz
h) 5 = Fs * /rmS = 150 * 10.5 = 1575 VA
Example 6.3 A half-wave controlled rectifier is connected to a 120 V source. Calculate the fir
ing angle necessary to deliver 1 5 0 W of power to a 1 0 Q load.
^ _ Vm( 1 + cos q)
Solution
°<av8-) " 2n
Rearranging,
vm( 1 + cos q) = 2 Jt Kofavgj
Now,
Vm s=V 2 * 120 = 170 V
CHAPTER 6 Single-Phase Controlled Rectifiers
and
p — ^ ° (a v g .)
avg ~ R
Vo(avg.) = -Pavg. *R = 150 * 10 = 1500 ,
= V l5 0 0 = 38.7 V
Therefore
2% 38.7
a = cos 1 - 1
170
= 64.5°

A half-wave rectifier with a load consisting of R and L is shown in Figure 6.3(a).
If the SCR is triggered at a firing angle of a , the load current increases slowly,
since the inductance in the load forces the current to lag the voltage. The volt
age across the load (t^) is positive, and the inductor is storing energy in its
magnetic field. When the applied voltage becomes negative, the SCR is reverse-
biased. However, the energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor is
returned and maintains a forward-decaying current through the load. The cur-
vs
Figure 6.3
Half-wave rectifier with an RL load (a) circuit (b) waveforms for voltage and current
rent continues to flow until (3 (called the ad v an ce angle), when the SCR turns
off; The voltage across the inductor then changes polarity, and the voltage
across the load becomes negative. As a result, the average output voltage
becomes less than it would be with a purely resistive* load. The waveforms for
output voltage and current are shown in Figure 6.3 (b); they contain a signifi
cant amount of ripples.
The average load voltage is given by:
!/m(cos a - cos P)
K>(avg.) = 2Jt 6.5
6.2.3 With a Freewheeling Diode

To cut off the negative portion of the instantaneous output voltage and smooth
the output current ripple, a freewheeling diode is used as shown in Figure 6.4.
When the load voltage tends to reverse, the FWD becomes forward-biased and
turns on. The SCR then becomes reverse-biased and turns off. Therefore, the
Figure 6.4
RL load with FWD (a) circuit (b) waveforms
158 CHAPTERS Single-Phase Controlled Rectifiers
current that was flowing from the source to the load through the SCR now fi
wheels between the load and the diode, Note that the current continues to f]0T
in the load after the SCR is turned off, due to the energy stored in the indi
The output voltage is the same as in a circuit with a resistive load. The averag|
value of the output voltage is given again by Equation 6.1.
... . ... -
6 .3 Full-Wave Controlled Center-Tap Rectifiers

Figure 6.5 shows the basic arrangement of a single-phase, eenter-tap controlled-,
rectifier with a resistive load. Phase control of both the positive and the nuga-
tive halves of the AC supply is now possible, thus: increasing the DC voltage
and reducing the ripple compared to those of half-wave rectifiers.
Figure 6.5 SCR,

Full-wave center-tap
controlled rectifier circuit
scr2
During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage SCR is forward-biased.

If we apply the gate signal at a , SCRi turns on. The output voltage 0 0) follows
the input voltage. The load current (iQ = v JR ) has thf1 same waveform as the
load voltage. At it, when the current through SCRj becomes zero, it turns oft
naturally. During the negative half-cycle, SCR2 is forward-biased. SCR2 is fired at
(it + qc). The output voltage again follows the input voltage. The current through
SCR2 becomes zero at 2 n, and it turns off. SCRj is fired again at (2n + a ) and
SCR2 at ( 3 tc + a), and the cycle repeats. Figure 6 . 6 shows the resulting voltage
and current waveforms.
The average value of the load voltage is twice that given by E<|iu-
tion 6 .1 :
K„(l + cos a)
o(avg.) 6.6
7t
and
q _j_ ---------
sin 2 a 1/2
-- 6.7
n 2n
Figure 6.6
Full wave center-tap
rectifier waveforms with a
resistive load
6.3.2 W ith an Inductive (RL) Load
Figure 6.7 shows the waveforms for voltage and current, assuming a highly
inductive load so that the load current is continuous (i.e., present at all times).
SCR! conducts for 180° from a to (n + a), and the load voltage follows the input
voltage. At (it + a), SCR2 is fired. SCR1 now turns off, since the supply voltage
immediately appears across it and applies a reverse bias. SCR2 now conducts for
180° from (it + a) to (2 jt + a ) and supplies power to the load.
The average value of the load voltage is given by
...............2
ô(avg.) “ . - I'm COS Ct 6.8
7c
The output voltage is at its maximum when a = 0°, zero when a = 90°, and
its negative maximum when a = 180°. The normalized average output volt
age is:
y _ ô(ayg)
n 1/
■cos a 6.9
vda
ISO CHAPTER 6 Single-Phase Controlled Rectifiers
Figure 6,7
Full wave center-tap
rectifier waveforms with an
RL load
Figure 6.8
center-tap rectifier
The control characteristic (the plot o f Vn as a function of a ) is shown in Fig

ure 6 .8 .
The RMS output voltage is given by
K jCRMS) = ^s(RMS) 6.1<)
Example 6.4 Explain with the help of waveforms the operation of a full-wave center-tap rec
tifier with RL load for the following firing angles:
a) 0 °' ,
b) 45°
c) 9 0 °
d) 135°
e) 180° ,
Solution (a) Figure 6.9 shows the waveforms for voltage and current, assuming a highly
inductive load, with a firing angle o f 0 °.
During the positive half-cycle o f the source voltage, SCR] is forward-
biased and SCR2 is reverse-biased. The voltage across the load i s f 8. During
the negative half-cycle, SCR2 is forward-biased and SCR! is reverse-biased. The
voltage across the load is vs. The application of a gate pulse with a zero fir-
ing-delay angle results in an output similar to that of an uncontrolled rectifier.
Each SCR conducts for 180° and supplies current to the load for this period.
b) If we increase the firing angle, the average DC output voltage decreases as
shown in Figure 6.10, which contains the voltage and current waveforms
with a = 45°. If SCR! is triggered at 45°, SCR2 will conduct up to this point,
even though the source voltage is negative, due to the highly inductive
nature of the load. When SCR, turns on, SCR2 is reverse-biased and turns off.
The off SCR is subjected to twice the source voltage in the negative direc
tion (see the z%CRi waveform). The current to the load is supplied in turn by
SCRj and SCR2, each conducting for 180°.
c) If we increase the firing angle a to 90°, the two SCRs still remains in con
duction for i80° as shown in Figure 6.11. However, the average DC voltage
becomes zero, so there is no transfer of power from the AC source to the
DC load.
In summary, as the firing angle is increased from 0 to 90°, the power
supplied to the DC load decreases, becoming zero when a = 90°,
d) If wfe, increase the firing angle a beyond 90°, load current can flow only if
there is a negative source of voltage at the DC load side. This is possible, for
example, in a DC motor under regenerative conditions. When a = 135°, the
average DC voltage ( V^(avg)), as shown in Figure 6.12, is negative. The load
current still flow in each SCR for 180° in its original direction, but the load
voltage has changed polarity. The power now flows from the DC load to the
AC source. This circuit acts like an inverter,
e) If we increase the firing angle a to 180°, the average DC voltage reaches its
maximum negative value. The SCRs remain in conduction for 180° (Figure
6.13).

Voltage and current waveforms for a = 0° Voltage and current waveforms for a = 45°

Voltage and current waveforms for a = 90° Voltage and current waveforms for a = 135°
Figure 6.13
Voltage and current
waveforms for a = 180°
Example 6.5 Show the direction of power flow and the operating mode (rectifying or inver
sion) of the center-tap converter circuit with the following firing angles: (
............ a) a > 0 °
b) a < 9 0 ° j
c) a > 9 0 °
d) a < 180°
Solution a, b) For firing angles in the range 0° < a < 90°, the average output voltage is
positive and the converter operates in the rectifying mode. In this mode,
the power to the load is positive, that is, power flow is from the AC
source to the DC load.
6.3 Full-Wave Controlled Center Tap Rectifiers 165
c, d) For firing angles in the range 90° < a < 180°, the output voltage is nega
tive and the converter operates in the inversion mode. In this mode, the
power to the load is negative, that is, power flow is from the DC load to
the AC source. i

A freewheeling diode connected across the inductive load (as shown in Figure
6.14) modifies the voltage and current waveforms of Figure 6.7. As the load
voltage tends to go negative, the FWD becomes forward-biased and starts con
ducting. Thus, the load voltage is clamped to zero volts. A nearly constant load
Figure 6.14
Center-tap rectifier with RL loaid and FWD (a) circuit (b) voltage and current
waveforms
i CHAPTER 6 Single-Phase Controlled Rectifiers
current is maintained by the freewheeling current through the diode. The av

age load voltage is given by:
Vm (1 + cos a)
KiCavg.) — 6 j
The freewheeling diode carries the load current during the delay period a wi
the SCRs are off. Therefore, the current through the FWD(D) is given by:
a _ VJ..I
ym + cos a ) a
•*o(avg.)
'it 7t R
6.12
Vm (1 + cos a )a
Jt2 R
6.4 Full-Wave Controlled Bridge Rectifiers
614.1 In Circuits With a Resistive Load

Figure 6.15 shows a full-wave controlled bridge rectifier circuit with a resisiive
load. In this circuit, diagonally opposite pairs of SCRs turn on and off together.
The circuit operation is similar to that of the full-wave center-tap circuit <lis-‘
cussed in Section 6.3. The average DC output voltage can be controlled from
zero to its' maximum positive value by varying the firing angle. The average
value of the DC voltage is
Vm( l + cos a )
V„oCavg.) 1 6.13
it
and
The SCRs are controlled and fire in pairs with a delay angle of a. The current
and voltage waveforms become full-wave, as shown in Figure 6.16.
Figure 6.15
Full-wave bridge rectifier
circuit
is
"R v.
i\
•m
SCR,
_/ *3 *2 -{
SCR,
F t t f
6.4 Full-Wave Controlled Bridge Rectifier? 16
Figure 6.16
Waveforms of the bridge
rectifier with a resistive load
The average values for voltage and current are again twice those of the
half-wave case. Therefore, from Equations 6.1 and 6.2,
6.15
6.16
6.17
Example 6.6 The full-wave bridge rectifier shown in Figure 6.15 is supplied from a 150 V
source with a load resistance o f 10 £2. If the firing angle a is 30°, find:
e) the power supplied to the load
f) the ripple frequency
g) the power factor
Solution
Vm = V 2 (150) = 212 V
V M + cos a ) = ( 2 1 2 X 1 + cos 30°) = u 6 y

a) average load voltage =
n n
(K J (1 + cos 30°)
b) average load current = 12.6 A
R lt
c) maximum load current
d) RMS load current
= 14.8 A
e) power supplied to the load = /|ms^ = 14.82(10) = 2182 W

f) ripple frequency
f t = 2 * input supply frequency = 2 * 6 0 = 1 2 0 Hz
g> V 4m s = 1 5 0 * 1 4 .8 = 2 2 2 0 VA
jP 2182
PF ■ 0 .9 8
s' 2220

Figure 6.17 shows the bridge rectifier with the addition of an inductive load.
The load current tends to keep flowing since the inductor induces a voltage that
acts to oppose an increase or decrease in current. Therefore, SCR keeps con
ducting even though the voltage may have fallen to fcero. The Current maintains
conduction in the SCR even after the voltage across the SCR has reversed.
Figure 6.17
Bridge rectifier with an RL
load
When the inductance is small or the delay angle a is kept large, the DC
output current reaches zero every half cycle at (ji + p), as shown in Figure 6.18.
During this period, neither pair of SCRs is on, and therefore the current is said
to be discontinuous.
The average value of the output voltage is:
' V
to C av E ) = (C O S a - COS p )
n
If the load inductance is assumed to be large or a becomes small, the load cur
rent cannot reach zero and it flows continuously, as shown in Figure 6.19.
Therefore, one pair of SCRs is conducting at all times. The current is said to be
continuous.
During the positive half-cycle, SCRj and SCR4 conduct. Applying KVL
around the loop containing, Vs, SCRj and SCR2 at an instant when is > 0
(between a and (ft + a)) gives
Vs — % ; r i ~ VSCR2
Here, ySCR1 = 0 since SCRj is conducting. Therefore t>SCR2 -v,, which means
that SCR2 is reverse-biased. ■ H
During the negative half-cycle, the source voltage vs < 0. The preceding
equations do not change form, although some of the quantities change sign.
Now, since vs is negative, SCR2 and SCR3 are forward-biased and will turn on
when they receive a gate signal. Load current still flows in the same path
through SCRj and SCR4 until SCR2 and SCR3 are triggered. Therefore, from n to
(n + a), the load voltage is negative since v5 < 0. At (it + a), SCR2 and SCR3 are
triggered, which supplies a voltage V0 = - v s to the load.
The average value of this output voltage varies with a:
ô(avg.) — Kn COS 0C 6.19

It
The RMS output voltage is constant, independent of the firing angle, and equals
the RMS value of the supply voltage if the output current is continuous:
^max 6.20
Vr
oCRMS) ' ^S(RMS)
"W
The average current is still Vâvg//?, so
Jo(avgJ ' cos a 6.21
For a = 0° (no phase control), these equations reduce to those for the diode case:
^SCR(avg.) :
J5tt. 6.22
n R
4cR(avg.)
4 cr (rms) : 6.23
V2
The normalized voltage Vn = K, (a v 8 )/Fdo = Cos a. The control characteristic (a
plot o f Vn as a function of a ) is shown in Figure 6.20.
Figure 6.20
bridge rectifier
Note that when a becomes larger than 90°, the average value of output
voltage becomes negative. This means that from 90 to 180°, power flows fromf
the DC load side to the AC source side and the circuit operates as an inverter,'
When rectification and inversion are obtained from one converter, the process"
is called tw o-quadrant operation and the converter is called a fu ll converter
Example 6.7 A full-wave controlled rectifier with an inductive load is connected to a 230 V
source. The resistive portion o f the load is equal to 0.5 Q. If the voltage across
the load is 200 V, find the firing angle a.
Solution From Equation 6.19,
2
ô(avg.) ~ Kn COS (X
. it
200 = — (V 2 * 230) cos a

jt
cos a = 0 .9 6
a = 15°
Example 6.8 A full-wave controlled rectifier with an inductive load is connected to a 120 V
source. The resistive portion of the load is equal to 10 Q. If,the delay angle a
is 3 0 °, find
c) the maximum load current ;
e) the average current in each SCR ;
f) the power supplied to the load
g) the form Factor
h) the ripple Factor
i) the rectifier efficiency
Solution
Vm = V 2 (120) = 208 V
2
ô(avg.) ” ^ în COS (X
= — (208)(cos 30)
n
= 115 V
b) average load current
— •> 11 <
6,4 Full-Wave Controlled Bridge Rectifiers 173
c) maximum load current = average load current = 11.5 A

d) RMS load current = average load current = 11,5 A
e) Since the SCRs in bridge conduct on alternate half-cycles, the average SCR
current is
} W = 5.75 A
f) power supplied to the load = 7rMS R = 1 1 .5 2( 1 0 ) = 1323 W

g) form factor
FF = K,(RMS)/K,(avg.) = 120/115 = 1 .0 4
h) ripple factor
RF = V F F 2 - 1 = V l.0 4 2 - 1 = 0 .3
i) rectifier efficiency
T1 = ô(avg.)/ ô(RMS) = 1 1 5 / 1 2 0 = 0 .9 6

If a diode is connected across the load, the circuit can operate only as a recti
fier because the diode prevents negative values of va from appearing across the
load. Figure 6.21 shows the bridge rectifier circuit with the addition of a free
wheeling diode (D). The diode provides an extra path for the flow of load cur-
' rent. Three paths are now possible: SCRj and SCR4, SCR2 and SCR3, and the path
through diode D.
Figure 6.21 ‘o —*-

Full-wave bridge rectifier
with FWD
Negative values of vQwill forward-bias D and provide zero voltage across

the load. Therefore, the negative portions of vQin Figure 6.19 are nciw replaced
by v„ = 0, as shown in Figure 6.22. During this interval, the load qurrent free
wheels through D and the SCR currents and source current are zero. To illus
trate this, let us apply KVL around the path that contains vs, SCRj, v0, and SCR4 :
Vs — ^SCRl + l > o + £%CR4

Figure 6.22
Voltage and current
waveforms for Figure 6.21
For the negative portion when vs < 0, the FWD is on and v0 = 0. Therefore,
^cri + %;r4 < 0

This means that SCRj and SCR4 in series are reverse-biased and turn off. SCR,
and SCR3 are already off since vs is negative. The load current therefore trans
fers to the freewheeling diode. -
The load voltage waveform is the same as that for the resistive load case.
The average load voltage is the same as in Equation 6.13:
Vm( l + cos a)
K/avg.) : 6.24
The average value of the output voltage can be varied from 0 to 2 Vm/n as a
increases from 0 to it, This voltage is never negative.
The current in the FWD is the same as the load current from 0 to a and
from n to (n + a), while it is zero for the remaining time. The average current
in the FWD is given by:
4>(avg.) ' 6.25

It
The freewheeling diode’s maximum current is the same as the maximum value
of the load current.
6.5 Half-Controlled or Semicantrolled Bridge Rectifiers 175
Example 6.9 A full-wave bridge rectifier with a freewheeling diode supplies an RL load. The
source voltage is 120 V and the resistive portion of the load is 10 Q. If the delay
angle a = 30°, find
e) the average current in each SCR
f) the power supplied to the load
g) the average current in the FWD
Solution
V 2 (120) = 208 V
Vm (1 + cos a)
Vr.
(208)
(1 + cos 30)
ic
124 V
Vn
o(avg.) __ 1 2 4
b) average load current 12.4 A
R 10
c) maximum load current = average load current = 12,4 A
d) RMS load current = average load current = 12.4 A
e) Since the SCRs in the bridge conduct on alternate half-cycles for (180° - 30°);
150°, the average SCR current is
(1 2 .4 )1 1 M = 5 2 A
360
f) power supplied to the load = /rMS^ = 12.4Z(10) = 1538 W
g) From Equation 6.25,
JD(avg.) ' ( 1 2 . 4 ) ® = 2.06 A

180
6.5 Half-Controlled or Semicontrolled Bridge Rectifiers

Full or two-quadrant converters can operate with both positive and negative
average DC load voltages. In the rectifying mode, they supply power from the
AC source to the DC load. In the inversion mode, they remove power from the
DC load and return it to the AC source.
Figure 6.23
Full-wave semicontrolled
bridge rectifier circuit
Figure 6.24
Waveform for a semi
controlled bridge rectifier
with an inductive load
n 27t 3i
t
i
/
/
/
<y.
r\ r\ /
1t +a
/ r \
27t + a
/I
i ,
a n +a 2n + a
i
i
—
S H
(X rc + a 27t + a
i
r h
n 2it
------ 1
h :
i it 2rc ! 371
i
i ; . :
-a 2n 1
a % ^ ___ j 2n + a
p
6.5 Half-Controlled or Semicontrolled Bridge Rectifier 177
There are various applications that require power flow only from the AC
source to the DC load and therefore are operated in only the rectifying mode.
This is accomplished in bridge rectifiers by replacing half of the SCRs with
diodes. These circuits are called on e-qu adran t or sem icontrolled bridge rectifiers..
An alternative method of obtaining one-quadrant operation in bridge rectifiers is
to connect a freewheeling diode across the output terminals of the rectifier.
A basic semicontrolled bridge circuit is shown in Figure 6.23. Its operation
is the same as that of a fully controlled bridge rectifier With a resistive load.
When the source voltage is positive, SCRt and D4 are forward-biased. If we trig-
^ ger SCRj at a, current will flow through D4, the load, and SCR^ SCRj turns off
at Jt when the source reverses. The load voltage is the same as the input volt
age during this period (a to ft). At (ft + a), SCR2 is triggered, causing current to
flow through D3 and the load. At time 2ft, SCR2 turns off and the cycle repeats.
(a)
Figure 6.25
Semicontrolled bridge rectifier with FWD (a) circuit (b) waveform
With an inductive load, commutation (current transfer) occurs every half

cycle to bypass the load current through the diode, as shown in Figure 6.24.
The current freewheels through SCRj and D3 during the interval ic to (it + a)
and through SCR2 and D4 during the interval 2ic to (2it + a). As a result, the
negative portion of the output voltage is cut off, and the waveform of the out
put voltage becomes the same as with a pure resistive load.
The average output voltage can therefore be varied from its maximum
positive value to zero as the firing angle is varied from 0 to 180°. The average
value of the output voltage is given by Equation 6.24, that is, the voltage is the
same as that of a full converter with FWD:
Vocavg) = ~ d + cos a ) 6.26

it
If the circuit in Figure 6.23 contains a highly inductive load the load cur
rent will flow throughout the entire negative half-cycle (even if the gate signal
is removed) and therefore the circuit will lose control. If a freewheeling diode
is used (Figure 6.25), the FWD becomes forward-biased and begins to conduct
as the load voltage tends to reverse. The load current freewheels through the
FWD. Therefore, during the internal it to (it + a), the output voltage becomes
zero. Similarly, during the'interval 2ic to (2ic + a), the FWD will clamp the neg
ative voltage excursions to zero.
ô(avg) = ~ W l + cos a ) 6.27

It
Example 6.10 Draw the output voltage waveform for a full-wave semicontrolled rectifier like
the one shown in Figure 6.23 for the following delay angles:
a) a = 0 °
b) a = 45°
c) a = 90° r
Solution a) a = 0°. During the positive half-cycle, SCRj and D4 are conducting, and dur
ing the negative half-cycle, SCR2 and D3 are conducting. The output voltage
is the same as that of a diode bridge rectifier (Figure 6.26(a)).
b) a = 45°. During the positive half-cycle, the voltage across the load is zero-,,
until SCRj is turned on at 45°. The load current flows through SCR! and D„
and the source voltage is applied to the load. During the negative half-cycle, j,
SCRi becomes reverse-biased at it. If we assume an inductive load, SCRj.
maintain conduction until SCR2 is turned on. The load current will freewheel
through SCRi and D3.
When SCR2 is turned on at (it + 45°), SCRi turns off and the load i ur-
rent flows through SCR2 and D3 until SCR2 and D 3 are reverse-biased. At this
point, SCR2 remains in conduction and the load current freewheels through
SCR2 and D4. During the period when the load current is freewheeling, no
current is supplied from the AC source.
6.5 Half-Controlled or Semicontrolled Bridge Rectifier 179
Figure 6.26
Output voltage waveforms for (a) a = 0°, (b) a = 45°
(c) a = 90°
Both SCRs remain in Conduction for 180°. Figure 6.26(b) shows the
Output voltage waveform,
c) a = 90°. The operation is exactly the same as in the case when a = 45° (see
Figure 6.26(c)).
An alternative circuit configuration is shown in Figure 6.27. The freewheel

ing current is limited to the path that includes the two diodes, D2 and D4, in
series. Therefore, the period of conduction for the diodes increases and that of
the SCRs decreases. The SCRs now block for a full 180°. The waveforms are ihc
same as in Figure 6.24.
Figure 6.27
Semicontrolled bridge
converter, an alternative
circuit configuration
Another possible arrangement of the semicontrolled bridge convener is

shown in Figure 6.28. Here the AC input voltage is rectified by the diode
bridge to give full-wave voltage output. The output is then controlled by the
SCR. The FWD allows the flow of current through the load during the time
the SCR is off. The average output voltage is the same as in Equation 6.24,
Figure 6.28 SC R ’
> Semicontrolled bridge
converter, alternative
arrangement
H------------- i--------— ,-- ----:------ ----------------—----------------------------- -----—,---------------------------------------- 2f j
6.6 Dual Converters
It should be noted that the semiconverter or one-quadrant converter discussed

in the previous section allows one polarity of output voltage and current, Powei
‘ is therefore positive, that is, power flow is from the AC supply to the DC
load. Thus a semiconverter can operate only in the rectifying mode. Full or tw v
quadrant converters can operate with positive polarity of output voltage and
current but can also have a positive current and a reverse voltage. Full con
verters can therefore operate as rectifiers or as inverters with current flow in
only one direction.
dual converter or four-quadrant converter can operate as a rectifier or
as an inverter with current flow in both directions. Two full converters can he
connected back to back as shown in Figure 6.29 to form a dual converter. The
dual'converter provides virtually instantaneous reversal of current through the
6.7 Problems 181
load. One converter causes the load current to flow in one direction, while the
other converter causes the flow of load current in the reverse direction.
Figure 6.29
Dual converters
6.7 Problems
6.1 Draw the waveforms for load voltage, load current, and voltage across the
SCR for a half-wave controlled rectifier for the following cases:
(a) a resistive load with a firing angle of 45°
(b) a resistive load with a firing angle of 135°
(c) an inductive load with a firing angle of 0 °
(d) an inductive load with a firing angle of 90°
6.2 A half-wave controlled rectifier (Figure 6.1(a)) supplied from a 120 V
source is used to control the power to a 15 £2 load. If the delay angle is
75°, find
(a) the power supplied to the load
(b) the maximum SCR current
(c) the average SCR current
(d) the SCR maximum reverse voltage
6.3 A half-wave controlled rectifier with a resistive load is fed from a 45. V
AC source. For the given delay angles, calculate K>(avg.) and tabulate
the results in Table 6.1. Also plot the control characteristic in Figure 6.30.
( Vn = K,o = Tofrv*) With a = 0 °)
Vdo
Table 6-1
0 " 30° 60“ 90° 120 150° 180°
ô(avg)
Figure 6.30
Plot of V„ vs. a
1.0
0.5
___ I____ 1____ I_____I_____I_____1__

0
° 30° 60
° 90 ° 120
° 150° 180
°
6.4 A full-wave center-tap rectifier is fed from a transformer with a secondary

voltage of 120 V (center-tap to line). If it is used to charge a 12 V battery,
having an internal resistance of 0 . 1 Q, find ^
(a) the firing angle necessary to produce a charging current of 10 A
(b) the average SCR current
(c) the PIV rating of the SCR
6.5 A full-wave center-tap rectifier is fed from a 120 V source. If the load
inductance is much greater than the load resistance, find the average out
put voltage for the following firing angles:
(a) 45°
(b) 6 0 °
(c) 90°
(d) 135°
6 .6 Draw the waveforms for load voltage, load current, and voltage across the.
two SCRs for a full-wave center-taip rectifier for the following cases:
(a) a resistive load with a firing angle of 6 0 °
(b) a resistive load with a firing angle of 1 2 0 ° r
(c) an inductive load with a firing angle of 1 0 0 °
6.7 A full-wave center-tap rectifier With a resistive load is fed from a 90 V '-n
V on each secondary Winding) AC source. For the given delay angles, cal-'
culate and tabulate the results in Table 6.2. Also plot the control
characteristic in Figure 6.31.
Table 6-2
spassfisi
a 30' 60' 90- 120° 15C° 180
Vo<*vg>
Vp *
6.7 Problems 183
Figure 6.31
Plot of Vn vs a
1.0
0.5
J ____ L I I I.........I.
0 ° 30° 60 ° 90 ° 120 ° 150“ 180 °
6 .8 A full-wave rectifier (Figure 6.15) fed from a 200 V source supplies an

average current of 10 A. If the firing angle is 30°, find
(a) the average power delivered to the load
(b) the average SCR current
(c) the maximum SCR current
(d) the SCR peak reverse voltage
(e) the value of the load resistance
6-9 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a center-tap converter versus
a bridge converter.
6.10 A full-wave bridge rectifier (Figure 6.15) connected to a 120 V source
provides a DC output voltage of 90 V; If the power supplied to the load
is 1 KW, find
(a) the firing angle a
(b) the value of the load resistor R
(c) the SCR maximum current
(d) the SCR maximum voltage
6.11 A full-wave bridge rectifier with an FWD (Figure 6.21) is connected to a
220 V source. The load resistance is 20 Q while the load inductance is
large. If the firing angle a is 60°, find
(a) the SCR average current
(b) the SCR maximum voltage
(c) the power supplied to the load
6.12 Draw the waveforms for load voltage, load current, and voltage across the
SCRs for a full-wave bridge rectifier for the following cases:
(a) a resistive load with a firing angle of 6 0 °
(b) a resistive load with a firing angle of 1 2 0 °
6.13 A full-wave bridge rectifier with a resistive load is fed from a 45 V AC
source. For the given delay angles, calculate Vofavg) and tabulate the
results in Table 6-3- Also plot the control characteristic in Figure 6.32.
Table 6-3
a 30° 60° 90° 120° 150'
VoUvg)
vn
Figure 6.32
Plot of Vn vs a
l.o
0.5
30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°
6.14 A full-wave bridge rectifier with an FWD (Figure 6.21) is connected in a

120 V source. The average current supplied to the load is 20 A. If the fir
ing angle .a is 3 0 °, find
(a) the SCR average current
(c) the power supplied to the load
6.15 A full-wave bridge rectifier with an FWD (Figure 6.21) is connected to a
208 V source. The average voltage across the load is 100 V. If the load
resistance is 1 0 £2 , find
(a) the SCR maximum current
(c) the firing angle a
(d) the power supplied to the load
6.16 In the circuit in Figure 6.17, vs is a source of 230 V and R is 10 Q. If the
firing angle a = 1 2 0 °, find:
(a) the average load current
(b) the SCR average current
(c) the FWD average current
(d) the SCR maximum reverse voltage
(e) the average power supplied to the load
6.7 Problems 185
6.17 A bridge rectifier is supplied from a 120 V source With a resistive load /f Of
10 £2. If the firing angle a is 30°, find the average value of the load voltage.
6.18 Repeat problem 6.17 with an RL load. •
6.19 A bridge rectifier is connected to an RL load. The source voltage is 220 V
and the load resistance R is 10 £2. If the firing angle is 45°, find the aver
age value of the load voltage.
6.20 Repeat problem 6.19, if an FWD is connected across the load.
6.21 Draw the waveforms for the single-phase, semicontrolled converters
6.22 Draw the waveforms for load voltage and load current for a semicon
trolled bridge rectifier for the following cases:
(a) a resistive load with a firing angle of 140°
(b) an inductive load with a firing angle of 140°
6.23 A semicontrolled bridge rectifier with a resistive load is fed from a 45 V
AC source. For the given delay angles, calculate ^ avg.) and tabulate the
results in Table 6-4. Also plot the control characteristic in Figure 6.33.
Table 6-4
a 0° 30° 60’ 90" 120° 150° 180’
I'nlavq)
v„
Figure 6.33
Plot of Vn vs a
l.o
0.5
i i
o° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°
6.24 Briefly explain the operation of a one-quadrant, a two-quadrant, and a

four-quadrant converter.
6.8 Equations
Vm(\ + cos a)
oCavg.) ' 6.1 Si
2 7t
Vm( l + cos a)
■"oCavg.) 6.2
2itR
1/2
4 ms — 1 _ — + sin 2 a 6.3
n 2n
Vm(\ + cos q)/2 re 1 + cos q
Ki ” ô(avg.)/Kdo ' 6.4
FmCcos q - COS 3)
ô(avg.) ' 6.5
2%
Vm( l + cos q)
K>(avg.) ' 6.6
it
1/2
J RMS -
I - — + sin 2 01
6.7
K 2k
Kj(avg.) ' Vm cos a 6.8

n
T/__ ô.(ays}. cos a 6.9

Vdo
^ o(RM S) = K>(RMS) 6.10
Vm(l + cos q)
ô(avg.) 6.11
n
Vm( l + cos q)q
/n = 6.12
tc2 R
Vm( l + cos q)
ô(avg.) ' 6.13
71
1/2
1 _ — + sin 2 a 6.14
'V 2 n 2k
Vm(X + cos q)
K>(avg.) ' 6.15
7C
Vm( l + cos q)
Io(avg.) ‘ 6.16
7t R
7 — /' _ ot^ + sin 2 q

6.17
RMS - V 2 -y n 2%
6.8 Equation 187
v
ô(avg.) ~ ^ “ (COS OC — COS p)
6.18
2
*o(avg.) = ~ Vm cos a
6.19
V
Kmax
*o(RMS) - = t/S(RMS) 6 20
/ _ ( 2 )(K n
-'o(avg.) — ——) COS Cl ,
rc 7? 6.21
/ _ ik
^SCR(avg.) - — r
517? 6 .2 2
r ^SCRCavg.)
',CR(RM« = ^ T T " 6 2 3
yo(avg.) —
- J i £ L ± c—° s----° 0—
7t 6.24
r ^>Cavg.)(cO
4>(avg.) - -------
Jt 6.25
V
K>(avg.) = —“K l + c o s a )
7t 6.26
Kkavg.) = + GOS a )
6.27
I
Uncontrolled Rectifiers
m------------------------------------------------------------
Chapter Outline
7.1 Introduction 7.3.1 With a Resistive Load

7.2 Three-Phase Half-Wave (Three-Pulse) 7.3.2 With an Inductive (RL) Load
Rectifiers 7.4 Twelve-Pulse Rectifier Circuits
7.2.1 With a Resistive Load 7.5 Problems
7.2.2 With an Inductive (RL) Load /
7.6 Equations
7.3 Three-Phase Full-Wave (Six-Pulse)
Bridge Rectifiers
» --------------------------------
Learning Objectives
m discuss the advantages of three-phase ■ describe with the help of waveforms the
rectifiers over single-phase rectifiers operation of a six-pulse uncontrolled
a describe with the help of waveforms the rectifier with resistive and inductive
operation of a three-pulse uncontrolled loads
rectifier with resistive and inductive ■ explain the operation of a twelve-pulse
loads uncontrolled rectifier
188
7.2 Three-Phase Half-Wave (Three-Pulse) Rectifier 189
* ------- '------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- — ----- — —
7.1 Introduction
Single-phase rectifiers are relatively simple in construction, but they have limited
power-handling capabilities and generate significant ripples in the DC output
voltage. Three-phase rectifiers provide a smoother DC output, so the output fil
tering is done more easily, The filter components of large power rectifiers are
large and expensive, so a reduction or elimination of filters is important. There
fore, for high-power applications, using three-phase rectifiers is desirable. All the
single-phase rectifier circuits discussed in Chapter 5 have corresponding three-
phase versions. The circuits covered in this chapter can also be used with SCRs
in three-phase controlled rectifier circuits (see Chapter 8 ).
Three-phase rectifiers have the following advantages compared with single
phase rectifiers:
1 . higher output voltage for a given input voltage

2 . lower amplitude ripples (although they never fall to zero), i.e., output
voltage is smoother
3 . higher frequency ripples, simplifying filtering
4. higher overall efficiency t
Three-phase rectifiers use either three, six, or twelve diodes. Using more
diodes reduces the cost by distributing the load, thus allowing the use of lower
rated devices.
7.2 Three-Phase Half-Wave (Three-Pulse) Rectifiers

A basic three-phase half-wave rectifier consisting of three diodes and a-resistive
load is shown in Figure 7.1. The circuit can be analyzed by first determining the
periods in which each diode is on and then applying the appropriate source
voltage across the load resigtor R. Each diode conducts for 120° intervals in the
sequence; D1; D2, D3, . . > to give the combined output voltage v0 shown in
.-.y Figure 7-2.'
At any given time, the most positive instantaneous voltage turns its respec
tive diode on. The on diode connects its most positive source terminal to the
other two diode cathodes, keeping the other two diodes off. Therefore, only
one diode is on at any time (ignoring the moment of switching). The sudden
switchover from one diode to another is called commutation.
The -input voltage, waveform vs in Figure 7.2 is used to find the periods
when each, diode is on. Consider the interval between 0° and- 30°. During this
1 time, the phase voltage yCN is higher than both yA N and %N. As a result, diode
D3 is forward-biased and the output voltage (y0) becomes equal to ?;CN. During
CHAPTER 7 Three-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers
this interval, the voltage across Dt is vAC and that across D2 is i%c. Diodes D2
and D 3 are therefore reverse-biased. From 30° to 150°, the most positive volt
age is yAN; it turns diode Dj on and appears across R as vQ. At 150°, the instan
taneous voltage of f BN becomes greater than yAN. Diode Dt becomes reverse-
biased and turns off as diode D 2 becomes forward-biased and begin to conduct.
This applies ^Bn across R from 150° to 270°. At 270°, fCN again becomes the
most positive and D3 turns on. Diode D3 connects yCN across R from 270°. The
cycle is then repeated.
The output voltage across the load va follows the peaks of the input sup
ply voltage and pulsates between Vmm and 0,5 Vmax. This circuit is called a
three-pulse rectifier, since the output repeats itself three times in every cycle of
vs. The ripple voltage is smaller than that produced by a single-phase rectifier.
The ripple frequency (jQ of the output voltage is
7.1
7.2 three-Phase Half-Wave (Three-Pulse) Rectifier 191
where
n = pulse number or number o f diodes = 3
and
f s = AC supply frequency
Therefore,
f r= 3 * 60 = 180 Hz
Filtering is thus easier since the size of the filter is reduced as the ripple fre
quency increases.
A general expression for the average load voltage is
7.2
For the case of a three-pulse rectifier,

ôCavg.) = 0.827 Vm 7.3
In terms of line voltage, average load voltage is given by
* W ) = 0.477 VL(m) 7.4
where,
Vm = maximum value of phase voltage
VL(m) = maximum value of line voltage
Because the load is resistive, the load current has the same waveform as the
load voltage. The individual diode currents are equal to the load current during
the time when a particular diode conducts for its 120° interval. Each diode cur-
, rent is then zero for a 240° interval (see Figure 7.3). 2jt
In general, each diode conducts for a period of — y%
.
The average load current is given by
7.5
= 0.827 /m 7.6
where
Im = V j R
The average current in each diode is only one-third the load current:
^D(avg.) ” ô(avg.)/^ — -fc(avg.)/3 7.7
The maximum load current and maximum diode current are obviously the
same, and because the load is resistive,
i
i !)2 CHAPTER 7 Three-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers
Figure 7.3
Current waveforms
The RMS value of load current is

1/2
I lit l \ 2n
ô(RMS) —i — i- — sin — :
2n\n 2 n
1/2
n ,1---1 sm• 2n
= /r r----------
1
2n\5 2 3
= 0 ;4 0 8 7m 7.9
In general, the ripple factor is given by
V2
RF
n2 - 1
Vz
32 - 1
= 0 .1 7 7 7.10
and the form factor by
FF = V n
= V3
= 1 .7 3 2 7.11
Table 7-1
Period On diode Off diodes Diode voltages
VD1 v02 vD3
0 to 30° d3 D, and D2 Vac Vbc 0
30 to 150° D, D2 and D3 0 Vba VCA
150 to 270° d2 D3 and D, Vab 0 Vgb
270 to 390° d3 D, and D2 âc Vbc 0
Table 7-1 shows the voltage across the diodes for various 120° intervals.
The voltage across any diode can therefore be plotted by first plotting the
waveform for the line voltages and then picking the appropriate voltage from
Table 7-1. The waveforms are shown in Figure 7.4. Note that the line voltages
are shown leading their respective phase voltages by 30°.
Figure 7.4
Voltage across the diodes
(a)
■M CHAPTER 7 Three-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers
Figure 7 .4
Voltage across th e diodes
(b) va2
The PIV fating for the diodes should be

PIV rating > Vu,n> or V 6 Fs(m). 7.12
Example 7.1 A three-pulse uncontrolled rectifier is connected to a 3 <5, 4-wire, 220 V AC

source. If the load resistance is 20 D, find
a) the maximum load voltage t
b) the average load voltage 4

d) the maximum load current
e) the maximum diode current
f) the PIV rating of the diode
g) the average diode current
h) the form factor
Figure 7.4
(c) vD3
i) the pulse number

j) the conduction angle
Solution a) The maximum value of line voltage is
= V 2 (220) = 311 V
The maximum value of the phase voltage is
Fm = 311 / V 3 = 179.6 V
b) W « .) = 0.827 * 179.6 = 148.5 V
c) W ) = Vq(mJ R = 148.5/5.20 = 7.4 A
d) /o(m) = V J R = 179.6/20 = 9 A
*~) 4(max) 9 A
f) PIV 2: FLCm) = 311 V
36 CHAPTER 7 Three-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers
8) W g .) = = 7 .4 /3 = 2 .5 A
0
h) FF =, Vn = VS = 1.732
0 P=3
)) 0 = 120 °

In the practical case where the load contains an inductance in series with the
resistance (see Figure 7.5), the load current is more constant and has a negligi
ble ripple. The higher the inductance, the more the current tends to flatten out.
Ideally, if L is infinite, the ripple will be zero.
The output voltage vQ still has ripples, but the ripple voltage will be zero
across the resistive portion of the load. Ideally, the' entire ripple voltage will be
absorbed across the inductive portion of the load.
There is no change in the waveform of the output voltage, and the aver
age output voltage remains the same as in Equation 7.2.
^D (avg) = -fc(avg.)/3
If we assume the load current to be nearly constant,
■ô(KMS) — -fc(avg.) "7 . 1 3
Since the current waveform is rectangular in shape,
4 i(m) = 4 (m ) = -4 >(avg.) "7 . 1 4
Figure 7.5
The three-pulse rectifier
with an RL load (a) circuit
diagram
(a)
Figure 7.5
The three-pulse rectifier
with an RL load (b) voltage
and current waveforms
(b)
Example 7.2 If the load in Example 7.1 has a large inductance added to it, find
a) the maximum load voltage
d) the maximum load current

f) the maximum diode current
g) the PIV rating of the diode
h) the average diode current
Solution a) from Example 7.1(a),
= 179.6 V
b) from Example 7.1(b),
ôcavg,) = 148.5 V
c) from Example 7.1(c),
-fc(avg-) — 7 .4 A
d) since there is no ripple,
-fc(m) “ -fc(avg,) “ 7*4 A
e) RMS load current
4 (RMS) = 4(avg.) = 7 .4 A
f) maximum diode current
^D(m) “ -fc(avg.) "" 7 .4 A
g) from Example 7.1(f)
PIV >311 V
h) from Example 7.1(g),
•focavg.) = 2 .5 A
H--------------------------- r--------------- :------- ---------_ --------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
7.3 Three-Phase Full-Wave (Six-Pulse) Bridge Rectifiers

The three-phase full-wave (six-pulse) bridge rectifier is one of the most impor
tant circuits in high-power applications. The rectifier can be connected directly
to a three-phase source, or it can use a three-phase transformer connected in a
A -Y , Y -A , or A-A connection. A six-pulse rectifier provides an output that has
less ripple than that of the three-pulse rectifier. Figures 7.6 shows the circuit dia
gram; the diodes are numbered ih the order in which they conduct. The bridge
rectifier uses both the positive and the negative half of the input voltage. The
negative peaks are turned over across the load resistor R. Therefore, the ripple
frequency is six times the AC source frequency.
7.3 Three-Phase Full-Wave (Six-Pulse) Bridge Rectifiers 199
Figure 7.6
Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit diagram
7.3.1.1 Operation of the Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

We will make the following assumptions in analyzing the operation of the
bridge rectifier:
1. Two series diodes are always conducting, while the other four are
blocking.
2. One of the conducting diodes is an odd numbered (D: , D3, or D5),
while the other is even-numbered (D2, D4, or D6).
3. Each diode conducts for 120°, or one-third of a cycle.
4. Current flows out from the most positive source terminal, through an
odd-numbered diode, through the load, through an even-numbered
diode, and then back to the most negative source terminal.
The current flow at any given time can therefore' be determined by find
ing the highest positive and the highest negative source terminals. The most
positive terminal will forWard-bias its respective odd-numbered diode and turn
it on. The most negative terminal will forward-bias its respective even-numbered
diode and turn it on.
>r- To find out the most positive and the most negative source terminals, we
can plot any two line voltages with respect to a common reference terminal. We
a arbitrarily choose terminal B as the reference. The two line Voltages are fAB and
as vCii, as shown in Figure 7.7(b). vCB is actually the inverse of (see Figure
ia- 7.7(a)).
ge The condition of the diodes can be found easily from Figure 7.7(b). During
he the interval 0° to 60°, the voltage at terminal C is the highest. Thus, from Figure
>le 7.6, the anode of D5 is at the most positive voltage in the circuit. This forward-
biases D5, turning it on. From 60° to 180°, terminal A becomes the most positive;
therefore, Dl is forward-biased and turns on. At 180°, terminal A voltage goes
CHAPTER 7 Three-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers
Figure 7 .7
Three-phase AC source
voltage waveforms (a) line
voltages with ABC phase
sequence (b) line voltages
vAB and vCB
below the voltage at terminal B. Now the voltage at terminal B is the most posi
tive, and this turn D3 on. At 300°, the voltage at terminal C is again the most pos
itive, turning D5 on.
Similarly, the state of the even-numbered diodes can be determined fr<>in
Figure 7.7(b) by finding the most negative terminal voltage. From 0° to 120°,
terminal B is most negative; from 120° to 240°, terminal C is most negative; and
from 240° to 360°, terminal A is most negative, The results are summarized in
Table 7-2.
We can use Table 7-2 to draw the simplified equivalent circuits of the .six-
pulse rectifier shown in Figure 7.8. From these circuits, we can easily determine
the output voltage for each 60° period. Figure 7.9(a) shows the three line volt
ages and their inverse voltages; for each 60° interval, a portion of the volt:iê
from Figure 7.9(a) is redrawn as v0 in Figure 7.9(b) to obtain the complete out
put voltage waveform.
The output voltage fluctuates between 1.414 and 1.225 Vs, where K, is
the RMS value of the line voltage. The average DC load voltage is twice that of
a half-wave rectifier, and its value is given by
ô(avg) = 1-654 Vm 7 .1 5
Table 7-2
Highest positive Highest negative %
voltage ■ voltage' ,
B rT : ■Wd-numberei®
0 to 60° C B Ds d6
60 to 120° A B D, d6
120 to 180° A c D, d2
180 to 240° B c d3 d2
240 to 300° B A D3 d4
300 to 360° C A Ds d4
> <> <i. » >*>

t!>
1 5 1 3 5 ' 1 3 5
MJ 1
^1
?
+ » + > cp 
4
B <>~^ C<>“
> <
2
/?<> vQ
—
ao—
<»
B o— C o~
4
<!> ►
6 J 2
R<
4 6
< ( it.- j> <?
o > 
(a)v0 = v,CB (b) v0 = vAB (c) VQ = VAC
0 !> I <> ) < ► <> ».

' 1 k3 5 1 J 3 5 1 3 k5
o » 3 L+ ? j> <j>
- Bo— Co— >vQ A 0— B o— Co R < > vO AO- B C o—
0 b l) i il !>, > 
9
(d)v0Q =~ v, (e) vn
O =s v.BA
(Ovn = v(
VBC 0 “ kc a
Figure 7.8
Equivalent circuits of the six-pulse rectifier
; Igure 7.9
{ ) Source voltages ■X
including th e three inverted
voltages (b) output voltage !*
Is
waveforms of th e bridge
rectifier
where Vm is the maximum value of the phase voltage. In terms of line voltage,
the average load voltage is given by
V0(av8.) = 0 .9 5 5 Vito, 7.16
The current through the diodes is shown in Figure 7.10. Each diode still con
ducts for 120°. The line currents iA, %, ic supplied by the transformer can be
obtained from Kirchoffs current law:
*a = h ~ h
% —h ~
ic = u, —i2
The line currents are also plotted in Figure 7.10. Note that the three line cur
rents consist of identical waves that are 120° out of phase.
The average load current is given by
Figure 7.10
The diode and line current
waveforms
i-'7
l I*
s
The average current in one o f the diodes is only one-third the load current: . -A
■i)(avg.) ~ -fccavg.)/ 3 ’ 7 .1 8 V
The RMS value of the diode current is

1
4>(RMS) = avg.) 7.19
The ripple factor is

V2
R F = 7~2 7 7 = 0 -0 4 0 4 7 .2 0
(tr - 1)
and the ripple frequency is
fr = 6 fs 7 .2 ]
The diode conduction periods is

2 it
— - = 120°. 7.22
The maximum blocking voltage for diode

P I V > F L(m) 7 .2 *
Table 7-3 shows the voltage across the diodes for various 60° intervals.
The voltage across any diode can therefore be plotted by first drawing the
waveform for the line voltages (see Figure 7.11) and then picking the volt.ige
from Table 7-3.
Table 7-3
Period On diodes Diode voltages ■

’
Vbl VD2 v03 Vd « VD5 vD6
0 to 60° Ds and D6 Va c Vbc Vgc Vb a 0 0

60 to 120° D6 and D1 0 vBc Vb a Vb a Vc a q'
120 to ISO- D, and D2 0 0 Vb a Vc a Vc a VCB
ISO to 240° Dz and D3 >AB 0 0 vCA Vc B V cB
240 to 300° D3 and D4 Va b Va c 0 0 VCB Va b
300 to 360° D* and Ds vAc 0 0

ffl
Va c Vb c
Figure 7.11
B Voltage across the diodes +v,U rn)
1 (a), (b), and (c)
I1
II
-+v,Um)
(C)
>■
X
V
206 €HAPTI R 7 Three-Phase Uncohtrolled Rectifiers t
5
Figure 7.11
*
L(ra)
(d), (e), and (f)
(f)
7.3 Three Phase Full Wave,(Six?Rulfg)4i1idg$ Rectifies, |jO|'
Example 7.3 A six-pulse uncontrolled rectifier is connected to a 3 O, 208 V, 60 Hz source. If

the load resistance is 5 nna .
c) the average diode current
d) the maximum diode current
e) the PIV rating of the diode
f) the ripple frequency
g) the peak-to-peak ripple voltage
h) the form factor
i) the pulse number
j) the conduction angle
Solution a) rL(n0 = V 2 (208) = 294 V
W ) = °'955 VUn0 = 0.955 * 294 = 281 V
b) W g .) = K,(avg:y/R= 281/5 = 56.2 A
c) /DCavg.> = * 56.2/3 = 18.7 A

o
d) 4>(max) ~ -4><avg.) — 56.2 A
e) PIV across each diode > V^(m) = 294 V
f) ripple frequency
f r = 6 f s = 6 * 60■«= 360 Hz
g) The output voltage fluctuates between Fmin and Vmax:
Kmin = 1.225 V5 = 1.225 * 208 = 255 V
Kmax = 1.414 Vs = 1.414 * 208 = 294 V
The peak-to-peak ripple voltage is 294 - 255 = 39 V.
h) form factor
FF = F / F o(avg.) = 208/281 = 0.74
i) pulse number ,
P= 6
j) The conduction Angle is

8 = 120° " '
7.3.2 With an Inductive [RL) Load

If the load is inductive, the output voltage waveform remains the same as with a
resistive load, arid the load current will have reduced ripples. The waveforms for
current are shown in Figure 7.12, where a very large value of inductance is assumed.
208 CHAPTER 7 Three-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiefs
Figure 7.12
Bridge rectifier current
waveforms with an
inductive load
0° 60° 180°’ 420°
O
180°
°
h
60° 300° 420°
'4
240° 360°
'6
~©
0
0° 360°
120° 240°
'a
b
r}-
<N
60° 180° 240° 360°'
'b
120° . 180° 300° 360°
‘c
60° 120° 240° 300° 420° .

.
I i ■i
7.3 Thf6e-Pha$e Ful!*W6ve (Six-PuiSe) Bndg a Ftisctifie/s 209
The average or DC load voltage is given by
ô(avg.) = ~~ ^L(m) = 0*955 VL(m) 7 .2 4

n
The average load current is:
K.afaatO,
I[o(avg.)
-.0 :2 3 5 '
- R 7 .2 5
The diode conducts for one third of the cycle. Therefore, the average diode cur
rent is
Axvwg.) ^<avg.)/3 7.26

The RMS value of the diode current is
4>(RM S) - y ^ o f a v g .) > 7 .2 7
V 2
The RMS value of the line currents ( iA, iB or 0 is -^7j/ o(avg) = 0.82 /o(avg.)

4 ( r m s > = 0 . 9 5 6 7m 7 ,2 8
Note that there is little difference between the average and the RMS values of
the load current because the current waveform has a very small ripple.
The PIV across each element is
■ K (m ) = V 2 Fs ' . 7 .2 9
The peak-to-peak ripple is only ( 1 .4 1 4 — 1 . 2 2 5 ) Vs =* 0 . 1 8 9 Vs. 7 .3 0
The six-pylse rectifier is a big improvement over the three-pulse rectifier

and it forms the basic building block of most larger rectifier installations.
Example 7.4 A six-pulse uncontrolled rectifier connected to a 3 220 V source is supply

ing an RL load. If the inductance is very large and the load resistance is 50 ft,
find ■
c) the PIV rating of the diode
d) the average diode current
f) the RMS diode current
g) the power to the load
210 CHAPTER 7 Thre^Phase WncQntrolledRectifiers
Solution a) V'!,m) = V 2 ( 220) = 311 v

ô(avg.) = 0 .9 5 5 KL(m) = 0 . 9 5 5 * 3 1 1 = 297 V
b) /oCavg.) = VoCavg,y/R= 2 9 7 / 5 0 = 5 .9 4 a '
c) PIV > Vuw = 311 V
d) /d(3v8.) = ■ % a l - 5 .9 4 / 3 = 2 .0 7 A
0 *
e) /D(m) = Im = V JR = 3 1 1 /5 0 = 6 .2 2 A
4(rm s) = 0 .9 5 6 * /,„ = 0 .9 5 6 » 6 .2 2 = 5 .9 5 A
(close to the average load current since the ripple is very small)
f) RMS diode current
1 r 5.94
-"DORMS) ; y ^ 4 (a v g .) j y j - 3 .4 3 A
g) Power to the load
Pi = /ocrms) R= 5 -9 5 2 * 5 0 = 1 7 7 0 W
7.4 Twelve-Pulse Rectifier Circuits
To further reduce the ripple voltage in the DC output and increase the ripple
frequency, we can increase the pulse number from six to twelve. A twelve-pulse -
rectifier can be constructed by connecting two six-pulse rectifiers in series, as”
shown in Figure 7 -1 3 . The three-phase AC sources supplying these two bridges
are shifted by 3 0 ° with respect to one another. This can be achieved easily hj
phase shifting the AC sources using two three-phase transformers, one of which
is Y-connected and the other A-connected on the secondary side. On the pri-.'
mary side, both transformers are connected in Y to the same three-ph.ise
source. With this connection, the secondary side phase voltages of the A trans
former are shifted in phase by 30°, so all the secondary phase voltages of one
transformer will be shifted in phase by the same 3 0 ° with respect to the corre
sponding phases in the other. There will also be a difference in the magnitude
of the secondary phase voltage. The secondary voltage of the A transformer will
be less by a factor of 3 than that of the Y transformer. However, this can he
taken care of by having a different, turn’s ratio (a V 3 for Y-A transformer). In
this way, the secondary voltages can be identical in magnitude.
The resulting secondary line voltages and vaV are displaced by 30 ° as
a result of the transformer connection. Because each of the six-pulse bridges
operates independently, the output voltage vQ is the sum of vol and vo2. Figure'
7 .1 4 shows the waveform of the output voltage. As shown, vQ is the twelvc-
pulse output, with a ripple frequency twelve times the source frequency.
7.4 Twelve-Pilse Rectifier Circuits 211
Figure 7,13
A twelve-pulse rectifier
Figure 7.14
Output voltage waveform
o° 90 ° 180° 270 ° 360 °

The average value of the output voltage is
The PIV rating for diodes is

PIV rating > 3 Vs
Figure 7.15
Input current waveforrhs for
a twelve-pulse rectifier
7.5 Problems 213
Figure 7.15 illustrates the combination of input current ’Waveforms to give a

resultant line current that is much closer to a sine wave than the six-pulse wave
form. '
7.5 Problems
7.1 What are the advantages of a six-pulse rectifier over a three-phase rectifier?
7.2 Draw the waveform for the output voltage if the diodes in Figure 7.1 are
reversed.
7.3 A three-pulse rectifier delivers 20 A to a resistive load. If th£ load voltage
is 120 V DC, find
a) the average diode current
b) the PIV rating of each diode
c) the RMS diode current
7.4 A six-pulse rectifier supplies 8.8 kW to a resistive load. If the load voltage
is 220 V DC, find
a) the average diode current
b) the PIV rating of each diode
c) the RMS diode currfnt ,
7.5 A three-pulse rectifier supplies a resistive load of 10 £2 from a 220 V
source. Find
d) the PIV rating of the diode
e) the maximum diode current
f) the average load power , _
7 .6 Repeat problem 7.5 after adding a large inductance in series with the load
resistance.
7.7 A three-pulse rectifier is connected to a 220 V source. If the rectifier sup
plies an average load current of 50 A, find
a) the DC load voltage
,; b) the diode average current
: c) the maximum current in each diode
d) the RMS value of the line current :■
7.8 The six-pulse rectifier in Figure 7.6 is connected to a 220 V source. If the
rectifier supplies an average load current of 50 A, find
a) the DC load voltage
b) the diode average current
c) the maximum current in each diode
d) the RMS value of the line current
7.9 A six-pulse rectifier supplies a .resistive load of 20 Q from a 220 V source

Find
c) the average diode current
d) the PIV rating of the diode
e) the average load power
7.10 Repeat problem 7.9 after adding a large inductance in series with the load
resistance.
7.6 Equations
ft = n fs 7.1
7.2
W ) = 0.827 Vm 7.3
Kxavgj = 0.477 Vl(m) 7.4
7o(avg.) = —4 Sin^-j 7.5
*= 0.827 /m 7.6
A x a v g ) — ^ j(a v g .)/^ "^ ô(avg.^/3 7.7
ô(m) 1.21 loCavg.) 7.8
1/2
s , 1 . 2%
4(R M S) - If „ . — + — sin - 7.9
2n \3 2
V5 '
RF : 7.1C
n2 - 1 ;
FF = Vw 7.11
PIV rating > K(m) 7.12
ô(R M S) " " ^ o (a v g ) 7.13
A xm ax) = ôCm a x ) — ^ lX a v g .) 7.14
K>(avg.) = 1*654 Vjn 7.1!
ôfavg.) —0.955 H(m> 7.11
r _A ik 7.17-
0<av8)~7t R ■ ' !->l
A){avgj "■ /ifavgj/3 7.1*
, 1 f ■
MXRMS) ~ *\/3 *o(avg.) 7.15
7.6 Equations 215
/t = 6/s. . _ _ ... . _ 7.21

diode conduction period = 2 re/3 ' 7.22
P IV >K L(m) 7.23
W ) = ~ Vi'»" ’ ' ' C V> ' ■ " 'J " ■■ ' " " 7.24
ft
v . ; 3, v v >1::
■
‘oCavg.) ^
4>(avg.) “ 4>(avg.)/3 7 .2 6
1
4(RMS) — y/j 4>(avg.) 7.27
4 ms = 0.956 4 , 28
PIV > V«m) . ‘ 7 29
peak-to-peak ripple = 0.189 Vs 7,30
W ^ c v l ^ f)’ 0 989 ^ 7,1

PIV £ V 3 Ks 7.32
■-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Chapter Outline
8.1 Introduction 8.3.1 With a Resistive Load (or with an

8.2 Half-Wave (Three-Pulse) Controlled Inductive Load and an FWD)
Rectifiers
without FWD
8.2.2 With an Inductive (RL) Load 8.4 Full-Wave Half-Controlled Bridge
without a Freewheeling Diode Rectifiers with FWD
8.2.3 With an Inductive (RL) Load and a 35 Twelve-Pulse Bridge Converters
Freewheeling Diode g
Problems
8.3 Full-Wave (Six-Pulse) Bridge
Equations
Controlled Rectifier
Learning Objectives
a discuss the advantages of three-phase rectifier with resistive and inductive

controlled rectifiers as compared with loads
single-pha« controlled rectifiers ■ explain the operation of a full-wave
■ describe with the help of waveforms the half-controlled bridge rectifier
operation of a half-wave controlled ■ explain the operation of a twelve-pulse
rectifier with resistive and inductive controlled rectifier
loads
■ describe with the help of waveforms the
operation of a full-wave controlled ^
216
8.2 Half-Wave (Three-Pulse) Controlled Rectifiers 217
#............................................................................................................................. ....... . ■
....... . .............
8,1 Introduction
Single-phase controlled rectifiers-have a high AC ripple content in their DC out

put voltage and are limited by the power capability of the single-phase source.
When high power levels are required, three-phase controlled rectifiers are pre
ferred because they provide an increased average DC output voltage and a
reduced AC ripple component. When the diodes in the three-phase rectifier cir
cuits of Chapter 7 are replaced by SCR, the circuits become fully controllable
and the average output voltage can be varied by controlling the triggering
inputs to the SCR gates in a suitable manner.
8.2 Half-Wave (Three-Pulse) Controlled Rectifiers

Figure 8 -l(a ) shows a three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with a resistive
load. It is called a three-pulse circuit because the pulsation in DC voltage is
three times the input frequency. Each SCR receives a firing pulse relative in time
to its own phase voltage. The three gate pulses are displaced by 120° relative
to each other, giving the same delay angle to each SCR.
If each SCR is triggered at the instant when the source makes its anode
voltage positive with respect to its cathode (that is, 30° after the phase voltage
crosses the zero axis), then the circuit behaves like a half-wave uncontrolled
diode rectifier. However, if the firing of the SCRs is delayed from these crossing
points, the output voltage waveform is altered.
The waveforms of the phase voltages vAN, and vCN are shown in Fig
ure 8.1(b). During the interval cot - 30° to 150°, the most positive voltage is yAN.
Therefore, SCRj is forward-biased in this interval and will conduct when trig
gered, while the remaining two SCRs are reverse-biased. SCR] will continue to
conduct until 0 0 /= 150°, at which point voltage t%N begins to become more pos
itive than i>An. SCR2 now becomes forward-biased and will turn on if we apply
a firing signal. When SCR2 turns on, it automatically turns SCRj off by natural
commutation. The same process is repeated at cot= 270°. Each SCR conducts for
a period of 120° and blocks reverse voltage for 240°. When an SCR is on, it con
nects the input voltage terminal to the output terminal, so the output voltage is
the same as the corresponding AC phase voltage. Therefore, the output voltage
waveform consists of portions of the AC input voltage waveform. If the delay
angle is zero, the output voltage consists of the peaks of the phase voltages and
is at its maximum (see Figure 8.1(b)),
The firing angle a is measured from the intersection or crossover points of
the corresponding phase voltages and not the zero crossing Of the voltage
waves. If each SCR turn-on is delayed by an angle a, the segments of the out-
218 CHAPTER 8 Three-Phase Controlled Rectifiers
(c)
Figure 8.1
Half-wave controlled rectifier (a) circuit diagram (b) waveforms for voltage and
current with cx = 0° (c) waveforms with a small delay angle
put voltage waveform will also be delayed by the angle a, but the output wil
still have three pulses, The waveforms of the output voltage and current as
function of time for a < 30° are shown in Figure 8.1(c). As shown, the phase
SCR remains conducting until the phase B SCR is turned on. The output voltage
and output current do not go to zeio at any time; however, the average oulpu
voltage is decreased compared with the .0° case,
8.2 Half-Wava (Crhwe^PulSe) Controlled Rectifiers 219
The average voltage is given fey 4: , . . . . i:,
ô(avB>= Vm cos a for 0° < a < 30°

2 7t >
= 0.827 cos a ,, ; . 8.1
where Vm is the maximum value of the phase voltage.
Note that the effect of phase control is to add the cos a term to the equa
tion for a three-phase uncontrolled rectifier. From Equation 8.1, it is clear that
the average value of the outpiit voltage can be controlled by varying the firing
angle a. , .
The average output current is
, ._ K)(avg.)
-Wvg.) - ^
3 V 3 v„
cos a ”* : 8.2
2 71 . R
/The; average SCR current is
4(avg.> A V-3 V„
W g )* "5 COS <X 8.3
3 ~ 2W R
The RMS SCR current is
" •■'SCRCavg.)' 1 l ',n „ /
4cr(rms) - = 2 Jf R C° S a
The peajc reverse voltage rating of the SCR is

... : , V 3 Vm or VUm, . 8.5
where KUm) is the maximum value of the line voltage.
The conduction period for each SCR is one-third of a cycle or ■
— o r 123° ' . 8 . 6
3 i ,
The ripple frequency is
f = 3 * AC supply frequency 8.7
Example 8.1 A three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier connected to a three-phase, 208 V,

60" Hz AC ’ S o u r c e supplies .power to a 10 fl resistive load. If the delay angle is
20°, find ■ ' #
a) the maximum output current
b) the average output voltage
•c) the average output current
CHAPTER 8 Three-Phase Controlled Rectifiers
d) the maximum SCR current

e) the average SCR current
f) the RMS SCR current
g) the maximum reverse voltage rating
Solution Kphase = V1./V 3 = 208/1.732 = 120 V
Vm = V 2 ♦ 120 = 170 V : '
a) /m = V JR = 170/10 = 17 A
b) F ^ g.) = 0.827 Vm co s a = (0.827)(170)(cos 20°) = 132 V
c) W ) = ^(avg./A^ 132/10 - 13.2 A
Figure 8.2
Half-wave controlled
rectifier waveforms (30° S a
5 150°)
d) maximum SCR current = Im = 17 A

e) SCR average current = /scR(aVg.) = 4<avg.)/3 = 13.2/3 = 4.4 A '
f) SCR RMS current = /scRCavg/Vs = 4,4/1.732 = 2.5 A
g) maximum reverse voltage * FL(m) = V 2 (208) - 294 V
h) f = 3 * AC supply frequency = 180 Hz
When a becomes larger, 30° < a < 150°, the output current decreases to zero
at some time and then tends to become negative. This is not possible with a
resistive load, so the output current and voltage both remain Zero until the next
SCR is turned on, Figure 8,2 shows the voltage and current waveforms. The
average output voltage is
ô(avg) = ^ E‘( 1 + cos (a + for 30° < a < 150° 8.8(a)
^ 3 Ybl (1 + 0.866 cos a - 0.5 sin a)

2n
For values of a > 150°, the average output voltage becomes zero:
Kxavg.) = 0 V for 150° < a < 180° 8.8(b)
Example 8.2 Repeat Example 8.1 for a delay angle of 100°.

Solution With a delay angle of 100° (0.55 Jt)s the SCR turns on after the supply voltage
has reached its maximum value. Therefore, the maximum output voltage is less
than Vm:
maximum output voltage = Vm sin (30° + a)
= 170 (sin 130°)
= 130 V
. . t maximum output voltage
a) maximum output current = — — --------- —^ ----- ;....°
R
= 130/10
= 13 A
b) From equation 8.8,
ô(avg) = (1 + 0.866 cos 100° - 0.5 sin 100°)

2 it
= 0.17
= 0.17 * 170
= 29 V
0 /o(avg.) = W ) / * = 29/10 * 2,9 A

d) maximum SCR current = maximum output current = 13 A
e) SCR average current = /ScRCavg.) = 4(avg>>/3 - 2.9/3 = 0,97 A

f) SCR RMS current = /ScRcavgy V 3 = 0 .97/1.732 = 0.5*6 A
g) maximum reverse voltage = V 2 (208) = 294 V
h) ripple frequency = / = 3 * 60 Hz = 180 Hz
Figure 8.3
Waveforms with inductive
(RL) load and continuous
current
i
r 8.2 Half-Wave (Three-Pulse) Controlled Rectifiers 223
i
8.2.2 With an Inductive.(ffL) Load without a Freewheeling

Diode
In the continuous constant-current mode where the inductive component of the
load is sufficiently large, the output voltage waveform may be negative for some
values of a. If the delay angle a is less than 30°, the output voltage is always
positive and its average value is given by Equation 8.1. However, for a delay
angle a greater than 30°, the output voltage becomes negative for a portion of
each cycle. Figure 8.3 shows, the waveforms for a = 60°.
The average output voltage is
3 V3
K)(avg.) : VL cos a 0 ° £ a S 180°
2 Jt
0.827 Vm cos a 8.9
This equation is the same as in the resistive case, but it is no longer limited to
a < 30°. The earlier case was limited because the output voltage altered its
shape for a > 30° with a resistive load. Now the output voltage continues along
the same portion Of the sinusoid for a > 30°.
The maximum average output voltage occurs at a = 0°:
Kxavgjmax = 0.827 Vm 8.10

The normalised average output voltage is
ô(avg.)
Vn ■ cos a 8.11
^(avgOmax
The average output voltage is zero for a = 96°* The control characteristic curve
is shown in Figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4
Control characteristic of the
DCoutput voltage
For a constant current, the RMS current in each SCR is
4 c R(RMS) = 4 (a v g .)/ 3 8.12

(a)
Figure 8.5
Voltage and current waveforms for Example 8.3 (a) a = 0°
Example 8.3 For a three-pulse controlled rectifier with an RL load, plot the waveforms of the
output voltage, the voltage across SCRi, and the current through each SCR if the
i; output current firing angle i s ,
a) 0°
b) 45°
c) 90° , ' \
d) 135°
e) 180°
Figure 8.5
Voltage and current
waveform for Example 8.3
(b) a = 45°
(b)
v.
Solution a) When a = 0°, the AC input voltage with the highest instantaneous value is./
applied to the'output terminal. The average output voltage is therefore at its -:
positive maximum. Each SCR conducts current for a duration of 120p.
When SCRj is conducting, t%CRi - 0 V. When SCR2 is conducting, SCR,
and SCR3 are off, and t>S CR1 Is therefore vAK. When SCR3 is conducting, thes
voltage across SCRj is vAC. The plot is shown in Figure 8.5(a).
b) When a = 45°, the SCRs block forward voltage for 45°, and the average out
put voltage is reduced. Figure 8.5(b) shows the waveforms.
c) As the delay angle is increased to 90°, the SCRs block the forward and reveise
voltage for equal periods and the average voltage is zero (see Figure 8.50 >)
Figure 8.5
Voltage and current
(c) ct = 90°
(C)
d) To operate With delay angles greater than 90°, we should have a counter-
emf source as a load, for example, a DC motor under braking conditions.
With a = 135°, the SCRs block in the forward direction and the average out
put voltage becomes negative. This does not produce a negative current,
since the SCRs can conduct only in the forward direction. The reversal of
voltage polarity with the direction of current flow unchanged indicates a
reversal of power flow. Under this condition, the circuit becomes an inverter,
supplying power from the DC load side to the AC source side (see Figure
8.5(d)).
Figure 8.5
Voltage and current
(d) a = 135°
(d)
m
228 CHAPTER 8 Three-Phase Controlled Rectifiers ■
,
■*3f
e) When a = 180p, the SCRs block forward voltage for the entire duration aqf e
the output voltage is at its negative maximum (.Figure 8.5(e)), v|-
From this example, it is clear that when 0° < a <> 90°, the circuit operates!'
in the rectifying mode, and for 90° < a < 180°, it operates in the inverting mode,j|
Figure 8.5
Voltage and current
(e) a =180°
(e)
Example 8.4 A three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is connected to a 220 V source. If

the delay angle is 45° and the load resistance R = 10 £2 find
a) the average output voltage
b) the average output current
c) the maximum output current
d) the maximum SCR current
e) the average SCR current
f) the SCR RMS current
g) the average power dissipation in the SCR, if the SCR has a forward voltage
drop of 1.0V
h) the maximum reverse voltage rating
Solution With a delay angle of 45°, the SCR turns on before the supply voltage reaches
its maximum. Therefore, the maximum output voltage is equal to Vm, the max
imum value of the phase voltage:
^Phase = 220/V3 = 127 V
Vm = V 2 (127) = 180 V
a) VoCavg.) = 0.827 Vm cos a = (0.827) (180) (cos 45°) = 105 V
b) average output current = /0(avg.) - K(avg.)/R = 105/10 = 10.5 A
c) maximum output current = average output current .= 10.5 A
d) maximum SCR current = maximum output current =* 10.5 A
e) SCR average current = /0(aVg,)/3 - 10.5/3 = 3.5 A
f) SCR RMS current = /SCr(rms) - 4 (avg.)/V3 = 6.1 A
Vf* 4 Cava) 1-0 * 10.5
gX average power = ------ ------- = ■
------—------ = 3.5 W
3 3
h) maximum reverse voltage = V 2 * 220 = 311 V
8.2.3 With an Inductive {RL) Load and a Freewheeling Diode

A freewheeling diode (FWD) can be connected to the load in parallel to pro
vide the load current with an alternative path that excludes the SCRs. Figure
8.6(a) shows a half-wave controlled rectifier with an FWD. In this circuit the
output voltage cannot have a negative value. Thus inversion is not possible, and
the average output voltage is the same as for the resistive case.
For small delay angles (0° S a < 30°), the instantaneous output voltage
never becomes negative, so the FWD is always reverse-biased and has no effect.
Equation 8.1 for average output voltage still applies. For delay angles greater
than 30°, the output voltage tends to become negative during parts of the cycle,
but the FWD prevents these negative excursions, periodically carrying the load
figure 8.6 + SCRr

(a) Load with FWD
! a
s + scr2-
ii—
*—OTiTT^ ••'
k^-
DA ill
■s
current that would otherwise have to flow through the rectifier. The average
output voltage is given by Equation 8.7 for 30° < a < 150°. In this range of a,
the FWD provides a path for the output current during three intervals in each
cycle, Figure 8.6(b) shows the waveform for oc = 75°. In phase A, SCRj conducts
from an angle of 105° (75° + 30°) to 180°. The FWD conducts from 180° to the
time when SCR2 conducts at an angle of 225° (75° + 150°). As shown in the fig
ure, the total conduction time for the SCR and one FWD period is still 120°.
A delay angle greater than 150° would suggest a negative output voltage,
which is not possible if an FWD is present.
■--------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------- -----"----------------- —--------------------------- • f

8.3 Full-Wave (Six-Pulse) Bridge-Controlled Rectifier
The three-phase full-wave (or six-pulse) bridge rectifier is one of the most
widely used high-power converters in power electronics. As shown in Figure
8.7, it is constructed with two three-phase, three-pulse rectifiers connected in ;
series. SCRs 1 , 3 , and 5 are called a positive grou p since they are fired during
the positive half-cycle of the voltage of the phases to which they are connected.
Similarly, SCRs 2, 4, and 6 are fired during the negative cycles of the phase volt-
age6 and form the negative group. To provide a current path from the source
side to the load side requires that two SCRs must be triggered simultaneously.
Therefore, two pulses, 60° apart, are applied to each SCR in a cycle. When one
element of the upper group and one element of the lower group of SCR, con
duct the corresponding line voltage is applied directly to the load. For example,
if SCR3 and SCR2 conduct simultaneously, then line voltage ifec is applied across
the load. The average voltage and current are controlled by the firing angle of 1
the SCRs. i
8.3 Full-wave (Six-Pulse) Bridge Controlled Rectifier 231
Figure 8.6
(b) voltage and current
waveforms for a = 75°
8.3.1 In Circuits with a Resistive Load (or with an Inductive

Load and an FWD)
Consider the bridge circuit as two three-pulse groups in series, shifted 60° from
each other. A simple method to analyze the waveforms is to obtain the output
for each three-pulse group and then add them. If the SCRs are triggered at the
Figure 8.7
Six-pulse controlled bridge rectifier circuit
instant when the voltage tends to become positive in the forward direction, then
the circuit will function in the same way as the diode bridge rectifier. The firing
delay angle a o f each SCR i$ measured from the crossover point of its respec
tive phase voltage.
Consider the interval from 0° to 120°. In the positive group of SCRs con
nected to terminal 1, SCRj is/connected to the most positive phase voltage, vAS
With a = 0°, SCRj will turn on and connect point 1 to A. In a similar manner,
from 120° to 240°, SCR3 turns on and connects point 1 to B. Over the interval
240° to 360°, point 1 is tied to C, and the cycle repeats. The voltage fiNis there
fore the positive peak of the phase voltages i>AN, %N, and fCN.
In the negative group of SCRs connected to terminal 2, SCR4 is connecti-d
to the most negative phase vohage during the interval from 180° to 300°. SCR,
conducts and connects point 2 to A. Similarly, from 300° to 420° (or 60°), SCR,,
Table 8-1
Interval Voltage at point 1 Voltage at point 2 Voltage i/12
0° to 60" A B AB
60° to 120p A C AC
120° to 180° B C BC
180° to 240' B A BA
240* to 300" S- A CA
300° to 360" e B CB
360" to 420" A B AB
turns on and connects point 2 to B. Over the interval from 60° to 180°, point 2
i
is tied to C. The voltage t^Nis therefore the negative peak of the phase voltages
ân» Wbn, and z;CN. The output voltage va (= vX2) is simply t>1N - z^N. Table 8-1
summarizes these results. . ,
The output voltage waveform (see Figure 8.8) is smoother, consisting of
?ix pulses of the input line voltages. The frequency of the output ripple voltage
is six times the AC line frequency, and the magnitude is double that of a three-
pulse rectifier. Each SCR conducts for 120° and blocks for 240° of each cycle.
There are at least two SCRs always in conduction at the same time. With an ABC
phase sequence, the firing order of the SCRs is SCRs 1 and 2, SCRs 2 and 3,
SCRs 3 and 4, SCRs 4 and 5, and SCRs 5 and 6, and so forth, and the gate sig
nals to the SCRs are 60° apart.
Figure 8.8
Output voltage waveforms
i .. of. the bridge circuit with a
'4f =0°
I
,= V3v,❖(max)
The voltage across the SCRs is easily determined from Table 8-1. For
example, suppose the voltage across SCRj is needed. First note that t%CR1 is sim
ply vA1. Therefore, from 0° to 120°, vA1 = 0 since SCRj is conducting. From 120°
to 240°, i\i = yAB since 1 is tied to B, and from 240° to 360° vAl = vAC since 1
is tied to C. The results are given In Table 8.2.
Tsbtfi 8-2
, , Interval vSCR1 I'SCRS ^SCh-i ''SCR4 V5CR6 VSCRJ^|[
0° to 60° 0 BA CA AB 0 CB |
[-
60° to 120° 0 BA CA BC
u
<
0
120" to 180" AB 0 CB ’ „ AC , BC
0 1
180° to 240° AB 0 CB 0 BA CA J
■240° to 300° AC BC 0 0 BA CA f
300° to 360° AC BC 0 ■ AB 0 CB
L.................
■'Ufe.
Figure 8.9(a) shows the voltage across SCR!. As shown, the maximifrii'
reverse voltage that can occur across an, SCR is equal to the maximum instarfl#
neouS magnitude of the AC line voltage. It is important to note that the SCR
should also be able to block forward voltages. The magnitude of this voltage"
depends on the firing angle. The larger the firing angle, the larger will be thfjj
forward voltage that the SCR must block.
The current in each SCR can also be determined from Table 8-1. The litilf
currents are then obtained by applying KCL:
iA = h - iA
tB = ki
ic = H - h
The current waveforms are shown in Figure 8 9(b).
The SCR conduction now may be delayed by an angle a measured liom
the normal point of commutation. The average output voltage is then reduced,
The circuit can operate in two different modes depending on the value nt the,
delay angle. In the range 0 ° S a < 60°, the output voltage and current are con
tinuous and the average output voltage is
3V3 ’
' K*av8.) = --------Vm cos a for 0° < a < 60° 8.13
When the delay angle exceeds 60° (for 60° < a < 120°), the output voltage has
a negative portion. If the inductive component of the load is sufficiently large,
the current continues to flow. If the load is purely resistive or if an FWD is con-'
nected across an RL load, the negative portion of the output voltage is held to'
zero. The average value of the output voltage is then
V
Vo(avg.) '~ Kn 1 + cos a + for 60° < a < 120° 8.14
p
* 8.3 Full-wave (Six-Pulse) Bridge Controlled Rectifier 235
s
f
I Figure 8.9
| Voltage and current
waveforms for bridge
| circuit (a) voltage across
SCRr (b) current waveforms
ii
Note that when a = 60°, Equations 8.13 and 8.14 give identical results. At
a = 120°, the average output voltage becomes zero.
Vo(avg.) = 0 V for 120° < a < 180° 9 .H
At a = 0°, V^ g) is at its maximum, 1.65 Vm. The normalized average output;1;
voltage is "ft
Jt
V o ( a v g ) / V o (a v g .)m a x - 1 + CO S I (X +
The control characteristic curve is shown in Figure 8.10.
Figure 8.10
Control characteristic
The average SCR current is
^SCR(avg ) ~ 4 ( a v g .) / 3 8.16
The RMS or effective value of the output current is
V 3V m V2rc + 3 'V 3 c o s 2 a
4(RMS) for 0° S a £ 120° 8.1
2 R " .... "• n ..........
V 3 Vm V 4n - 6 a - 3 sin (2a - 60°)
4 crms) = for 60° < a < 120° 8.1
2R jc
The RMS value of the source line currents for both modes of operation is given I
4(R M S) ** V 2 7 5 * 4 (a v g .) ■8 * 1
The ripple frequency o f the output is

f = six times the source frequency 8.2
The ripple factor is
’ ô(RMS)
RF 8.21
T2
J o(avg.)
If the output current is an ideal constant DC waveform, /C(rms) ; 4(avg.)> and the
ripple factor is zero.
The power dissipated in the load is
t2
Pq — ^ o (R M S ) R 8.22
peak reverse voltage rating of the SCRs < T O 8.23
conduction period for each SCR = 120° 8.24
Example 8.5 For the six-pulse controlled-bridge rectifier with a delay angle of 0°, show the
conduction path by drawing the equivalent circuit for each 60° interval.
Solution Figure 8.11 shows the waveform of the output voltage with a = 0°.
Figure 8.11
Waveforms of a bridge
circuit with a = 0°
The operation of the circuit Can be described by considering the follow

ing six periods:
Period Is At 0°, SCRj is turned oh, causing SCR5 to turn off. From 0° to
60°, the largest line voltage is vm . Therefore, SCRs 1 and 6
will conduct at this time. vm appears across the load through
SCRS 6 and 1.
Period 2: At 60°, SCR2 is turned on, causing SCR^ to turn off. From 60° to
120°, vAC has the largest voltage; therefore, SCRs 1 and 2 will
conduct. vA£ appears across the load through SCRs 1 and 2.
Period 3: At 120°, SCR3 is turned on, causing SCRj to turn off. From 120p
to 180°, VbC appears across the load through SCRs 2 and 3.
Figure 8,12
Changes in circuit configuration as the SCRs are switched sequentially (a) current path during period 1 J
(b) current path during period 2 (c) current path durihg period 3 (d) current path during period 4
(e) current path durihg period 5 (f) current path during period 6
8.3 Full-wav< (Six Pulse) Bridge Controlled Rectifier 239
Period 4: At 180°, SCR4 is turned on, causing SCR2 to turn off. From 180°
to 240°, VaA appears across the load through SCRs 3 and 4.
Period 5: At 240°, SCR, is turned on, causing SCR, to turn off. From 240°
to 300°, vCa appears across the load through SCRs 4 and 5.
Period 6: At 300°, SCR6 is turned on, causing SCR4 to turn off. From 300°
to 360°, vcn appears across the load through SCRs 5 and 6 .
At 360°, the cycle is completed. SCR, is turned on, causing
SCR5 to turn off, and the sequence is repeated
Figure 8.12 shows the output current paths in the circuit for each of these
periods.
Example 8.6 Sketch the waveforms for output voltage, voltage across SCR SCR currents i
and iA, and line current iA for the six-pulse controlled bridge rectifier supplying
a purely resistive load with a delay angle of:
a) 30°
b) 6 0 °
c) 90°
Assume ABC phase sequence.
Solution a) The output voltage waveform is shown in Figure 8.13(a) With a = 30°
SCRi is forward-biased at M = 0°. However, since the firing angle is 30°
it does not turn on until (at = 0 ° + a = 30°, and then it continues to con
duct for 60°. Before this instant, SCR^ was turned on. Therefore, during
the interval from 30° to 90°, SCRs 1 and 6 conduct the output current and
the OUtjput terminals are connected to phase A and B (see Figure 8 14(a))
The output voltage is therefore equal to vA$. At m = 60° + a = 90° SCR
_ is fired and voltage vCB immediately appears across SCR6, which reverse-
biases it and turns it off. The current from SCR6 is transferred to SCR (see
Figure 8.14(b)) for a further 60° interval. The output terminals are con
nected to phase A through SCR, and phase C through SCRZ, making the
output voltage equal to VAC. At (at = 150°, SCR, is turned off by switching
on SCR*. Here, the line current iA becomes zero, so the output current
path is now provided by SCRs 2 and 3 for a further 60° interval. When
cot = 210°, the most positive line voltage is ^ SCR2 is reverse-biased,
and Conduction continues through the newly fired SCR4 (see Figure
8.14(c)). The source current iA now flows in the opposite direction. After
a further 60°, at cot = 270°, the most positive voltage is vCA and SCR, is
turned on, causing SCR3 to turn off. SCRs 4 and 5. then provide the path
for the load current, which flows from phase C to phase A through the
load (see Figure 8.14(d)). At (at = 330°, the line current becomes zero so
the output current path is now provided by SCRs 2 and 3 for a further
6 0 ° interval.
240 CHAPTER S Three-Phase Controlled Rectifiers
— * «o
Note that the triggering delay does not reduce the conduction period
for each SCR, which is still 120° (one-third of a cycle), and each voltage seg
ment has a duration of 60°. The current waveforms are shown in Figure
8.13(b). The line current iA has a pulse width of 120°.
b) For a S 60°, the current becomes discontinuous, as shown in Figure 8.15(a).
Figure 8.15
Voltage and current
waveforms for Example 8.6
(parts (b) and (c)) (a) a = 60°
30‘ ! f
) ll
(a)
Figure 8.15
(b)ct-90° AB AC ’'B C BA CA kCB ‘'A B
s / \ /\ / \ / V / V > r .\
'/ V V V '/
,\ /i’\ zi\ /IV -I. ..I ■ ,| .
Va ! VA 1
i. V*.
A i VA- i VA i! V
A ■
i A tV
A iS
! /
60° 120° 180° 240° 300° 360p 420° 480°

I I1 i i i i i r
-oc=d902-*i
&-r+\ I f- I I | I
I t I I I | !
1^1 0? i1 ...m _ m
31jI 4j .5] ,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
SC RI : 1 VBC j VBA j VCA j VCB j VA B j VAC j
/' I /V I /\ t /\
^ _,K . X - X . - - K . x . - K . X - X
0° (^0° 1^0° 1^0° 2jK)° 3(jX)0 3^0° 420° 480°
i i
i i
M Jv i
i i i
i i
k
I i
i » m> i
(b)
c) When the firing angle is increased to a = 90°, the average output voltage
decreases further, as shown in Figure 8.15(b).
8.3.2 With an Inductive (RL) Load without an FWD

The sbc-pulse bridge rectifier is most often used in applications where the load
is highly inductive in nature. The effect of the load inductance is to smooth the
output current to make it very close to a pure DC,
8.3 Full-wave (S|x-#ulse) Bridge Controlled Rectifier 243
8.3.2.1 For 0° < a :£ 60°

For 0° <, a £ 60°, the output voltage is always positive, the output current is
always present, and the output voltage is the same whether the load is induc
tive or a freewheeling diode is present. The graph of output voltage for a = 45°
(see Figure 8.1 6 ) shows a six-pulse ripple.
Figure 8.16
Output voltage and voltage
across SCR, for a firing
angle a =45°
As before, each SCR begins conducting 45° later than it would if the rec
tifying devices were diodes, Bach SCR conducts for a 60° interval, as in the sim
ilar situation without phase control. Therefore, the average output voltage is
3 V3
^ o (a v g .) H r, C O S (X
Jt
3 „
- “ Hem) cos a- <
Jt
= 0.955 VL(m) cos a t 8.25

Where VUm) is the maximum value of the line voltage.
The output voltage therefore varies as a function of a , having a maximum
value when a = 0°. As we increase the delay angle, the output voltage
decreases, becoming zero at 90°. The circuit acts as a rectifier when the delay
angle is in the range 0° < a < 90°, the output Voltage and current are positive,
and oower flow is from the AC source to the DC load. If the delay angle a is
furthei increased, the DC output voltage will change signs and the circuit will
operate as an inverter. The output voltage reaches its negative maximum at a
firing angle of 180°, When the delay angle lies in the range 90° < a < 180°, the
bridge circuit operates as an inverter, transferring power from the I)C load to
the AC source side. Therefore, a bridge rectifier with sufficient load'inductance
can operate as a rectifier or as an inverter with proper choice of firing angle.
The variation of the normalized average voltage with the firing angle is>
Figure 8.17
Average output voltage
versus delay angle for
continuous output current
If the load has sufficient inductance, the output current essentially remains
constant during the conduction period. The SCR currents have the same shape
as the diode currents in Chapter 7, although they are shifted by an angle a to
the right, Only the magnitude of the output current is Changed due to the addi
tion of cos a term for average voltage.
The average value of the output current is found by dividing the average
output voltage by the load resistance:
•fccavg.) — K>(avg,)/R. 8.26

The average value of the SCR current is
^SCRCavg.) = ô(avg.)/3 8.27
The RMS value of the output current is
■fc(RMS) = -fc(a v g .)
8.28
The RMS value of the SCR current is •
= 4(avg.)/3
4 cR (R M S ) 8.29
peak reverse,voltage rating = VUm) or V 3 Vm 8.30
The RMS value of the output voltage is
1/2
1 3 V3
K>CRMS) ~ 2 ^LCm) - + - — - cos 2 a 8.31
4 8n
Example 8.7 Determine the firing sequence in which the gate pulses must be applied for the
six-pulse controlled bridge rectifier shown in Figure 8.7. Assume an ABC phase
sequence.
Solution There are six SCRs, so at every 60° interval an SCR is> fired in a particular
sequence that keeps the source currents in balance. The output voltage at any
instant is equal to one of the six line voltages vAB, vAC, i%c , t%A, vCA, or vCB. Thus
two SCRs— one in the positive group (SCRi, SCR3, SCR5) and one in the nega
tive group (SCR4 , SCR^, SCR2 )—must be triggered simultaneously. Let us assign
a pair of SCRs for each phase of the source: SCRs 1 and 4 for phase A, SCRs 3
and 6 for phase B, and SCRs 5 and 2 for phase C. If we apply the gate pulse
' to SCRr aroc, then SCR3 .must be. fired 120° later at a + 120° and SCR5 at a +
240°. '
Now SCR4 must be fired 180° later than SCRX, that is, at a + 180°. SCRg is
then fired 120e later than SCR4 , at a + 180° + 120° = a + 300°. Similarly, SCR2
is fired at a + 180° + 240° or a + 60°. Figure 8.18 shows the firing sequence as
1 , 2 , 3, 4, 5, 6 , 1, . . . .
Figure 8.18 SCRj (a h 240°)

Firing sequence
( a + 180°+ 240°)
= a + 60°
This scheme has one drawback. Since two SCRs, one in the negative
group and the other in the positive group, must conduct for the output current
to flow, the firing pulses will not be sufficient for starting the bridge, In oiir
scheme, only one SCR receives the trigger pulse at a time. Therefore, when the
CHAPTER 8 Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers
first gate signal is received by SCRj, for example, it cannot turn on the bridge,.
1
since the other SCR (SCR2) has not received its gate signal. After 60Q, when SCR^-
does get the gate signal, its own signal is removed. One method to solve this'
problem is to provide pulses o f long duration, so that a pulse applied to an SCR'
gate does not end before the next pulse arrives on the gate of the SCR in the ■.
other group. The second method is to provide double pulses to each SCR—(he-
idea is to simultaneously provide a pulse to the conducting partner in the oppo
site group whenever a pulse is given to any SCR. This method is shown m tig.
ure 8.19 for the negative and positive group, respectively. Every SCR is provided^
with two successive pulses, the second one timed 60° after the first.
Figure 8.19 SCRs 4,5 ( a + 240°)

Double-pulse firing scheme
SCRs 3,4
( a + 180°)X s SCRs 5,6
’ ( a + 180°+ 120°)
SCRs 2,3
(06+ 120°) SCRs 6,1 (a)
i
SCRs 1,2
( a + 180°+ 240°)
= a + 60°
Exam ple 8.8 A six-pulse controlled bridge rectifier is connected to a three-phase 220 V AC
supply. If the load resistance is 20 Q with a large inductive component and the
delay angle is 30°, find
a) the. average output voltage
c) the RMS output current
d) the average SCR Current
e) the RMS SCR current
f) the voltage rating of the SCRs
g) the average output power '
Solution a) FL(m) = V 2 * 220 = 311 V .
Using Equation 8.25
Kxavg.) = 0,955 VUm) cos a
= 0.955 * 311 * cos 30
• = 257 V
b) W » = 257/20 = 12.9 A
c) 4(RMS) ” 4(avg,) 12.9 A
8.3 Full-Wave (Six-Pulse) Bridge Controlled Rectifier 247
d) The average SCR current is .

W g . / 3 = 1 2 .9 /3 = 4 .3 A
e) The RMS SCR current is

. . W / V i = 12.9/1,732 = 7.5 A
f ) : The maximum voltage across the SCRs is
peak reverse voltage ■ = 311 V
g) The average output power is
12.9“ * 20 = 3328 W
Example 8.9 For a six-pulse controlled rectifier with an RL load, plot the waveform for the
output voltage if the firing angle is
a) 15°
b) 60°
Figure 8.20 VA B VAC VB C VB A VCA VC B VAB VAC

Voltage and current
waveforms in the bridge
rectifier (a) a= 15° K/l\ p
4
/l\
W fT fW
*
/l\ /l\
V
/ I \ /IX /IV / I \ / I \ / I \ /I VI
<
/l\
ii
/IV
■*
/l\
*
/IV
’ *
/l\ I'
(b) a = 60° / I \/ I \/ I \/ I \/ I \/ I \/ I \ / I ,V|

■ i.V • I V -I- .........................................
v t y i y. i v.. i..y u.i. - (tit
a = 15' • t a/ .*v I1( /*/ \ ^ 1*t\»
I /V I / V I f\ I 7 \ I /\ I A
v 1> '\l/
. ........... \
I / \ I / \ J \ i ; \ i / \ i /1
\l/ '1/ M/ M/ VI/ \|/ \|/ I
Vi\ /
/ Vi\ /1
x\ x Ax / *i\ / i^ I /
A „ \ i /
«' |V |V j V i ' / i \/ i \/ i ' / 1nj/
ivV i
O' i 60° i 120° i 180°i 240°i 300°i 360°i 420°i 480°
I
Gate pulse
OnSCRs
i* h
f*6, l-*<~1,2~»*2,3-*^3,4-M,5-'*5,6^
^ 4
(a)
a = 60°' T\ 1 /\ 1\\ /
A1 ' /
/|'v 7! '
1 V / 1 V ,
V 1V I XIX! x'
/ \ i / \ i / v / \i ' '
■ '
60° 120' 180° 240° 300° 360° 420° 480°
s, A ___ L ___L ___ k K k K
6 11 [2 |3 |4 15 16 i
On SCRs 1*5,6 4 --6 ,1-4-1,2-4<-2,3-*^3,4*j-4,5*J*5,6^6,l*
i
(b)
248 CHAPTER 8 Three-Phase Controlled Rectifiers J|
Solution Since the delay angle is £ 60°, the output voltage waveform is the sanle for nther
a purely resistive load, a purely inductive load, or any combination of RL loads,
Example 8.10 For a six-pulse controlled rectifier with an RL load, plot the waveforms for (he
output current and the line currents iAt %, and ic if the firing angle is:
a) 0° . . ;
b) 30°
c) 60°
Solution The SCR currents iu i2, %, 4. %, and % flow for 120° with peak values of /o(av
The AC line currents can be easily determined by applying KCL at the appro-
priate nodes. Therefore, line currents iA, zB and ic are
;< ;<
\ A 'y<\ A A A A /"\ xv/ x
i j l j l X j l ... -X .. x ....x ;
COt (01
M 41 >
Hi *\\ !l\ »i
I t i* til ft I
** *
* »*
i \ *• »*
I %#«
/ i \ *r{ y* j » '1/ 'i, 'wi
M, \** '1ii# x**#
1- 't* '
'*»
V 1 V 1 V 1 V 1 '/ 1 V * V 1 V ‘ '
/\! /\l /\ ! /\! / \!./\! t \! /\I / x /1\x / i /p. \/ 1'. x 11', x t :
/p.
•I I v' I V I V I v' I
60° 120° 180° 240° 300° 360° 420° 480°
1 I I I I I I •
(a) (b)
Figure 8.21
Voltage and current waveforms in the bridge rectifier (a) a = 0° (b) a = 30°
» -
3
8.3 Full-wave (Six-Pulse) Bridge Controlled Rectifier .{249
7
-it
Figure 8.21
(c) a = 60° .
..
iK = tx — t4 , , . .
h■ ■■ T
*g = *5 ~ h
These line currents also have peak values of JocSVg.)» but they flow in positive
and negative pulses of 120°.
The output current and line currents are plotted in Figure 8.21, The out
put current is continuous for all values of a. With a smooth output current,
there is no ripple component at all and the current ripple factor is ideally zero.
Example 8.11 A six-pulse controlled bridge rectifier with an RL load is fed from a three-phase
220 V AC source. If the load resistance is 10 Q, calculate the average output
voltage and power dissipation if the firing angle is
a) 30° '■
b) 60°
#
2.50 CHAPTER 8 Three-Phase Controlled Rectifiers
Solution The phase voltage is

^phase = VL/V3 * 220/1.732 = 127 V
The maximum value of the phase voltage is
Fm= V 2 (127) = 180 V
a) The average output voltage is
Kxavg.) ** ^rn C O S <X= 258 V

7C
The average power dissipation is
* W ) = 4(avg.) R= = ^ = 6 6 56 W
b) Vo(avg.) = 149 V
P(avg.) = 2216 W
8 3 .2.2 For 6 0 ° < a < 120°

When a is increased beyond 60°, the output voltage becomes negative for por
tions of the cycle. If there is no FWD present, the average output voltage can
still be obtained by using Equation §.14, and the other equations for current are
also valid. If a freewheeling diode is present, the average voltage equation
changes form to conform to the period for which the output voltage is zero,
The graph in Figure 8.22 shows the output voltage waveform for a = 90°.
Figure 8.22
for a = 90°
The average output voltage is
K}(avg.) : 1 + cos a + discontinuous current 8.32

7t
8.3 Full-Wave (Six Pulse) Bridge Controlled Rectifier 251
The normalized average output voltage is
ôfavg.)/ô(avg.)max 1 COS | Ct
The control characteristic Curve is shown in Figure 8.23.
Figure 8.23
Gontrol characteristic
For the case of an inductive load without an FWD, the SCR average cur
rent is given by
■^SCKCavg.) ” -4> (avg.)/ 3 i, 8 .3 3
where 4 (avg.) is the average output current (assuming negligible ripple current
in the output). If a is greater than 60° and an FWD is present, the FWD allows
a path for the output current for the angle a - 60 ° twice in each 120° period.
The SCR therefore conducts for the period 120° - 2(a - 60°) or for the period
240° - 2 a. The average SCR current is given by
(240° - 2 a )
-*SCR(avg.) — 360° ° ( av8-) 8.34
With a delay angle a less than 60° or when no FWD is present, the line current
includes both a positive and a negative pulse equal to the output current for
120° periods. These pulses are separated by two 60° periods of zero value. The
RMS value of the line current is given by
0.816 L'o(avg.y 8.35
For a delay angle a greater than 60° with an FWD present, the line current
includes two positive pulses, both of 120 ° - a duration and two similar nega
tive pulses. The remaining periods are zero. The RMS value of the line current
is given by
J e m 1 a)
*RMS ' M o(avg.)) 8.36
90
2S2 CHAPTER 8 Three-Phase Controlled Rectifiers
Example 8.12 For a six-pulse controlled rectifier, plot the waveforms for the output voltag
the voltage across SCRj, the current through SCRs 1 and 4, and line current
if the firing angle is
a) 75°
b) 120 °
c) 135°
d) 150°
Figure 8.24 vO i VA B VAC VB C VBA VCA VC B VA B VAC
Voltage and current

\ ' \ ' t / \ \ \ / /
waveforms (a) a - 75°
. . / . L/ \ * . • I• I' , • , < *!
, * i ifv V <V i / ii V tV
//\\ .1/\\/a \ Ap \ J \ //
a = 75° x V**
* *>c»r^^>Ci ^>c*r * r r **>£«r**>c *
V*
| 60° i 120°! 180°! 240°! 300°! 360°! 420°'. 480° |
* * * I I I
k k k k k k
*SC R 1
a = 75°
8.3 253
Figure 8.24
(b) cx = 120°
Solution An increase in a beyond 60° results in the output voltage becoming negative,
with a negative maximum at a = 180°. The circuit operates in the inversion
mode if there is a source of negative voltage at the load. Figure 8.24 shows the
waveforms for the various firing angles.
From this example, we can conclude that when 0° <, a < 906, the circuit
operates in the rectifying mode. For 90° S a < 180°; the circuit operates in the
inverting mode if a source of negative voltage is present at the load.
■
Figure 8,24
(c) a = 35° jjgj
wm
8.4 Full-Wave Half-Controlled Bridge Rectifiers with FWD
Fully controlled converters are extensively used in adjustable-speed DC drives

with medium to large motors. These circuits operate with both positive and neg
ative DC output vqltages. In the rectifying mode, they convert AC power to DC
power, and in the inversion mode they do, the reverse. In many applications the
Figure 8.24
(d) a = 150°
(01
circuit is required to operate only in the rectifying mode, that is, to convert AC
power to DC power. Converters that operate in this manner are called half
controlled or semiconverters.
, Figure 8.25(a) shows a half-controlled converter circuit. The circuit
includes a freewheeling diode to help sustain continuous output current. A cost
advantage is obtained by using diodes instead of SCRs in the lower half of the
bridge; however, the output ripple frequency is only three times the line fre-
qiiency. The output voltage includes a contribution from the controlled upper '
half-bridge plus a contribution from the uncontrolled lower half-bridge. The
SCRs turn on when fired and are turned off either by firing another SCR or by
the action of the FWD. \)Wth a delay angle a < 60°, the output voltage wave
form contains six pulses per cycle. The output current is always continuous, the
voltage never becomes negative, and the FWD plays no part. The output volt-
age waveform is equal to yAB or vAC whenever SCR! is on, The firing sequence
and the voltage and current waveforms, assuming a large inductive load, are
shown in Figure 8.25(b). Each SCR and diode pair conducts for a full 120°. The
ripple frequency is only three times the AC source frequency—this is a draw
back of a semiconverter as compared with a fully-controlled bridge, which has
a ripple frequency six times the source frequency.
For delay greater than 60°, the output voltage tends to become negative
during part of the cycle. The freewheeling diode acts to make the output volt
age zero for this period and turns off the conducting SCR and diode pair. Con
tinuous output current can still flow through the FWD path. Figure 8.25(c;
shows the voltage and current waveforms. The firing sequence of the SCRs and
the period of conduction of the diodes is also shown.
Assume that the output current is continuous and ripple-free. At 30° + a,
SCRj turns on and SCRX and D2 conduct the output current, making the output
voltage equal to vAC. When the output voltage tends to be negative, the free
wheeling diode is forward-biased and starts conducting. The Output current will
now freewheel through the FWD, making the output voltage zero. When SCR3
is turned on, the output current conducts through SCR3 and D4, making the out
put voltage equal to VqA. The process is repeated every 120° whenever an SCR
is turned on.
The average value of the output voltage is
>/o(avg.) Vi/m) (1 + COS a ) for 0° < a < 180° 8,37

2jc
At a = 0°, K0(avg.) is at a maximum
K > (a v g .)m a x = 0 -9 5 5 VtQ m ) 8,38
Figure 8.25
(a) Half-controlled bridge
1 2 fs c R , '312 C~SCR3'5 (T c r 5 ,d j 'o
circuit
”R +
FW D A
G — w. *r ]L -
I 1 '6\ | D6 ‘y D,
‘2|•
(a)
Figure 8.25
(b) voltage and current waveforms for a small firing angle (c) waveforms for large
firing angle
i
The normalized average output voltage is
= K>(avg,)/ Kj(avg.)max ~ ( 1 + COS C0 / 2 8*39
The variation of the normalized average output, voltage with a is shown in Fig. ‘
ure 8.26. Note that the output voltage cannot be negative, therefore the semi-'
converter cannot operate in the inverting mode.
Figure 8.26
Average output voltage
versus delay angles for
continuous output current
The RMS value of the output voltage is

1/2
K>(RMS) — F Um) in - a + — sin 2 a for 0 ° £ a <S 180°
4jc \ 2
The average value of the SCR current is
- 4 c R ( a v g .) “ a v g .v 'S ■»
The RMS value of the SCR and diode current is

4 cR (R M S ) ^ • t c a v g ./ 'V ^ 8.42
Example 8.13 A six-pulse half-controlled bridge rectifier is connected to a three-phase 220 V

AC source. Calculate the firing angle if the terminal voltage of the rectifier is 240 V.
What is the maximum value o f the DC output voltage?
Solution ô(avg.) 240 V
Vicm) = V 2 (220) * 311 V
ô(avg.) ^ (1 COS <X)
v<lUvil) 2n
1 + cos a = ■"___ ' 1— = 1,62
3 V,L(m)
cos a = 0 .6 2 '
a = 52°
Maximum DC voltage is obtained with a = 0°
ô(max) ~ (311) (1 + 1) = 297 V
Example 8.14 Sketch the waveforms for Output voltage and the input line current iA for a half-
controlled rectifier with a delay angle of
a) 0 °
b) 60 °
c) 120°
Also find the ripple frequency in each case if the source frequency is 60 Hz.
Solution a) With a = 0°, the output is at a maximum as it is for a full-controlled bridge.
Each SCR conducts for 120°, and the input line current consists of alternat
ing components of rectangular pulses of 120° durations. Figure 8.27(a)
shows the waveforms.
6 /= 6 *6 0 = 360 Hz
Figure 8.27
Voltage waveforms for Example 8.14 (a) ct = 0° (b) a = 60°
’.SO CHAPTER 8 Three-Phase Controlled Rectifiers
Figure 8.27
(c) a= 120°
■
b) With a = 60°, the average output voltage is the difference in voltage between
the positive and negative group. The input line current is delayed by 60° and
then flows for a duration of 120°. Figure 8.27(b) show the waveforms.
3 / = 3 * 6 0 = 180 Hz
c) Figure 8.27(c) Shows the waveforms for a = 120°.
3 / = 3 * 60 = 180 Hz
8.5 Twelve-Pulse Bridge Converters
A six-pulse bridge rectifier reduces the output ripple considerably as compared

with that of a three-pulse rectifier. In applications such as DC power trans
mission, a further reduction in output ripple is achieved with a twelve-pulse
converter. A twelve-pulse converter can be obtained by connecting two six-
pulse bridges in series or parallel. Figure 8.28(a) and (b) shows these two con
nections using transformers with a 30° phase shift between the two voltages
of the Y- and A-connected secondary windings. Figure 8.28(e) shows the out
put voltage waveform of the series-connected twelve-pulse bridge. The resul
tant output voltage is the sum of the individual converter output voltages.
Since each converter gives a six-pulse output, the resultant voltage is a twelve-
8.5 Twelve-Pluse Bridge Converters
Figure 8.28
Twelve-pulse connection using two six-pulse bridges (a) series (b) parallel
262 CHAPTER 8 sthfee^Phase Controlled Rectifiers
figure 8.28
(c) output voltage
waveforms for the series-
connected bridge
pulse output. Due to the series connection, the same output current flows
through the two converters.
The equations for output voltage for a resistive load are:
12
Vo„(avg.) ’ V 2 V,L(m) — sin a for 0° < a < 15° 8.43
it
K>(avg,) = V 2 VUm) — [(1 - y2 V 3 ) sin a + V2 cos a]

ic
for 15° $ a £ 9 0 ° 8.44
l^vg.) = V l Vuri — Cl + COS (a + 6 0 ° ) ) for 9 0° < gt < 1 2 0 ° 8.45
8.6 Problems
8.1 A three-pulse rectifier is supplied from a 208 V source. If the load current
is 10 A and the firing angle is 0°, find
a) the average output voltage ,
b) the maximum output current
c) the peak reverse voltage rating of the SCRs
d) (he power dissipation in each SCR, if the forward voltage drop is 1.1 V
8.2 Repeat problem 8.1 for a firing angle of 30°.
8.6 Problems 263
8.3 For a three-pulse controlled rectifier with a resistive load, plot the wave
forms for the output voltage, the output current, and the voltage across the
SCRs if the firing angle is ,
a).. 30° , . '
b) 90° •
c) 120°
8.4 For a three-pulse controlled rectifier with an inductive load, plot the wave-
fcrms fur the output voltage, the output, current, and the voltage across the
SCRs if the firing angle is 100°. ,
8.5 For a three-pulse controlled rectifier with an RL load, plot the waveforms
for the output voltage, the output current, and the voltage across the SCRs
if the firing angle is 100 °.
8 .6 For a three-pulse controlled rectifier with an RL load, plot the waveforms
for the output voltage if the firing angle, is 175°.
8.7 A six-pulse bridge rectifier is connected to a three-phase 220 V AC source.
Calculate the DC output voltage if the firing angle is 30°.
8 .8 For a six-pulse bridge rectifier with a resistive load, plot the waveforms for
the output voltage, the output current, and the voltage across SCRs 1 and
3 if the firing angle is:
a) 0 °
b) 60 °
c) ,90°
d) 120 °
8.9 For a six-pulse bridge rectifier with a resistive load, plot the waveforms for
the line currents iA, iB, and and the current through each SCR if the fir
ing angle is
a)0 °
• b) 90 ° ' "
8.10 A six-pulse bridge circuit is connected to a three-phase 208 V AC source.
Find
a) the average output voltage if the delay angle is 75°
b) the delay angle required to produce 75 V DC when the circuit is oper
ating in thesrectifier mode ' '
c) the delay, angle required to produce 75 V DC when the circuit is oper
ating in the inyerter mofje
8.11 For a half-controlled six-pulse bridge rectifier with a freewheeling diode
across the resistive load, plot the waveforms for the output voltage and
output current if the firing angle is
a) 0 °
b) 60°
; c) 90°
d) 120 °
8 .1 2 For a half-controlled six-pulse bridge rectifier with an RL load, plot the

waveforms for the output voltage, output current, and line currents tA, iBt
and ^ if the firing angle is 120 °.
8 .1 3 For a half-controlled six-pulse bridge rectifier with a freewheeling diode
across an RL load, plot the waveforms for SCR currents with a delay angle
of 120 °.
8 .1 4 Repeat problem 8.11 without a freewheeling diode.
8 .1 5 A three-pulse rectifier is shown in Figure 8.29. With a delay angle o f 90°
for SCRs 1 and 2, plot the waveform for the output voltage.
Figure 8.29 +SCR, -

See problem 8.15 a — -------------- ------- I»s—
+ sc r 2 -
B
C
+
8 .1 6 A six-pulse rectifier is shown in Figure 8.30. Plot the waveform for the out
put voltage if the delay angle is 30 °.
Figure 8.30
See problem 8,16
A
• -8.7 Equations 26$
8.17 A six-pulse bridge circuit is connected to a 3-8 KV source. The load draws
a current of 100 A. If the delay angle is 60 °, find
a) the average output voltage '1 ’ • "
b) the active power input
c) the reactive power absorbed by the circuit
8.18 A six-pulse bridge circuit is fed from a 220 V source. The load draws a
current o f 100 A. If the delay angle Is 60°, find
b) the active power input
c) the reactive power absorbed by the circuit
8.19 A six-pulse bridge converter connected to a three-phase 120 V AC s ° ^ c e
is operating in the inverting mode. The load consists of a 1 , .
having an internal resistance of 0.1 £2 . If the battery de ivers a con
current of 70 A, find
a) the delay angle . ,v
b) the active power supplied to the source
c) the reactive power a b s o r b e d by the converter
d) the peak reverse voltage rating of the SCR
e) the average current through the SCR
8.20 A 5 HP separately-excited DC shunt motor rated at 120 V, 1800 rpm is fed
from a fully controlled six-pulse bridge converter, The converter is sup
plied from a 208-V AC source. If the rated armature current is 20 A and
the armature resistance is 0 . 1; £2 find .
a) the delay angle for the motor to operate at the rate oa
b) the delay angle if the starting current, is limited to 25 A
c) the reactive power absorbed by the converter when operating at rated
load -j I >
d) the SCR voltage rating '
8.21 For a six-pulse controlled bridge rectifier with a resistive load, find the rip
ple factor when a = 60 °i
8.7 Equations
2 ^ - v m cos a for 0 ° £ a £ 30° 8.1
8.2
WgO V | Vsn cos a 8 .3

4 c R ( a v g .) ~ 3 27 1 R
8 .4
peak reverse voltage rating of SCR =? V 3 Kn.

2n
conduction period foi each SCR = one-third of a cycle = — -
3
= 3 * AC supply frequency
* W ) " —— [1 coss ( a + v-7l l

(\ + co for 30° < a < 150°
In \ V 6
W g .) = 0 v for 150° < a < 180
3 V3
Kjcavg.) = ..r 1-""- ' m cos a , for 0 ° < a < 180°
2 TC
ô(avg.)roax = 0.827 Vm
V , J W l _ = cos a
V
Ko(avg.)max
-kcR(RMS) = 4(avg.)/3
3 V3
ôCavg.) = Vm COS-a for 0° < a < 60°
. ri
3 V3
Vkave
Ko(avg.)>= ^ ^ Knl 1 + cos
- - ,( a- + -j-
2 11 for 60 ° < a < 120 °
i;i(avg.) = 0 V for 120° < a < 180°

4cR (avg .) = ^<)(avg../3
y ~ iv m — ? + 3 ^ cos 2a for G° < a < 120 °

2K jr
V 3 t , V 4n - 6 a - 3 sin (2a - 60°;
4(RM S) — Vm " .... - „ ...................... " ’ ':
I K %
for 60 ° < a < 120°
?A(RMS) = V 2/3 * loCavg.) .
f r - six times the source frequency
RF = l&SUSL _ 1
\ ô(avg.)
P q — ôCRMS) R
PRV rating of SCRs = V^(m)
conduction period for each SCR = 120°
3 V 3 Ty
K)(avg.) 25 _ ÔS OC
%
-4>(avg.) ” ôCavg,)/-^
-^SCRCavg.) “ ô(avg.)/^
^ j(RMS) ~ ô(avg.)
4 c K(RMS) = -ôCavg./V^
PRV rating = V 3 Vm
8.7 Equations 267
1/2
K>(RMS) — 2 K (m )
±1 + 3 V 3 cos 2a 8.31
4 8n
3 KxnU 1 + cos a + discontinuous current 8.32

ô<avg.) :
7t
/sCRl'avg.) ^C)(avg.)/3 8.33
(240 - 2 a)
4cR(avg.) - ^6o ■fccavg.) 8 .3 4
*RMS = 0 - 8 1 6 -^)(avg.) 8.35

J (120 - a )
(Io(avg.)) 8.36
90
3 VunO.(1 + cos a ) for 0 ° < a < 180° 8 .3 7
ô(avg.)
2rt
ôfavg.Jmax 0-955 FL(m) 8 .3 8
ô(avg.)/ô(avg.)max (1 COS €C)/ 2 8 .39
1/2
K x rm s) = V u m ) ~4 ^ ( K ~~a + ]> s i n 2 a
for 0 ° < a < 180° 8 .40
-^SCR(avg.) ” -4)(avg.)/3 8.41

4 c R(RMS) = -fcfavg ./ V ^ 8 .42
( 12) .
W > = V 2 KL(m)------sin a for 0 ° < a < 15° 8 .43
n
(6)
Kxavg.) = V 2 Pl(m) ^ (Q - y2 V 3) sin a + V2 cos a ) '
for 15° S a < 90° 8 .4 4
(6)
K.oCavg.) 1 V 2 V,i ( m ) — - (1 + co s (a + 6 0 )) • fo r 9 0 ° £ a < 120° 8 .45
Jt
DC Choppers
Chapter Outline
9.1 Introduction 9.4 Step-Up (Boost) Choppers

9.2 The Principles of Basic DC Choppers 9.5 Buck-Boost Choppers
9.3 Step-Down (Buck) Choppers 9.6 Problems
9.3.1 Continuous Current Mode 9.7 Equations
9.3.2 Discontinuous Current Mode
H--------------------------------------- ----------------------
Learning Objectives
■ explain vi/hat the term ch o pp er means ■ describe the basic operation of a ste
(boost) chopper
■ discuss the principle of basic DC
choppers ■ explain the operating principle of a
buck-boost chopper
■ describe the basic operation of a step-
down (buck) chopper
268
9.2 The Principles of Basic DC Choppers 269
.1 introduction
A DC-to-DC c o n v e rte r or chopper, as it is commonly called, is used to obtain a
variable DC voltage from a constant-voltage DC source. The average value of
the output voltage is varied by changing the proportion of the time during
which th e output is connected to the input. This conversion can be achieved
with a co m b in a tio n of an inductor or/and capacitor and a solid-state device
operated in a high-frequency switching mode. In high-voltage and high-current
aoolications, the switching devices used in chopper circuits are thyristors. When
power transistors (BJTs, or MOSFETS) or GTO thyristors are used, they can be
turned off easily by controlling the base or gate current. Thyristors used in DC
circuits must be turned off using forced commutation since they la c k the facil
ity of natural commutation that is available in AC circuits.
The switching technique used in DC choppers is called pu lse-w idth m od
ulation (PWM). There are two fundamental kinds of chopper circuits: the step-
down or buck chopper and the step-up or boost chopper. The buck chopper
produces an output voltage that is less than or equal to the input voltage; the
boost chopper provides an output voltage that is greater than or equal to the
input volt^g^^ ^ usecj jn many industrial applications where a constant DC

source is available. Typical applications include DC motor control for electric
traction, s w i t c h i n g power supplies, inverters for uninterruptible power supplies
(UPS) and battery-operated equipment. In this chapter, we will focus mainly on
the basic circuits tod operating principles of DC choppers,
9.2 The Principles of Basic DC Choppers

The fundamental principle of a basic chopper is illustrated in Figure 9-1. A
switch is connected in series with the DG voltage source (M) and the load. The
switch S can be a power transistor, an SCR, or a GTO thyristor. It is assumed
throughout this chapter that the switching devices are ideal. Ideal switches have
the following characteristics:
1. They have zero resistance (zero voltage drop) when on.

2. They have infinite resistance (zero leakage current) w hen off.
3. They can switch from either state in zero time.
Ideally, the power loss in the chopper is zero, so the output power is
equal to the input power:
t t r — X /T 9-1
270 CHAPTER 9 DC Choppers
Figure 9.1
Basic DC chopper
v,
where
VQ= average output voltage
Vi = input voltage
4 = average output current
4 = average input current
We assume that the output voltage is adjustable in a certain range from zero to
the input level. Let us operate the switch so that it is on (closed) for a time To,
and off (open) for a time 7oFF in each cycle with a fixed period T. The result
ing output voltage waveform (shown in Figure 9.2) is a train of rectangular
pulses of duration TON.
Figure 9.2 v0 . Switch closed

Waveform of v0 for Figure 9.1
/ u
/
>
....
roN
____ f ___ ^ OFF
Figure 9-2 shows that the instantaneous voltage across the load is either
zero (S off) or V, (S on). The average (DC) output voltage over a cycle is given bv
v ------ -------- v .
Ton + ôff ' . .
v =
° J 1 v1
where 7"is the period (TON + TOPF). The chopper switching frequency is/= 1/71
If we use the idea of duty cycle id ), which is the ratio of the pulse width
Ton to the period of the waveform,
9-3
9.2 The Principles of Basie DC Choppers 271
then
V0 = dV { 9.4
From Equation 9.4, it is obvious that the output voltage varies linearly with the'
duty cycle. Figure 9-3 shows the output voltage as d varies from zero to one. It
is therefore possible to control the output voltage in the range zero to V-.
Figure 9.3
Output voltage v0 as a
function of duty cycle
If the switch S is a transistor, the base current will control the on and off
period of the tranSistof switch. If the switch is a GTO thyristor, a positive gate
pulse will turn it on and a negative gate pulse will turn it off. If the switch is
an SCR, a commutation circuit is required to turn it off-
The load current waveform is similar to Figure 9-2, and its average value
is given by
d\\
ia . 9.5
R R
The effective (RMS) value of the output voltage is
^ r ON
VoD(R M S)
T
'O N 9.6
V,
= Vi V d
The average output voltage can be varied in one of the following ways:
1. Pulse-width m odulation (PWM). In this method, the pulse width

7qn is varied while the overall switching period T is kept constant. Fig
ure 9.4 shows how the output waveforms vary as the duty cycle is
increased. ,
2. Pulse-frequency m odulation (PFM). In this method, 7qN is kept con
stant while the period (frequency) is Varied. As shown in Figure 9.5,
the output voltage reduces as frequency is decreased, being high at
higher frequencies.
72 CHAPTER S DC Choppers
F igure 9.4
with fixed switching
frequency
/
Larged
ON
! ÔFF
Medium d
vt
Small d
Figure 9.5
with variable switching
frequency
ON
For either PWM or PFM control, the output voltage is zero when switch S is
- open, and it is equal to the input voltage when the switch1is closed for a lime
longer than the normal switching cycle.
In the PFM method, it is necessary to reduce the chopper switching fre
quency to obtain a lower output voltage. This may result in discontinuity at
low frequencies. Moreover, a reduction in frequency increases the output cur
rent ripple, thereby increasing losses and heating in the load. On the other
hand, the losses in the components become very high at higher frequencies.
The PWM method has the advantage of low ripple, which means smaller filter
components.
I 9.3 Step-DoWh (Butk) Chbpper*; 273
i
9.3 Step-Down (Bulk) Choppers
The DC chopper circuit of Figure 9.1 is not very practical. It is suitable only for-
supplying resistive loads where a smooth output current is not required. A
much more practical arrangement (shown in Figure 9.6(a) includes an inductor
L and a diode D, which are added to eliminate current pulsations. This circuit
provides a smooth DC current to practical loads like a DC motor.
When the switch S is closed, the diode D is off, since it is reverse-biased.
It will stay off as long as S remains on. The equivalent circuit configuration is
shown in Figure 9.6(b). The input current builds up exponentially and flows
through the inductor L and the load. The output voltage is equal to VJ. The
switch S is kept on for a time TON and then turned off.
When the switch is opened, .the current through the inductor starts decay
ing to zero (it cannot change instantaneously). This causes an induced voltage
with opposite polarity across the inductor. The ihductor voltage forward-biases
the diode, and the current flowing through the inductor now freewheels
through the diode D and the load. The purpose of the diode therefore is. to
provide a path for the load current when S is off. Therefore, turning off S
---------- ---- o----*-0---- --- r-,

s i
t 'D = 0
vl B I +
+ L «
+
vo ■ v
R < R
(b)
'(ft
ne
•e-
at.
jr-
er
't Figure 9.6
e (a) Basic step-down chopper circuit (b) equivalent circuit for the on state
(c) equivalent circuit for the off state
automatically turns on D. The new circuit configuration is shown in figure?.*

9.6(c), The voltage across the load is zero, and the current decays toward zero. -
as long as S remains off, that is, for a period Tow The energy stored in L
delivered to the load. This circuit arrangement permits the use of a simple filler
inductance L to provide a satisfactory smooth DC load current for many appli,'
cations, When the switching frequency is high, a relatively small inductance is
sufficient to reduce the ripple to an acceptable degree.
9.3.1 Continuous Current Mode
Figure 9.7(a) shows the waveform of the voltage across the load, which is also,
the voltage appearing across the FWD(D). This voltage is equal to the inpjt
voltage Vi when the switch is on and diode D is reverse-biased.'"When ihe
switch is open, the output voltage is held at zero by the action of the FWD,
which provides a path fo r the load current, As the average voltage across induc
tor L is negligible when it has no resistive component, the output voltage must-,
be the average voltage across the diode. Therefore, Equation 9.2 also applies
here.
Figure 9.7(b) shows the diode current. It is the same as the load current
(Figure 9.7(d)) during TOPe. During 7qn, the output current ia is the same as the
input current v When the switch is open (Z^ffX the load current falls from its
maximum value 7max to a final value 7min. During this interval, current flows
through the inductor, the load, and the FWD. When the current has fallen to a
value 7min, the switch closes. The current in the diode immediately stops flow
ing, and the current supplied by the source is now 7min. The current then starts
increasing, and when it reaches the value 7max, after a time TON, the switch
reopens. The FWD again provides a path for the load current, and the cycle
repeats. The load current therefore oscillates between 7max and 7min. The ripple
included in the output current reduces as the chopper switching frequency
increases. The average value of the inductor current is given by:
j _ ^tnax înin (j y
Now,
■ / W - Jo .
4 - 4 - R
Therefore
•»max 1 Jrmn
2 R
9.8
Vo .
9,3 Step-Down (Buck) Choppers 275
The voltage across the inductor is. - ,
A =A . . * ' /Vw "v '

dt L
Aio _ Ye. At
With the switch Open (7 off),
Jo.
^ K) —Andx —fmin jr ÔFF 9*9
Adding Equations 9-8 and 9-9,
2^ + 2 k ôff
R L
9.10
/max - R
^ + 22 ZL ?OFF
Similarly, /min is given by

V V
I'"i n = R ~ 2 L TovF 911
The peak-to-peak ripple current is
^p-p Anax “ ^ tnin

ijnin
T* ■ KP 9.12
Toff z
/D= ^ , 9.13
Although the load current of a chopper is basically constant, the input current
still consists of a train of sharp pulses. Figure 9.7(c) shows the waveform for the
source current. A capacitor filter is often used in parallel with the input power
source to smooth the input current.
The current and voltage waveforms shown in Figure 9 7 assume a switch
ing frequency and a load such that T « t. Here x is the circu it tim e constant,
‘ which depends on the ratio L/R.'Note that the output current variation is linear
and the ripple is quite small due to the large time constant. The output current
ia is always present, so this mode of operation is called the continuous current
m ode of operation. The output current is continuous since the inductor absorbs
energy during TON and discharges during TOFF. As a result, the average voltage
across L becomes zero in steady state, and the voltage across the load resistor
must be equal to Vr„<avK.>
2/6 CHAPTER 9 DC Choppers
Figure 9.7
Voltage and current
waveforms for TqN~ T0fF
and T « x (a) output
voltage (b) FWD current
(c) source current (d) load
current (e) voltage across
the inductor
The average values of output voltage, output power, and input power are
given by
V.d 9.14
Pa = Va I Q
Since We are considering ideal elements (with no losses), the DC power drawn
from the source must equal the DC power absorbed by the load.
P0*Pi
V J0 = VA
JL
K
Ij
V{d
A
4= 9.15
Equations 9.14 and 9.15 are very similar to the basic transformer equations,
where the duty cycle d corresponds to the turns ratio a of the transformer.
Therefore, a DC chopper achieves in DC circuits what a transformer does in AG
circuits. By changing the duty cycle in a step-down chopper, we can obtain out-,
put voltages that are less than or equal to the input voltage. Furthermore, the
output current is stepped up when we step down the voltage.
9.3.2 Discontinuous Current Mode
For low values of d, especially with low inductance, the load current decreases
and may fall to zero during the part o f each cycle when the switch is off. The
current again builds up from zero when the switch turns on in the next cycle.
The load current is said to be discontinuous.
Figure 9-8 shows the current and voltage waveforms when 7qn is approx
imately equal to x (x = L/R). The voltage waveform va is the same as in Figure
9 .2 ; however, the output current % cannot jump to VJR due to the inductive
nature of the load L—instead it rises exponentially to V-JR, Similarly, when the
transistor is off, the same current, flowing through the freewheeling diode,
decays to zero.
Figure 9.8
Voltage and current S ON d o n s o n d o n s o n d o n s o n d o n
waveforms with 70N < T0ff v,
and Tqn k t
I I
! Just continous
Discontinous
■ON
—r—
As can be seen in Figure 9-8, the load current flows in pulses and the chopper
operates in the discontinuous mode. Such an operation is usually undesirable.
This mode of operation can be avoided by a proper choice of chopping fre
quency or by choosing a suitable value of inductance. The minimum value of
inductance required to ensure continuous current is obtained by setting /min = q

in Equation 9.11:
V
Ko JL r
= 0 = -R 2L F
Ya..= Toff VG
R 2L
2 L — ?off R
L - Toff • R
2
Therefore, having a high inductance in the load is desirable to avoid the dis
continuous mode. Moreover, the peak-to-peak ripple of the load curren:
decreases as the value of the inductance increases. When the load inductance
ideally becomes infinite, we get a current that is ripple-free (pure DC).
Exam ple 9.1 In Figure 9.6, the switching frequency is 25 Hz and TON = 3 ms. If the average
value of the output current is 40 A, determine the average source current.
Solution Rearranging Equation 9.15,
h * d la
i =___ Sas__^
Ton + ôff
_ Joa r
y* °
= Ton fJ o
= 0.003 * 25 * 40
= 3A
Example 9.2 in Figure 9,6, the input voltage V[ = 100 V, the load resistance R = 10 Q, and
L = 100 mH. The switching frequency is / = 1 KHZ and the on time is 0.5 ms.
If the average source current is 1 A,, determine
b) the output current ,
c) the output power
d) the minimum value of L required
Solution a) The duty cycle is
The average voltage is

VQ= d V , = (0.5X100) = 50-V
b) The output current is
c) The output power is

Po = V J0 = 100 W
d) Toff = T~ Ton ~ 0-5 ms
r rOPFi? o.5 (io~3) ip
2.5 mH
Example 9.3 A DC buck chopper operates at a frequency of 1 KHz from a 100 V DC source
supplying a 10 £2 resistive load. The inductive component of the load is 50 mH.
If the average output voltage is 50 V, find
a) the duty cycle
b) ?on
c) the RMS value of the load voltage
d) the average value of the load current
■^max and In
f) the input power
g) the peak-to-peak ripple current
h) the peak-to-peak ripple current if the frequency is increased to 5 kHz
i) the peak-to-peak ripple current1if the inductance is increased to 250 mH
Solution a) V0 = d Vt
The duty cycle is
, Vn 50
= 0.5 or 50%
v;- ioo
b) The period T is
. m
m
s'*y||pjSp
.
e) Im, = 1 +^ ^
=/o+i i roFF
= 5 + 50 * 0 5 (10~3)2 = 5 + qi25 = 5 ,25 A
/min = 5 - 0.25 = 4.75 A
f) /j(avg) = + /min) d = (5.25 + 4.75) Q ^ = 2 5 A

2 2
Pi = ^/i(avg.) = 100 * 2.5 - 250 W
g) The peak-to-peak ripple current is
/p-p = /max ~ /min = 5.25 - 4.75 = 0.5 A
h) T= 1/5(103) = 200 (XS I
Ton = /off = 100 M-s
r _ ^ 100(10~6) * 5 0 _ , ^ . , _ . n, .
/m a x - 5 + 2 * 50( 10^ ) - 5 + 0 . 5 - 5 . 0 5 A
4in = 5 - 0.05 = 4.95 A

/p_p = 5.05 - 4.95 = 0.1
Notice the large reduction in ripple current as the chopping frequency

is increased. In fact, the reduction is in the same proportion as the increase
in frequency,
0 /max = 5 + [0.5 (10“3) * 50]/[2 * 250(10r'3)] = 5 + 0.05 = 5.05 A
/min =? 5 - 0.05 = 4,95 A
/p_p is the same as in part (h).
This example shows that we can reduce the ripple current by either increasing
the chopping frequency or increasing the value of the inductor. In practice, a
higher switching frequency is favored since it reduces the size of the filler
inductance for the same ripple magnitude. However, higher switching frequen
cies would increase the power losses m the switches. With present-day ctevic es
typical switching frequencies used in DC chopper applications range from 20 to"
50 kHz,
Exam ple 9.4 The chopper shown in Figure 9-9 operates at a frequency of 100 HZ with an on
time of 4 ms. The average value of the load current is 20 A, with a peak-to-peak
ripple of 4 A. Calculate the average value of the source and diode currents and
plot the two waveforms.
Solution The period is
7qn —4 ms
7qpp = T - rON = (10 - 4)ms = 6 ms
Figure 9.9 L
See Example 9.4 Q
Y 500 raH
o A f/D r
t = L/R = 0.5/4 = 0.125 s

X» T, therefore the load current is linear.
Now,
4 = 20 A
and
peak-to-peak ripple = 4 A
ImAX = 20 + 2 = 22 A
/min = 20 - 2 = 18 A
The load current waveform (Figure 9.10) can now be plotted.
Figure 9.10 <0(A)

Load current waveform (not 22 max
to scale) 20
18
‘D
4 10 14
The output power is

Pa = /£?= 202 * 4 = 1600 W
'82 CHAPTER 9 DC Choppers
The input power is

Pi = P0 = 1600 W
Applying KCL at node 1,

Ii + ID==IQ
h = Io-Ii
= 20-8
= 12 A
Plots of ii and id are shown in Figure 9.11.
Figure 9.11 *j(A)

Source and diode current
waveforms (not to scale)
*
Example 9.5 A step-down chopper operates at a frequency of 4 KHz from a 25 V DC source
supplying a 5 Q resistive load. If the output voltage is 15 V and the current is
discontinuous, find
a) the duty cycle
b) the minimum value of L required
c) the power from the source
d) the power to the load
& ^max and n
Solution a) VQ= d Vf
d = 15/25 = 0.6
b) L = rOFF * P/ 2
d = rON/r = o,6
rON = T* 0.6 = 0 .6 / / = 0.6/4C103) = 150 |xs
r= rON+ rOFF = 250 us
Tqff = 100 |Xs
L = 100 (10-6) * 5 /2 = 0.25 mH
c) The average source current is
A= 4 d
Here,
I0 = V JR = 15/5 = 3 A
Therefore,
4 = 3 * 0 .6 = 1.8 A
The power from the source is

Pi = VJ * I, = 25 * 1<8 = 45 W
d) The power supplied to the load is
V l/R = 152/5 = 45 W
e) j _ / + r F0 100 (10~6) * 15 , .
e; /max 4 + /o ff 2z ■ 2 * 0 .25 (10"3) ~ ~
V
/min = 4 ~ / off = 3 - 3 = 0 A since the current is discontinuous.
Example 9.6 A step-down chopper operates at a fixed frequency of 100 Hz from a 220 V DC
source supplying a, load with 1 £1 resistance and 10 mH inductance. If the out
put voltage is 60 V, find
a) T o n *
b) 7ofF
c) the average output current
and draw the waveforms of i0 and iD.
Solution a) V0 = d Vi
d = 60/220 = 0.27
W / ’= 0.27
roN = 0.27//= 0.27/100 = 2.7 ms
b) f OPF = T - rON= 10C10"3) - 2.7C10”3) = 7.3 ms
c) 4oivg.) 60/1 = 60 A
60 + 7 . 3 ( 1 0 ) * 6 0 ‘ 60 + 21.9 = 81.9 A
2 * 10 ( 10~3)
4in = 60 - 21.9 = 38.1 A
Plots of iQ and iD are shown in Figure 9.12.
Figure 9.12 vQ(V)

Current waveforms (not to
scale)
9.4 Step-Up (Boost) Choppers
In the step-up circuit, the output voltage can be varied from the source voltage
up to several times the source voltage. The basic circuit of the step-up chopper
is shown in Figure 9-13- Inductor L is used to.provide a smooth input current
Figure 9.13
Basic step-up chopper circuit
9.4 Step-Down (Boost) Choppers 285
Some ripple component is actually included in the input current, but--it is

regarded as negligibly small when the switching action is repeated at a high fre
quency. The solid-state switch, which is operated in the PWM fashion; can be
a transistor or an SCR. '
When the switch S is turned on (see Figure 9.14(a)), the inductor is con
nected to the supply. The voltage across the inductor jumps instantaneously
to the source voltage V-, but the current through the inductor \ increases lin
early and stores energy in the magnetic field. When the switch opens (see Fig
ure 9.14(b)), the current collapses and the energy stored in the inductor is trans
ferred to the capacitor through the diode D. The induced voltage Vt across the
inductor reverses, and the inductor voltage adds to the source voltage to
increase the output voltage. The current that was flowing through S now flows
through L, D, and C to the load. Therefore, the energy stored in the inductor is
released to the load. When S is again closed, D becomes reverse-biased, the
capacitor energy supplies the load voltage, and the cycle repeats.
Figure 9.14
Step-up chopper equivalen* —
circuit (a) on state (b) off
state V;-1 . 1
-p *S W T
T
(a)
R Vn
(b)
The voltage across the load (and the capacitor) is:

, ,• I’o = Vi + l i
va will always be higher than V{ because the polarity of is always the
same as that of Vv
The voltage and current waveforms for d = 0.5 are shown in Figure 9-15.
The diode current % behaves as follows:
Ui ’ '■ /
%,, = 0 when the switch is closed (on) ,
iD = it when the switch is open (off)
Thus, the diode current will pulsate as illustrated in Figure 9-15.
Figure 9.15
Voltage' and current
waveforms (d = 0,5) for
step-up chopper.
If the inductance L is quite large, the source current \ is ripple-free and

considered constant. The energy stored in the inductor during the interval <T0N)
when the chopper is on is
Won = ^ r QN
Similarly, assuming that the capacitance is large enough to neglect the voltage
ripple, the output voltage vQcan be considered constant. During the time ( T0n)
that the chopper is off, the energy transferred by the inductor to the load is'
9.17
-4
Since we are neglecting lo|sses, the energy transferred by inductance during Totp
must equal the energy gained by it during the period 7^N.
Won = Woff
W on = <To - W off
or va = Vi = V r3®-
Toff
Ton
F0 = H+
Toff
■'OFF
_ Toff + Ton
Toff
(D
= K-
Toc f f
Since T — Toff Ton

T o ff = T - TON
T
Va = ^
T - Ton
= Vil
! _ iQ li
14 “ 11( w ) »•“
If the switch is open ( d = 0), output voltage is equal to input voltage. As d
increases, the output voltage becomes larger than the input voltage. Therefore,
the output or load voltage is always higher than the input voltage if the switch
S is operated at an appropriately high frequency.
The average value of source current can be obtained from:
Pi = P0 neglecting losses
vj
VA
R 9 .19
l - jLV2
s l * _1
Vi R
Capacitor C in Figure 9.13 reduces the ripple in the output voltage and
smoothes the current supplied to the load. If the capacitor is large enough, the
output current will have a negligible ripple component and will equal the time
288 CHAPTERS DC Choppers
average of the diode current.. Therefore, the average value of the current 70 from
Figure 9-15 is given by
9.20
Equations 9-18 and 9.20 clearly show that the circuit functions as a step-up DC
transformer. As d (or TON) approaches zero,.the output voltage V0 equals Vb the
source voltage. On the other hand, when d approaches unity (or TON = T ), the
output voltage approaches infinity. In practice, however, the maximum voltage
cannot be infinite due to the power loss associated with the nonideal compo
nents. Because of these practical limitations, the output voltage is limited to
around five times the input voltage.
The chopping frequency is limited by the SCR and the forced commuta
tion circuit. A higher chopper frequency can be achieved by using power tran
sistors or gate-turnoff thyristor (GTOs).
Let us determine the equations for the maximum and minimum input
current.
The input power is
The output power is
P0 = Vl/R
Neglecting losses, the output power must be the same as the power supplied
by the source:
9.21
j —— :—llL_—
1 (1 - d f R
Now from Equation 9.7,
torn
Now, IL = 7j
Therefore,
9.22
The'voltage across the inductor is
t t = Vt * L 4 L
dt
dt. L
With the switch closed (7"ON),
Alt —~^Ton
or
/
■‘m a x - /1m in ~ ^ t
1 ON 9.2 3
Adding Equations 9.22 and 9 23,
2 4ax = 2 iS + - ^
9 .2 4
J£ + “t^tTon
(1 - d f R ' 2 L
Vk T— —
d)2
+ Ton
2L
Similarly, I„^n is given by
1 . _ ■‘ O N
■4ain ~ V\ 9 .25
R iX -d f 2L
The peak-to-peak ripple in the input current is given by
V{ ÔN
Ip-p ~ -^max -4tiin 9.26
For continuous current conditions, the minimum value of inductance required is

obtained by setting Equation 9.25 equal to zero.
1 _ j QN
R (l-d )2 2L
_____________ ___ _ ?O N
R C l-d)2 2L
Solving for L,
L = R Jp & a _ d)2 9 .2 7
ii
Example 9.7 The step-up chopper shown in Figure 9-13 is supplied from a 110 V DC source.
The voltage required by the load is 440 V. If the switch is turned on for 0.25 ms,
find the chopper frequency.
Solution = T4
1 -1 d
440 = 110 (1/1 - d)
1 - d = 110/440 = 0.25
d - 1 - 0.25 = 0.75
d= ton/ t = rON * /
or
f = d/Ton = 0.75/0.25 (10~3) = 3 kHz
Example 9.8 The step-up chopper shown in Figure 9.13 operates at a frequency of 1 kHz.
The source voltage is 100 V DC and the load resistance is 2 Q. If the average
value of the load current is 100 A, find
a) the power dissipated by the IBad resistor
b) the duty cycle
c) the average value of source current
d) the average value of the switch current
Solution a) The average power dissipated by the load is
PQ= I20R = 100z(2) = 20 kW
b) From Equation 9-18,
The average output voltage can be determined from ‘

P<>= Vl/R
V0 = V p j i = V 2Q (10+3) * 2 = 200 V
Now, 1 - d = V[/V0 = 100/200 = 0.5
d = 0.5
c) The power input is
Pi = VI * h
The average source current is
Ii = PJV\
If we neglect losses,
Pi = P0 = 20 kW
Therefore,
/i = 20 (1 0 3)/1 0 0 = 200 A
d) The average diode cuirent is th© same jas average load current, since the
average capacitor current is zero.
/D = 4 = 100 A
The current through the switch can be found by applying KCL:
^ = 4w + k
or
7SW= /( - /D = 200 - 100 = ll)0 A
Example 9.9 In Figure 9.13, Vt = 50 V, VQ= 75 V, I = 2 mH, i?= 2 Q, and Ton = 1 ms-
a) Determine the duty cycle.
b) Determine the switching frequency.
c) Determine 4 o n > and 4 c o n >
d) Plot the waveform for %w and
Solution a) From Equation 9-18,
75 _ 1
50 1-d
1.5 - 1 . 5 d = 1
-1.5 d = ~.5
d = i/3
= 0.33
b> rf=TON/ r
1 * 10“3
0.33 = - —
T
T= 3 m s
/• = !
T
1
= 3 * 10"3
= 333.3 HZ
i CHAPTER 9 DC Choppers
c) From Equation 9.19,
50 2
= 56.25 A
and from Equation 9.20,
4 = Ii (1 - d)
= 56.25 (1 - 0.33)
= 37.7 A
d) Plots of and iD are shown in Figure 9.16.
t i= VI = 1 di-Jdt
i i =i i
dt L
A i._ J i
At L
Vi rON is the volt-sec on the inductor,
Figure 9.16 ‘sw

Current waveforms for
Example 9.9 (not to scale)
Therefore, A 7, = 50 (10-3)/2 (10~3) = 25 A

’/max = 56.25 + 25/2 = 68.75 A
Imin = 56.25 - 25/2 = 43.75 A
Example 9.10 The step-up chopper shown in Figure 9-13 supplies power to a 20 £2 resistive
load at 120 V. The source voltage is 40 V DC, and the load inductance is 0.2 mH.
If the chopper frequency is 4 kHz, find
a) the duty cycle ■
b) the average value of the source current
c) ?ON
Znax
Z n in .
f) the average value of the diode current
Solution a) From Equation 9.18,
1 - d = 40/120 = 0.33
d = 0.67
b) = 40/(1 - 0.67)2 20 = 18.4 A

(1 - d r R
c) T= l//c = 250 ^
rON/r = o,67
d*
7qn - 0.67 * 250 (10-6) = 167.5 *is
7 = V,
1 -‘ O N
d) 'm a x vi
R (1 - d f 2L
1 167.5 (IQ-6)
= 40
20 (1 - 0.67) 2 2 * 0.2(10~3)
= 40 [0.46 + 0.42] = 35.2 A
____1__ _ _ Jsm.
R (1 - d )2 2 L
= 40 [0.46 - 0.42] = 1.6 A
f) The average diode current is the same: as the average load cu :.the
average capacitor cuirent is zero.
:■ ■■■■■ ' "
Therefore, ,
h =4
= Vo/R
= 120/20
=6A
234 ■ CHAPTER 9 DC Choppers
Example 9.11 The step-up chopper shown in Figure 9.13 supplies power to a load having
1.5 & resistance and 0.8 mH inductance. The source voltage is 50 V DC and the
load voltage is 75 V. If the on time is 1.5 ms, find
a) the chopper switching frequency
b) the average value of the source current
c) liaax
d) Ifcati
Then draw the waveforms of voltage across the inductor ti and current through
the inductor
1 - d = 50/75
= 0.67
d = 0.33
W r = 0.33
rON/o.33
= 1.5(10“3)/0.33
= 4.5 ms
The chopper switching frequency is
/ = 1/4.5C10"3) = 222 HZ
b) 50/(1 - 0.33 ) 2 1.5 = 74.25 A

(1 - d Y R
Figure 9.17
Plots of vL and /| (not to
scale)
9.5 Biick-Boost Choppers 295
c) Vi
RC1 - d f
1 i .5 (ic r3)
= 50
1.5(1 - 0.33) 2 * 0 .8(10 )
= 50 (1.48 + 0.937) = 120.85 A
1 . _ ÔN
d) ■*min
R i1 - d f 2 L
= 50 (1.48 - 0.937)
= 27.4 A '
e) Plots of and are shown in Figure 9.17.
9.5 Buck-Boost Choppers
A buck-boost DC-to-DC chopper circuit combines the concepts of the step-up

and step-down choppers. The output voltage can be either higher than, equal
to, or lower than the input voltage. A reversal of the output voltage polarity may
also occur. The circuit configuration is shown in Figure 9.18(a). The switch can
Figure 9.18
(a) Buck-boost DC chopper
(b) equivalent circuit with
switch on (c) equivalent
circuit with switch off
be any type of controlle4 switching device such as a power transistor, a GTQ ■

thyristor, or an IGBT.
When S is on, the diode D is reverse-biased and is zero. The circuit can
be simplified as shown in Figure 9.18(b). The voltage across the induuor is
equal to the input voltage, and the current through fhe inductor 4 increases lm-
early with time. When S is off, the source is disconnected. The current through
the inductor cannot change instantly, so it forward-biases the diode and pro-
vides a path for the load current, The output voltage" becomes equal io the
inductor voltage. The circuit can be simplified as shown in Figure 918(c). The
voltage and current waveforms are shown in Figure 9.19.
With the switch on (TON),
WbN= V^Ton
Figure 9.19
Voltage and current I
waveforms for buck-boost
chopper
Switch | Switch
closed ' ODen
-t-t.
9 5 Buek-Boost Choppers 297
With the switch off (7^FF)
Wqff - Va A Toff
Ignoring losses,
Won - Wqff
VATon= V0IvT0?v
Now, d =
T
and T= Ton + TOFF

Toff — T— TON
= T (l-d )
Substituting in V0,
The output voltage can be controlled by changing the duty cycle d. Depending
on the value of d, the output voltage Can be higher than, equal to, or lower
than the input voltage. When d > 0.5, the output voltage is greater than the
input voltage and the circuit operates in the step-up mode. If d < 0.5, the out
put voltage is less than the input voltage and the circuit acts like a step-down
chopper. The buck-boost chopper can transfer from operating in the step-down
mode to operating in the step-up mode very smoothly and quickly by changing
only the control signals for switch S.
Now, from Equation 9.7,
The average power input is

.98 CHAPTER 9 DC Choppers
The output power is
R
If we neglect power losses, the; power input must equal the power output:
2 Vi
IJmax +
' I■*m■
m■
RdVt
Substituting Va from Equation 9.28,
2 d 2 V2j 2 dVt
R d il-d fV i R (l-d ?
With the switch closed (Ton).
Alt = ~~^T0h
Or /max ~ 4 . n = “ ÔN = ~~d T 9.30
Adding Equations 9 29 and 9 30,
2/„ 2^ +y ,d T
r {i - d f
9.31
I*max = V
• vi d
R (\ -df 2L
Similarly, 7mln is given by
I*mm=V-
• ri 9.32
R il-d f 21
The peak-to-peak ripple in the input current 7| is given by
j -j
■*p-p **"' -*max -*111111- M jA
_7 9.33
For continuous current conditions, the minimum value of the inductance required
is obtained by setting Equation 9 32 equal to zero;
4un = o= v;
R il-d f 2L
Td
R (1 - df - ~ 2 L
Solving for L,
R T d Cl - d ) 2
9.34
9.5 Buck-Boobt Choppers 299
Example 9.12 The buck-boost chopper shown in Figure 9-18 supplies power to a load having
1,5 £1 resistance and 0.8 mH inductance. The source voltage is 50 V DC and the
load voltage is 75, V. If the on time is 1.5 ms, find
a) the chopper switching frequency
tO ^tnax '
c) 4im
d) the average value of the input current
e) the average value of the diode Current
f) the peak-to-peak ripple in the input current
g) the minimum inductance required for continuous current operation
Solution a) From Equation 9-28.
d
.1 - d
75 = 50
1
d = 0.6
= 0.06 :
T
T?=l ^ l =25ms
0.6
/ = 1 / T - 400 Hz
b) from Equation 9-31,
o <n
. 2.5 ( 10 ^)
1 ------------------- i
---- ,--- 0.6 .
_1.5 (1 —0 .6)2 2 * 0.8 ( 10~3)
= 50 (4.2 + 1.6) 0.6
= 144 A
c) 4u« = 50 (4.2 - 1.6) 0.6 = 78 A
d) Ij = + 4.inj O j L t ? 8) Q6 = 6 6 a
e) The average value of the diode current is

9.6 Problems
1
jgglg
m
9.1 What is meant by tlie tern| chopper! Give some typical applications. }~
9.2 Explain the basic operating principle of a step-down chopper.
9-3 Explain the basic operating principle of a step-up chopper.
9.4 For a step-down chopper circuit, the following information is available;,
Vi = 120 V, L = 0.8 mH, R = 0.1 £2, T= 2 ms, and TON = 1 ms. If the <hop.
per operates in the continuous current mode, find
c) the maximum value o f the output current
d) the minimum value o f the output current
e) the minimum value of the current if the current is discontinuous
9.5 A buck chopper circuit is operating with a frequency of 1 kHz. The source
voltage is 110 V, and the load voltage is 75 V, Calculate Ton and T( )!■] ■
9.6 A buck chopper circuit is connected to 100 V DC source and has a load
voltage of 50 V, If the average output current is 10 A, find
a) the duty cycle
b) the average and RMS values of the input current
c) the average dnd RMS values of the current through the diode
d) the peak-to-peak ripple
9.7 The battery charger circuit shown in Figure 9.20 operates at a frequency
of 2 KHZ. Find.
a) the duty cycle and the on time
b) the average value of 4 iD, and \
c) the power delivered to the 12 V battery
Figure 9.20
See Problem 9.7
9.8 A step-down chopper operates at a frequency of 1 kHz with a duty cycle

of 0.40. If trhe load resistance is 4 Q and the inductance is 0.8 mH, find
a) the average value of the output current
b) Zjjax
9.6 Problems 301
9-9 Referring to Figure 9-6, calculate V0, Ib /D, and P6 if V{ = 500 V, T= 15 ms,
7qff = 10 ms> and R = 1 £2 , -
9 .1 0 A step-down chopper circuit operating at 8 kHz supplies 100 W at 15 V to
a load resistor. If the source voltage is 25 V, find the value of L required
for continuous current.
9 .1 1 Referring to Figure 9.7, show that the average or DC value of
a) the load current is
t _ ^max -^min
2
b) the source current is
7 _ I qN Umax h\\[n^
' T 2
9 .1 2 In Figure 9.6, = 100 V, L = 10 mH, R = 2 a , T= 10 ms, and TON =* 5 ms.
Plot the load current exactly and show that it is discontinuous.
9 .1 3 Repeat problem 9.12 with TON = 0.1 ms and show that the current is Con
tinuous.
9 .1 4 For a step-up chopper circuit, the following information is available: V{ =
20 V, L = 10 p.II, R = 0.1 Q, T= 10 (is, and d = 0.4. If the chopper oper
ates in the continuous mode, find
b) the maximum value of the output current
c) the minimum value of the output current
9-15 A boost chopper circuit is operating with a frequency of 10 kHz. The
source voltage is 50 V and the load voltage is 70 V. Calculate Ton and
Toff- ' >•■
9 .1 6 A boost chopper circuit is connected to a 30 V DC source, and the load
voltage is 50 V. If switching frequency is 50 kHz, find
a) the duty cycle
b) the minimum value of L to ensure a continuous inductor current
9.17 A buck-boost chopper supplied from a 20 V source is operating at a fre
quency of 50 kHz with a duty cycle of 0.40. If the load resistance is 20 £2,
find
a) the output voltage
b) the minimum value of L for a continuous inductor current
9 .1 8 Referring to Figure 9.18, calculate K», 4«.x. 4 ,in, anti the value of L for con
tinuous inductor current if VJ = 50 V, T= 15 (is, and TOFP = 10 [is.
9 .1 9 A buck-boost chopper circuit operating at 8 kHz supplies 100 W at 25 V
to a load resistor. If the source voltage is 15 V, find the value of L required
for continuous current.
9.7 Equations
Volo = VA 9.x
Vo = -= ^ r - v{ 9.2
-'O N " r * O F F
9.3
VQ= d V i 9.4
7 = -^ = ^ - ' 95
° 7? 7?
Kxrms) = Vi V d 9.6
^max ^min
9.7 Equations 303
^max Tmjn — 2 I\ 9-22
Tmax 7mjn —
J ,i 7 qn 9 -2 3
L
i ln = V> ( R ( l _ 9 '2 5
/ = -*m
Jp-p / ax —/
•‘min = ^ ^ Q 26
^ l 21 (1 - d ? 9.27
_£
V o ^ -7 ~ V i 9*28
1- d
7 + / ____l d V j _ ■
max min R ( \ - d ? J
/max - 4 ,n = Y rON= ^ T 9.30
♦
i r
4 in = H ~~— \d 9.32
/<■(1 - d r 2L
V\Td
^p-p ^max ^mm T 9.33
L
L=R T d i^ d f 9M
Chapter Outline
10.1 Introduction 10.6.1 Single-Phase Full-Bridge

10.2 The Basic Inverter Inverters
10.6.2 Single-Phase Half-Bridge
10.3 Voltage Source Inverters (VSI) Inverters
10.3.1 The Half-Bridge VSI
10.3.2 The Full-Bridge VSI 10.7 Other Basic Types of Single-Phase
Inverters
10.4 Inverter Voltage Control Techniques 10.7.1 Center-Tapped Inverters
10.4.1 Control of the DC Input Voltage
Supplied to the Inverter 10.8 The Basic Principle of the Three-
10.4.2 Control of the AC Output Phase Bridge VSI Inverter
Voltage of the Inverter 10.8.1 The 120° Conduction Type
10.4.3 Control of the Voltage within 10.8.2 The 180° Conduction Type
the Inverter 10.9 The Ideal Current Source Inverter
10 5 Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) (CSI)
10.5.1 Single Pulse-Width Modulation 10.9.1 The Single-Phase Current Source
10.5.2 Multiple Pulse-Width Bridge Inverter
Modulation 10.9.2 The Three-Phase CSI
10.5.3 Sinusoidal Pulse-Width 10.10 Problems
Modulation (SPWM)
10.11 Equations
10.6 Pulse-Width Modulated (PWM)
Inverters
Learning Objectives

■ explain what an inverter is ■ describe the basic operation of a voltage
■ list some applications of inverters source inverter
304
: -
10.2 The Basic Inverter 305
1 3 .
; -
; t explain the operation of half-bridge and ■ describe the basic principle of three-
full-bridge voltage source inverters phase inverters
jl t describe inverter voltage control ■ describe the basic operation of single-
I techniques phase and three-phase current source
{ g describe the principle of pulse width inverters
'i modulation
* i describe the principle of sinusoidal pulse
width modulation
■-------------------------------— ------------ --------------- ;----------- :— .. , ,— ------------------

10.1 Introduction ,
Inverters are static circuits (that is, they have no moving parts) that convert DC
power into AC power at a desired output voltage or current and frequency. The
output voltage of an inverter has a periodic waveform that is not sinusoidal but
can be made to closely approximate this desired waveform. There are many
types of inverters, and they are classified according to number of phases, use of
power semiconductor devices, commutation principles, and output waveforms.
We will first look at the single-phase inverter. Secondly, we will discuss voltage
source inverters (VSI) and current source inverters (C!5I), and; finally we will
cover the principles of three-phase inverters. Inverters are used in many indus
trial applications, including speed control of induction and synchronous motors,
induction heating, aircraft power supplies, uninterruptible power supplies (UPS),
and high-voltage DC transmission.
H--------------------------- -— .— ....................................:-------i ------- _ ---------- ----- --- ----;------------------
10.2 The Basic Inverter
The basic circuit for generating a single-phase alternating voltage from a DC

power Supply is shown in Figure 10.1. The circuit is also known as an H(half)~
bridge inverter because it uses two semiconductor switches. Switches Sj and S2
connect the DC source to the load (and disconnect) alternately, thus producing
an AC rectangular voltage waveform.
Figure 10.1
Basic circuit for half-bridge
inverter
306 CHAPTER 10 Inverters
"fable 10.1
^ apt
State ' Output voltage-'
1 ' +E
2 - 0
3 - + , -E ...
4 + + 0
Since each switch has positive and negative terminals, the combination of the
two switche&J j)rovides*the four states shown in T^ble 10.1. i
When states 1 and 3 are repeated alternately, a square-w ave voltage is
generated across the load, as shown in figure 10.2(a). If states 2 and 4, which
makes the load voltage zero, are used, the step-wave or quasi-square-wate
waveform of Figure 10.2(b) is obtained.
Figure 10.2
Switching sequence in the
H-bridge inverter (a) square-
wave output (b) step-wave
output +£
1
(a)
10.3 Voltage Source Inverters (VSl) 307
The frequency of the alternating voltage is determined by the switching rate. If

the switching period is T seconds, the frequency /is:
f= l/T (Hz) ■ 10.1
The rectangular AC output voltage of the inverter is adequate for some appli
cations. However, the sine-wave output voltage is the ideal waveform for many
applications. Two methods can be used to make the output closer to a sinusoid.
One is to use a filter circuit on the output side of the inverter. This filter must
be capable of handling the large power output of the inverter, so it must be
large and will therefore add to the cost and weight of the inverter Moreover,
the efficiency will be reduced due to the additional power losses in the filter.
The second method, pulse-width modulation (PWM), uses a switching
scheme within the inverter to modify the shape of the output voltage waveform.
PWM is discussed in Section 10.5.
10.3 Voltage Source Inverters (VSI)
A voltage source inverter (VSI) is the most commonly used type of inverter. In
a VSI the input DC voltage source is essentially constant and independent of the
load current drawn. The input DC voltage may be from an independent source
such as a battery or may be the output o f a controlled rectifier. A large capaci
tor is placed across the DC input line to the inverter. The capacitor ensures that
any switching events within the inverter do not significantly change the DC
input voltage. The capacitor charges and discharges as necessary to provide a
stable output. The inverter converts the input DC voltage into a square-wave AC
output source.
10.3.1 Half-Bridge VSI

The half-bridge inverter, which is used for low-power applications, is the basic
building block of inverter circuits. Figure 10.3(a) shows a single-phase half-bridge
VSI configuration that uses two switches (Sj and S2) and two DC power sup
plies. The switching device can be a power transistor (a BJT or a MOSFET), a
GTO thyristor, or an SCR with its commutation circuit. Diodes Dt and D 2 are
freewheeling diodes.
figure 10 .3 (b) shows the output voltage waveform with a resistive load.
The switches are turned on and off alternately, with one switch on while the
other is off. During the period 0 to 772, switch S! is closed, which makes v0 =
+ £ At 772, Si is opened gnd 5^ is closed. During the period 772 to T, the out
put voltage va = -E. Therefore, the output voltage has an alternating rectangu-
Jar waveform of frequency / = \/T. By controlling T, we can control the fre
quency of the inverter output voltages. However, care must be taken not to turn «
both switches on, as they will short circuit the DC source. 1
' «%
308 CJHAPTEIFMO inverters
Figure 10.3, s,
Half-bridge voltage source
inverter (a) circuit diagram
(b) output waveforms with
an R load (c) waveform with
an RL loa<3 '
(a)
+E
S! Sl
0 T T
2 s2 -
-E
7 ON ’
If switches Si and S2 are each closed for an interval Ton! the half-wave'.
average output voltage is given by
" ..rf . .".-1.5' . •■
!-.V i . ..*1
"'f.’y ; < ' f-! <f . 1; ■ 2
' • ■
■
. •'
^ v 8) = ^ = 2 f i ^ i - 2 2 ?a 10.2
where d, the duty cycle, is . ;

d = T0 x/T 10.3
M
M
10,3 Voltage Source Inverters (VSI) 309
The RMS value of the output voltage is given by

K xrm s) = V2 dE ............. ■ . 10.4
The output current waveform depends on the nature of the load. If the load is
resistive, the current waveform is similar to the voltage waveform and the half
wave average output current is given by
4(avg.) “ ô(avg.)/7? 10.5
and
average current in the switch = 4(avg.)/2 10.6
The average power absorbed by the load is
P 10.7
L R R
If the load is inductive, the output currefit cannot reverse at the same instant
that the output voltage changes its polarity, so the freewheeling diode provides
a path for the load current to flow in the same direction. The voltage and cur
rent waveforms with an RL load are shown in Figure 10.3(c). The output cur
rent iQ lags the output voltage. During the interval 0 to 772, the output voltage
vQis positive. Therefore, either Sx or Di is conducting during this interval. How
ever, during the interval 0 to tu the output current iQ is negative, indicating that
Dj must be conducting during this interval. Now, during the interval tx to 772,
ia is positive, so Si must be conducting. At 772, Sj is turned off and the current
transfers to D2. At t2, D 2 turns off and S 2 is turned on to take over conduction
from t2 to T, The cycle then repeats. Figure 10.3(c) also* shows the conducting
devices during the various intervals. Note that the freewheeling diodes conduct
only when voltage and current are of opposite polarities.
The DC source currents ii and ^ can be obtained from the output current
waveform.£S shown in Figure 10.3(c). During the positive half-period of the
output voltage, the current is supplied by the upper section of the DC source,
and during the negative half-period it is supplied by'the lower section.
Example 10.1 The single-phase half-bridge inverter shown in Figure 10.4(a) produces a step-
wave output across a resistive load. E = 100 V, d — 50%, and load resistance
R = 1 £1
a) Plot the waveforms for the output voltage (t^), the voltages across the SCRs
(% :ri and ^scr2), and the source currents (i\ and i2).
b) find the maximum forward voltage that the switch must withstand.
c) Find the average load current.
d)-find the average switch current.
e) Find the power delivered to the load.
Solution a) The waveforms are shown in Figure 10.4(b). If we turn on SCR] at t = 0 for
an interval Toni the load current flows from the source to the load. At time
t = 772, while SCRj remains off, SCR2 is turned on to conduct load current
in the reverse direction. SCR2 remains on for an interval TON before it is
• •
Figure 10.4
(a) Circuit diagram for 'si | | D1
Example 10.1 (b) waveforms SCR1$
of voltage and current J,
- vO+ J o
-m ^ = -
R
‘S2 D2
E s c r 2iz A d,
T.
(a)
SCRl
IX .
2E
E
'O N ' ‘ OFF"
SCR2
2E
E 11=
'OFF ON” 4OFF“
h ~ ‘si
‘2 “ S2
t
turned off. SCRi and SCR2 remain o ff for the rest of the period T. The cycle
is then repeated. The output voltage has an alternating rectangular waveform
of amplitude E. Since the load'is resistive, the output current is also rectan
gular in shape With a magnitude of E/R.
b) The voltage across the open switch is
2 * DC supply voltage = 2 (100) = 200 V
c) The average load voltage over a half-cycle is
ôcavg.) = 2 E d = 2 (100)(0.5) = 100 V
The average load current is
VoCavg,/i?= 100/1 = 100 A

d) average current in the switch = average load current/2 = 100/2 = 50 A
e) The RMS value of the output voltage is
Vovms) - V 2 d E = V 2 * 0.5 (100) = 100 V
The power delivered to the load is
Pi = V20(RMS)/R = 1002/1 = 10 KW
10.3.2 Full-Bridge VSI

10.3.2.1 W ith a Resistive Load
A full-bridge VSI can be constructed by combining two half-bridge VSIs. Figure
10.5 shows the basic circuit for a single-phase full-bridge voltage source inverter.
Four switches and four freewheeling diodes are required. The amplitude of the
output voltage and therefore the output power are twice that of the half bridge.
The switches are turned on and off in diagonal pairs, so either switches S, and
S4 or S2 and S3 are turned on for a half-cycle (7/2). Therefore, the DC source is
connected to the load alternately in opposite directions. The output frequency
is controlled by the rate at which the switches open’ and close. If the pairs of
switches are turned on at equal intervals, the output voltage waveform will be
Figure 10.5
Full-bridge voltage source
inverter
A ‘o B
Load
S
a square wave with a peak amplitude of E, as shown in Figure 10.6(a), T}J|.

switching sequence is given in Table 10.2.
Figure 10.6
Switching sequence and
output voltage waveform +E
for the bridge inverter
(a) squarewave output
(b) step-wave output
-s „ s 4 -s2, s3- -s,.s4-
■(a)
(b)
Comparing the waveforms of Figure 10.6(a) and 10.3(b) shows that the
output voltage waveforms of the half-bridge and full bridge inverter are identi
cal. Therefore, the same equations apply.
When the switching state is changed while going from one state to the
other, both pairs of switches must be in the off state for a short time to avoid the
possibility of short-circuiting the DC source in the transient- state in which the wo
switches can be simultaneously closing. Therefore, switching from the on Male to
the off must be done as quickly as possible, while the switching from off to on
must be carried out with an appropriate delay and take a definite time.
Table 10.2 Switching Sequence for a Squarewave Output

—* J
State M M M BI Output Voltage®
03
On Off On
+
1 Off
2 off On On Off •, -E .
3 On Off Off On E
4 Off On On Off -E
Table 10-3 Switching Sequence for a Step-Wave Output
State Si S2 fJ M iii ij^ j& it a g e
l On Off Off On - +E
.2 On ' Off Off ■■ • On +E
3 On Off On Off 0
. 4 Off On On Off -E
5 Off On on Off -E
6 Off On Off On 0 „
7 On Off Off On +E
8 On Off ,,, Off On +E
We can control the AC voltage by using a third switch state during which
the output Voltage is zero. The output waveform is the step wave shown in Fig
ure 10.6(b). In the third switch state, switches Sj and S3 or S2 and S4 close for
a time 8 , during which v0 *= 0. The switching sequence is given in Table 10.3-
The average value of the output voltage is given by
I"-®
K xr.m .sj - E J 1“ j.
Therefore, the magnitude of the output voltage may be controlled somewhat by

delaying the turn-on of the appropriate pair of switches after the conducting
pair has been turned off.
10.3.2.2 With an Inductive (RL) Load

Figure 10.7(a) shows a voltage source bridge inverter that uses SCRs as switches
and supplies an RL load. The output voltage is a rectangular waveform shown
with a 50% duty cycle. The output current waveform has an exponential form.
When the output voltage is positive, the output current rises exponentially. Dur
ing the next cycle, when the output voltage is negative, the output current
decays exponentially. , .
The function of the freewheeling diodes is to provide a return path for the
load current when the switches are off. For example, just after SCR2 and SCR,
turn off at t = 0, diodes Dx and D4 turn on. The load current starts at a nega
tive value and rises exponentially at a rate given by the load time constant (t =
I/R). The DC source current during this period is inverted and actually flow to
Figure 10.7 's

Full bridge inverter with an
RL load (a) circuit diagram
(b) waveforms with an RL
load
(a)
vO
(b)
the DC source. When the output current reaches zero, Dj and D4 turn off and
SCR* and SCRj turn on. The output voltage and output current are both posi
tive, producing positive power. The current continues to grow and reaches its
maximum value at, t = 772, when SCRj and SCR* are turned off. The output volt
age reverses but the output current continues to flow in the same direction. The
output current can flow only through diodes D 2 and D3, which connect the DC
source to the load, giving a reverse voltage. The energy stored in the inductor
returns to the DC source, and the output current now falls from its maximum
value and decays to zero. Once the load current stops, SCR2 and SCR3 can con
duct to supply power to the load. The current reaches its negative maximum
value at f = T, and the cycle repeats. Figure 10.7(b) shows the voltage and cur
rent waveforms. Also shown on the waveforms are the devices that conduct
during the various intervals. Note from the source current waveform that the
source current is positive when the switches conduct current and power is
delivered by the source. The source Current is negative when the diodes con
duct current and power is absorbed by the source,
Example 10.2 A single-phase full-bridge inverter (Figure 10.7(a)) produces a step-wave output,
as shown in Figure 10.8(a), across a resistive load. E = 200 V, d = 50%, and load
resistancfe R - 2 Q.
a) Plot the waveforms for the output current (i0), the voltages across the SCRs
( Vsciwi ^ scR 2 > ^ 5 0 0 ! and VSCr 4), the SCR currents ( f e c t iii % c r 2 > % c r 3 > and is c m )
and the source current ( 0 .
b) Find the maximum forward voltage that the switch must withstand,
c) Find the average load current.
d) Find the average switch current.
e) Find the power delivered to the load,
f) Find the average source current.
Solution a) if each diagonal pair of SCRs is turned on alternately for an interval T0N over
a period T, the voltage and current waveforms areas shown in Figure 10.8(b).
If we close (turn on) SCR] and SCR4, at t - 0 for an interval 7qN, the load
current flows from the source to the load. At time t= 772, While SCR! and
SCR/, remain off, SCR2 and SCR3 are closed to conduct load current in the
reverse direction. SCR2 and SCR3 remain on for an interval TON before they
are turned off for the rest of the period T. The cycle is then repeated. The
output voltage is an alternating rectangular waveform with an amplitude E =
200 V. Since the load is resistive, the output current is also rectangular in
shape with a magnitude of E/R = 100 A.
b) When either pair of switches is on, both the switches in the other noncon
ducting pair must block the full supply voltage F When all the switches are
off, each switch must block half the supply voltage.
The maximum forward voltage that the switches must withstand is E =
200 V.
Figure 10.8 vo
Voltage and current I.
waveforms for Example 10.2 +E
(a)
'ON
SCR1,
VSCR4
I l
SCR,, SCR,
sc r 4o n ,SCR4OFF.
SCR2, l
l
VSCR3 l
l i l I I (b)
E I i
E_ SCRj , I SCR-,. I SCR2’ L _j
2 SCR3 O F F lS C R j ON sc r 3o ff 1
—.,Tlv.rr. I ,,1';,--,,^—
i iS4 = £*
‘SI’
‘S2* ‘S3 = *
c) The average output voltage over a half-cycle is

V g . ) = 2 E d = 2 (200X0.5) - 200 V
The average load current is
W g.)/i?= 200/2 ='100 A
d) average current in the switch = average load current/2 * 100/2 = 50 A
e) The RMS value of the output voltage is
K x rm s) = V l d E = V 2 * 0.5 200 = 200 V
The power delivered to the load is
PL = ^(rmsy/R = 2002/2 = 20 KW
10.3 Voltage Source Inverters (VSI)
Figure 10.9
5ir\gle-phase bridge inverter
with an RL load (a) step-
wave output (b) current and
voltage waveforms
(b)
f) The power supplied by the source is the same as the power delivered to~\
load: '
rtf
Ps = Pl = E I s
20 ( 10 3)
200 A
s 200
Example 10.3 A single-phase bridge inverter (Figure 10.7(a)) produces a step-wave outputf|
across an RL load. Plot the waveforms for output voltage, output current, sv jtch *
current, 4 i°de currents, and source current.
Solution A step-wave output is shown in Figure 10.9(a). Here, the operation of the second
leg, in which SCR2 and SCR3 are present, is delayed by 8 ° from the operation of
the first leg, where SCRj and SCR4 are present. By varying the delay angle S, the
output pulse width can be controlled, thereby controlling the output voltage.
At the instant on the output voltage waveform when SCR2 is turned on,
the output current transfers to diode D2, but because switch SCR4 is still on, the
output current follows a path through diode D2 and SCR4, effectively shorting
the load and giving zero output voltage.
When SCR3 is turned on, the only path for the output current is through
. diode D3; this connects the DC source to the output with opposite polarity.
SCR3 and SCR2 turn on immediately after the output current becomes zero The'!
SCR currents in the first arm ( % C r i and % CR 2) and the second arm ( % C R3 and i^cm)
are not identical, as can be seen ,in Figure 10.9(b), The same is true for the -r
diode currents.
10.4 Inverter Voltage Control techniques
Most inverter applications require some means of controlling AC output voltage

Various methods can be used to control the output voltage of an inverter, but;';
they can be classified into the following three broad categories: ,^|®f
mm
■
1. control of the DC input voltage supplied to the inverter
2. control of the AC output voltage of the inverter
3 . control of the voltage within the inverter
10.4,1 Control of the DC Input Voltage Supplied

to the Inverter
For a given switching pattern, the inverter output voltage is directly proportional
to its input voltage. Therefore, varying the DC input voltage supplied to the
inverter is the simplest means of controlling the output voltage. If the power
source is DC, then using a chopper is the main method of obtaining a variable
DC voltage. However, in those cases where the DC voltage is obtained from AC
10.4 Inverter Voltage Control Techniques 319.
voltage, controlling the AC voltage is easier. This can be accomplished by using

controlled rectifiers or uncontrolled rectifiers and obtaining a variable DC out
put voltage with a chopper.
10.4.2 Control of the AC Output Voltage of the Inverter

In this method, introducing an AC regulator between the inverter and the load
controls the AC voltage of the inverter and thus controls the inverter output
voltage.
10.4.3 Control of the Voltage within the Inverter

Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is the most common method for controlling the
voltage within the inverter, In this method, the output voltage is a pulse-width
modulated wave and the voltage is controlled by varying the duration Of the
output voltage pulses. This method is presented in detail in Section 10.5.
Figure 10.10 vo
PWM output voltage
waveform E = 100 V
* - 1 .5 —
3 4.5 ■t (ms)
0.5 2.0 2.5
-1.5-
Example 10.4 The output voltage waveform of a PWM inverter feeding a resistive load is
shown in Figure 10.10. Determine the RMS value of the output voltage. Also
find the new duty cycle required to reduce the output voltage by 75%.
Solution The duty cycle of the pulse is
d = rON/r = i.5 (io~3)/5 do-3) = 0.3
The mean square value of the output voltage is
1m . - 2 e 2 'ON 2 E2 * d
T/2.
The RMS value o f the output voltage is
K>(RMS) ; E \ /2 d = 100 V a 6 = 77.5 V

The duty cycle required to cut the output voltage to 0.75 (77.5) = 58.1 V is
V 21 = V°<mS}
or
ô(RMS) _ 981 _ „
d~ 2 E2 ~ 2(1002) ~
Figure 10.11 Va
Single pulse-width
modulation output +E
waveforms (a) without
modulation (b) modulated SI S2 SI S2 SI S2
0
waveform
+E
S4 S3 S4 S3 S4 S3
i i T— ^
vO=vA -vB i i I
i i'- *w
+E
S I ,4 S2, 3 SI, 4 S 2 ,3 S I ,4 S2 ,3
-E
(a)
va
*
+E
SI S2 SI S2 SI ' S2
■/.I i i i 1 . 1- . - ,, 1
■ i ... . i ' i ' ■ 1 r
—M ■, :| l- • !*
a = 90° i ■ 1' :'T i
+E ' ‘ - .- 1 1___ _ ___ J • . L___ 1___ t ’
I
I: l
S3 S4 S3 S4 S3
—t— —T—
- ’ VB
+i?
i- I
l >4 'l,3 '2 ,3 j2 ,4 1 ,4j 1,3 *2 ,3|2,4jl,4j 1 , 3j2,3|2,4
(b)
10,5 Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) 321
10.5 Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM)
The three most commonly used methods for pulse-width modulation fall into
the following groups:
1 . Single pulse-width modulation

2. Multiple pulse-width modulation
3. Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation
10.5.1 Single Pulse-Width Modulation

In this method of voltage control, the output voltage waveform consists of a sin
gle pulse in each half-cycle of the required output voltage. For a given fre
quency (/ = 1/D, the pulse width can be varied to control the AC output
voltage. The output voltage waveform of a single-phase bridge inverter (see Fig
ure 10.5) without modulation is Shown in Figure 10.11(a). Here switches Sj and
S4 are on for one half-cycle and S2 and S3 are on for the other half-cycle to give
maximum output voltage.
Voltage control is achieved by varying the phase of S3 and S4 with respect
to Sx and S2. Figure 10.11(b) shows the Output voltage waveform when the con
duction interval o f S3 and S4 is advanced by an angle 8 = 90°. The output volt
age is obtained by adding the two square-wave voltages, which are shifted in
phase with respect to each other. The output voltage consists o f alternating
pulses with a pulse width of (180° - 8) = 90°.
The output voltage can be smoothly adjusted from its maximum (0° delay)
to zero (180° delay) by either phase-advancing or -delaying the turn-on of one
pair of switches with respect to the other.
10.5.2 Multiple Pulse-Width Modulation

Instead of reducing the pulse width to control the output voltage, the output of
the inverter can be switched on and off rapidly several times during each half
cycle to produce a train of constant magnitude pulses.
Figure 10.12 shows the idea o f multiple pulse-width modulation. The out
put voltage waveform consists of m pulses for each half-cycle of the required
output voltage. If /is the output frequency of the inverter, the frequency of the
-pulses Cfp) is given by
f P~ 2 fm
Therefore, the number of pulses per cycle is
n
+E
t
\2n
(a)
+E
nnnnn
ra p
+E
i +E
2n 2n
3
o
(b)
m m
Multiple pulse-width modulation waveforms Variable duty cycle with fixed m = 5
(a) m = 2 (b) m = 3
Figure 10 . 12(a) shows the output voltage waveform for m = 2. The pulse width
tw should be lesl than n/2. In Figure 10.12(b), for m = 3, it is clear that tw <
Jt/3, In general, the pulse width tw < %/m.
An alternative approach for controlling the magnitude of the output volt
age is to keep m constant and vary the pulse width tw (see Figure 10.13).
10.5.3 Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation (SPWM) -

In sinusoidal pulse-width modulation, the output voltage is controlled by vary
ing the on-off periods so that the on periods (pulse width) are longest at the
peak of the wave. Figure 10.14 shows a general SPWM pattern. The switching
times are determined as shown in Figure 10.15(a). t^Ci) is a reference modulat
ing sinusoidal wave of amplitude Vm and frequency f m, which is equal to Ihe
desired output frequency of the inverter. A high-frequency triangular carrier
Figure 10.14
Sinusoidal pulse-width
+E
modulation pattern
I
DODD
10.5 Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) 323
wave vc(i) with an amplitude Vc and frequency / is compared with the refer
ence sine wave. The Switching points are determined by the intersection of the
vc(i) and Vnii) waves. The pulse width tw is determined by the time during
which vc(j) < vR(i) in the positive half-cycle of %(£> and vc(t) > v^t) in the neg
ative half-cycle of %(f).
Two control parameters that regulate the output voltage are the chopping
ratio and the modulation index. The frequency ratio f c/fm is known as the chop
ping carrier ratio N. It determines the number of pulses in each half-cycle Of the
inverter output voltage. The ratio Vm/Vc is called the modulation index M (0 <
M < 1). It determines the width of the pulses and therefore the RMS value of
the inverter output voltage. M is usually' adjusted by varying the amplitude of
the reference wave while keeping the carrier wave amplitude fixed. The
inverter output frequency is varied by varying the reference wave frequency.
Figure 10.15(a) is drawn for N = 6 and M = 1. Maximum output voltage occurs
with M - 1; when M - 0.5, the output is halved (Figure 10;15(b)).
Rather than using a triangular carrier wave with an alternating offset, as
shown in Figure 10.15, a triangular carrier without an offset can be used. In this
Figure 10.15
Sinusoidal pulse width
modulation waveforms
(a) M = 1 (b) M = 0.5
ill
<
ill
ry-
he
ing
lal-
i he
Her
(b)
case, a triangular carrier wave of frequency f c and a reference modulating sin e's
wave of frequency f m (the same as the required output frequency of the«%
inverter) are used to regulate the output voltage. Varying the amplitude of the f*;
reference sine wave Varies the pulse width and controls the effective magni-'f
tude of the output waveform. , .
The carrier wave and the sinusoidal reference wave are shown in Figure -5
10.16(a). The output voltage waveform vn is drawn in Figure 10.16(b). Note that >-
the number of output pulses in one full cycle is six. There are also six carrier
voltage waves during this period. Therefore, the pulse repetition frequency o f"
the inverter is the same as the earner frequency.
Figure 10.16 V
Sinusoidal pulse width

modulation waveforms
(a) reference signals (b)
output voltage waveform
(b)
10.6 Pulse-Width Modulated (PWM) Inverters
10.6.1 Single^lPhase Full-Bridge Inverters

In a pulse-width modulated inverter, the output voltage waveform has a con
stant amplitude whose polarity reverses periodically^ to provide the output fun
damental frequency. The source voltage is switched at regular intervals to pro
duce a variable output voltage. The output voltage of the inverter is controlled
by varying the pulse width of each cycle of the output voltage. Figure 10.17(a)
shows a single-phase bridge inverter using BJTs as switches. Switches Q 3 and
Q 4 of the right leg of the inverter are turned on after an angle a with respect
to the turning-on of switches Qj and Q2 of the left leg of the inverter. The
switching sequence is shown in Table 10.4. The resulting output voltage vQ,
shown in Figure 10.17(b), has a pulse width tw of a. By changing the shift angle
a, the inverter output voltage can be changed.
Inverters using transistors or GTO thyristors can operate at much higher
switching frequencies than inverters using conventional SCRs and therefore are
used in pulse-width modulated inverters. In a pulse-width modulated inverter
operating at a high switching frequency, the switching losses will be relatively
high, reducing efficiency and creating heat-removal problems.
Figure 10.17
Basic pulse-width
^Q3
modulated waveform J—
(a) circuit diagram (b) PWM
output waveform
E- Load
‘o + vn
D,
(a)
0, On O ff On Off
' '
q2 Off On Off . On
..
q3 Off On Off ]On
i
i
Q4 On Off On |Off On
■*— a —*
• ■ r, .1 '
vo • ■
.
' -
i
■
1
1
Cb)
c h a p te r 10 inverters
Table 10.4
Qi q2 Qa 04 u° M
j ...........
On Off Off * On +i: i
On Off On Off 0
Off On On Off -E
Off On Off On 0
On Off Off On +E
On Off On Off 0
10.6.2 Single-Phase Half-Bridge Inverters

With a half-bridge inverter, an output voltage of zero is not possible-—the out
put voltage can be only positive or negative. Therefore, the output voltage is
allowed to reverse instead of being zero. Figure 10.18 shows a PWM waveform
for a half-bridge inverter, We can control the output voltage by controlling the
Width 28 .
Figure 10.18
Pulse-width modulation in
a half-bridge inverter
Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (Figure 10.19) is commonly used with half

bridge inverters. A rectified sinusoidal reference signal is compared with a tri
angular carrier wave. For the time during which the reference signal is higher
than the carrier wave, the switches are operated to produce positive-going
pulses; otherwise, negative-going pulses are produced:
When % > vc, Sj is on and vQ= + E
When % < vc, S2 is oh and va - -E
Switch conduction is also shown in Figure 10.19.
Figure 10.19
Sinusoidal pulse-width
modulation in a half-bridge
inverter
Example 10.5 A single-phase full-bridge inverter uses PWM for voltage control. Plot the out
put voltage waveform if the carrier frequency is a sawtooth voltage waveform
synchronized to the fundamental and the reference wave is a DC voltage level.
I igure 10.20
P v v m waveforms for
full-bridge inverter
Solution The PWM output is obtained by comparing the DC level with the sawtooth volt-
age waveforms. The magnitude of the DC voltage determines the pulse width
of the output voltage. The output pulses shown in Figure 10.20 have equal
width.
10.7 Other Basic Types of Single-Phase Inverters
The H-bridge inverter, which uses four switching devices, is the most common
type of inverter. Other types of inverters are shown in Figure 10.21.
Figure 10.21
Single-phase inverter
(a) center-tap inverter
(b) center-tap inverter in
series (c) with a large
capacitor
(b)
V +c
He 1*0
.A, Load
10.8 The Basic Principle of the Three-Phase Bridge VSI Inverter 329
10.7.1 Center-Tap Inverters

Figure 10.21(a) shows a transformer-coupled inverter. This type of inverter fea
tures electrical isolation between the load and the power supply. The load volt
age can be adjusted through the turn ratio of the transformer. Because the SCRs
are alternately turned on and off, the source voltage is connected to each half
of the transformer primary winding in turn, producing an alternating voltage in
the secondary winding. By combining two such inverters in series as shown in
Figure 10.21(b) and varying the relative firing instants, a step-wave output can
be produced.
The circuit in Figure 10 .21 (c) employs a large capacitor C. The charged
capacitor C works like a DC battery, having a voltage of E/2 when the time con
stant (t = RC for a resistive load) is much higher than the reciprocal of the
switching frequency. Therefore, when Sj is,on and S2 is off, as shown in Figure
10.22, the voltage applied to the load is E — E/2 = E/2. When the switching
states are reversed, the load voltage is the capacitor voltage itself (-E/2).
Figure 10.22
principle of the single-phase
inverter of Figure 10.21(c)
(a) St is on and S2 is off
(b) S, is off and S2 oh
10.8 The Basic Principle of the Three-Phase Bridge VSI Inverter
A three-phase inverter circuit changes DC input voltage to a three-phase variable-

frequency variable-voltage output. The input DC voltage can be from a DC
source or a rectified AC voltage. A three-phase bridge inverter can be con
structed by combining three single-phase half-bridge inverters. The basic circuit
is shown in Figure 10.23. It consists of six power switches with six associated
freewheeling diodes. The switches are opened and closed periodically in the*
proper sequence to produce the desired output waveform. The rate of switch-
ing determines the output frequency of the inverter. Many sequences, for oper-?
ating these three switches are possible, but there are two fundamental modes I
that complete one cycle with six switching^ one is known as the 120 ° conduc
tion type and the other, the 180° conduction type.
Figure 10.23
Three-phase bridge inverter
circuit diagram
/ /
S4 / D4 S6 f £ D6
10.8.1 The 120° Conduction Type

The basic three-phase inverter bridge in Figure 10.23 can be controlled so that
each switch conducts for a period of 120°. In this situation, only two switches
are conducting at any time, one from the positive group (S1( S3, and S5) and the
other from the negative group (S2, S4, and S6), The two on switches connect two
of the' load terminals to the DC supply terminals, while the third terminal
remains floating. There are six intervals in one cycle of the AC voltage wave
form. The switches are turned on at 60° intervals of the output voltage wave
form in the appropriate sequence to obtain voltages v^ , %c, and vCA. The rate
of switching determines the output frequency.
To eliminate the possibility of shorting out the DC source, we must make
sure that two switches in the same leg are not on simultaneously. Therefore, an
interval of 60 ° elapses between the end of conduction in switch Sj and the
beginning of the conduction in switch S4, which is in the same leg as The’
same is true for switches S3 and Sg and switches S5 and S2.
The phase voltages across the load, t>ANl %N, and fCN, can be determined
for various 60° durations with a Y-connected resistive load, These voltages can
be: obtained by considering the equivalent circuits of the various inverter-load
combinations for the six intervals as shown in Figure 10.24, The results are sum
marized in Table 10.5, The switching sequence is Si and S2, S2 and S3, S3 and
S4, S4 and S5, S5 and Sg, Se and S j............
f*
N N
(a) 0-60° (d) 180°-240°
N N
(b) 60°-120° (e) 240°-300°
N N
(c) 120!,-180o (f) 300°-360°
Figure 10.24
Three-phase bridge inverter equivalent circuits
312 CHAPTER TO Îrivirters;
Table 10.5
---- — .
fjk'rjfej - 111
interval s, Sa
0 to 60° On Off Off Off Off On +E/2 -E/2

0■
^
60 to 120° On On Off Off Off .Off +E/2 0
~E/2'v±
120 to 180° Off On On Off Off Off 0 +E/2 - e i fJ
180 to 240° Off Off On On Off Off -E/2 +E/2 0 -J*
240 to 300° Off Off Off On On Off -E/2 0 +£'2
300 to 360° Off Off Off Off On On 0 -E/1 +£.'2 I
Figure 10.25 shows the three phase voltages, yAN) %N, and t>CN. The line volt-*
ages can be determined from the phase voltages using
va b = Va n ' 10.9
Vb c ~ V b n ' VCN 10.1?
VCK = yCN ‘ VAN lo .ii
The three line voltages are also shown in Figure 10.25. The step-wave 1
voltage waveforms are identical in shape but are displaced from each o
by 120 °.
Each switch is on for a duration of 120° in sequence. When Si is on at
0, terminal A is connected to the positive side of the PC source. When S< is. i
at (at - rt, terminal A is connected to the negative side of the DC source, f
When the load is inductive, the waveform will vary from those s!
because the terminal voltage in the off period will be affected by the transii
current behavior. ,
With a balanced Y-connected resistive load, the output power is giveft
(m y (m y
R R 10.
E2/2 R 'm
where R is the resistance per phase.

The RMS value of the phase voltage is
e V q. e
io*;
=Y V T V 6 -
RMS value of line voltage = FL(RMS) V 3 Kptl(RMS) = ^

J?
10.
The RMS current through the switch is *;
^witchORMS) = E/2 V ji? 10.1
*'AN
■'•2
0 120° 180° 300° 360° ! 480°, 540° 660°
VBN
VCN
VAB
+E
+E
60° 120° 300° 480° 660°

E
2
BC
60° 240° 420° 600°
|
. 1
1
1
• 1
VCA
1
180° 360° 540°
1
i
s, s2 s3 S4 S5 si S2 S, s4 s5
tches
S6 S2 S3 S4 S5 Si s3 S4
Figure 10.25
Circuit voltage waveforms for 120® conduction
Jq(RM S) ^ V l ^witchCRMS)
reverse voltage rating for the switch = E
Example 10.6 For a three-phase bridge inverter with a Y-connected resistive load,
three output currents and the six switch currents for the 120° conduction’ i"
Solution The waveforms of the output current are shown in Figure 10.26. The .JU
currents are step-waves, with each switch conducting the load current for 1
The three currents are displaced by 120 °.
Figure 10.26
Waveforms for currents of a E
three-phase bridge inverter 2R
with 120° conduction and a
120 ° 180° 300° !360"
resistive load
120 ° ;240°
t=rl ym
240° 360°;
‘SI
E
2R
' 120°
S2
60° i 180°
‘S3
120 ° 240°
S4
180° 300°
S5
240° 1360°
S6
60° 300° 360*.
Example 10.7 For a three-phase bridge inverter with a A-connected resistive load, plo
three output voltages for 120 ° conduction mode.
Solution Figure 10,27 shows the switching sequence necessary to obtain the three-p
output voltage shoWn in Figure 10,28. In Figure 10.27(a), which shows
equivalent circuit from 0° to 60°, Sx connects the positive terminal of E to A
Figure 10.28 ka b <

The output voltage +E
waveforms of the three- . E
1 _
phase bridge inverter with a
delta load
60° 120° |180° 1240' 300° 360° 420°
+E
CA
+E
S6 connects the negative terminal of E to B. Therefore, the output voltage %B

equals +E. Voltages vAC and fCB are both equal to +E/2. The output voltages vQk
and vfiC are therefore equal to -E/2.
The other circuits (10.27 (b), (c), (d), (e), and (0 ) can be analyzed in a
similar way to obtain the three output voltage waveforms'in Figure 10.28.
10.8.2 The 180° Conduction Type
Switching for this type is carried out without an off period, that is, each switch
is always on either the positive or negative terminal, but the situation to avoid
is having all three on the positive or negative terminal sijnultaneously. At any
given instant, three switches are conducting, say S1( S2, and S3. After a period of
60°, S2, S3, and S4 will be conducting. The conduction period for each switch is
180°, so that no two switches in the same, leg conduct simultaneously.
Six distinct 609 intervals exist for one output cycle, and the rate of
sequencing these intervals specifies the inverter output frequency. The complete
switching pattern for the six intervals ,is shown in Table 10.6, The, six-step
sequence creates a cyclic pattern; l- i- 3 , 2-3-4, 3-4-5, 4-5-6, 5 -6 - 1 , 6 - 1-2 , . . . .
It can be seen that each switch conducts for a period of 180°.
Table 10.6
Interval Si Sa „ 's3 •f*, s4.

-AT** I Ss
0 to 60° On . Off . Off Off On On
60 to 120° On , On Off Off Off On
120 to 180.° On On On Off, Off Off
180 to 240° Off On Qn On Off Off
240 to 300° Off . Off On On On Off
300 to 360° Off Off Off On On On
The three output voltage waveforms can now be derived by assuming a bal
anced, Y-connected resistive load R. The phase voltages for the various 60°
intervals can be obtained by considering the equivalent circuit for each interval,
as shown in Figure 10.29. From these equivalent circuits, the voltages associated
with each phase of the load can be determined. A summary of the results is
given in Table 10.7. The phase voltages waveforms shown in Figure 10.30 are
identical but are displaced by 120°. They are not pure sine waves, but they do
show some resemblance. The phase voltages have six discontinuities per cycle,
Corresponding to the six switching points per cycle.
The line voltages can be obtained from the following relationships:
t>AB= ân — ttoi « 10 .1 8
% c = %n —Mcn " ’ ■ ;5 ■ - ' 10.19
VCA = *;CN — VAN 10.20
Table 10.7
■............ . .....
Interval Van V SN VCN ' |«}«r'VBC vca
U to DU” E/3 -2E/3 E/3 +E "" -E 0
60 to 120° 2E/3 -E/3 -E/3 +E 0 -E
120 to 180° m . E/3 ' ; -2E/3 0 • -+£ -E
180 to 240° ■-E/3 +2E/3 !--E/3 ■-E ' +E 0
240 to 300° -2E/3 E/3 • : E/3, ■ -tE ■ , ,- 0 +E
’ 300 to 360° -E/3 -E/3 ' +2E/3 , 0 -E +E

CHAPTER 10 Inverters
A c
A B
Figure 10.29
The line voltages for the six intervals are also shown in Table 10.7 and plotted
in Figure 10.30. The three line voltages are also displaced by 120°. Basically, the
line or phase voltage waveforms dre independent of the load characteristics,
which may have any combination of resistance, inductance," and capacitance,
balanced or unbalanced. If the load is resistive, the load current has the same
waveform as the phase voltage.
(e) 240-300°
Figure 10.29 (con't)

For a balanced Y-connected load, the output power is given by

„ _ --------
U
(E/5)2 .(. --- --- +. .(2E/V)2
(E/5)2
R R R
10.21
2 E2
5R
Figure 10.30 VAN ,

+¥
+1 1 1
. 1 1
1 1
tN —
o
O
o
0 6 180° 240° 300° 360° >
E
3
2E
- 3 • ■
VBN ■
VCN
L ■
VAB
+E —
-E
VBC
+E
-E
VCA
+£
-E •
” s7 ’ ’ V ’ V ” v
On switches
^6 ■
S1 *2 s4
*5 *6 S4
10.8 The Basic Principle Of the Three-Phase Bridge VSI Inverter ? 341 i
where R is the resistance per phase. Note that the power output here is 1.33
times the power output in the 120 ° conduction mode. •. . •*'("> iv{< > v.- «><< n,»
The RMS current through the switch is w ;. v *>. >*u
> ! n ‘u t ' f t ' 'A-ifa-'-i'i.'- ' ? sS. "f yW h-\i
^switch (RMS) ~~ ,■ " *■ ' 'i: 10*22
Jo “ -4witch(RMS) 10.23
reverse voltage rating for the switch = E 10.24
The RMS value of the output line voltage is
V2 E
1 ^LCRMS) — i 10.25
The RMS value of the output phase voltage is

V2
^Kems) —~~Z~ E 10 .2 6
6
With a PWM ratio of a ,
V2 , . ;
K(RMS) — y 'j' a S 10.27
and
V2
^ph(RMS) — J a ^ 10.28
The DC input current is:
/i=:~ r ^ .cos 6 ................................ 10.29

n
where 0 is the load phase angle.
For PWM,
/; = /„ cos & 10.30
Example 10.8 For a three-phase bridge inverter with a Y-connected resistive load, plot the
three output currents and the six switch currents for the 180° conduction mode.
Solution The waveforms of the output Currents, iA, % and v;, are shown in Figure 10.31.
The output current waveforms are stepped, with each switch conducting the
load curreni fui 180°. The three currents are displaced by 120°. The switch cur
rents can b( l t la ned easily by referring to Fig. 10.29. For example, isl = iA for
0 - 180° and isl = 0 for the rest of the cycle.
rlgure 10.31 '

Current waveforms for a
three-phase bridge inverter
with 180° conduction and a
resistive load
10.8 The Basic Principle of the Three-Phase Bridge VSI Inverter 34 I
Example 10.9 A three-phase bridge inverter supplies a Y-connected load with 10 £} resistance
per phase. The DC source voltage is 440 V and the inverter operates in the 180°
conduction mode. Find • > ,
a) the source current
b) the average power absorbed by the load
c) the RMS value of the output phase voltage
d) the RMS value of the output line voltage
Solution a) At any instant the equivalent circuit of the three-phase bridge inverter is as
shown in Figure 10.32. The total resistance seen by the source is; .
Rr = CJ? ||R) + R = R/2 + R = 1.5 R = 1.5 (10) = 15 0 '
The source current is constant given by ,
Is = E/Rt = 440/15 = 29.33 A
Figure 10.32
Equivalent circuit
for Example 10.9
b) The power delivered to die load can be determined from Figure 10.32 by
adding the power consumed by each leg:
Fl - C29.332 * 10) + (14.662 * 10) + (14.662 * 10)
= 8602.5 + 2150.6 + 2150.6
= 12904 W
Note that the power input from the source (Ps = £ * /, 440 * 29.33
12905 W) equals the power to the load.
The load power per phase is
Pph. = P J 3 = 4301 W
c) The power per phase is

> ph- =
““ vL /r
ph->
^Ph = V P ph. * R = V4301 * 10 = 20 1 V
is
Ian = V'bn = K ': n = 2 07 V
Figure 10.33
Output waveforms with a
A-connected resistive load
in 180° operation
On SCRs
d) The RMS value of three line voltages is

V2 -
ÂB = ^BC = Va, = =0.816 (440) = 359 V
Note the V 3 relationship between the line and phase voltages.
Example 10.10 Plot the three output voltages for the 180° conduction mode of a three-phase
bridge inverter with a A-connected resistive load.
Solution The voltage waveforms of the three output terminals, A, B, and C, are shown
in Figure 10.33. From these three waveforms we can obtain the three output
line voltages for the inverter.
Example 10.11 The reference sine wave waveform, v#a ), vR(Sh and vR(C), for a three-phase
bridge inverter with sinusoidal pulse-width modulation are shown in Figure
10.34(a). Plot the output line voltage yAB.
Solution In contrast to the single-phase bridge inverter, the output voltage of a three-
phase bridge inverter cannot be controlled by varying the duty cycle. In this
case, a pulse-width modulation technique in which the output voltage closely
resembles a sine wave is commonly applied.
To implement sinusoidal pulse-width modulation, we need three reference
sine waves, % A), % B>, and % C)> one for each leg of the inverter. The three
sinusoidal reference voltages are displaced from each other by an angle of 120 °.
These voltages are compared with the carrier triangular wave to find the switch
ing points for the switch pairs S1 and S4, S} and S6, and S5 and S2.
One of the two switches in each leg is conducting at all times, connecting
the output terminal to either the positive or the negative side of the DC source.
For example, suppose iA is positive and Si is conducting. Then when S4 is
turned oil, Sj turns off and the output current transfers to diode D4. However,
if iA is negative, diode Dx would be conducting and when S4 is turned on, it
would take the load current immediately.
The output Voltages vA, v^, and vc with, respect to the DC source hypo
thetical midpoint are shown in Figure 10.34(b). The line voltages are:
âb — Pa ~ Vb ■ , •:
Vbc = Vb ~ vC
Vc k = vc - v h
The line voltage vAB is shown in Figure 10.34(c).
tt
VB
(b)
VAB
Figure 10.34
Sinusoidal pulse-width modulated waveforms for a three-phase bridge inverter
10.9 the Ideal Current Source Inverter (CSI) 347
10.9 The Ideal Current Source Inverter (CSI)
A current source inverter is one in which the input current from the DC source
is maintained at a constant level, regardless of the DC input voltage variation.
In practice, this is achieved by inserting a large inductor in series with the DC
voltage source. This arrangement prevents sudden changes in current and effec
tively maintains a constant level of supply current. The inverter converts the
input DC current into a rectangular wave AC output Current.
10.9.1 The Single-Phase Current Source Bridge Inverter
Figure 10.35(a) shows a single-phase current source bridge inverter. Unlike the
voltage source inverter, it does not require freewheeling diodes, and the current
flows unidirectionally through each SCR. The SCRs are turned on in pairs, SCR,
Figure 10.35 Current source

Single-phase current source
inverter (a) circuit diagram —w -
(b) load current waveform
SCR, A SCR,
Current source
180° 360°
+/
120° 180° 300° 360°
+/
+/
-/
Switches
on
■ . . ( b )
Figure 10.36
Three-phase current source inverter (a) circuit diagram (b) current waveforms
10.9 the Ideal Current Source Inverter (CSI) 349
and SCR2 and then SCR3 and SCR4, at a constant frequency. The resulting out
put current, shown in Figure 10.35(b), is an AC rectangular wave whose
magnitude is equal to the DC input current Each switch conducts for a period
of 180°. ,
10.9.2 The Three-Phase GSI
A three-phase CSI is shown in Figure 10.36(a). A series inductor is present at

,the input side to provide a constant DC current source. The waveforms of the
input and output currents are shown in Figure 10.36(b).
The upper group is SCRi, SCR3, and SCR5j and the lower group is SCR4,
SCRg, and SCR2. Only two SCRs are on at any instant, with each SCR conduct
ing for a period of 120°. The SCRs are numbered in the order they conduct, that
is, after SCR, conducts, SCR2 conducts, then SCR3, SCR4, SCR5. SCR^. SCR!, • • • •
When an SCR is turned on, it must instantly turn off the conducting SCR of the
same group. For example, suppose that SCR] and SCR2 are on. Input current /
will flow from the positive side of the source, through SCR^ the phase A load,
the phase C load, and SCR2 and back to the negative side of the source. If SCR3
now turns on, it must immediately commute SCR,. The current from SCR, will
be transferred to SCR3. The input current now flows through SCR3, the phase B
load, the phase C load, and SCR2 and, back to the source.
The three-phase output current is a 120° wide step wave of magnitude I.
The frequency of the output current is adjusted by controlling the opening and
closing of the switches in the required sequence.
The RMS value of the output line current is
V2
-fo(RMS) — I 10.31
The RMS value of the output phase current is

V2I
4)ph(RM S) - Z 10.32
0
The DC input voltage is
E= V 6 Vph cos 0 10.33
where 0 is the load phase angle.
Example 10.12 Show the switching scheme for each 60° interval of a three-phase current source
inverter supplying a balanced three-phase resistive load.
Solution The operation of the circuit Can be divided into six modes in each cycle. The
Switches are turned on in pairs for 60° intervals. Table 10.8 shows the conduct
ing switches in each of the six modes.
3S0 CHAPTER 10 Inverters
Table 10.8
Interval s, Si «. S4 1 s5 s6 ‘ /a k 'c
0 to 60° On Off Off Off Off On +1 -I 0
60 to 120° On On Off Off Off ' Off +1 0 -1
120 to 180° Off On On Off Off Off . 0 +1 -1
180 to 240° Off Off On On Off Off -I +1 0
240 to 300° Off Off Off On On Off -I 0 +1
300 to 360° Off Off Off Off On On 0 -I +1
■-----
10.10 Problems
10.1 What is an inverter? Give some applications of inverters.

10.2 For the inverter circuits discussed in this chapter, a freewheeling diode
is connected across each switch. What is the purpose of this diode?
10.3 For a half-bridge circuit with an inductive load, is it possible to obtain
voltage control by implementing the voltage pattern in Figure 10.37?
Verify your answer by analyzing the half-bridge circuit with an RL load.
Figure 10.37
See Problem 10.3
+E
10.4 A single-phase full-bridge inverter produces a square-wave output

across a purely inductive load with a freewheeling diode across each
switch. Plot the waveforms for the output voltage, output current,
switch currents, diode currents, and source current-. What is the aver
age power absorbed by the source?
10.5 In Problem 10.4,. draw the waveform of the output current if the
inverter bridge supplies an RL load.
10.11 Equations 351
10.6 A single-phase full-bridge inverter uses pulse-width modulation for volt

age control. Plot the waveforms for the output voltage if the conduction
interval of diagonally opposite switches has a phase angle of 120°.
10.7 A three-phase bridge inverter fed from a 120 V AC source supplies a
Y-connected balanced resistive load. Using a 120° conduction scheme,
plot the line and phase voltages. If the load resistance is 10 Q per
phase, calculate the RMS value of the output line and phase voltages.
10.8 A three-phase bridge inverter supplies a Y-connected load with 10 £2
resistance per phase. The DC source voltage is 440 V, and the inverter
operates in the 120° conduction mode. Find
a) the source current
b) the average power absorbed by the load
c) the RMS value of the output phase voltage
d) the RMS value of the output line voltage
10.9 A three-phase bridge inverter is fed from a 500 V DC supply. The load
is Y-connected with a per phase resistance of 10 Q, For the 120° con
duction scheme, find
a) the RMS value of the phase current
b) the RMS value of the switch current
10.10 Repeat problem 10.9 for a 180° Conduction scheme.
10.11 A three-phase bridge inverter supplies a balanced A-connected induc
tive load. If the inverter is operating in the 180° conduction mode, plot
the phase and line current waveforms.
10.12 A three-phase bridge inverter supplies a balanced A-connected load
consisting of a resistor in series with an inductor in each leg. If the
inverter is operating in the 180° conduction mode, plot the waveforms
of the three phase currents and the line currents.
■--- --------------------
10.11 Equations
/= 1IT (Hz) 10.1

K , ( a v g . ) = 2 Ed 10.2
d = Ton/T 10.3
ô(rms) = V (2 d ) E 10.4
W ) = K>(avg.)/i? ' 10.5
average current in the switch = 70(avg.)/2 10.6
' if
P \ .-2 d — 10.7
R
Wm
Vo(avg.) = £ ( l - - y ) 10.8
ÂB = ÂN~ %N 10.9

^bc = ^BN ~ ^CN 10 . 10
VCA = ^CN ~ , ÂN 1 0 .! I
Pq ^ E 2/ 2 R 1 0 .1i
E
^ph.(RMS) = 10.13
t r E ' «
*/URMS) ” 10.14
4witch(RMS) = E/2 V 3R 10.15

Ô(RMS) = V 2 /sWitch(RMS) 10.16
ÂB = ÂN %N 10.18
^BC = ~ yCH ’ 10.19
VCA = ^CN “ ÂN 10.20
2 E2
10.21
3R
-4witch(RMS) ~ E/5R 10.22
•Ô(RMS) = ^ 2 4witch(RMS) 10.23
V2
Vlcrms) = E 10.25
V2
^ph(RMS) = ~~Z E 10.26
D
V2
Vlorms) — a E . 10.27
V2
^ph(RMS) - ~~T~ a E 10.28
0
3 V2
I\ = -------- Io cos 0 10.29
n
3 V2
Ii = .... ...- a IQ cos 0 10.30
K
V2
4(rms) = - ^ 1 10.31
, _ V 2_
-*oph(RMS) — o ■* 10*32
0
E - V 6 Vph cos 8 10.33
AC Voltage Controller
Chapter Outline
11.1 Introduction 1 1 .6 Half-Controlled AC Voltage

11.2 AC Power Control Controllers
11.3 Integral Cycle Control 11.7 Cycloconverters

11.7.1 The Single-Phase to Single-Phase
11.4 AC Phase Control Cycloconverter
11.4.1 In Circuits with a Resistive Load 11.7.2 The Three-Phase Cycloconverter
11.4.2 In Circuits with an Inductive (RL)
Load 11.8 Problems
11.5 Three-Phase AC Phase Control 11.9 Equations

11.5.1 In Circuits with a Resistive Load
11.5.2 In Circuits with an Inductive (RL)
Load
Learning Objectives
■ define the term A C voltage controller ■ explain the operation of a three-phase

u describe methods of controlling AC controller with resistive and inductive
power loads
■ describe integral cycle control ■ explain the operation of a half

controlled AC voltage controller
■ describe AC phase control with resistive
and inductive loads ■ explain the operation of single-phase
and three-phase cycloconverters
353
'54 CHAPTER 11 AC Voltage Controller
11.1 Introduction
An alternating-current voltage controller or regulator converts a fixed AC volt

age source to a variable AC voltage source. The output frequency is always"
equal to the input frequency. The simplest way to control the AC voltage to a
load is by using an AC switch. This switch can be a bidirectional switch like a
triac or a pair of SCRs connected in “antiparallel,” as shown in Figure 1 1 1 .
Switching devices other than thyristors can also be used to implement bidirec
tional switches. For most purposes, the control result is independent of the
switch used. The practical limitations of the presently available triac ratings
often make it necessary to use SCRs in very high power applications for which
triacs might otherwise be used.
Figure 11.1 sc r ,
Basic AC power coritroller
circuits (a) an SCR circuit
(b) a triac circuit
(a)
Triac
-(b) ;
The major applications of AC voltage controllers include5,lighting control,

industrial heating, spot (resistance) welding, on-load transformer tap changing,
static var compensation, and speed control for induction motors,
*
11.2 AC Power Control
There are two basic methods for controlling the load power; integral cycle con
trol or o n -o ff control and p h ase control. The first method is suitable for systems
with a large time constant, such as a temperature control system. The load
11.2 AC Power Control 355
power can be controlled by connecting the source to the load for a few com
plete cycles then disconnecting the source from the load for another number of
cycles, and repeating the switching cycle. The relative duration of the on and
off periods, i.e., the duty cycle d, is adjusted so that the average power deliv
ered to the load meets some particular objective. Figure 11.2 shows a typical
pattern. In ideal circumstances, the average power to the load can be controlled
from 0 % through 1 0 0 %.
Figure 11.2
Integral cycle control
Integral cycle control is not suitable for loads with a short time constant.
Phase control can be used in these situations. In phase control, the switch
connects the load to the source for part of each cycle of input voltage. The
graphs in Figure 11.3 illustrate waveforms for phase control with a resistive
load. The voltage at thd load can be varied by altering the firing angle for each
half-cycle of a period. If a = 0, the output voltage is maximum ( v0 = v{). When
a = tc, the output voltage Is minimum ( va = 0). Therefore, the output voltage
can be controlled to any value between zero and the source voltage. This
process produces a phase-controlled alternating output that is suitable for appli
cations such as lighting control and motor-speed control.
156 CHAPTER 11 AC Voltage Controller
Figure 11.3
AC phase control waveforms
with a resistive load
Exam ple 11.1 For the following applications, choose integral cycle control or phase angle con
trol and justify your choice.
a) lighting control
b) motor speed control
c) heating loads
Solution a) Due to the system frequency (60 Hz), integral cycle control is not practical
for the brightness control of an incandescent lamp. If we assume a minimum
possible off time of one cycle (i.e. , Tore = 1 ), the lamp will flicker once
every two cycles with a frequency of 30 Hz. If We increase the off time for
lighting control, the frequency will decrease. A flicker of less than 30 Hz is
both noticeable and annoying. Therefore, integral cycle control is unsuitable
for this application.
With phase control, there is an off interval in every half-cycle of the
load voltage. The fluctuation of current thus has a frequency of 120 Hz on
a 60 Hz system. A flicker of 120 Hz is barely noticeable to a human eye.
Lamp dimmers usually use phase control circuits.
b) With an assumed minimum off time of one cycle, integral cycle control could
cause severe current variation in motors, resulting in pulsating torque and
speed oscillations, especially if the system inertia is low. Consequently, inte
gral cycle control is not suitable for the speed control of motors. Phase con
trol is appropriate since the off time is much shorter—usually some fraction
of a half-cycle. However, this method of motor speed control is suitable only
for variable torque loads; such as fans and pumps, in which the torque
varies as the square of the speed,
11.3 Integral Cycle Control 357
c) Heating loads that are required to be maintained at a certain temperature,, for

example, an electric furnace or a tank for heating liquid, are applications in
which a long off time is acceptable. Such applications can be part of a
closed-loop system. In these cases the time constant for load response is rel
atively long (seconds, not fractions of a second), so the load responds well
to average power.
Integral cycle control is therefore suitable in applications where the
switch on-off intervals are controlled to produce the desired temperature in
a load. Once the desired temperature is reached, the intermittent nature of
the current does not cause any major change in temperature unless 7OFF is
very long.
11.3 Integral Cycle Control

In the AC voltage controller in Figure i l . l , the thyristors can be fired at a = 0°
to allow complete cycles of source voltage to be applied to the load. If there is
no firing signal in any cycle, then no voltage appears across the load. Thus it is
possible to allow complete Cycles o f source voltage to be applied to the load
followed by complete cycles of extinction. If the load voltage is turned on and
off in this manner (Figure 11.2), the average power to the load can be varied.
The ratio of on time to total cycle time (the period in which the conduction pat
tern repeats) controls the average load power. In Figure 11.2, TON is the num
ber of cycles for which the load is energized and T is the number of cycles in
the full period of operation. During the TON Part of the cycle, the switch is on
and the load power is maximum. During the remaining TOFF ( r OFF = T - T0 h>
cycles, the switch is off and the load power is zero.
For a resistive load R, the average load power is given by
p — -ôH _ Vi J — p ' - 111

^ o (a v g ) ~ R T R ~~ o (m a x )
V o ^ ^ J^ ^ V iV d - 11-2
where
Vm = maximum value of input voltage
Vj - RMS value of input voltage ~ VtJ\ Z l
Because T0 n can be varied only as an integer, the average value of the load
power is not a continuous function but has only discrete levels. The number of
steps available for regulating the average power depends on the total number
of cycles included in the repeat pattern.
iSB CHAPTER 11 AC Voltage Controller m
Power conversion is the ratio of the average power output (Po(avg•>) to the
maximum possible power output (P0(max)). P„(avg.)/Po(<mx) is equal to the duty
cycled !
d — T0 ^/CT0 n + 2 oFF) — Tqm/T
where
T = time period — ?on + 5qff
The source current is always in time phase with the source voltage. However,
this does not mean that an integral cycle control circuit operates at unity power
factor—for part of the time, the source current is not present at all and there
fore is not in phase with the source voltage.
The power factor is given by
pf = V y r = V d 1 1 .3
It is clear from Equation 11.3 that a power factor of one will result when ^)N ~
T, which would result in sinusoidal operation.
A closed-loop control system can be used to vary the value of TON to
maintain some variable close to a selected set point: Such a system would
depend on sufficient energy storage in the controlled system to smooth varia
tions that result from the on-off nature of the control. Integral cycle control has
the advantage of fewer switching operations and low radio frequency interfer
ence (RFI) due to control during the zero crossing of the AC voltage, that is, in
this method, switching occurs only at zero voltage for resistive loads. The rate
of change of the load current depends on the system frequency, which is small,
so there is low electrical noise compared with other control methods.
Example 11.2 A single-phase 120 V AC source controls power to a 5 Q resistive load using
integral cycle control. Find
a) the average value of output current
b) the maximum switch current
c) the maximum power produced
d) the duty cycle and the value of TON to produce 1 kW power
e) the power factor for part (d)
Solution a) The average value of the output current over any number of complete con
duction cycles is 0 .
b) -ô(rms) ^ 120/5 = 24 A
/m = V 2 (24) = 33.9 A
c) Maximum power will be produced when the switch is always on.
= 120 * 24 = 2880 W
d) For PcKavg.) = 1000 W,
Tq n _ -fo l'a v c .’) 1000
■ o (m a x ) 2880
114 AC Phase Control 359
If we choose T - 15 cycles, then

• Ton - 0.35 * 15 == 5
J QN
■e) PF = 0.58
11.4 AC Phase Control
11.4.1 In Circuits w ith a Resistive Load

The basic circuit in Figure 11.1 can be used to control the power to a resistive
load. As is done with a controlled rectifier, output voltage is varied by delaying
conduction during each half-cycle by an angle o. The delay angle a is mea
sured from the source voltage zero.
SGRj, which is forward-biased during the positive half-cycle, is turned on
at an angle a. It conducts from a to k , supplying power to the load. SCR2 is
turned on half a cycle later at Jt + a. It conducts up to 2 it, supplying power to
the load. The waveforms in Figure 11.3 are identical to those of a full-wave rec
tifier with a resistive load. The difference here is that each second half-cycle has
a negative current rather than a positive one. There is, however, no effect on
the power, because power is a squared function.
The equation for the RMS value o f the output voltage is
n
a sin 72 a.n ^ 2
K j (RMS) = K ■1 ----- + — - 1 1.4
it 2n
The equation for the RMS value of the output current with a resistive load is
similar to Equation 11.4:
1/2
a sin 2 a
11.5
7t 2n
By varying the delay angle a, the output current of the load can be continuously
adjusted between the maximum value of V/R at a = 0 and zero at a = 180°.
The RMS current rating of the triac is given by
•^t ( rm s ) — 4 ( rm s ) 11.6
The RMS current rating of the SCRs is given by
4 c r (r m s > — 4 ( rms)/V 2 1 1.7
Output power is given by
-ô(3vg.) -ô(RMS) ( * ) Of ' 11.8

Examination of Equations 11.5 and 11.8 shows that the load power can be var
ied by changing a over the full range from zero to 180°. Suitable trigger circuits
exist to allow conduction to be adjusted essentially over this entire range.
CHAPTER 11 AC Voltage Controller
Table 11.1
a (°) ô(RMS) (V) Pofavg.) (W) ô(avg.)ô(niax) ô(RMs/^l
0 50.0 25.0 1.0 1.0

30 49.3 24.3 0.97 0.98
60 44.8 20.1 0.80 0.89 4
90 35.4 12,5 0.50 0.71

120 21.9 4.8 0.20 0.44
150 8.5 0.72 0.03 0.17
180 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
The control characteristic of a single-phase AC power controller can be

calculated as a function of the delay angle. If we assume V{ = 50 V and load
resistance R= 100 Q, then at ot = 0°, using Equation 11.4, output voltage K/rms) =
= 50 V and
-Po(max) = V\!R - 502/100 =s 25 W

while
■ fo (a v g .) — ^ o C R M S )/ -^
Evaluating output voltage and power for successive values of the delay angle
gives the results shown in Table 11.1.
The control characteristic, K>(rms>/K and -Po(avg.)/-Po(max) versus a, for a resis
tive load is plotted in Figure 11.4.
Figure 11.4 vO PG ftvg.)
Variation of output voltage

and power with delay angle
for a resistive load
Because the current is nonsinusoidal, the power factor presented to the

AC source is less than unity, although the load is resistive. Whatever the wave-
11.4 AC Phase Control 361
form, by definition the power factor is given by:

active power
PF:
apparent power
P
Vik
_ ô(RMS>
Vi
Substituting Equation 11.4, we obtain
PF = f1_« + «nial1/2 11>9

[ % 2it J
The resulting power factor is unity only when a is zero; it becomes progres
■e sively smaller as a increases, becoming approximately zero for a = it.
d The switch current becomes zero just when the source voltage is zero,
because the load is resistive. Therefore, when the switch begins blocking at the
time of the current zero, negligible source voltage is present. The problem of
dv/dt being large at turnoff does not exist, and no snubber is required to reduce
the rate of voltage buildup across the device terminals.
For values of a > 90°, the switch blocks the peak source voltage before it
turns on. The minimum switch voltage capability therefore is the peak value of
the source voltage. This blocking capability is of course necessary in both direc
;le tions for either the SCR or the triac implementation of the switch.
PIV > ^(m> u .io
is-
Example 11.3 A single-phase 120 V AC source controls power to a 5 resistive load using
integral cyde control. If TON = 2 cycles and T= 4 cycles, find
a) the output power
b) the delay angle required if the phase control method is used to produce the
same power
c) the output power, if the load is always connected to the source
n _ ZiZoN. _ 120^2
^ o (a v g ) ^ y, j. ^ w
W ôCavg.j — ô(RMS) R
From Equation 11.5.,
the
ive- R it 2n J
Therefore,
z± _a sin 2a
■ôCavg.) = 1440 W
R % 2%
The required value is a = 90°.
Vf 120
c) o(avg.) = 2880 W
R
Figure 11.5
AC phase control waveforms
for a resistive load, for delay
angles varying from 30° to
150°
Example 11.4 A single-phase power controller as shown in Figure 11.1(a) is supplying a resis
tive load. Plot the waveform of the output voltage if the delay angle is
a) 30°
b) 90°
c) 120°
d) 150°
Solution The voltage waveforms for a resistive load and the given delay angles are
Example 11.5 A single-phase power controller fed from a 120 V supply is supplying a 25 £2
resistive load. Find the RMS value of the output current and the power factor if
the delay angle is:
a) 0°
b) 30°
c) 60°
d) 90°
e) 120°
f) 150°
g) 180°
Solution The RMS value of output current is given by Equation 11.5 as
J/7 " act sin. 9rv
2 « 11/2
4(R M S)
R it 2%
Here,
W R = 120/25 = 4.8 A
Table 11.2
W ms)(A) '..I - PF
.
(a) 0 ° 4.8 ° 1.0
(b) 30° 4.73 0.98
(c) 60° 4.30 0.90
(d) 90° 3.39 0.71

(e) 120° 2.13 0.44 ‘
(f) 150° 0.83 0.17
(g) 180° 0.0 0

The power factor is given by Equation 11.9:

1/2
a sin 2a
PF = 1
7t 2lt,
Substituting values of a into the equations for /0(rms> and PF gives the results
shown in Table 11.2.
Example 11.6 A single-phase power controller as shown in Figure 11.1(a) is supplying a 100 Q
resistive load through a 50 V source. Plot the waveforms for output voltage, out
put current, voltages across SCRj and SCR2, and current through SCRX and SCR2
if the delay angle is 60°.
Solution The waveforms are shown in Figure 11.6.
Figure 11.6
Waveforms for resistive load and a delay angle of 60°
Example 11.7 A single-phase 110 V AC source controls power to a 10 Q resistive load, using
the circuit shown in figure 11.1(a). If a = 30°, find
a) the maximum output current
b) the average output power
c) the peak reverse voltage
d) the RMS value of the input current
e) the circuit power factor
f) the RMS value of the SCR current
Solution a) Vm = V 2 (110) = 155.5 V
j _ ik _ m 5 A
4 " R ~ 10 " 155 A
b) From Equation 11.5,
-4(rms) = 10.8 A
PoCavg.) = RMS) R = C10.8)2 10 = 1175 w
c) The switch must block the maximum source voltage Vm of 155.5 V.
d) The RMS value of the input current is
•î(RMS) = /o(RMS) = 10.8 A
e) P F = ^ S l = , 1 1 7 5 ... = o.99
V& 1 1 0 * 1 0 .8
f) The RMS value of the SCR current is
4 crcrms) = °y^f) = 7-64 A
Example 11.8 A 120 V source controls power to a 5 £2 resistive load using a phase-control
switch. If the load power required is 1 kW, find
b) the RMS value of the load current
c) the delay angle a
d) the RMS value pf the switch current, if the switch is a triac
e) the average current in each of the two SCRs if the switch is like that in Fig
ure 11.1(a)
f) the peak reverse voltage rating of the switch
g) the power factor
Solution a) = V 2 (120) = 170 V
jm, i k = lZO = 34A
R 5
b) For Pa(avg,) = 1000 W,
1000 = I2oirms) * 5
4crms) = 14.14 A
+
L
(a)
(b)
Figure 11.7
(a) AC phase-control circuit with an RL load (b) voltage and current waveform with
an RL load
c) Using Equation 11.5 to solve for a,'

a = 105°
cl) /tckms) is the same as the load current, 14.14 A
e) The SCR current is a half-wave controlled waveform. The average value of
each SCR current can be found by using Equation 6.2:
4cR(avg.) = (1 + cos a) = “ (1 + cos 105°) = 4 A
f) The switch must block at least the maximum source voltage, 170 V.
11.4.2 In Circuits w ith an Inductive (RL) Load
Consider the AC voltage controller circuit in which the load now consists of
resistor R in series with an inductor L. The circuit is shown in Figure 11.7(a) and
the corresponding waveforms in Figure 11.7(b). SCR, is triggered at a and SCR2
is triggered at tc + a. When SCRj turns on, the source voltage is connected to
the load, making the output voltage va = vr The output current ix> builds up at
a . However, it does not become zero at n but continues to flow until (3, which
is known as the extinction angle. The interval during which SCRj conducts is
called the conduction angle y (y = (3 - a). When SCR2 turns on, a reverse cur
rent flows in the load.
Note in the graph that the onset of output current coincides With the firing
anj le that is, the load phase angle 0 ( 0 = tan-1 X JR ), the angle by which the
output current lags the voltage, is equal to a. Under this condition, full output
voltage i ; obtained. Furthermore, due to the .load inductance, current flow is
maintained thfrbugh the SCR even after the input voltage has reversed polarity
and goes negative. At the time when the output current decays to zero, the volt
age across the switch has an ideal discontinuity. The output voltage is equal to
the source voltage when either SCR conducts. The output voltage waveform has
the shape of a sinusoid with a vertical portion removed. The missing portion of
the output voltage waveform forms the voltage drop across the SCR switch.
The RMS value of the output current is given by
r - - i i 4 ( 1 - ^ ^cos2a + sin a cos a ] 1 1 .1 1
wheie a is in the range from n/2 to 7t.
Example 11.9 A single-phase power controller as shown in Figure .11.7(a) is supplying an

inductive load. Plot the waveforms of the output voltage and current if the delay
angle is
a) 30°
b) 9 0 °
Figure 11.8 vO- 'o
Voltage and current
waveforms for inductive
load with delay angles of
(a) 30° (b) 90° (c) 120°
(d) 150°
368
c) 1 2 0 °
d) 150°
Solution For an inductive load, the output current lags the output voltage. If the load is
purely inductive, the phase angle is 90°. Therefore, if the delay angle is less
than 90°, the current will not be symmetrical. With a delay angle of 30°, the
waveform shown in Figure 11.8(a) results, where conduction in SCRj lasts for
more than 180° and SCR2 does not conduct at all because it does not experi
ence forward voltage when it receives its firing pulse at it + 30°. The output cur
rent is therefore unidirectional. To avoid this condition, the firing angle should
be at least 90° (see Figure 11.8(b)). When it is between 90° and 180°, the wave
forms are of the form shown in Figure 11.8(c) and (d). Thus for inductive loads,
a is limited to the range 90° to 180°.
Example 11.10 A single-phase voltage controller with an RL load is connected to a 110 V

source. If R = 10 Q, L = 20 mH, and a = 80°, find
a) the RMS output current
b) the SCR RMS current
d) the power factor
1/2
110 f 80
4 (RM S) H i cos 80 + ■ + — 7 - sin 80 cos 80 5.5 A
180
b) 4 cr(rm s)
c) ^ o (a v g .) = ô(RMS) R = 5.5 (10) = 302.5 W
P ■ oCavg.) _ o (a v g .)
d) PF 0.5
K 4 crm s)
11.5 Three-Phase AC Phase Control
11.5.1 In Circuits w ith a Resistive Load
The phase-control methods applied to single-phase loads can also be applied to

three-phase systems. A three-phase AC power controller consists of three single
phase bidirectional connections using the phase-control principle. The circuits
shown in Figure 11.9 can be used to vary the power supplied to a three-phase
Y- or A-conhected resistive load. As shown, the switch in each line is imple
mented by using two SCRs in an inverse-parallel arrangement,
(d) (e)
Figure 11.9
AC phase control, three-phase switch (a) line-controlled Y connection (b) line^,
controlled A connection (c) branch A connection (d) neutral point switching using
six SCRs (e) neutral point switching using three SCRs
11.5 Three-Phase AC Phale Control 371
The primary considerations in the selection of circuits shown in Figure

11.9 are: ''
1. For a given power, circuits 11.9(a) and (b) give lower voltages (V3/2
times the supply phase voltage or half the line voltage) and higher cur
rents in the SCR. Two SCR pairs are always required in series to block
voltage or conduct current.
2. Circuit 11.9(c) gives higher voltages and lower currents in the SCRs.
Each SCR can conduct current independently of the other.
3- Circuit 11.9(d) is functionally similar to Figure 11.9(a). It produces iden
tical output voltage waveforms, but since each SCR is part of only one
current path instead of two, the average SCR current is halved. In addi
tion, as in circuit 11.9(c), each SCR can conduct current independently
of other.
4. For circuit 11.9(e), control of 3 $ output voltage is also possible by
using 3 SCRs instead of six. The waveform corresponds to the six
SCR current of Fig. 11.9(d), however the SCR current ratings must be
doubled.
To illustrate the method of analysis of three-phase AC voltage controllers. We

will use circuit shown in Figure } 1.9(a) as an example. The SCRs’ turn-on is
delayed by the angle a beyond the normal beginning of conduction. For sym
metrical operation of the circuit, the gate trigger pulses of the thyristors in the
three branches must have the same sequence and phase displacement as the
supply voltage. If SCRj is triggered at a, SCR3, must be turned on at a = 120°
and SCR5 at a = 240°. The inverse parallel SCRs are triggered 18Q° from their
partners, therefore, SCR4 (which is across SCRj) is triggered at a = 180°, SCR6
at a + 300°, and finally SCR2 at a + 420°(or a + 60°). The SCR conduction order
is therefore, SCRj, SCR2, SCR3, SCR4 , SCR5, SCRg, SCR,, . . . , with a phase dis
placement of 60°.
The output voltage waveform can be obtained by first considering the var
ious output voltage constituents resulting from different SCR conduction pat
terns. There are four such configurations, which are shown in shown Figure
11.10. Table 11.3 shows the output voltages for each.
Figure 11.11 shows the phase and line voltage waveforms for the circuit
in Figure 11.9(a) for different delay angles. Figure 11.11(a) shows the maximum
output condition, which occurs when a = 0. Note that the delay angle a for each
SCR is measured from the reference point where current starts to flow through
a purely resistive load. When the delay angle is small, as in Figure 11.11(b),
where a = 30°, conduction in each phase stops 180° after the reference point.
All three lines..start conducting again as each SCR is turned on. When a
becomes 60° (see Figure 11.11(c)), the turning on of one SCR causes another
SCR that was previously conducting to turn off, so that only two lines are
always conducting. For a > 90°, the conduction period is reduced to the point
where it becomes necessary to fire pairs of SCRs simultaneously to establish
Figure 11.10
Circuit configurations to
obtain the output voltage in
Figure 11.9(a) with a
balanced load
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Table 11.3
Output voltage
Circuit Conducting Nonconducting •
configuration lines < * V lines;/*" V Phase ( O Line (vBb)
’
a All None V,kn= V^b/V3 VAB
b A, B O (l/2 )fAu VAB
c B, C A 0 (l/2)vcn
d ' C, A B , (l/2 )t’Ac (1/2)VAC
None Ail 0 Vab
conducting paths. This means that each SCR must receive two firing pulses sep
arated by 60° in each cycle, as shown in Figure 11.11(d) and (e). If a reaches
150°, the current in each line falls to zero, giving zero output. Thus, the oper
ating range for the delay angle is from 0 ° to 150°.
The preceding analysis can be summarized into the following three possi
ble modes .ok operation for the circuit in Figure 11.9(a):
Mode I ft) < a < 60°) One device in each line conducts, in other words, three
devices conduct simultaneously, and normal three-phase theory applies. Full
output occurs when a = 0. When a < 60° and all three devices are in conduc
tion, the load currents are the same as for an uncontrolled three-phase resistive
load. The RMS value of the output current is given by:
1/2
4 (R M S )
. 3. a sin 2 a
11.12
‘ R 2 it 4n
Mode n (60° < a < 90°) One device conducts in each of two AC lines, that is,
a total of only two SCRs are conducting, and two lines act as a single-phase
supply to the load.
During the intervals when one of the line currents is zero, the remaining
two phases are effectively in series and form a single-phase load connected to
two of the three lines of the voltage source. The phase voltage is equal to half
the line voltage. The conduction pattern during any 6 0 ° interval is repeated dur
ing the following 6 0 ° interval with a permutation in phases and the sign of the
current. For example, the current variation for Phase A during a given 60° inter
val is repeated during the next 60° for Phase C, except for a change in the alge
braic sign of the current. •
The RMS value of the output current is given by
374 CHARTER 11 AC Voltage Controller
Figure 11,11
Output voltage waveforms for the circuit in Figure 11.9(a) with delay angles of
(a) 0°
(b)
Figure 11.11
(b) 30'
(c) 60°
Mi
11,5 Three-Phase AC Phase Control 377
Vo(ph)
vo(line)
Figure 11.11
(d) 90*
Figure 11.11
(e) 120°
11-5 Three-Phase AC Phase Control 379
Mode HI (90° <, a <, 150°) No more than two SCRs conduct at any one time.
At times none of the devices conduct. For a > 90°, when all three devices are off,
a zero output period develops. The output voltage becomes zero for a = 150°.
The equation for the RMS value o the output current is
1/2
il _5__ _a_ V 3 cos 2 a sin 2 a 11.14
''o(RMS) :
R 12 2 ti 8 n 8n
Note that for all three modes (Equations 11.12-11.14),
Kj(rms) = V 3 4 ( rms> R 11.15

The waveforms in Figure 11.11 suggest that the maximum switch current may
be less than in the case without phase control. For a < 30°, maximum current
is not affected, whereas for a > 30°, maximum current is reduced. If we oper
ate the controller with a zero value o f a, the current rating of the switching
device should be selected based on full-conduction conditions.
The circuit shown in Figure 11.12 can be used to find the voltage rating
of the switching devices. During the interval when Phase A is not conducting,
the voltage across the switch can be determined by writing KVL in the upper
loop:
rJA B — % W + v bn — 0
= ÂB + vbn
Now
^bn ^
Therefore,
= ÂB + (%c/ 2 ) = 1 •5 kphase 11.16
A suitable rating for the switching device would therefore be at least equal to
^LCmax)'
Figure 11.12 '"sw

Voltage rating of the i=0
+ A*
switching device
380 CHAPTER i 1 AC Voltage Controller
Exam ple 11.11 The three-phase power controller shown in Figure 11.13 is supplying a balanced
A-connected resistive load. If the delay angle is 45°, plot the waveform of the out
put voltage across any one phase and the voltage across any pair of SCRs.
Figure 11.13 + VSCR

See Example 11.11
Exam ple 11.12 Repeat Example 11.11 for a balanced Y-connected resistive load.
Example 11.13 The three-phase power controller shown in Figure 11.9(c) supplies a balanced
resistive load. Plot the waveforms of the output voltage, the output current, and
the voltage across the SCR, for the following delay angles;
a) 0 ° ,
b) 30°
c) 6 0 °
d) 90°
e) 1 2 0 °
f) 150°
g) 180°
Solution The voltage waveforms are shown in Figure 11.16. The output current wave
forms are identical to the output voltage waveforms, since the current follows
the voltage for a resistive load,
VAB
Figure 11.14
Voltage waveforms for a A-connected resistive, load
Example 11.14 The three-phase power controller shown in Figure 11.9(a) supplies a balanced
tesistive load. Plot the waveform of the three output phase voltages for the fol
lowing delay angles: .
a) (X < 60° ,
b) 60° < a < 9 0 °
c) a > 9 0 °
Figure 11.15
Voltage waveforms for a Y-connected resistive load -
Solution Figure 11,17 shows the phase voltage waveforms for different delay angles.
Example 11.15 The three-phase power controller shown in Figure 11.9(a) Supplies a balanced
resistive load. Plot the waveforms of the line current 4, the output line voltage
24 b, and the voltage across the SCR when the delay angle a is 100°.
Solution Figure 11.18 shows the waveforms for resistive load at a delay angle of 100°.
Figure 11.16
Waveforms for a balanced resistive load
Figure 11.16
Waveforms for a balanced
resistive load
(f)
11.5.2 In Circuits w ith an Inductive (RL) Load

With an RL load, the waveforms in Figure 11.11 are slightly different because
the current is no longer continuous at the points where it switches. The volt
ages and the currents cannot be determined easily since each depends not only
On the present value but also on previous conditions.
The waveforms of the load currents shown in Figure 11,19 are drawn for
an inductive load with a delay angle of 100°. As shown, the current waveform
in one phase is identical to the current waveform of another phase, except-for
a 6 0 ° phase shift and a reversal of sign.
The voltage rating of the switches should be at least equal to the maxi
mum line voltage of the source. Since the load is inductive, each switch is sub
jected to a rapid change in voltage as its current becomes zero. A snubber cir
cuit across the switch is usually used to prevent unscheduled firing. The current
rating of the switching devices is determined by the current at a = 0 °
Figure 11.17
Phase voltage waveforms across the load (a) a < 60° (b) 60° < a <90° (c) a > 90s
figure 11.18
Waveforms for resistive load
at a delay angle of 100°
Example 11.16 The three-phase power controller shown in Tigure 1 1 .9 (c) supplies a balanced
inductive load. Plot the waveform of the output voltage, the voltage across the
SCR, and the phase and line currents for the following delay angles:
a) 90°
b) 1 2 0 ° •
c) 150°
Figure 11.19
Waveforms for an inductive
load with a delay angle of
100°
d) 165°
e) 180°
11.6 Half-Controlled AC Voltage Controllers

The half-controlled three-phase controller is simpler, as it requires only three
SCRs. The return path is through the diodes. Figure 11.21 shows the circuit with
balanced Y- and A-connected resistive loads. The phase and line voltage wave
forms for three different delay angles are shown in Figure 11.22.
There are three different modes of operation.
Model I ( 0 < a < 60°)

Before turn-on, one SCR and one diode conduct in the other two phases.
After turn-on, two SCRs and one diode conduct and the three-phase AC source
appears across the output.
. ;>S'.
388 CHAPTER 11, AC Voltage Controller
(a) (b)
Figure 11.20
Waveform for a balanced RL load (a) a = 90° (b) a = 120°
The equation for the RMS value of the output current is

1/2
Ji a sin 2a
JoCRMS) ' 11.17
R 4n 8n
Mode ff (60° < a < 120°)

Only one SGR at a time conducts, and the return current is shared at dif
ferent intervals by one or two diodes.
1/2 !
-*o(RMS) '
Ji It a
11.18
R 24 2n
Figure 11.20
Waveforms for a balanced RL load (c) a = 150°(d) a = 165°
Mode in (12QQ S a < 210°)

Only one SCR and one diode conduct, and at 210° the power delivered to
the load is zero.
_ [_7____ct^ _ V 3 cos 2a sin 2 a ' 1/2
V r m s) — 11.19
R 124 4n 16to l6it
Example 11.17 The three-phase half-wave power controller shown in Fij, r ; 11.21(a) supplies
a balanced resistive load. Plot the waveform of the output phase voltage for the
following delay angles:
a) 45°
b) 75°
(a)
(b)

Waveforms for a balanced RL load Three-phase half-wave AC voltage
(e) a = 180° controller circuit diagrams (a) Y-connected
load (b) A-connected load
c ) ' 105°
d) 135°
Example 11.18 A thiee phase half-wave power controller as shown in figure 11.21(a) supplies
a balanced resistive load. Plot the waveform of the line current for the follow
ing delay angles:
a) 20°
b) 170°
Solution The line current waveforms for a half-controlled load are shown in Figure 11.24,
V0(ph)
vO(line)
Figure 11.22
Three-phase half-wave AC voltage controller phase voltage and line voltages for
delay angles of (a) 30°
'9 2 CHAPTER 11 AC Voltage Controller
F irin g p u lse s!
C onducting lines
Figure 11.22
(b) 90°
(c) •
Figure 11.22
(c) 150°
V V
an ym
(C)
Figure 11.23
Phase voltage waveforms for four different delay angles (a) 45° (b) 75° (c) 105°
(d) 135°
11.7 Cydoconverters
A cycloconverter is a frequency changer that converts AC power at one input

frequency to AC output power at a different (normally lower) frequency, Vari
able frequency output can be obtained by using either of two methods. The most
obvious method is to convert the given AC to DC using rectification, followed
by inversion to obtain the desired frequency output. This arrangement, called a
DC-link converter, is implemented by using phase-controlled converters. A more
11,7 Cycloconverters 395
Figure 11.24
Line current waveforms for
two different delay angles
(a) 20° (b) 170°
direct method is to produce the desired output frequency in one stage by using
a cycloconverter. A cycloconverter is basically a dual converter (see Section 6 ,6 )
operated in such a way as to produce an alternating output voltage. For effi
cient operation, cycloconverters are usually operated in the frequency range of
zero to less than dne-third the source frequency.
Cycloconverter systems can provide reverse operation and regeneration.
They are used in low-speed AC drives, where the motor drive is started by
reducing the input voltage and frequency. They are also used in variable-speed
constant-frequency (VSCF) generator systems in aircraft to provide a regulated
output voltage at constant frequency regardless of speed changes in the prime
mover.
»igure 11.25
Single-phase to single-phase
cycjoconverter (a) circuit
diagram with a resistive
load (b) output voltage and
input current waveforms
with full conduction of each
SCR
R vo
Figure 11.25
(c) waveforms when phase control is used on each SCR
11.7,1 The Single-Phase to Single-Phase Cycloconverter
The simplest cycloconverter is a single-phase input to single-phase output con

verter. It consists of a dual-converter, that is, two converters connected back to
back as shown in Figure 11.25(a). Such a converter can supply a DC output
voltage of either polarity. SCRj and SCR2 form the positive group (P), while
SCRj and SCR* form the negative group (N). If the SCRs are fired without
delay, the converters will function as diode rectifiers. Figure 11.25(b) shows
the low-frequency output waveform synthesized from selected portions of
the high-frequency input voltage. The P group conducts for the first five half
cycles, then the N group conducts for the next five half-cycles. The output
voltage waveform clearly shows an output frequency that is one-fifth of the
input frequency.
The shape of the output voltage waveform in Figure 11.25(b) is closer to

a square wave than a sine wave. A better approximation of a sine wave can be
obtained by phase-delaying the firing of the SCR to produce the output voltage.
As can be seen in Figure 11.25(c), the middle pulse of voltages is obtained at a
lower value of the delay angle, while the side pulses are obtained at increas
ingly higher valules of the delay angles.
An alternative arrangement for a single-phase cycloconverter with a resis
tive load is shown in Figure 11.26(a). The positive group converter P is a con
trolled bridge rectifier that produces the positive half-cycle of the output fre
quency, while the negative group converter yields the negative half-cycle of the
output voltage. If the firing angles of the two converters are zero, the output
voltage vQ is maximum. During the positive half-cycle of source voltage, con
verter P is fired, and during the negative half-cycle, converter N is fired. The
output voltage waveform vQis shown in Figure 11.26(b), where each half-cycle
is made up of a whole number of half-cycles of the single-phase source wave
form. Note that the output frequency is one-third the input frequency.
If the firing angle is increased, the output voltage vQis reduced. The wave
form for a firing angle of 60° is shown in Figure 11.26(c). If we phase-delay the
firing of the SCR so that the firing angle changes during the half-cycle, the
waveform shown in Figure 11.26(d) is obtained. The output receives a full half-
cycle of input voltage at its peak period, while it is reduced as the output volt
age zero is approached,
11.7.2 The Three-Phase Cycloconverter
The single-phase cycloconverter discussed in the previous section produces a

nonsinusoidal output voltage. A sinusoidal AC voltage can be generated from
three-phase input voltages by using three-phase controlled rectifiers as shown
in Figure 11.27(a). The average output voltage of this circuit varies as the cosine
of the firing angle (recall Equation, 8,1, V^g.) = 0.827 Vm cos a). If the firing
angle a is zero, the output voltage is maximum. If the firing angle is increased,
the output voltage is reduced. When a becomes 90°, the output voltage
becomes zero. Further increases in a will make the output voltage negative,
reaching a negative maximum at a = 180°. By varying the firing angle with
respect to time in this manner, an average output voltage that changes sinu
soidally can be obtained.
Figure 11.27(b) shows how to obtain a sinusoidal output voltage from the
three-phase input voltages. The average (DC) output voltage is a sinusoidally
varying voltage shown as Vo(avg ). At any instant, it corresponds to the existing
firing angle. The firing angle required at various instants is also shown in Fig
ure 11.27(b). As shown, if the firing angle of successive pulses is varied from
90° to 0 °, back to 90°, from 90° to 180°, and back again to 9 0 ° in appropriate
steps, it is possible to vary the output voltage successively from 0 to its positive
maximum to 0 to its negative maximum and back to 0, through a complete AC
cycle. ■ ,
A . A A A
60°
(c)
fX f\£ )d cW 1 (d)
Figure 11.26
Single-phase cycloconverter (a) circuit diagram (b) waveforms for a = 0°
(c) waveforms for a = 60° (d) waveforms at different values of a
^
: M
100 CHAPTER 11 AC Voltage Controller y:
SC R
. 'N — ------ —— — —
(a)
Figure 11.27
Synthesis of sinusoidal output voltage (a) controlled rectifier circuit (b) output
voltage synthesis
11.7.2.1 The Three-Phase to Singb-Piiase Cycloconverter
The three-phase to single-phase cycloconverter is shown in Figure 11.28. It con

sists of two groups of SCRs connected fo a three-phase source supplying a
resistive load. The converter P formed by SCRj, SCR2, and SCR3 conducts dur
ing the positive half-cycle. The converter N formed by SCR4 , SCR5, and SCR$
conducts during the negative half-cycle o f the cycloconverter. To provide an
alternating voltage, only one converter operates at any instant to supply cur
rent to the load, SCR gate firing is provided only to the group that needs to
conduct the load current, while the gate trigger to the other group is blocked
until the current in the first group ha§ ceased. When the SCRs are triggered suc
cessively, a low-frequency A C ,voltage appears across the load, Figure 11.28(b)
11.7 Cydoconverters 401
Figure 11.28 SCR,

The three-phase to single
phase cycloconverter
(a) circuit
(a)
shows the output voltage waveform for a resistive load. The SCRs are triggered
at such angles as to follow the fundamental sine wave as closely as possible.
Note that the output voltage has the same maximum value as the source volt
age and therefore has the same RMS value.
The maximum output voltage is the same as the average (DC) voltage, so
^ o C m ax .) “ K > ta v g .) = “ sin 60° Vm cos a - 0.827 Vm cos a 11.20
11.7,2.2 The Three-Phase to Three-Phase Cycloconverter

The cydoconverters we have considered thus far provide only single-phase out
put. To obtain three-phase AC output, three cydoconverters like the one in Fig
ure 11.28 are required. Figure 11.29 shows a three-phase to three-phase cyclo
converter using SCRs for switching. The input is a three-phase AC supply at a
V .M V „v V,
1 1 ------------------------- _ i ---
I i i
!
(\
t i
i i
i i
ii
i
i
i
ii
i
i
i
\ 1
1 i . ' '
w
1
A 1 ‘4 1
i
I
1
\r v
f \
(b)
Figure 11.28
The three-phase to single-phase cycloconverter (b) output voltage waveform
frequency^ (typically 60 Hz). The load is shown to be Y-connected. The cyclo

converter consists of a total of eighteen SCRs arranged into three groups of
three-phase to single-phase cydoconverters, Each group is made up of two
three-phase bridge rectifiers that function as one phase of AC output. Half of
each group (A+, B+, and C+, the positive group (P)) produces output voltage
during the positive half-cycle. The other half (A~,B7, and C , the negative group
Figure 11.29
Three-pulse to three-phase cycloconverter
(N)) produces output voltage during the negative half-cycle. In this way, the
two converters can provide an alternating output. The circuit converts the input
frequency to a lower output frequency. The output frequency depends <<n the
length of time during, which the positive and negative groups operate. The
switches are opened and closed at various instants to generate the output fre
quency out of selected small segments of the input frequency. The segments are
determined by the gate firing of the SCRs. The output frequency can then be fil-
tered to provide a smooth waveform.
Carte must be taken to make sure that the SCRs from the positive and neg
ative group are not conducting simultaneously, as this would short-circuit the
source. To avoid this possibility, the gate-firing circuitry should contain an inter
locking function that makes it impossible to give gate pulses to both conveners
simultaneously,
Figure 11.30 shows the voltage waveform for a resistive load across one
phase of the output. The other two voltages have identical waveforms except
for the usual 120° phase shift. The output frequency is one-third of source fre
quency, or 20 Hz from a 60-Hz source. The output voltage is determined by the
firing angle a and is given by Equation 11.20.
Figure 11.30
Output voltage waveform across one phase
for a three-phase cycloconverter
Exam ple 11.19 A cycloconverter is supplied from a threerphase 440 V, 60 Hz AC source. If the
cycloconverter supplies a resistive load with a current of .16 A, determine the
maximum and RMS values of the load voltage for firing angles of
a) 0 °
b) 45°
c) 6 0 °
11.8 Problems 405
Solution
Fm= V 2> 440 = 622.3 V

ô(max.) = 0.827 Vm COS CX
a ) a = 0°
K,(max.) = 0.827 * 622.3 * cos 0 = 514.6 V
K<RMs) = i ^ = “ 7 ^ = 364 V
b) a = 45°
V W .) = 0.827 * 622:3 * cos 45 = 364 V
'W ) =J^ i = y f = 257 V
c) a = 60°
ôCmax.) = 0.827 * 622.3 * cos 60 = 257 V
ô(RMs> = J ^ Li = ^ - = 1 8 2 V
11.8 Problems
11.1 Discuss the principle of the phase control method.

11.2 Discuss the principle of the integral cycle control method.
1 1 .3 Which method of power control has low RFI?
1 1 .4 Which method of power control would you recommend for lamp dim
mers and variable-speed drills?
1 1.5 A single-phase half-wave AC controller is shown in Figure 11.31. Draw
the output voltage waveform if the SCR is fired at 30°,
Figure 11.31 SCR

Single-phase half-wave AC
voltage controller
1 1 .6 For the output voltage waveforms shown in Figure 11.32, find the out
put power if the source voltage is 120 V and (he load resistance is 20 Q,
Figure 11.32
Integral cycle control using
a triac
11.7 A single-phase full-wave AC controller is shown in Figure 11.33- Draw

the output voltage waveform if the SCR is triggered at a = 30° during
the positive and negative half-cycles.
Figure 1133
Single-phase full-wave AC
voltage controller AC
Load
Jf
Load D C
11.8 Problems 407
11.8 A Single-phase full-wave AC controller is shown in Figure 11.34. SCRj

and diode are triggered simultaneously during the positive half
cycle of the input voltage, while SCR2 and D2 are turned on during the
negative half-cycle. Draw the output voltage waveform if the firing
angle is 30°.
Figure 11.34
Single-phase full-wave AC
A\ SCRj ASCR2
voltage controller
AD,
'"IN
J Load
11.9 A single-phase 110 V 60 Hz AC source controls power to a 10 £2 resis

tive load using integral cycle control. If the total period T is 24 cycles,
find the on time ( TON) that will provide an output power that is 50% of
the maximum value.
11.10 A single-phase 120 V 60 Hz AC source controls power to a 5 Q resis
tive load using phase control. Find the firing angle if the output power
is 40% of its maximum value. Find the range of output power if inte
gral cycle control is used with a period of T= 0.2 s.
11.11 A single-phase resistive load is controlled from a single-phase 60 Hz AC
source by means of an inverse parallel pair of SCRs. Find the firing
angle of the SCRs if the output power is 60% of its maximum value.
11.12 A single-phase full-wave power controller as shown in Figure 11.1(a)
supplies a resistive load of lO il If the source voltage is 120V at 60 Hz
and the firing angle for SCRi and SCR2 is = a 2 = 90°, find
a) the RMS value of the output voltage
b) the RMS value of the SCR current
11.13 A single-phase power controller as shown in Figure 11.1(a) supplies a
purely inductive load.
a) Plot the waveforms of the output voltage and the output current if
the delay angle is 90°.
b) Repeat (a) if the delay angle is increased to 100°.
11.14 A single-phase power controller as shown in Figure 11.1(a) supplies an
RL load. If the piower factor angle is 0 (= ta n 1'XyJ R), draw the wave
form of the output current for delay angles of
a) a < 0
b) a = 0
c) a > 0
mm.
wm
11.15 An SCR with a diode bridge is shown in Figure 11.35. Draw the wave
form of the voltage across the load if the, firing angle is 30°.
Figure 11.35
SCR with diode bridge
+ v0 _ Di * A D3
+ O- Load V SCR
D,
11.16 The single-phase cycloconverter of Figure 11.26(a) is connected to a

110 V, 60 Hz source and supplies a resistive load. If the output fre
quency is 15 Hz, determine the RMS value of the output voltage at a =
0° and a = 90°. Also draw the output voltage waveforms.
11.17 Draw the output voltage waveforms for a single-phase cycloconverter
with the following output frequencies '
a) 1/2 input frequency
b) 1/3 input frequency '
c) 1/4 input frequency
d) 1/5 input frequency
11.9 Equations
•V? j i 11.1
•oCavg.) : o(m ax)
RT Rd
11.2
PF * \ -% N/7'= V d 11.3
1/2
1- a sin 2a
o(RMS) ■ V, -------H------ -—*- 11.4
rc 2rc
1/2
a sin 2a'
/o(RM S) : 11.5
2n
■^TCRMS) = ix R M S )
11.6
4 c r (rm s) = 4 crm s )/ "'v//2 11.7
/ ’oCavg.) = ( / o r m s ) 2 ( # or v:oCRMS>,/i? 11.8
11.9 Equations 409
a . sin 2a 1/2
+ 11.9
2n
M(m) 11.10
a 1/2
J i I4 / 2 1\ 6 .
4 (R M S ) =
_
cos a + -r + — sin a cos a 11.11
R [ \ K 2
1/2
a sin 2a
/o(RM S) =
=il 11.12
2it 4n
i _ 3 sin ,2a V 3 cos 2a 11/2
4 (R M S ) = 11.13
6 8n 8n
_5_ _ J L + V 3 cos 2 a sin 2 a |1/2
4 (R M S ) = 11.14
12 2tc 8n 8rc J
K>(RMS) - V 3 4 (rm s) ^ 11.15
ySW=f 1-5 fphase 11.16
1/2
-K . f i _ a sin 2a
-'oCRMS) — 11.17
/? [3 4jt 8 ji
1/2
vi r i i a
4 crm s ) = 11.18
£ 24 2tc
JL 7 ct V 3 cos 2 a t sin 2a 11/2
4 (R M S ) — 11.19
R 24 4jc l6n l6rc
K )(m ) — K>(avg.) ' sin 60° Vm cos a = 0.827 Vm cos a 11.20

Static Switches
■-------------------------------------- :--------------------
Chapter Outline
12.1 Introduction 12.5 Hybrid Switches

12.2 Comparison of Semiconductor and 12.6 The Solid State Relay ,(SSR)
Mechanical Switches 12.7 Static Tap-Changing Control
12.3.1 Antiparallel SCR Connection
12.8 The Static VAR Controller (SVC)
12.3.2 Triac Connection
12.3.3 Alternative Switch 12.9 Problems
Implementation 12.10 Equations
12.4 Three-Phase Static Switches
12.4.1 Reversing Connections
Learning Objectives
A fter completing this chapter, the student should be able to
in define the term static switch m describe solid-state relay

m list the advantages and disadvantages of ■ describe the principle of static tap
a static switch compared to a mechanical changing control
switch a discuss the operation of static VAR
m explain the operation of single-phase Controller
and three-phase static switches
410
12.2 Comparison of Semiconductor and Mechanical Switches 411
■---- -; : ------------------------------------------------------- -------------- :------ ------

12.1 introduction
A static switch turns the power to a load on or off but does not vary it in arty
other way. The bistable characteristic o f semiconductor devices (like thyristors),
that is, the existence of two stable states (conducting and nonconducting), sug
gests that these devices can be used as a contactless switch, Their applications
in the field of static switching include on-off switches, circuit breakers, contac
tor, solid state relays, and so forth,
12.2 Comparison of Semiconductor and Mechanical Switches

A semiconductor switch offers several advantages over other switching devices:
1. It provides extremely high switching speeds, because the switch turns

on immediately.
2. Operation is quiet because there are no moving parts and no arcing.
3. Radio frequency interference (RFI) is eliminated by using zero voltage
switching.
4. No routine maintenance is required because there are no contacts or
moving parts that. wear.
5. Operational life is much longer.
6. It is completely safe in an explosive environment.
7. Immune from vibration and shock.
8. It can be installed in any position or location.
9 . There is no switch contact bounce when closing.
10. It is Small and lightweight.
11. It is easily tailored to electronic control.
12. The cost is low,
13. It offers greater reliability.
14. In addition to turning a load on or off, it can also be used to control
the load power from zero to maximum.
15* The control circuit can be easily isolated from the power circuit.
16. It is easy to control remotely.
Some of the disadvantages of a semiconductor switch are:
1. Due to reverse leakage current when off, it does not allow the load to
be Completely isolated from the source.
2. It is likely to fail when subjected to overvoltage and overcurrent situ
ations unless protected by an RC snubber circuit.
■112 CHAPTER 12 Static Switches
3. It has higher power losses in the on-state condition, so cooling is

required.
4. The on-state voltage drop across the device may not be permissible in
some applications.
5. Due to the higher cost of the device and the complexity of control, its
use is normally limited to single-phase circuits.
6. The same switch cannot be used in both AC and DC circuits, since the
AC switch turns off naturally while the DC switch needs additional
force commutation circuitry to turn it off,
7. Continuous firing pulses are required to maintain the switch in the on
state,
8. It can cause false triggering as a result of voltage transients caused by
switching inductive loads on neighboring lines.
9. To prevent false triggering, the firing circuits must be completely iso
lated or shielded from flower circuits.
10. Proteetion circuits are necessary to safely turn off the device before
the surge current or fault current ratings are exceeded.
11. Overload capability is limited by the maximum current of the semi
conductor device.
Static switches are used in both AC and DC switching operations. AC switching

. requires bidirectional control, which is usually implemented by using a triac or two
SCRs connected in antiparallel. Since the device turns off naturally, the upper
frequency limit is determined by the type of device used. For low-frequency
switching applications, a single triac can be used. For high-frequency applica
tions a configuration of two antiparallel SCRs is employed. DC switching
requires control for only one direction of current flow, and the switching device
is usually an SCR. The switching speed is limited by the commutation circuit
and the reverse recovery time of the SCR.
12.3 Static AC Switches

A static switch or contactor is a switching device that connects (on) or discon
nects (off) a load from the supply. A static AC switch incorporates three main
circuits: the pOwer circuit, the firing circuit, and the protection circuit. The fir
ing and protection circuits were discussed in Chapter 4.
12.3.1 Antiparallel SCR Connection

For high-power switching applications, the simplest single-phase AC switch is
constructed from two SCRs in antiparallel, as shown in Figure 12.1 To turn on
the power to the load, SCRi must be turned on at the beginning of the positive
half-cycle. SCR2 should be turned on at the beginning of the negative half-cycle

for negative currents, The SCR switch will turn on immediately if a firing pulse
is received at the gate. To maintain the switch in its on state, continuous firing
pulses are required at the gate, since the thyristor turns off naturally at the zero
crossing. '
To switch off the power, it is sufficient to suppress further firing pulses.
The AC current continues to flow until the SCR turns off naturally at zero cur
rent. The device will actually turn off within half a cycle of source frequency
after the first zero crossing, following removal of the firing pulses.
Voltage transients can occur at switching, especially with an inductive
load, and they require suppression using an RC snubber circuit connected in
parallel with the SCRs.
Figure 12.1
Single-phase static AC
switch using two SCRs in
antiparallel connection
The RMS value of the output Voltage is given by

11/2
. j _ ct + s in jt a l1
•oCRMS) '
V2 n 2tc J 12.1
where
Vm = maximum value of source voltage,
a = firing delay angle (0° for maximum output)
The RMS line current is the same as the RMS load current and is given by.
4 ms - /m/ V 2 1 2 .2
where /m is the maximum value of line current.

Since each SCR carries the line current for only one half-cycle, the aver
is age current carried by each SCR is
n
e -<SCR(avg.) - 12.3
114 CHAPTER 12 Static Switches
Substituting Im from Equation 12.2, we get
4cR(avg.)
■SCR(avg.) - V 2 /rms/^ — 0 .4 5 / rms 12.4
Therefore, it is essential to select SCRs with current ratings at least 0.45 times
the load current.
The RMS value of the SCR current is
4crcrm s) — 2 12.5
The forward blocking voltage VFB must be at least equal to the maximum value
of the source voltage, that is,
^FB ^ ^S(m) = V 2 V S 12.6

where Vs is the RMS value of the source voltage.
The output power can be obtained from;
12.7
To reduce distortion of the load waveforms due to switching, the SCRs must be
turned on at the zero crossing o f each half-cycle of the AC source voltage. Fig
ure 12.2(a) shows the load voltage and current waveforms for a pure resistive
load where the gate signal is applied at a = 0.
With an RL load, the current lags the voltage by a phase angle O due to
the inductance. For highly inductive loads, becomes greater than the width
of the trigger pulse and the SCR will not trigger. To ensure reliable triggering,
the gate signal needs a wide pulse width from 0 to 7t. The load voltage and cur
rent waveforms for a pure inductor are shown in Figure 12.2(b).
12.3.2 Triac Connection
Triacs are not yet available with voltage, current, and frequency ratings as high
as those already available in SCRs. However, for low-power applications, pro
vided the current'rating is not exceeded, a single triac is more economical to
use than a pair of SCRs. A triac also eliminates the need for a second firing cir-
ciiit. Figure 12.3 shows an AC switch using a triac. The triac can be turned on
by either a positive or a negative trigger pulse and can carry current in both
directions. Like an SCR, once the triac has turned on, the gate loses control over
the switching. It regains control after the current has fallen to zero, and another
gate pulse is needed to turn the device on again.
12.3.3 Alternative Switch Implementation

Figure 12.4 shows two other ways of implementing single-phase AC static
switches using combinations of SCRs and diodes. Diodes are less expensive than
SCRs and do not require a firing circuit. Figure 12.4(a) shows art arrangement that
Figure 12.2
Load voltage and current
waveforms (a) resistive load
(b) inductive load
Figure 12.3
Single-phase AC static switch
using a triac
reauires only one SCR to control both halves of the AC cycle. The SCR is con
nected across the DC terminals of a full-wave diode bridge rectifier. The positive
current path is through diodes Db I)4, and the SCR, while negative current flows
through D2 . D3, and the SCR. The current is AC through the load and DC through
the SCR. The load, may be resistive or inductive. The gate-firing circuit is simple
since there is only one SCR to be fired for both the positive and the negative
half-cycle. However, since the current has to flow through three devices, the
power loss is higher due to the forward voltage drop of the devices.
In Figure 12.4(b), SCRX and diode D2 conduct for the positive half-cycle,
and SCR2 and diode Dx conduct for the negative half-cycle. Since the two SCR
cathodes are common in this scheme, the two gates can be tied together to pro
vide a common gate-firing cpntrol. The current has to flow through an SCR and
a diode, causing added power loss.
(a) (b)
Figure 12.4
Single-phase AC static switch alternative arrangement (a) using a single SCR (b) using
an SCR-diode bridge
12.4 Three-Phase Static Switches
Fundamentally, three-phase AC circuits can be switched on and off in the same

way as single-phase AC circuits. Figure 12.5 shows various three-phase switch
configurations controlling three-phase loads.
In Figure 12.5(a) and (b), the semiconductor switch constructed from
SCRs in antiparallel is connected in series with each AC supply line of a Y- or
A-connected load. With a A-connected load, the alternative arrangements shown
in Figure 12.5(c) can be used if the individual load phase can be accessed. In
(b)
(d)
(f)
Figure 12.5
Three-phase AG static switches (a) line
switches in series, Y-connected load
(b) line switches in series, A-connected
load (c) series switching, A-connected load
(d) half-controlled three-phase switch
(e) two-phase control (f) polygon
connection with six SCRs (g) polygon
connection with three SCRs (g)
1
this circuit, the switch is in series with the load, and this combination is con
nected in A. The current in each switch is V 3 times less than the line current.
Therefore, the current rating of the SCR is less than that required for the previ
ous two circuits.
In a three-phase system without the neutral, we can reduce the cost by
substituting a diode for an SCR in each of the antiparallel-connected circuits
of Figure 12.5(a) and (b). The circuit shown in Figure 12.5(d)' is called a half-
controlled switch. If unbalanced voltage operation is permitted, costs can be
further reduced by removing one pair of SCRs, as shown in Figure 12.5(e).
The polygon connection o f Figure 12.5(0 uses six SCRs connected in A
through the three-phase load. The six SCRs can be reduced to three as shown
in Figure 12.5(g). However, the voltage and current duty of each SCR would be \
more severe. The current rating of the SCRs is 1.5 times greater than that of the j
other connections in Figure 12.5. ‘ '■ |
12.4.1 Reversing Connections
Static switches are often used in applications where high switching frequencies
are required, for example, in reversing connections where AG machines are
switched from one direction of rotation to the other by reversing the rotating
field. The circuit shown in Figure 12.6 reverses the three phase power supplied
to the load. When switches Sj, S2, and S3 are on, line A feeds a, line B feeds b,
and line C feeds c for one direction of rotation. Turning off switches S2 and S3
Figure 12.6
Three-phase reversing
contactor
12.6 The Solid State Relay (SSR) 419
and turning on S4 and S5 results in line A feeding a, line B feeding c, and line
C feeding b, thus achieving a reversal of phase sequence of the voltages sup
plied to the load. Care must be taken to ensure that S2 and S5 are never turned
on simultaneously, or else a short circuit will occur across lines B and C. The
same applies to switches 3 and 4. Also note that in this circuit all switches must
be SCRs, because diodes would cause short circuits between main phases.
■---- —-----------:--- — ’------------- ;----!---------------------;----— -- ---------------------

12.5 Hybrid Switches
By connecting a static switch and a mechanical switch in parallel, some of the
best features of both can be obtained. Switching is performed by static switches,
but in between times, they are shorted out by the mechanical switch, as shown
in Figure 12.7. The mechanical switch carries the load current during this time,
thus avoiding the power loss that occurs in the static switch due to the on-state
voltage drop. When the mechanical switch is in operation and the static switch
is conducting, the on-state voltage drop is so low that arcing does not occur.
Another advantage of a hybrid switch is that if the static switch becomes
faulty, switching can still be carried out using a mechanical switch until the
static switch is repaired. However, if an open-circuit fault occurs at the load,
the full source voltage could be present across this open circuit. This danger
ous situation can be avoided by including an isolating switch connected in
Series with the static switch to provide isolation between the load and the line
(see Figure 12.7).
Figure 12.7
Hybrid switch Isolating
switch
— —• |
a c Load
m----------------------------- ---------- — — ------ ’------- —---------------------- - ■■■.....- •..;----- ;------------ —-------

12.6 The Solid-State Relay (SSR)
Semiconductor AC switches that have no contacts or moving parts are called
solid-state relays (SSRs.). The SSR has become increasingly popular in applica
tions where electromagnetic relays were previously used. SSRs are used as
switching elements, for the control of motor loads, in transformers, in resistance

heating, and in lighting loads.
Solid-state relays can be used to control DC and AC loads. When they are
used with DC loads, a power transistor connects the load to the source. In AC
applications, the most commonly used device is a triac. Figure 12.8 shows the
circuit o f an SSR that uses a triac with an optically isolated gate circuit, It can
control a large amount of power in the main circuit from a small signal from the
control circuit. Usually SSRs employ optocouplers to provide electrical isolation
between the control circuit arid the load circuit. Optocouplers are a combina
tion of optoelectronic devices, normally a light-emitting diode (LED) and a pho
totransistor or photo-SCR assembled into one package, Another useful feature of
an SSR is zero voltage switching (ZVS), which reduces electromagnetic interfer
ence (EMI). Zero voltage switching means that the switching device is turned
on at the first possible instant after the source voltage crosses the zero axis. The
SSR is designed for single-pole applications with normally open (NO) contact.
12.7 Static Tap-Changing Control
Figure 12.9(a) shows a single-phase tap changer in which the tapped voltage
supply is provided by a tapped transformer. The technique involves tap chang
ing of the transformer using static switches and continuous adjustment by phase
control between taps. Ideally, the output voltage can be adjusted from zero to
the maximum secondary voltage. If only SCR3 and SCR4 are fired, the output
voltage is V2•If only SCRi and SCR2 are fired, then the output voltage is vx.
By phase control using SCRj and SCR2, the output voltage can be adjusted
from zero to the full voltage vx of this tap. Further increases in voltage can be
obtained by increasing the voltage during parts of each half-cycle using SCR3 and
SCR4 , As shown in Figure 12.9(b), SCRi is turned on at tu which is the zero volt
age crossing of the positive half-cycle. SCR3 is triggered with a phase delay at t2.
Since v% is more positive than vY, SCR3 will start conducting and this will auto
matically turn off SCRi. At %, SCR2 is turned on, and finally SCR4 is fired at t4.
12.8 The Static VAR Controller (SVC) 421
Figure 12.9
Static tap changer (a) circuit
(b) current and voltage
waveforms
(b)
*
The output voltage can be adjusted continuously to its maximum value by

advancing the firing of SCR3 and SCR4 with respect to instant ^ and t4i respec
tively. Care must be taken to ensure that SCR2 remains off when SCR3 is on,
since such condition would short-circuit the transformer secondary winding.
The same holds true for SCR4 and SCRj. This method of tap changing can be
easily extended to transformers with multitap windings for further voltage
adjustment.
12.8 The Static VAR Controller (SVC)
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 12.10(a), in which an AC switch controls

power to an inductor. If the AC switch is turned on after the peak of the source
voltage, the load current will flow for less than 180? and its effective value will
depend on the delay angle a, that is, the reactive power drawn from the source
( can be continuously controlled by varying the delay angle. This circuit arrange
ment, which is called a thyristor-controlled inductor (TCI), can therefore be
used to obtain adjustable values of inductive or lagging VARs. Unfortunately,
most practical loads, being inductive in nature, also draw lagging VARs from the
source. These loads require capacitive or leading VARs to compensate for the
lagging power factor.
A thyristor-switched capacitor (TSC) (shown in Figure 12.10(b)) uses
capacitors to generate leading VARs. However, if the firing angle is arbitrarily
varied to control the VARs, the current through the AC switch flows in large pul
sations as the capacitor voltage equalizes with the source voltage. These pulses
can easily damage the switching device. Therefore, firing must be synchronized
to occur when the instantaneous source voltage is equal to the capacitor volt
age. VAR control is achieved by splitting the capacitors into banks and control
ling each bank with a separate AC switch. Capacitor banks are turned on as
required to provide necessary VARs, This circuit has the disadvantage of requir
ing an AC switch and its associated firing circuit for each bank, Also, since the
capacitor bank can be switched only in steps, VAR compensation is achieved in
discrete steps rather than by continuous control. Therefore, a TSC arrangement
is suitable only if the load requires a fixed VAR adjustment,
Figure 12.10
Types of VAR controllers (a) thyristor-controlled inductor (b) thyristor-switched
capacitor (c) thyristor-controlled inductor with unswitched capacitor
12.9 Problems 423
Circuit 12.10(c) cornbines circuits (a) and (b). An unswitched capacitor

provides the maximum leading VARs that will be. required, while a phase con
trol AC switch in series with the inductor subtracts a continuously controllable
number of lagging VARs. This is the: basis of the static VAR controller.
Static VAR controllers are attracting attention for use-in installations with
rapidly varying reactive power requirements, such as arc furnaces, where they
provide quick and precise control o f reactive power. The leading VARs. neces
sary for VAR compensation are supplied by connecting a TSC across the AC
lines. Figure 12.11 shows a scheme in which the capacitor banks are connected
or disconnected, using SCRs to correct the load power factor. For loads with
varying VAR requirements, a TCI is placed in parallel with the TCS. The capac
itor banks are switched in and out to provide a fixed amount of leading VARs.
Using phase control, the inductor absorbs a variable amount of lagging VARs,
depending on the delay angle of the SCRs. If the lagging VARs drawn by the
TCI is equal to the leading VARs supplied by the capacitor, the net reactive
power will be zero and the load power actor .will be unity. From this point, if
the load power factor becomes lagging, the lagging VARs of the TCI can be
decreased by adjusting the delay angle, thereby increasing the net leading VARs.
If more leading VARs are required, another capacitor bank can be switched. In
this way, the TSC provides leading VARs in discrete steps, while the TCI pro
vides precise continuous control between steps. The same technique can be
applied to three-phase circuits.
Figure 12.11
Static VAR controller
AC
12.9 Problems
12.1 What is a static switch? List some devices that the static switch has
replaced.
12.2 What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a static switch ver
sus an electromechanical switch?
12.3 What is an SSR?
12.4 What is meant by zero voltage switching?

12.5 What is opto-isolation?
12.6 Describe the principle o f operation of a static tap changer.
12.7 Describe the principle o f operation of a static/VAR controller.
12.8 Define TCI.
12.9 Define TSC.
12,10 Equations
1/2
a , sin 2a
ôCRMS) = - f y
---------------------------------- • _
12.1
rt 2tc
RMS ' /m/V2 12.2
j
■'SCR(avg) —
La.
— in 12.3
n
4 c R (a v g .) = V 2 Iu m s / K = 0 . 4 5 /rmS 12.4
j _ Irn. 12.*T
•'SCRCRMS) “ 2
Ffb > Ks(m) = V 2 7S 12.6

P __ K a fflM SX 12.7
° R
Index
AC phase control, 359 single-phase, 150 v-i characteristics, 19

AC power control, 354 three-phase, 216 Dual converters, 180
AC voltage controller, 353 half-wave, 217 Duty cycle, 270
half controlled, 387 full-wave bridge, 230 dv/dt rating, 86
full-wave half-controlled
Bipolar junction transistors bridge, 254 Forced commutation, 107 ■
(B jr n , 4o Current source inverters (CSI), Form factor, 125
biasing, 42 347 Firing angle, 152
Darlington connection, 50 single-phase CSI, 347 Firing circuits, 101,
power losses, 43 three-phase CSI, 349 Freewheeling diode (FWD),
protection, 47 Cycloconverter, 394 157
ratings, 48 single-phase to single-phase, Full-bridge inverters, 311, 324
safe operating area, 49 397
secondary breakdown, 50 three-phase, 398 Gate turn off thyristor (GTO),
series & parallel connection, three-phase to single-phase, 112
52 400 >
testing, 46 three-phase to three-phase, Half-controlled Ac voltage
v-i characteristics, 41 , 401 controller, 387
Body diode of MOSFET, 58 Half-controlled bridge, 175,254
Boost chopper, 284 Darlington connection, 50 Heat sinks, 90 .
Bridge rectifier, 140, 166, 198, DC choppers, (see choppers) Holding current, 83 .
230 Delay angle, 152
Buck chopper, 273 Diac, 114 Insulated gate bipolar transistor
continuous current mode, di/dt rating, 85 (IGBT), 62
274 Diodes, 19 . ideal characteristics, 63
discontinuous current mode, current rating, 27 losses, 64
277' -■ fast recovery type, 28 operating principle, 62
Buck-boost chopper, 295 Free wheeling, 157 v-i characteristics, 63
ideal diode, 20 Integral cycle control, 354,357
Choppers, 269 / in AC circuits, 23 Inverters, 304
basic principle, 269 in DC circuits, 22 basic inverter, 305
step-down (buck), 273 losses, 25 half-bridge, 307, 326
step-up (boost), 284 parallel connection, 32 full-bridge, 311, 324 •
Commutation circuits, 107 principle ratings, 27 voltage control techniques,
Conduction angle, 81, 152 protection, 28 318
Controlled rectifiers, 151 reverse recovery time, 27 voltage source, 307 1
full-wave bridge, 166 Schqttky, 21 ? three-phase, 329
full-wave center-tap, 158 series connection, 30
half-wave, 151 testing, 29 Junction temperature, 79
425
mi INDEX
t-jiching current, 83 single PWM, 321 ratings, 79

Light dimmer, 356 multiple PWM, 321 current, 79
Line commutation, 107 sinusoidal PWM, 322 junction temperature, 90
PWM inverters, 324 . rate of change, 85
Modulation index, 323 single-phase full bridge, 324 voltage, 84
MOS controlled thyristor (MCT), single-phase half-bridge, 326 switching power loss, 97
117 testing, 78
v-i characteristics, 118 Rectifier triggering circuits, 101
Metal oxide semiconductor field single-phase controlled, 150 AC signals, 105
effect transistors full-wave, 166 DC signals, 101
(MOSFET), 52 half-wave, 151 pulse signals, 103
as a switch, 55 single-phase uncontrolled, 122 other types of, 111
ideal characteristics, 55 full-wave, 132, 140 turn off circuits, 107
in series, 60 half-wave, 123 two transistor model, 75
in parallel, 6l three-phase controlled, 216 Silicon controlled switch (SCS),
internal body diode, 58 full-wave, 230 111
losses, 56 half-wave, 217 Single-phase full-bridge inverter,
protection, 59 twelve pulse, 260 324
safe operating area, 60 three-phase uncontrolled, 188 Single-phase half-wave rectifier,
transfer characteristics, 54 full-wave, 198 123, 151;
v-i characteristics, 53 Half-wave, 189 Single-phase semicontrolled
twelve pulse, 210 bridge, 175
Natural commutation, 107 Relay, solid state, 419 Sinusoidal pulse width
Reverse recovery time, 27 modulation (SPWM), 322
On-off control, 354 Reversing contactor, 418 bridge voltage source inverter,
Opto couplers, 420 Ripple factor, 126 329
Snubber circuit, 47
Peak inverse voltage rating of Safe Operating Area (SOA), Solid state relay (SSR), 419
diode, 27 49,60 Static switches, 410
Phase control, 354, 359 BJT, 49 AC switches, 412
three-phase, 369 MOSFET!, 60 comparison with mechanical
Phase controlled rectifier, 151 Semicontrolled bridge rectifier, switches 411
PN junction diode, (see diodes) 175 hybrid, 419
Power BJTs, (see BJTs) Schottky diodes, 21 reversing connection, 418
Power diodes, (see diodes) Semiconductor devices, 6 single phase AC, 412
Power electronics, 2 Semiconverter, 175" three-phase, 416
applications of, 15 Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), Static VAR controller (SVC), 421
types of circuits, 13 74 Static tap changing control, 420
Power losses in real switches, 7 characteristic curve, 76
conduction loss, 8 gate parameters, 88 Three-phase bridge, 198, 230,
switching loss, 9 ; ideal characteristics, 11 329
Power MOSEETs, (see in series, 91 Three-phase inverters, 329
MOSFETs) in parallel, 94 Thyristors, (see SCR)
Power semiconductor switches, inverter type, 84 Transistors
6 phase control type, 84 BJT, 40
Pulse frequency modulation power loss, 97 MOSFETs, 52-
(PFM), 271 protection, 99 Triac, 115
Pulse number, 125 gate circuit, 100 light dimmer, 356
Pulse width modulation (PWM), overcurrent, 100 force commutation circuits,
271, 321 overvoltage, 99 107
INDEX 427
Triggering circuits, 101 full-wave center-tap, 132 Voltage source inverters (VSI),
Twelve-pulse rectifier circuits, full-wave bridge, 140 307
210 three-phase, 188 half-bridge VSI, 307
Twelve-pulse, bridge circuits, half-wave bridge, 189 full-bride VSI, 311
260 full-wave, 198 three-phase bridge VSI, 329
twelve pulse, 210 120° conduction type, 330
Uncontrolled rectifier, 122 Unijunction transistor, 65 180° conduction type, 336
single-phase, 122 biasing, 66
half-wave, 123 testing, 67

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What are the main components discussed in power electronics?

What are the main components discussed in power electronics?

What are some common power semiconductor devices discussed?

What are some common power semiconductor devices discussed?

To my wonderful parents Basheer and Farhath,

my loving wife Nadira, an d my beautiful children

Saba, Asad, and Fahad

3.4 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) 62

5 Single-Phase Uncontrolled Rectifiers 122

6 Single-Phase Controlled Rectifiers 150

8 Thre6-Phase Controlled Rectifiers 216

11 AC Voltage Controller 353

11.1 Introduction 354

12 Static Switches 410

12.1 Introduction 411

■ The book includes many worked examples to illustrate concepts intro­

1.1 Introduction 1.5 Power Losses in Real Switches

After completing this chapter, the student should be able to

gg--------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------- .-----------------------------------:-------------------------------------------------

Applications of solid-state electronics in the electrical power field are steadily

1.2 What Is Power Electronics?

1.3 Why Power Electronics?

Transfer of electrical power from a source to a load can be controlled either by

1.3.1 A Rheostat as a Control Device

In applications where the power to be controlled is large, the efficiency of

efficiency T, = A . ioo = 100%

efficiency * 100 50%

c) voltage across the load Vh = 10 * 100/110 = 9 v

1.3.2 A Switch as a Control Device

Figure 1-4 Voltage

11 -...—------------ .................. , ............................ ........................ ............... ....

1.4 Power Semiconductor Switches

Power semiconductor switches are the most important elements in a power

1. It turns on or turns off in zero time.

In addition, the following conditions are desirable:

5. When on, it can carry a large current.

1.5 Power Losses in Real Switches

Figure 1.5 /=o i

Unlike an ideal switch, an actual switch, such as a bipolar junction tran­

1.5.1 Conduction Loss

•Pon = Vcecsad * k 1*1

(a) Transistor off (b) Transistor on

1.5.2 Switching Loss

To find the power dissipated in a transistor during the switching interval,

■fswON(max) —O'5 ^CE(max) 0.5 max)

-Psw ON(avg)= 0 . 6 3 7 * P 5W ON(max)

^SW ON(avg)“ ^ ^E(m ax) -^C(max) *7

T h e e n e r g y l o s s ( p o w e r * t i m e ) d u r in g t u r n - o n w ill b e P sw 0 N(avg) * %wcon)

^ SW ON = ^CE(max) * -fccmax) * %W(ON) (jQ U les) 1 .8

^SW OFF = "jT VcFXmax) * ^C(max) * %W(OFF) ( jo u l e s ) 1 .9

T — Jo n + ^swcon) + * o f f + ^sw (off)

^SW(ON) = ^SW(OFF) = ^SW

Psvr — J'CECmax) * -fc(max) * ( 2 tSw ) * f 1 .1 0

PT = P DN(avg) + P DFF(avg) + ^SW 1 .1 1

= d * VcE(sat) * k + ~ * ^CECmax) * -fc(max) * fSW * / 1 .1 2

Solution a) conduction current = ^ ^ = 9.7 A

power loss during on state PQn = 1-5 * 9.7 = 14.55 W

The maximum power dissipation (from Example 1.3) = 14.55 W.

/ W ON(avg) = “ V b (max) * /c(max) = (1 2 0 * 2 0 )/6 = 4 0 0 W

■ The book includes many worked examples to illustrate concepts intro

Unlike an ideal switch, an actual switch, such as a bipolar junction tran

2. Controlled rectifiers (AC to DC): a controlled rectifier converts a single

Pr = d * ^ce(SAT) * -fc + T ^CE(max) * -fc(max) * %W * f 1 .1 2