DESM - 1

I-V

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

PG Diploma in Electrical Safety and Safety Management

Course - I

BASIC ELECTRICAL SAFETY AND SAFETY EQUIPMENT

UNITS: I - V

Annamalai University

Copyright Reserved
(For Private Circulation only)
 BASIC ELECTRICAL SAFETY AND SAFETY EQUIPMENT

SYLLABUS

UNIT - I
Objectives of safety and security measures – Principles of electrical safety –
Review of Indian Electricity Rules and Indian Electricity Acts – their Significance –
Summary of IE Rules – General Safety requirements – IE Rules relating to supply
and use of Electrical Energy – Systems for low, medium, high and extra high
voltages – IE Rules relating to overhead lines, u.g. cables, generating stations electric
traction, mines and oil fields.
UNIT - II
Hazards of electricity – arc affected body parts – causes of injury and death –
Mechanism of Electricity Injury – Bio Physical and Physiological nature of Electrical
Injury – Respiratory or blood vascular system – alertness factor – current path –
state of affected organism – Environmental factors.
UNIT - III
Electrical safety equipment – protective clothing – head and eye protection –
rubber insulating equipment – hot sticks – insulated tools, barriers & rings – safety
tags, locks, locking devices – safety voltage measurement – safety grounding
equipment – ground fault interruption – electrician’s safety kit – human factors in
electrical safety.
UNIT – IV
Classification of electrical installations – Ground clearance and section
clearances – metallic earthed fence switch yards – Earthing of equipment bodies –
Earthing of system neutral – Electrical safety general requirements as per IE rules –
electrical layout of switching devices and short circuit Protection.
UNIT - V
Electrical safety in residential, commercial and agricultural installations – case
studies – multi stored buildings – Agricultural pump installations – Do’s and Don’ts
for safety in the use of domestic appliances – safety management of electrical plants.
REFERENCES
1. Electrical safety, fire safety engineering and safety management, S. Rao
and Prof. H.L. Saluja, Khanna publishers, Delhi, 1998.
Annamalai University
2. A Practical Book on Domestic Safety, C.S. Raju, Sri Sai Publishers, 2003.
3. Guide lines on electrical installation for practicing contractors, Tamil
Nadu electrical installation engineer’s association (A-Grade), Chennai,
1995.
 CONTENTS

Unit Page
Title
No. No.

I Objectives of safety and security measures 1

II Hazards of electricity 17

III Electrical safety equipment 35

IV Classification of electrical installations 56

V Electrical safety in residential, commercial and 78

agricultural installations

Annamalai University
 1

UNIT – I

OBJECTIVES OF SAFETY AND SECURITY MEASURES

OBJECTIVES
The objective is to discuss Indian Electricity Rules relating to various kinds of
electrical equipment.
CONTENT
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Objectives of Safety and Security Measures
1.3. Principles of Electrical Safety
1.4. Review of Indian Electricity Rules and Indian Electricity Acts and their
Significance
1.5. Objectives and Scope of IE Act and IE Rules
1.6. Classification of Electrical Installations
1.7. Ground Clearances and Section Clearances
1.8. Metallic Earthed Fence for Switchyards
1.9. Indian Electricity Act
1.10. Summary
1.11. Questions
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Electricity is dangerous: However, electricity is very useful and has become
essential in modern life. Electricity is used in houses, farms, plants, factories,
public places and practically every working place for lighting, operating appliances
and machines, heating / cooling, chemical processing, transport, etc. By proper
precautions, electricity can be used very safely.
Dangers from electricity are due to:
- Electric Shocks resulting in burns, injury, deaths.
- Electric flashovers resulting in deaths, fires, damages.
- Electric faults resulting in arcing, explosions and fires.
- Explosions in electrical equipment resulting in damage to installations and
deaths.
- Fire hazards resulting in destruction, loss of life and release of smoke, dust,

-
Annamalai University
gases which spreads over large areas quickly.
Pollution by thermal power plants.
We are all aware about the above mentioned dangers (hazards) related with
electricity. But we are so much accustomed to electricity that we tend to be careless
while working with electrical apparatus, equipment, installation. Careless use of
electricity is dangerous and leads to fires, shocks, destructions and deaths.
The safety precautions must be taken at every stage of electrical work and
associated civil, mechanical, chemical work etc. Safety precautions are necessary
 2

and essential in design, manufacturing, testing, transport, installation, operation

and maintenance of electrical equipment and installations.
Safety precautions to be taken at various stages from design to operation,
maintenance should be known and understood by concerned personnel (viz.,
designers, workers, transporters, store-keepers, erection staff, commissioning staff,
operation and maintenance staff and users)
Safety precautions to be taken at every stage (design to final use and periodic
maintenance) should be documented in the form of ‘Dos and DONTs’, and
‘checklists’. Warning signs must be placed. Entry should be restricted. Security
should be ensured. Personnel concerned with various activities must be trained in
electrical safety and general safety.
Safety Inspection is carried out at every stage (design to final use and periodic
maintenance). The electrical safety inspectors check the design, equipment,
installation operation and maintenance from electrical safety and general safety
requirement – view and recommend necessary modification / improvements /actions
before giving safety clearance.
1.2. OBJECTIVES OF SAFETY AND SECURITY MEASURES
- To establish safety management systems, safety audit system.
- To achieve 100% safety and 100% security of Installations equipment,
Human life and animal life.
- To bring awareness about safety hazards and safety rules.
- To educate personnel.
- To understand Causes and Effect relationship in accidents and scientific
phenomena associated with electricity.
- To control the situation and prevent accidents, injury and loss to human life
installations and property.
- To minimize loss in case of accident.
- To ensure prompt first aid and emergency help in case of accident.
- Study of unsafe acts and unsafe conditions leading to accidents. To take
corrective measures to eliminate them.
1.3. PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Electrical Safety is concerned with accidents occurring due to electricity. Each
electricity accident is caused by certain unsafe act/acts by a person/persons and/or
Annamalai University
unsafe conditions. The accidents must be prevented by effective safety
management. Accidents / Incidents must be investigated and analyzed. Preventive
actions / Conditions must be enforced to avoid similar and other accidents. The
basic principles have been reviewed.
1. Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions: Each electrical accident is caused by
certain unsafe acts and/or unsafe conditions. Behind one accident there
are several “chance misses”.
2. Each accident should be followed by inspection and investigation to identify
and pinpoint the unsafe acts, unsafe conditions responsible for the
 3

accidents and recommend corrective actions to avoid similar accidents in

future. Many of the accidents can be prevented by enforcing Safety
Management Systems.
3. For example consider and accident caused by placement of a ladder near
live bus in a switchyard. The inspection and investigation resulted in
identification of following act/condition.
The Unsafe Act: Placement of ladder near live bus in High Voltage Switchyard.
The UnSafe Condition: Entry in high voltage switchyard with ladder.
The Corrective Action: Switchyard to be provided with fence, gate, lock, entry
only against work permit issued after making busbars dead.
4. Multiple causes: Behind every electrical accident, there are causes and
subcauses. The investigations should bring-out clearly the various causes
and subcauses and recommended corrective action against each cause and
subcause. This will help in eliminating similar and other accidents in
future. For example consider the case of accident cause by placement of
ladder near live busbars.
The accident occurred in 400 kV switchyard during minor repair work of
lighting-maintenance. Following causes and sub-cause were identified during the
investigations.
- Switchyard had no fense. The person carrying ladder could walk-in and
place the ladder near live bus.
- The person carrying ladder was uneducated, untrained and of low IQ.
- The supervisor instructed the persons to carry the ladder and place it near
the structure. However the person placed it near the live bus. The
supervisor gave unsafe instructions.
- Safety procedures were by-passed by the supervisor due to negligence.
- Work permit system was not established by the Management.
CORRECTIVE ACTIONS
- Fencing to switchyard with gate and lock.
- Work permit system established to ensure opening of gate only after making
the busbars dead/earthed.
- Annamalai University
Safety training to supervisors and workerse.
5. Unsafe conditions can be identified in advance and their harmful effects
can be controlled.
Unsafe conditions associated with electricity and electrical installations are:
- High voltage installations and equipment.
- Erection at high rise levels.
- Storage of inflammable materials.
 4

- High pressure gas filled equipment.

- Equipment filled with transformer oil.
- Causes of an accident include ‘proximate causes’ and ‘prime-cause’. Prime
Cause of an accident can be attributed to weakness in Safety Management
System of organization.
6. Questioning Attitude: The function of Safety is of concern to everyone. The
following questions are helpful in identifying unsafe acts / conditions which
may lead to an accident.
- What can cause accidents?
- What is the possible root cause and what are possible proximate causes
that may lead to various accidents?
- How can the situation be controlled to prevent the possible accidents? How
can the root causes be eliminated?
1.4. REVIEW OF INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES AND INDIAN ELECTRICITY ACTS AND
THEIR SIGNFICANCE
The laws regarding supply and consumption of electricity are promulgated by
the State Government and Union Government under the Authority provided by the
Constitution of India. These laws protect the interest of the consumers, suppliers of
electricity and general public.
The rules regarding the safety in construction and use electrical installations /
plants / equipments are framed by Central Electricity Authority. These Indian
Electricity Rules protect the interests of general public; construction workers /
contractors / personnel; operation and maintenance staff engaged in generation,
transmission, distribution and utilization of electricity.
The I.E. Act was first promulgated in 1903 and then amended in 1910, and in
1948.
The I.E. Rules were first framed in 1922 and amended in 1937 and 1956.
The I.E. Acts and I.E. Rules are amended from time to time to keep pace with
changing scenario of electrical technology.
1.5. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF IE ACT IE RULES
The objectives under the provisions of Indian Electricity Act and Indian

-
Annamalai University
Electricity Rules are:
To regulate the relation between the Electricity supplier and the Consumer
and
- To make the generation, distribution and use of electricity as safe, as
possible.
For this purpose, the Act and Rules have identified five different categories of
persons each with its own functions and obligations, namely
 5

1. Supplier.
2. The owner or the consumer.
3. Electrical Inspector.
4. Electrical Contractor/Supervisor.
5. Authorized person.
All the five have been made responsible within their own jurisdiction for
achieving safety.
The IE Act 1910 and IE Act 1948 has following provisions:
6. To provide for issue of licenses and sanction to the Electric Supply
Companies and regulate their working.
7. To provide for efficient supply of Electricity to consumers.
8. To provide for the appointment of the Electrical Inspector to administer the
Act the rules that may be framed under the Act.
9. The provide for the Constitution of the State Electricity Board and the
Generating Company and to lay down their powers and duties.
10. Creation of Central Electricity Authority to regulate the functioning of the
State Electricity Board and the Generating Companies.
11. To regulate the rates of the Electricity sold by supply Companies and
Licenses.
IE Rules (1922, 1937, 1956) cover safety requirements of various classes of
electrical plants, installations and equipments and define the scope of Electrical
Inspectors.
1.6. CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
The electrical installations are classified on the basis of nominal rated voltage
as:
1. Low Voltage Electrical Installation (LV or LT). Where the voltage does not
exceed 250 volts under normal conditions. LT refers to low tension.
2. Medium Voltage Electric Installation (MV). Where the voltage exceeds
250 volts but does not exceed 650 volts under normal conditions.
3. High Voltage Electrical Installation (HV or HT). Where the voltage exceeds

4.
Annamalai University
650 volts but does not exceed 33,000 volts under normal conditions.
Extra High Voltage Electrical Installations (EHV). Where the voltage
exceeds 33,000 volts under normal conditions.
Electrical Installation of the above categories comprises of transformer, sub-
station, Switch gears, Operating devices, Panel Boards, Electric Motors, Portable
Equipment, Pumps, Lights, Fans, Ventilation Systems, Air conditioning System,
Auxiliary Electrical Distribution Power Cables, etc.
The classification LV, HV, MV, EHV, as per Indian Electrical Rules differs from
classification of CIRED and general terminology in transmission and distribution.
 6

As per IEC and CIRED classifications the term Low Voltage (LV) applies to
voltages upto and including 1000 V, Medium Voltage applies to voltages above 1000
V and upto and including 36 kV, High Voltages (HV) includes all voltages above 36
kV and upto 245 kV, and EHV applies to voltages above 245 kV.
The Voltages refer to phase to phase RMS values of sinusoidal AC voltages of
standard frequency of 50 Hz.
Each voltage level has three values of voltages; (1) Nominal Voltage, (2) Highest
Voltage, (3) Lowest Voltage.
Significance of Voltage Class
The voltage levels are standardized. With each voltage level, the highest system
voltage and lowest system voltage values are also specified. The power supply
company has to ensure that the voltages at various points in the system are within
the specified limits.
The equipments are designed to withstand the highest system voltage
continuously without failure.
The insulation levels of each equipment have a reference to the rated voltage of
the equipment. Thus, the voltage class is important with reference to insulation
requirements of the plant and equipment.
The clearance, creepage distances, test voltages and safety precautions to be
taken increase progressively with higher voltage class. For example, voltage stresses
are low in LV systems and high in HV systems. The LV systems are generally used
for domestic and commercial lighting loads.
The nominal system voltage is for reference and operational target. However,
during regular operation of the electrical system, the system voltage varies with
changes in the load and changes in the flow of reactive power. By effective voltage
control, the system voltages are held within specified limits. These limits are in
terms of Highest System Voltage and Lowest System Voltage. Thus each voltage
level in the system has following voltage values.
1. Nominal System Voltage.
2. Highest System Voltage.
3. Lowest System Voltage.
1.7. GROUND CLEARANCES AND SECTION CLEARANCES
Annamalai University
Clearances and their significances: The term Clearance denotes the clear
distance between two conducting points along a stretched string.
Important clearances include the following:
1. Phase-to-Earth Clearance: It is the clearance between live conducting
part and neighbouring earthed parts (earthed structures, tanks, wall,
screens, earth wire, etc.) or ground.
2. Phase-to-Phase Clearance: It is the clearance between live parts of
different phase.
 7

3. Isolating Clearance (Distance): It is the minimum distance along a

stretched between the two sides of an open isolator (disconnector) pole.
The distance has significance from safety point of view, during maintenance.
The isolators on either sides of the dead section under maintenance are opened.
Positive visible isolation is useful to ensure safety.
While designing a high voltage equipment, adequate external phase to earth
clearance should be provided for each phase. In case of CTs, VTs, Las, Circuit
Breakers, Isolators, Earthing Switches, Busbars, Line traps etc., the live parts
(conducting parts) are supported on insulators. The length of these insulators and
size of equipments is governed by the minimum clearance requirements.
The three dimensional configuration of Switchyards and Electrical Plants are
dictated by requirement of minimum phase to phase and phase to ground clearance.
4. Work Section and Section Clearance. A maintenance person can work
safely within the work section (Maintenance Zone). While working in
the work section some part of his body (hand/Leg) may be outside the
work section (maintenance zone). Under such a situation adequate safe
clearance must be available between the stretch part of the persons
body and the nearest live part. This clearance is called Section
Clearance. In other words, Section Clearance is the distance between
Maintenance Zone (work Section) and nearest live part plus one
stretched arm length of maintenance person. The work section should
be considered in form of 3 dimensional contour with reference to
nearest live part.
Certain minimum clearance (distance) should be provided to prevent flashovers
during transient over-voltage under worst atmospheric and pollution conditions.
The various standards recommend the minimum clearance distances in air for
outdoor installations and indoor enclosed installations. These recommendations
serve as a guide for equipment designers and substations designers.
5. Ground Clearance: The distance between the uppermost earthed
metallic point (on structure or tank) and the ground level (on which
person stands) is called Ground Clearance. Such a clearance is
essential for safe distance between raised finger of a man standing on

Annamalai University
the ground near the equipment structure/tank and the uppermost
earthed point. If such a ground clearance is not available, fence /
earthed/guard/screen-fence must be provided around the equipment
and entry in the enclosed fence area should be prohibited.
Rule 64(2), phase to earth and sectional clearances to be maintained for H.V.
and E.H.V. installations have been introduced in 1987, are given in Table 1.1.
Ground Clearance (Minimum): 2.55 M
Minimum Ground Clearance (2.55) is specified on the basis of height of a all
man’s raised finger tip and the ground. User may provide ground clearance of 2.8m
 8

or 3m, or even more to perint movement of vehicles, tools carried by persons etc.
without encroaching in phase to ground clearance.
1.8. METALLIC EARTHED FENCE FOR SWITCHYARDS
Switchyards have busbars mounted on insulators and structures, CTs/VTs,
isolators, Surge Arrestors etc. mounted on structures Power Transformers mounted
on foundations.
Switchyards must be provided with metallic earthed fence of minimum 1.8m
height.
Equipment which are not mounted on earthed, galvanized steel structures of
2.55 m height must be provided with additional earthed metallic fence of 1.8 meter
height.
The metallic fence has sections of 3 to 4 meter length around the entire
perimeter of the switchyard.
Earthing bars of earthing system are laid outside the fence along the entire
perimeter and the individual fence sections are connected to the earthing bar ring by
welding smaller earthing strips/bars with the welded joints per section of the fence.
Consecutive fence sections are connected to each other by steel strips / clamps
bolted on either sides.
I.E. Rule 68. In case of out door type sub-station a metallic fencing of not less
than 1.8 metres height shall be erected around transformer, and/or entire
switchyard.
Clearance Between Lowest Point of Conductor and Ground for Transmission Lines and
Distribution Lines
Transmission lines and distribution lines have conductors which have natural
sag. The sag is maximum at mid span. The sag is maximum during summer and
peak loads. When the sag is maximum, the mid span clearance is minimum.
Certain minimum mid-span line conductor to ground clearance must be
provided to ensure that vehicles of normal height can pass under the line without
flashover. Table 1.2. gives the summary of I.E. Rules for line to ground clearance.
Table 1.1: Minimum air clearance values in substations as per I.E. Rules

Phase to Earth Sectional Clearance

Voltage Class
clearance (Metres) (Metres)
Not
Annamalai University
exceeding 11 kV 2.75 2.6
Not exceeding 33 kV 3.70 2.8
Not exceeding 66 kV 4.00 3.0
Not exceeding 132 kV 4.60 3.5
Not exceeding 220 kV 5.50 4.3
Not exceeding 400 kV 8.00 6.5
 9

Table 1.2.: I.E. Rules Regarding Conductor to Grounds Clearance for Overhead
Transmission Lines

Minimum mid span

I.E. Rule Condition Class of Line conductor to
ground clearance
Rule 76 Acorss a street LV to MV 5.8 metres
HV 6.1 metres
Along a street LV to MV 5.5 metres
HV 5.8 metres
Anywhere else (not near LV, MV, HV: Upto 4.6 metres
roads bare conductor) 11 kV
Anywhere else (not near LV, MV, HV : Upto 4.0 metres
roads insulated cond.) 11kV
Anywhere else (not near road) HV: Above 11 KV 5.2 metres
bare conductor upto including
33 kV
Anywhere else (not near EHV 6.1 metres
roads bare conductor)
HV above 33 kV 5.2 + 0.3 for every
33 kV
Rule 79 Line near Bldg. with flat Roof LV and MV Vertical 2.5 metres
or Inclined Rood Rooftop to
line
Building to line LV and MV Horizontal 1.2
metres
Rule 80 Line Near HV Line 33 kV Line HV Vertical 3.7 metres
and Roof top or Bldg. Side
EHV Lines above 33 kV and EHV Vertical 3.7 metre
Roof top or building side + 0.3 metre per
each 33 kV

Rule 77 and 82 specify the clearance for the service lines, electric transmission
and distribution lines at various voltages.
Annamalai University
Rule 82 specify the procedure to be adopted for construction of any building
structure addition, alteration or elevation of roads etc. In the vicinity of any electric
line. Table 1.3. gives the summary of IE rules.
 10

Table 1.3.: IE Rules regarding capabilities of circuit components switching devices and
protective Devices
IE Rule Description
These are for guide lines and inspection points / check Safety precautions are recommended
lists. in general IE rules. These must be
followed at every electrical
Rule 35 Caution notices to be fixed on Elec. installation. Caution notice in
Installation English and Hindi/Local language
Rule 44 Shock treatment chart to be displayed. must be displayed along with
drawings / illustrations. This helps
Rule 45 Addition/alteration which alters the in awareness and alertness for safety.
characteristic of the installation shall only be
Unsafe conditions are noted down
done by a licensed Electrical Contractor.
during periodic inspection and
Rule 46 Periodical Inspection of Installation is appropriate corrective actions are
necessary either by licences or government. taken for making the installation
safer. This is a regular activity at
Rule 47, Testing of consumer’s installation precaution every plant / site.
48-49 etc.
Electrical inspectors visit the
Rule 51 Switch Boards and conductors for LV, MV construction site and the plant
and HV installations regularly to ensure that all the safety
rules are followed. Any deviation
required due to local condition shall
be with written permission from
electrical inspector.
i. All conductors shall be completely Safety rules insist that live
enclosed in strong metal casing conductors should not be accessible.
which is mechanically and He user / operation maintenance
electrically continuous and person / General public should not
adequately protected against get contact shock from live conductor.
damage. Hence bare live conductor at normal
working zones and accessible levels
ii. The switch board for medium or high are not permitted. Conductors are
voltage supply shall have a clear insulated or enclosed in earthed metal
space of not less than one meter in enclosured in earthed metal
front and either less than 20 enclosures or conductors are
centimeters behind or a gang way of supported on post insulators/string
over 75 cms. In width and 8 meters insulators at specified level above
height behind. ground and at sufficient distance from
iii. All metal of enclosing or supporting buildings so that they are not
installation to be earthed. touchable by common man easily.
Neutral earthing at supply end is
iv. Supply side transformer neutral
essential for safely discharging over
shall be solidly earthed. For each
voltages, operation of earth fault
voltage level only one neutral may be
protection, keeping balanced three
earthed. Earthing of second neutral
Annamalai University
at the same voltage level would give
continuous induced currents or third
phase system voltages, eliminating
arcing grounds.
harmonic currents. Neutral of CT secondaries and VT
secondaries must also be earthed.
Rule 66 Conductors shall be enclosed in metallic Metalic Enclosures, cabinets, guard
covering and suitable circuit breakers shall wires, doors, bodies, cabinets,
be provided to protect the equipments from structures etc. are earthed for safety.
over loading etc.
 11

Rule 50 Motor switching circuits Contactor can perform several million

Suitable switching device and protective switching operations with normal load
device shall be provided on supply side of LV, current and certain overload current
MV, HV Motors Motor should be protected by limit. Contactors do not have
either fuse switch unit or reset type tripping capability to break short circuit
device (contactor or circuit breakers. currents. Hence contactor starters
Following combination is used in practice for must be provided fuse provides fast
motor switching and protection short circuit protection. Thermal
overload relays are provided within
Switching contactor startor. Single phasing
of normal Protection preventers are also provided within
Class of
and against short contactor starters.
motor
overload circuit currents For larger high voltage motors, which
currents are not started frequently, circuit-
breakers and motor protection relay is
provided on supply side. Backup
HRC Fuses are generally not
necessary as circuit breaker breaks
short circuit currents.
Switch /
LV Fuse Surge arresters and surge
contactor
suppressors are provided phase to
ground in each phase between
switching device and motor terminals
for protection against switching
surges. Body of motor is earthed.
MV, HV Circuit Fuse / circuit
breaker breaker

Rule 50 Essential conditions for supply of electrical It should be possible to switch on/off
energy the supply during normal switching
i. A suitable linked switch or circuit operation. This function is served by
breaker is erected at the point of suitable fuse linked switch or circuit
common of supply. breaker at supply point during fault
in the load side, fuse link blows off or
ii. A suitable linked switch or circuit
the circuit breaker trips. Fuse link
breaker is erected at the secondary side
should be replaced or circuit breaker
of the transformer.
should be reclosed after removal of
iii. Every circuit is protected by a suitable fault and testing the load circuit.
cutout.
Rule 50 Supply through power transformer The supply side of power transformer
(primary side) should have a
Supply through power transformer switching device and protective device
Transformer Control to be provided against over load and short circuit
Capacity currents.
On primary On Secondary
The load side of transformer should
side side
Annamalai University
A linked
switch (to
also have similar devices. However
short circuit level on load side of
single feed transformer is less than
carry the full short circuit level on double feed
load current transformers (parallel transformer
Upto
and to break Cut outs connected to primary and secondary
100 kVA the bus).
magnetizing
current) with
buses
 12

A linked
Above 100
switch with
kVA and
- do - fuses or a
upto 630
circuit
kVA
breaker
Above 630 Circuit – Circuit –
kVA and breaker breaker
upto 5000
kVA
Above 500 Circuit – Circuit –
kVA breaker breaker
Rule 29 All electrical supply lines and apparatus Each apparatus/installation has
shall be of sufficient rating and size and of certain assigned ratings. These are
sufficient mechanical strength for the work correlated with respective Indian
they may be required to do, and shall be standard specification. The
constructed, installed protected, worked and capabilities of apparatus/installation
maintained in such a manner as to prevent are ensured by conducting relevant
danger at all times. test. Essential specified ratings are
(1) Normal current (2) overload
current for specified time and
magnitude (3) Short circuit current
level for 1 sec/3 sec (4) Rated voltage
(5) Rated insulation level (6) Switching
duty (for switching devices) (7) Type of
enclosure (8) service conditions.
Correct choice of apparatus is
essential for design safety.
Rule 32 Switches shall be in the line conductor. No
cut out, link or switch other then a gang
switch shall be inserted in the neutral
conductor. Code of practice of shall be
followed while marking the conductors.
Role 64A Essential protections for HV and EHV
installations The rule also makes following
protection compulsory:
a. Over current protection.
b. Earth fault/earth leakage protection
c. Gas pressure protection for transformers
of capacity 1000 kVA and above.
d. Differential protection for transformers
10 MVA and above.
e. Internal earth fault protection of capacity
1000 kVA and above.
Rule 45 Execution and commissioning of HV and The IE rules have made provision to

Annamalai University
EHV installation.
Rules pertain to:
a. agency for erection
ensure that the electrical work
isexecuted by trained persons only.
This ensures (1) safety of persons
while doing the work. (2) work is done
b. important provisions in respect of wiring
properly and the installation is safe
and substation.
during regular operation.
c. Commissioning tests.
The factories and industries in some
d. Rule 45 prescribes all work shall be
states have however, been allowed to
carried out by licensed electrical
carry out their own electrical
contractor under the supervision of a
installation work provided they
person holding certificate of competency
employ the similar staff and possess
and by a person holding a permit issued
the equipment as are required by an
or recognized by the state Government.
electrical contractor under the rules.
 13

Rule 64A Interlocks in HV and EHV circuits. Following Interlocks ensure that the operations
interlocks are recommended as essential: are carried out in desired safe manner
and accidents /injury/damage does
a. Interlocks between isolator and
not occur.
controlling circuit breakers.
Circuit breakers are devices for
b. Interlocks between isolator and earth
opening and closing during current
switches.
carrying state of conductors. Current
c. Interlocks between different source of is established by closing the circuit
supply controlling breakers or linked breaker (not by isolator).
switches.
Current is switched off by opening the
d. Interlocks between primary and circuit breaker (not by isolator).
secondary breakers of transformers
Isolator is only for providing
operating in parallel.
additional isolation in the circuit for
e. Interlocks between supply giving access safety.
to live parts with suitable earthing and
Earthing switches are for discharging
discharging arrangement.
the electrical charges after opening of
f. Interlocks between neutral switch of two circuit breaker. Interlocks ensure
or more generators operating in parallel following correct frequence.
and their controlling breakers.
Opening a Closing a
circuit circuit

Circuit 1 First to 2 Next to

breaker open  close 

Earthing 3 Next to 1 First to

switch close open

Rule 64 Power transformers and cable Trenches – Fires and explosions are not
Prevention of spreading of fire in high voltage uncommon in substations and power
switchyards and installations. transformers are provided with oil
A suitable segretation shall be provided for soak pits for draining of oil. In new
licensee’s equipment. installations, provision of filling
nitrogen in the emptied tank is made.
A suitable sockpit or arrangement to drain After draining the oil the tank is filled
out the oil shall be made in switch station or with high pressure nitrogen to
sub-stations where transformers are erected. suffocate the fire.
Cable trenches shall be filled by sand or The cable trenches near transformer
other non-in-flammable material and covered get filled by oil and the oil flow
by bricks. through the trenches resulting in
spread of fire and damage to cables.
Hence sand filling is recommended.

Rule 63 Special provisions for high and extra high The difference between LV and HV
and voltage installations: installations is with respect to danger
Rule 64 Annamalai University
The provisions which are important and
discussed here.
of flashover through clearance zone in
case of HV and EHV. Hence several
additional safety rules are specially
Rule 63: Approval of inspector is necessary recommended. Persons familiar with
before energizing any high or extra high work in LV circuits are generally not
voltage installation. familiar with the risks related with
Rule 64: All apparatus and equipment flashover in HV and EHV circuits.
intended to be used at high or extra high This ignorance results in accidents.
voltage shall be inaccessible except to an IE Rules must be followed to avoid
authorized person. accidents.
Rule 65: The installation must be subjected
to the prescribed test before energizing.
 14

Rule 36A Maintenance Non-observance of this rule has

i. The work is to be carried out by resulted in many accidents. It is not
authorized persons only. infrequent that helper who is not
ii. Before commencing the work, authorized, allowed to work on live
discharging and earthing is lines. Wrong switch is opened while
compulsory. the work is to be done some where
iii. Adequate precautions are to be taken else or the switch been put on even
so that there should be no danger from before the permit is cancelled and
any adjacent live part. work is complete.
iv. Also precautions are to be taken that Sometime a person may try to
there should be no chance of discharge the wrong terminal which
energization of the equipment or line on may believe resulting in heavy
which the persons are working. flashover and a serious accident.
v. The authorized persons required to While testing the supply on the switch
work on an electric supply line or terminals by test lamp having
apparatus shall be provided with tools ordinary stranded with leads has
and devices such as gloves, rubber resulted in accidents in factory by
shoes, safety belts, ladders, earthing short circuiting either two phase
devices, helmets, line testers etc. terminals or earthed metal parts with
All tools and devices are always to be kept in phase. To prevent such accidents use
safe and working conditions. of rubber hand gloves, goggles and
insulated test probes are necessary.
Rule 43 First Aid and fire protection. First aid is essential immediately after
First Aid Box must be kept at every work a accident. First aid saves life of
place. The location must be displayed and victim. Site personnel must be trend
shown to every working member. for giving first aid to the victim of an
accident. The victim should be
shifted to hospital for expert medical
Aid, and Resuscitation.
Rule 44 Fire Extinguishers and facilities for fire Site personnel must be trained for use
protection. of portable fire extinguishers and
Sand buckets and Portable fire extinguishers emergency operation in the event of
must be provided at each risk zone in the fire.
plant.
Rule 52 Appeal to Inspector regarding above defects.
Rule 56 Sealing of meter and cutout by licensee
Rule 57 Accuracy of energy meters.
Rule 58 Point of commencement of supply
Rule 133 Relaxation by Government.
Rule 134 Relaxation by Electrical Inspector
Rules Penalties for breach of rules.
138-141
Rule 47 Before giving supply from mains to the new Under rule 47 before connection is
and installation, the electrical inspector served, the supplier has to inspect
Rule 63 appointed by state government shall and test and consumer’s installation.
inspected and give clearance. Under rule 63 the written permission
Rule 60 and 65 provide for insulation of electrical Inspector is required for
Annamalai University
resistance test to be carried out every time
an equipment is to be connected after
H.T.
commissioning.
installations before
The permission is
alternations, repairs, or maintenance. also necessary for any addition of
alteration made in any H.T.
installation.
As regards the precommissioning test
the Rules prescribed only for
insulation resistance and H.V. tests
Rule 65 prescribed for H.V. tests to be
carried out the incase of H.V.
requirements. The tests prescribed
under the Indian Standard are
accepted under Rule 29.
 15

1.9. INDIAN ELECTRICITY ACT

The summary of eleven chapters of IE acts has been given in table Some
sections in IE acts are described below:
1. Grant of Licences
1.1 No person can engage in the business of supplying electricity unless he
obtains a Licence from the State Government under Section 3, or a sanction
under section 28. The State Government if themselves engage in supplying
energy will have powers and obligations of a Licensee under Section 51-A.
Similarly energy will have powers and obligations of a Licensee under
Section 51-A. Similarly the Board or a generating company is also a licensee
for the purpose of the Act 1910 to the extent shown under section 26 and
26 A of the 1948 Act.
Section 4 to 11 and Clause I to IV of the Schedule provide for amendment
and revocation of a licence, purchase of licensees undertaking by the State
Electricity Board and Submission of accounts by Licensees.
1.2 For the proper discharge of his functions a licensee or a supplier requires
power to lay his lines etc. on others property or near telegraph lines, sevage
pipes, railway lines etc. Law has therefore provided for the manner and
extent to which these powers can be used by a Licensee under Section 12 to
18, 31, 32 and 51. Most important sections are 12, 18 and 51.
Section 12 in brief provides for:
i) A licensee can open and break any soil or pavement within his area of
supply.
ii) Where lines are to be laid on a private property, the permission of the
owner or occupier is necessary in all cases where any supply line has
not already been laid.
iii) For purpose of providing a support on a private property a District
Magistrate can authorize a licensee. In such cases the District
Magistrate will also decide the amount of compensation or the annual
rent required to be paid.
Section 18 provides for
i) A general approval in writing of the methods of constructions of
overhead line is to be obtained by the licensee from the State
Government.
ii) A Magistrate can permit removal of a tree or other construction
interfering with the transmission of energy or accessibility of works.
However, more trees must be planted elsewhere.

Annamalai University
Section 51 provides for conferring the powers of a Telegraph Authority on the
Licensee by the State Government under these powers the Licensee can lay his lines
on a private property after observing procedures laid down in the Telegraph Act.
2. Meter
Under Section 26 the consumer is entitled to ask the licensee to provide a
metre. In such cases the metre is to be maintained by the licensee who can levy hire
charges for such metres.
3. Disconnection of Supply
The licensee is entitled to disconnect the consumer’s supply under Section 24
in case of non payment of his charges after giving not less than seven days notice in
 16

writing. However the cannot disconnect the supply if a dispute has been referred to
the Electrical Inspector before issue of the disconnection notice. It is to be noted
that the dispute should be referred under any other provision of the Act like Section
26 and Section 24 does not provide for reference of disputes of any kind whatsoever.
4. General I.E. Acts
Section 39 to Section 50 in Chapter IV of I.E. Acts covers Criminal offences
related with supply of electricity. A short list is given below:
Table Summary of I.E. Acts
Section Description
39 Theft of energy
40 Penalty for meticiously wasting energy
41 Penalty for unauthorized supply by non licensee
42 Penalty for illegal or defective supply or non-compliance with order
43 Penalty for illegal transmission or use of energy
44 Penalty for interference with licensee’s work
45 Penalty for damaging public lamps
46 Penalty for neglitently using energy
47 Penalty for offences not otherwise provided for
48 Penalties for not to affect other liabilities
49 Penalties where work belong to Government
49A Offences by companies: If the offence is committed by company aggrieved
by the offence can only institute prosection against the person
responsible for offence and breach of section, Rules or Condition of
supply as the case may be.
1.10. SUMMARY
In this unit a detailed review of Indian Electricity rules and Indian Electricity
Act is given.
1.11. QUESTIONS
1. State the necessity to follow IE Rules.
2. State the functional responsibilities of electrical inspectors.
3. Give a check list of electricity Rules for earthing.
4. Give a check list of electricity Rules for clearances.
5. Give a check list of electricity Rules for switching device.
Annamalai University
6. State the responsibilities of supplier of electricity and users of electricity
as per IE Act.
7. State why dry type transformers are recommended for use in indoor
substations in power plant auxiliary system and commercial/industrial
substations?

 17

UNIT – II

HAZARDS OF ELECTRICITY
OBJECTIVES
The objective is to discuss the way in which human body is affected by
electricity.
CONTENT
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Hazards of electricity
2.2.1. Shock
2.2.2. Burning
2.2.3. Cell Wall Damage
2.2.4. Influencing Factors
2.2.5. Physical Condition and Physical Response
2.2.6. Current Duration
2.2.7. Frequency
2.2.8. ARC
2.3. ARC affected body parts
2.3.1. Skin
2.3.2. The Nervous System
2.3.3. Muscular System
2.3.4. The Heart
2.3.5. The Pulmonary System
2.4. Mechanism of electrical injury
2.5. Electrical injury as biophysical and physiological phenomena
2.5.1. Respiratory or Blood Vascular System
2.5.2. cardiac Cycle at the Moment of Current Effect
2.6. Alertness factor
2.7. Current path
2.8. State of affected organism
2.9. Environmental factors
2.9.1. Electric Field
Annamalai University
2.9.2. Magnetic Field
2.9.3. Microflora
2.10. Summary
2.11. Questions
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Modern society has produced several generations who have grown accustomed
to electricity. This acclimatization has been made easier by the fact the electricity is
silent, invisible, odorless, and has an “automatic” aspect to it. In the late 1800s,
 18

hotels had to place signs assuring their guests that electricity is harmless. By the
early 1900s, signs had to be hung to remind us that electricity is a hazard. In fact,
the transition of electricity from a silent coworker to a deadly hazard is a change
that many cannot understand until it happens to them. Because of these facts, the
total acceptance of an electrical safety procedure is a requirement for the health and
welfare of workers.
2.2. HAZARDS OF ELECTRICITY
The division of the electrical power hazard into three components is a classic
approach used to simplify the selection of protective strategies. The worker should
always be aware that electricity is the single root cause of all of the injuries. That is,
the worker should treat electricity as the hazard and select protection accordingly.
2.2.1. Shock
Electric shock is the physical stimulation that occurs when electric current
flows through the human body. The symptoms may include a mild tingling
sensation, violent muscle contractions, heart arrhythmia, or tissue damage.
2.2.2. Burning
Burns caused by electric current are almost always third-degree because the
burning occurs from the inside of the body. This means that the growth centers are
destroyed. Electric-current burns can be especially severe when they involve vital
internal organs.
2.2.3. Cell Wall Damage
Research funded by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has shown
that cell death can result from the enlargement of cellular pores due to high-
intensity electric fields.
2.2.4. Influencing Factors
Several factors influence the severity of electrical shock. These factors include
the physical condition and responses of the victim, the path of the current flow, the
duration of the current flow, the magnitude of the current, the frequency of the
current, and the voltage magnitude causing the shock.
2.2.5. Physical Condition and Physical Response
The physical condition of the individual greatly influences the effects of current
flow. A given amount of current flow will usually cause less trauma to a person in
good physical condition. Moreover, if the victim of the shock has any specific
problems such as heart or lung ailments, these parts of the body will be severely
Annamalai University
affected by relatively low currents. A diseased heart, for example, is more likely to
suffer ventricular fibrillation than a healthy heart.
2.2.6. Current Duration
The amount of energy delivered to the body is directly proportional to the length
of time that the current flows; consequently, the degree of trauma is also directly
proportional to the duration of the current.
Current flow through body tissues delivers energy in the form of heat. The
magnitude of energy may be approximated by
 19

J = I2 Rt.
Where
J = energy, joules
I = current, amperes
R = resistance or the current path through the body, ohms
T = time of current flow, seconds

Sufficient heat is delivered, tissue burning and/or organ shutdown can occur.
Note that the amount of heat that is delivered is directly proportional to the duration
of the current (t).
Some portion of the external current flow will tend to follow the current paths
used by the body’s central nervous system. Since the external current is much
larger than the normal current flow, damage can occur to the nervous system. Note
that nervous system damage can be fatal even with relatively short durations of
current; however, increased duration heightens the chance that damage will occur.
Generally, a longer duration of current through the heart is more likely to cause
ventricular fibrillation. Fibrillation seems to occur when the externally applied
electric field overlaps with the body’s cardiac cycle. The likelihood of this event
increases with time.
2.2.7. Frequency
Table 2.1 lists the board relationships between frequency and the harmful
effects of current flow through the body. Note that at higher frequencies, the effects
of Jule (I2t) become less significant. This decrease is related to the increased
capacitive current flow at higher frequencies.
It should be noted that some differences are apparent even between DC (zero
Hz) and standard power line frequencies (50 to 60 Hz). When equal current
magnitudes are compared (DC to AC nns), DC seems to exhibit two significant
behavioral differences:
1. Victims of DC shock have indicated that they feel greater heating from
DC than from AC. The reason for this phenomenon is not totally
understood; however, it has been reported on many occasions.
2. The DC current “let-go” threshold is higher than the AC “let-go”
threshold.
Annamalai University
In spite of the slight differences, personnel should work on or around DC power
supplies with the same level of respect that they use when working on or around AC
power supplies. This includes the use of appropriate protective equipment and
procedures.
 20

Table 2.1. Important Frequency Ranges of Electrical Injury

Frequency Regimen Applications Harmful effects

DC-10 kHz Low frequency Commercial Joule heating;
electrical power, destructive cell
soft tissue healing; membrane
transcutaneous potentials
electrical
stimulation
100 kHz-100MHz Radio frequency Diathermy; Joule heating;
electrocautery dielectric heating of
proteins
100MHz-100GHz Microway e Microwave ovens Dielectric heating
of water
1013 – 1014 Hz Infrared Heating; CO2 lasers Dielectric heating
of water
1014 -1015 Hz Visible light Optical lasers Retinal injury;
photochemical
Reactions
1015 Hz and Higher Ionizing Radiation Radiotherapy; Generation of free
x-ray imaging; UV radicals
therapy

2.2.8. ARC
Electric arcing occurs when a substantial amount of electric current flows
through what previously had been air. Since air is a poor conductor, most of the
current flow is actually occurring through the vapor of the arc terminal material and
the ionized particles of air. This mixture of super-heated, ionized materials, through
which the arc current flows, is called a plasma. Arcs can be started in several ways:
 When the voltage between two points exceeds the dielectric strength of
the air. This can happen when overvoltages due to lightning strikes or
switching surges occur.
 When the air becomes superheated with the passage of current through
some conductor. For example, if a very fine wire is subjected to excessive
current, the wire will melt, superheating the air and causing an arc to
start. Annamalai University
 When two contacts part while carrying a very high current. In this case,
the last point of contact is superheated and an arc is created because of
the inductive flywheel effect.
Electric arcs are extremely hot. Temperatures at the terminal points of the arcs
can reach as high as 50,000 kelvin (K). Temperatures away from the terminal points
are somewhat cooler but can still reach 20,000 K. These high temperatures can
cause fatal burns at distances of up to 8 feet (ft) or more. Even if the direct burns
 21

are not immediately fatal, clothing can be ignited which can cause fatal secondary
burns.
2.3. ARC AFFECTED BODY PARTS
2.3.1. Skin
Skin is the outer layer that completely encloses and envelops the body. Each
person’s skin weighs about 4lb, protects against bacterial invasion and physical
injury of underlying cells and prevents water loss. It also provides the body with
sensation, heat regulation excretion (sweat), and absorbs a few substances. There
are about 20 million bacteria per square inch on the skin’s surface as well as a
forest of hairs, 50 sweat glands, 20 blood veseels, and more than 1000 nerve
endings.
The main regions of importance for electrical purposes are the horny layer, the
sweat glands, and the blood vessels. The borny layer is composed primarily of a
protein material called keratin. Keratin exhibits the highest resistance of all the skin
parts to the passage of electricity. The sweat glands and the blood veseels have
relatively low resistances to the passage of electricity and provide a major means of
access to the wet, fatty inner tissues. Most of the electrical resistance exhibited by
the human body is centered on the external skin layers – the horny layer.
Effects on Current Flow
Since the body is a conductor of electricity. Ohm’s law applies as it does to any
other physical substance. The thicker the horny layer, the greater the skin’s
electrical resistance. Workers who have developed a thick horny layer have a much
higher resistance to electricity than a child with an extremely thin layer. However,
even high skin resistance is not sufficient to protect workers from electric shock.
Burns
Burnt heart muscle often can be fatal depending upon the amount of tissue
burnt and which part of the heart is affected. Like all electric current burns, heart
burns are frequently third-degree burns.
2.3.2. The Nervous System
The nervous system comprises the electrical pathways that are used to
communicate information from one party of the human body to another. To
communicate, electric impulses are passed from one nerve to another. For example,
the heart beats when an electric impulse is applied to the muscles that control it. If
some other electric impulse is applied, the nervous system can become confused. If
Annamalai University
the current is high enough, the damage can be permanent.
Shock
As far as the nervous system is concerned, at least three major effects can
occur when current flows through the body:
1. Pain: Pain is the nervous system’s method of signaling injury. When
current flows through the nerves, the familiar painful, tingling sensation
can result.
 22

2. Loss of control: An externally applied current can literally “swamp” the

normal nervous system electric impulses. This condition is similar to
electrical noise covering an information signal in a telemetering or other
communications system. When this happens, the brain loses its ability to
control the various parts of the body. This condition is most obvious during
the electrical paralysis, or electrical hold.
3. Permanent damage: If allowed to persist, electric current can damage the
nervous system permanently. This damage takes the form of destroyed
neurons and/or synapses. Since the nervous system is the
communications pathway used to control the muscles, such damage can
result in loss of sensation and/or function depending on the type of injury.
2.3.3. Muscular System
The muscular system provides motor action for the human body. When the
nervous system stimulates the muscles with electric impulses, the muscles contract
to move the body and perform physical activity. The heart and pulmonary system
are also muscle related.
Shock
Electrical shock can affect muscles in at least three significant ways:
1. Reflex action: Muscular contractions are caused by electric impulses.
Normally these impulses come from the nervous system. When an
externally induced current flows through a muscle, it can cause the
muscle to contact, perhaps violently. This contraction can cause
workers to fall off ladders or smash into steel doors or other structures.
2. Electrical paralysis: Current magnitudes in excess of 10 mA are
sufficient to block the nervous system signals to the muscular system.
Thus, when such an external current is flowing through the body, the
victim may be unable to control his or her muscles. This means that
the victim cannot let go-he or she is caught in an electrical hold. As
the current continues, the heating and burning action can lower the
path resistance and cause an increase in the current. If the current is
not cut off or if the victim is not freed from the circuit, death will occur.
3. Permanent damage: If the current is high enough, the muscle tissue
can be destroyed by burning. Currents of even less than 5A will cause
Annamalai University
tissue destruction if they last long enough. Because such burning
destroys the growth areas in tissue, the damage can be extremely slow
to heal. Physical therapy and other extraordinary methods may be
required to restore muscular function.
2.3.4. The Heart
The heart is a first-sized pump that beats more than 2.5 million times in a
75-year lifetime. Even a few minutes of heart failure can cause death. High on the
right arterial wall, a tiny bundle of nerve tissue called the sinus node ignites an
impulse that races across the wall and down to the atrioventricular (AV) node, a cell
 23

cluster at the gateway to the ventricles. In the wake of this impulses, a contraction
ripples the atrium, sending blood to the heart’s lower chambers.
The AV node, in turn, flashes the spark through the conduction pathways into
a nerve network that lines the ventricles. The spark leaps across the ventricle’s
muscle fibers at most 7 feet per second (ft/s). The resulting contraction sends blood
flowing from the heart.
A set of backup devices sustains the heart’s electrical system in times of need.
If the sinus node fails, the AV node initiates the heartbeat. There are even special
muscle cells that can deliver an impulse if the AV node does not.
Shock
When the heart’s electrical system is disturbed for any reason, such as an
outside current from an electric power shock, the whole process can fail. In fact,
electrical disruptions cause a large percentage of heart deaths.
The electric impulses in the heart must be coordinated to give a smooth,
rhythmic beat. An outside current of as little as 60 to 75 mA can disturb the nerve
impulses so that there is no longer a smooth, timed heartbeat. Instead the heart
fibrillates-that is, it beats in a rapid, uncoordinated manner. When a heart is
fibrillating, it flutters uselessly. If fibrillation is not ended quickly, death will follow.
Like any muscle, the heart will become paralyzed if the current flowing through
it is of sufficient magnitude. Oddly, paralysis of the heart is not often fatal if the
current is removed quickly enough. In fact, such paralysis is used to an advantage
in defibrillators. A defibrillator intentionally applies heart-paralyzing current. When
the current is removed, the heart is in a relaxed state ready for the next signal.
Frequently the heart restarts.
Burns
Burnt heart muscle often can be fatal depending upon the amount of tissue
burnt and which part of the heat is affected. Like all electric current burns, heart
burns are frequently third-degree burns.
2.3.4. The Pulmonary System
With the exception of the heart, the pulmonary system is the most critical to
human life. If breathing stops, all other functions cease shortly thereafter. When
the lower diaphragm moves down, it creates a vacuum on the chest chamber. This
in turn draws air into the sacs in the lungs. The oxygen is then passed to the
Annamalai University
bloodstream through the tiny capillaries. At the same time, carbon dioxide is
returned to the air in the lungs. When the lower diaphragm moves up, the air is
forced out of the lungs, thus completing the breathing cycle.
Current flow through the midsection of the body can disrupt the nervous
system impulses which regulate the breathing function. This disruption can take
the form of irregular, sporadic breathing, or-if the current flow is sufficient-the
pulmonary system may be paralyzed altogether. When such stoppage occurs, first
aid is often required.
 24

2.4. MECHANISM OF ELECTRICAL INJURY

The mechanism of the electrical injury is highly complicated since electricity
affects not only individual organs and tissues of the victim but also the human
organism as a whole.
As early as the turn of the 16th century, an outstanding scientist from Great
Britain, W. Gilbert investigated the effect of electric current on men.
In the middle of the 19th century, new treatment of disease by means of
electrochemical therapeutics such as employment of electrolysis (iontophoresis, ionic
medication) was initiated.
The research into the effect of electricity on the living organism look a different
turn after the first electrical accident was notified in 1862 and, notably, after
execution by electricity (electrocution) was introduced in the USA in the year of
1882.
The use of an electric chair as a means of execution was based on description of
industrial and home electrical accidents with morbid results. It was held that if the
electrical accidents result in instanteous and, consequently, painless death, then”
electrocution effected at the voltage 8 to 10 times as much as the voltage causing a
fatal accident, would be all the more instanteous and painless.
But soon it became apparent that electrocution ordinarily was neither
instantaneous nor painless. Physicians witnessing the electrocutions testified that,
on the contrary, that was the most torturous and hideous death. This unexpected
testimony compelled the experts to investigate the mechanism of injury inflicted with
electric current.
The versatile research conducted in 1930’s by Ferris, King, Spens and Williams
has become already classical. These authors experimented with “a fairly great
number of animals and obtained the data giving the parameters of the electric
current causing injury, which indicated a great importance of an experiment for
advance of electro-pathology.
It would seem that the debates on the source of injury (whether it is current,
voltage or energy) and on the affected organism (that is, at what stage of the heart
activity the current effect will be most dangerous) are closed. Furthermore, the
obtained numerical values coincided to a considerable extent with the hazardous

Annamalai University
parameters of the electric chair. The results of the above research were generalized
and then employed in the legislative documents in the USSR and many countries
abroad.
World War II interrupted the experiments started in the Leningrad branch of
the All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine by G. Frenkel, K-Golysheva and
A. Krein. But still in the war years this work was renewed at the Chair of Normal
Physiology of Navy Medical Academy. The research was conducted under the
guidance of G. Frenkel. The results were published in 1944 in the monography of A.
Akopyan and N. Podkopaev. In the post-war period, A. Pakhomov, G. Solodovnikov,
 25

O. Ushinskaya, A. Kiselev accomplished a series of experiments with the animals,

investigating the specific features of electrical injury. The data of those authors were
used in the extensive research made by P. Osypka and helped to select the animals
most suitable for this kind of experiments. P. Osypka experimented already with a
limited number of species, namely the sheep, goats and pigs.
The majority of the said research was not extensive enough. To the credit of G.
Frenkel, he set up a specialized laboratory of electropathology in the city of Frunze
and initiated a comprehensive study of electrical injury which cooperation of
physicians, biologists, biophysicists and electrical engineers.
The extensive experimental research of electrical injury by the Soviet and
foreign researchers enlightened our comprehension of the electric current effect on
animals and, at the same time, revealed that unconditional application of the data
obtained from experiments with the animals to the human beings are impermissible.
The attempts to eliminate this inconsistency were repeatedly made. As far back
as the last century, H. Weber correlated the effects of electric current on animals
with the action of small currents producing irritation in men. Fairly extensive
research within this frame of reference was made by C. Dalziel and P. Osypka who
validated substantially the density of currents, causing irritation or producing a
freezing hazard.
Nevertheless, the essential questions “What are the hazardous parameters that
kill a man? and “What are the most important circumstances that lead to formation
of those parameters?” remain unanswered. Current understanding of the
mechanism of electrical injury will be possible only through the medium of the latest
achievements of molecular biology and biophysics.
2.5. ELECTRICAL INJURY AS BIOPHYSICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA
The outcome of any damage to the organism is governed by a combination of
interrelated physical and biological phenomena. As far as the electrical injury is
concerned, its outcome from the Physical point of view is a consequence of direct
thermal electrochemical and electrodynamic effect, like the one exerted by electric
current on the metal conductors possessing electronic conductivity, on electrolytes,
where the flow of electric current takes place by migration of ions and, finally, on
semiconductors associated with hole conductivity. From the biological point of view,
the outcome of electrical injury may be determined by the physiological reactions of
Annamalai University
the human organism to the electric current effect.
The electric injury should be viewed upon as a biophysical phenomenon,
whereby the living organism with intrinsic electric fields of low strength and,
accordingly, with a small amount of absorbed energy has, all of a sudden, to absorb
a higher electric field energy.
Physiologically, the electrical injury represents an exogenous damage, i.e., the
damage depending on the environmental effects. The reflexogenic effects brought
about by the electrical injury vary from a slight irritation and local convulsion,
 26

exciting contraction of an extremety affected with electric current (referred to above

as an electric shock), to a burn or even a fatal outcome.
Like any other physical irritant, i.e, heated body, sound, light flash, mechanical
shock, etc., the electric current (or to be more exact, electric power absorbed by the
tissues) produces not only a local effect by damaging the tissues, but also a
reflexogenic effect which implies the instantaneous and involuntary response of the
organism.
The electric energy absorbed by the human body stimulates the organism
causing a reaction of a tremendous number of peripheral endings represented by
numerous receptors, which act, in a way, like the primary “information
transmitters”. The stream of physiological reactions colliding with one another, like
the water rapids and whirlpools, interrupt the automatic control system inherent to
any living organism, thus disturbing the vital processes which often result in
irreversible pathological changes.
Nevertheless, the direct action of the electric current exerted in the event of an
electrical accident on the muscles, and, notably, on the cardiac muscle, cannot be
underrated. Thus, at a sufficient current density, or o be more exact, when the
cardiac muscle absorbs a fairly high energy, fibrillation may ensure, bringing about
irreversible changes in the heart muscule activity.
2.5.1. Respiratory or Blood Vascular System
The answer to the problems of which organ is the first to be affected in case of
an electrical accident is important not only from the medico-biological viewpoint.
Rehabilitation of the victim will be more effective if we learn the origin (or, to be more
chary, the probable origin) of damage i.e., whether it is a blood vessel system,
respiration, or any other system.
Let us illustrate the foregoing with an example. The acute disturbance of the
cardiac activity in the man controlling industrial machinery and injured with electric
current entails grave consequences and net for the victim alone. Automatic transfer
of control to any other person or transmission of automatic alarm might isolate the
probable catastrophy, while automatic administration of resuscitation means (say,
electrical heart stimulation) might give the victim a life-saving gain in time.
To devise the specific accident prevention measures, a foreknowledge of how
these misfortunes originate, proceed and end is required. Is it the heart, that is,
Annamalai University
actually affected first? Or, perhaps, the respiratory organs fail in the first place? Or,
probably, the man is afflicted because of a damage to any other system?
Past Experience
Numerous cases of reviving the victims by means of manually-administered
artificial respiration only as well as some of the pathologoanatomical data made the
experts to believe that respiratory disturbances are initial. This view was held by
such famous researchers as D’Arsonval, Jellinek and Holstein-Rathlou.
However, the widespread opinion of the original disturbances in the respiratory
organs, in the case of fatal electrical injuries, that initially seemed infalliable, was
 27

then challenged. At the 7th International Congress on industrial accidents (1935) M.

Stassen proposed to classify the electrically injured by the “blues” (death caused by
cessation of breathing) and the “whites” (death caused by cessation of heart activity).
The likelihood of simultaneous interruption of functions of both the systems had
been doubted for a long time or, at best, recognized with caution, although back in
the 30’s the experiments conducted by I. Petrov on the dogs showed that death may
ensue either from cessation of blood circulation or cessation of breathing or from
simultaneous interruption of functions of both these systems.
The following data were obtained by I. Petrov: in the non-fatal injuries the heart
responded in 2 per cent of cases before the respiratory organs; in 2 per cent of cases,
later, and in 96 per cent the blood-vessel and respiration systems responded
simultaneously. In the fatal injuries, the heart stopped in 44 per cent of cases
before interruption of respiration, in 44 per cent after, and in 12 per cent of cases
both the systems were interrupted simultaneously.
Further on, with the advance of experimental electropathology the researchers
accumulated sufficient data indicating that the electrical injuries begin with
fibrillation ending in irreversible cardiac arrest. Within this frame of reference the
experimental data obtained by V. Negovsky and the body of researchers working
under his guidance (notably N. Gurvich) were fairly convincing.
The concept of fibrillation as a consequence of an electrical injury marked the
second stage of the study of the mechanism of the electrical injury. At this stage the
above-mentioned authors, like many other researchers experimenting with animals
of different species under different conditions, came to a conclusion that the
electrical injuries with fatal outcomes begin with fibrillation. This view was
supported also by observations over the electrically-injured persons.
However, application of neurohistology and other modern techniques of
appraising the causes of death from electrical injuries enables the experienced
medical examiners and pathologies to recognize cessation of breathing as a cause of
death. Such statements were also supported by the data obtained from investigation
of electrical accidents occurring in the installations with the voltage below 1000V
and, notably, at the low-voltage power supplies (36 and 65 V). And, indeed, in these
cases the current could not be more than a few mA and, as is known, the current
that low could not cause fibrillation even if the electrodes were placed directly on the
cardiac muscle. Annamalai University
Thus, at the third stage of the study, the predominant role ascribed to
fibrillation in the outcome of an injury was challenged. The standpoint of
fibrillationists was noticeably shattered by the comprehensive analysis of results
obtained from experimental data, in particular, the application of experimental data
to man has been found unfeasible. Belief in fibrillation as a predominant cause of
death has been based largely on experiments with dogs although the electrical
resistance substantially differs between the dog and the man.
 28

Virtually, the electrical injury inflicted to the dog by the current flowing through
the forelegs and hind legs is always conductive to death from fibrillation. To cause
the death of a dog otherwise than through fibrillation, the extremely unnatural
location of electrodes is required. Thus, G. Lyuban reproduced experimentally a
picture of electric shock by locating the electrodes on both ears of the guinea pig.
Another researcher (M. Turkmenov) reproduced the state of apparent death even
under more complicated experimental conditions. Only in exceptional cases K.
Azhibaev observed death in the dogs caused otherwise than through fibrillation, with
the current applied through complete or oblique loops. Thus, the question of the
predominant cause of death from the complete or oblique loops. Thus, the question
o the predominant cause of death from the electrical accidents, whether it is
fibrillary or respiratory, goes down to the problem of whether fibrillation necessarily
occurs when a man is electrically injured like it always does among the dogs in the
above-stated current path.
2.5.2. Cardiac Cycle at the Moment of Current Effect
Recognizing the argumentation of those researchers who see the primary cause
of death from electrical injuries in the damage of respiratory system, we cannot deny
the likelihood of a direct injury to the heart. Such likelihood is unquestionable, the
more so that the heart responds even to momentary electric shocks.
It has been noted that the heart is much dependent up9n the particular event
in its action that has been affected with electricity. The heart action is cyclic and the
complete round of the cardiac systole and diastole is referred to as the cardiac cycle.
The cardiac cycle may be recorded by various methods. At present, use is made of
biocurrents set free in the heart music previous to each heart beat; a method of
recording is referred to as electrocardiography.
Thus, the problem of what is the most dangerous for a man affected with
electric current, damage to respiratory system or cardiac arrest, is still under
intense discussion.
2.6. ALERTNESS FACTOR
The conflicting views regarding the initially-damaged system in case of a fatal
electrical injury (either it is the respiratory or cardiac system) can be in many
respects explained by the tremendous role played by the central nervous system
which confuses the existing notions of the mechanism of the electric current effects.

Annamalai University
In some instances, the central nervous system conduces to the irreversible
development of pathological changes, in the other cases it, on the contrary, creates
defensive (protective) barriers.
Simulation of the electrical injury cannot provide the only means for puzzling
out these misteries. The man, as the basic subject of research, is a highly intricate
organ, and, therefore, application of data obtained from experiments with animals,
to the man, will be fairly approximate, mainly because such transfer of data does not
allow for the state of the central nervous system which obviously plays an important
role in the outcome of the electrical injury. S. Jellinek, one of the scientists who laid
 29

the foundations of electrical safety, indicated in 1920’s that the differences between
the central nervous systems of the man and the animal do not allow the complete
and extensive simulation of the human electrical injury on the animals. S. Jellinek,
probably, approached fairly closely to the causes which hamper the correlation of
experimental data with the data obtained from statistical and instrumental analysis
of the industrial and home electrical injuries. It is suffice to recall his repeatedly
stressed idea of the alertness factor, that is, the predominant role played by the
central nervous system in response of the organism to electrical injuries. A vivid
description of this is given by his statement: “not every current kills but every
current may8 kill”, which, in a somewhat altered form, will read as “it is easy to die
from the electric current accidentally, but it is extremely hard to be electrically killed
intentionally”. S. Jellinek succeeded in disclosing the importance of the alertness
factor while investigating the electrical accidents. Wrote S. Jellineck:
S. Jellinek demonstrated the importance of the alertness factor not only by the
data derived from study of accidents but also experimentally. The experiments were
made with the cats. The cats which were held in a calm state died from the voltage
of 220 V, while those which were pestered with a stick, with the same voltage
applied meanwhile, regarded the electric shock as a blow of the stick and attacked
the experimentor.
The fairly interesting data on dependence of the electrical injury outcome on the
altertness factor was obtained by R. Veden-tieva who experimented with dogs.
Application of electr5ic current produced convulsions with the ensuring pathological
reaction manifested by higher permeability of vessels. A notable feature of these
experiments was that before the electric circuit was closed, a conventional signal
was applied warning the dogs about the forthcoming stimulus. The experiments
revealed, beyond doubt, that this warning had changed the afore-mentioned
pathological reaction and the change depended on the current magnitude: with the
current of 1 to 2A, the reaction was appreciably reduced, while with the current of
1 to 2 mA (which is slightly above the physiological response threshold) the reaction
was stronger. This implies that the warning, in a way, smoothes the difference in
the reaction force, weakening the strong reaction and amplifying the weak.
The great importance of the alertness factor has been confirmed by many
results of investigation of the electrical accidents.

Annamalai University
Somehow or other, such researchers as Koeppen and Osypka did not consider
the role of the altertness factor in their investigations into the electric current effect
on the animals. This will account for the linear relationship between the severity of
the outcome and the current magnitude, given by Koeppen, on the evidence of which
this author suggested a 4-stage classification of the injury outcomes according to
currents. However, neither this linear relationship, nor Koeppen’s classification
account for a great number of total outcomes fro a low voltage.
Of course, the alertness factor is not the only reason explaining the appreciable
discrepancy between the data obtained from experiments with animals and the
 30

actual data obtained from investigation of electrical accidents. But this is an

important factor calling for a further and more extensive study. The results of such
study may help to eliminate the existing inconsistencies in evaluation of hazardous
currents and voltages.
2.7. CURRENT PATH
Entrance of the electric current into the body is effected through a contact
between a current-carrying surface and the skin. However, the physical and
biophysical parameters of the skin surface are not at ail similar in the man and the
animal. A serious importance is attached to this by G. Frenkel and his followers.
This factor is also emphasized by A. Troitskaya who studied the electrical injuries of
the skin.
Biophysical components of the skin electrical resistance change the waveform
of the current time relationship in the transient which is observed, in this way or the
other, at any electrical injury.
It has been found that the human body contains the most vulnerable places,
with an area of 2 to 3 sq. mm, each, situated on the back parts of the hand, neck
and the shin of the leg. All these points are strictly confined: displacement of the
electrode merely by 1.5 to 2mm from the vulnerable point results in a marked
change in the characteristics of the electric circuit through the human body. This
change is manifest both in the rise of resistance by as much as 2 or 3 orders and in
the increase of the non-linear relationship between the resistance and voltage.
The skin portions with increased electrical conductivity differ from one another
(and this difference at times is fairly great) in their electrical characteristics and
painful sensations. It has been discovered that if at least one of the electrodese is
located on the skin portion with increased conductivity, the voltage rise to 4 or 8V
(as noticed among different persons) leads, as a rule, to the acute painful sensation,
with the pain spreading out into the head. Occasionally, the pain in the head is
preceded with the light effect in the eyes.
If both the electrodes are located on the vulnerable point, the above
phenomenon may appear even at lesser voltages. In this case the current is within
20 to 70 A. On the contrary, it has been clearly established that the threshold
(initial) current through the vulnearable portions of the body is lower than in the
other portions and the sensation is also different.
Annamalai University
In this connection the interesting results were obtained by V. Poderni who was
the first to disclose that the electrical conductivity of the skin differs with various
portions of the body. It will be also of obvious interest to investigate the vulnerable-
to-current points in the biological respect and to find out whether they are
associated with the points used in needle therapy. Recently, it has been reported
that the “needle points” may be found’ by the value of electrical resistance which is
less in this point than at the adjacent portions of the body. This fact, in part, was
specified in an extensive research made by V. Vogralik and E. Vyaz-mensky.
 31

Probably, the points vulnerable to current should be regarded as a special

group of receptors sensitive to current (these may be referred to as electrical
receptors). The research results obtained by Yu. Antomonov and L. Reshodko
support this hypothesis. These, authors, while dealing with certain practical uses of
ultra-short stimulation, devised a method enabling the sensitive points to be located
by means of current pulses with a duration of 10s. Their data coincide with that of
the author who experimented under somewhat different conditions. It has been
found that the points vulnerable to current migrate, in a way, displacing about a
certain middle point. If they were revealed in point A, they will be found a few
millimeters away from it, in point B after the period of 10 to 12 days. Obviously, if
the electrical receptors do exist, they possess a weak electric strength, and the
voltages applied for measuring the electrical resistance and for impulse stimulation
sensations from current. The increased electrical conductivity of the vulnerable
points is secondary and appears, evidently after the above disturbances.
Presumably, the change in the electric strength represents the detecting property of
the electrical receptor. However, these ideas should be investigated further, which is
important not only for solution of the electrical safety problems.
2.8. STATE OF AFFECTED ORGANISM
The outcome of an electrical injury much depends on the state of the affected
organism. To start with, the industrial fatigue occurring by the end of the work-day
dulls the alertness and not only increases the likelihood of injury but might
aggravate its consequences. Any illness leading to the nervous exhaustion will, no
doubt aggravate the injury. The same effect is produced by alcoholic intoxication.
K. Azhibaev and E. Saaliev indicated that sensitivity of the organism to current
effects may be changed by application of different drugs.
The increased activity of the thyroid gland and stenocardia are considered
among the specific diseases increasing the potential dangers of electrical injuries.
But the latter disease is not new since it has been already “black listed” as the
disease which prevents the employment of the afflicted persons to the work where
electrical injuries are likely. However, this limitation is not explicitly specified. It is
only indicated that frequent attacks of stenocardia make the afflicted persons unfit
for such jobs. But the human heart is the most vulnerable organ, as far as the
electric current is concerned, and even mild electrical injury may cause a
constriction of the arteria coronaria, i.e., the disturbances which are characteristics
of stenocardia. Annamalai University
Unfortunately, the facts of increased sensitivity – of persons to electric current
produced by certain diseases are based, as a rule, on individual observations, and,
therefore, the data is often conflicting. Wolter indicates that death from electric
current ensues suddenly in case of the afflicted heart, which is not the case with the
good heart.
 32

S. Jellinek presents similar observations when the high-voltage electrical

injuries inflicted to a person suffering from the heart malformation did not aggravate
the heart disease.
All of the above shows that the problem concerning the effect of the abnormal
condition of he human body on the injury outcome calls for a further and extensive
investigation.
The above-given considerations about the impact of the affected organism on
the injury outcome should be supplemented by considering the reverse picture and
that is how the non-fatal electrical injuries affect the victim’s health.
Recovery of the self-controlling system (respiration-heart) does not pass without
ill aftereffects in the number of cases.
The burns represent one of the sequels to electrical accidents, at times very
grave. The nature of the electrical burns (unless they are caused by the arc flash
without the passage of current) much differs from ordinary thermal burns because
here two kinds of damages, thermal and electrical become actually superimposed.
Therefore, the persons suffering from burns should be given an extensive medical
observation, primarily as regards their blood vessel system, and should undergo
necessary treatment. It is not uncommon that all measures are taken to heal the
burnt surfaces while the specific afflictions to the blood-vessel system are not
regarded.
It should be pointed out, while on the subject, that analysis of the accident
statement disclosed a great number or injuries cause with the voltage above 1000 V
which did not result in a fatality at the instant the victim was affected. Sometimes,
death ensued at a later period; in this case it was associated with the consequences
of burns. At times, the victim remained alive and then the favourable outcome was
attributed to . . . an insufficient burn. Along with G. Frenkel, the author believes
that the persons who did not die from the voltage above 1000 V remained alive
exactly because of the burns.
2.9. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Surrounding medium: The effect of the surrounding medium on the outcome of
the electrical injury has been proved both by experiments with the animals and by
investigation of electrical accidents. Excessive humidity and elevated temperature
increase electrical hazards. These indications make it possible to correct the
Annamalai University
classification of industrial premises as regards electrical safety, and, accordingly, to
put more stringent requirements to electrical equipment and its maintenance.
The elevated temperature is dangerous not only because a worker starts
perspiration due to which the electrical resistance of his body drops. Apparently,
any heat increase sensitivity of the human body to the electric current.
The excessive humidity produces nearly the same effect. Here, the drop in
electrical resistance results in a higher sensitivity of the human body to current.
 33

Apart from that, it is believed that the excessive humidity of air per se, decreases the
general resistance of the organism to the electric current.
The effects of the above environmental parameters, temperature and humidity,
have been covered by the appropriate standards. However, there is the third
environmental factor, and that is the pressure of surrounding air which also
influences the sensitivity to electric current.
2.9.1. Electric Field
The human body is constantly affected by the electric field with a strength of
120 to 150 V/m, which becomes still greater immediately before and pending the
thunderstorm. According to D. Biryukov, the study of the electric field effects in the
ionic flux is valuable both from the point of view of patho-genesis (the mode of origin
or development of any disease) and from the viewpoint of biotics. The Soviet
scientists wrote that the physiological effect of electric field on a living organism is
explained by the contact of electrical and aero systems with the living tissues. The
active substances produced in the process of electrochemical reactions in the tissues
affect the nerve receptors and cause certain reflexogenic displacements in the
organism, which in turn, affect the organism’s sensitivity to electric currents.
2.9.2. Magnetic Field
The interrelation between disturbances in the earth’s magnetic field (magnetic
storm) and the nature of disease has been discovered long ago.
G. Evtushenko, et al exposed the animals to the interrupted magnetic field
(pulse duration about 50 to 70 .s, with the same on-off ratio, exposure period 1.5 to
3 hours a day, field strength from 300 to 3000 oersted). A complete destruction of
tissues followed in a three (four)-month period, while exposure to the field of the
permanent magnets for many days much increased the resistance of the animals to
the effects of penetrating radiation sickness.
Also of interest are the experiments conducted by I. Ilipaev under the guidance
of G. Frenkel and K. Azhibaev, who experimentally disclosed the values of minimum
fibrillation current for winter (January-February) and summer time (June-July). It
has been found that this current is 83.2 mA in winter and 61.8 mA in summer. He
minimum fibrillation current is related to the temperature change but, to a greater
degree, to the change in the geomagnetic field strength.
Functional disorders of the human organism are caused by currents produced
Annamalai University
in the body of a living organism due to quantitative changes in the field strength.
Hence follows the logical association with sequels of electrical injuries.
2.9.3. Microflora
The effect of microflora on resistance of the human organism to various
physical factors, electric current among them, has been established beyond doubt by
numerous observations and research. However, the relationship between the
changes in the microflora content and the electrical hazards has not been completely
established numerically.
 34

From 1966 to 1967 the firm “Beckman Instruments” investigated the contents
of microflora and chemical admixtures in the enclosures accommodating radio and
electronic equipment. It has been found that only respiration of the attending
personnel resulted in appearance of upto to 130 kinds of various combinations while
the skin secretion of the attending personnel gave rise to almost 210 combinations.
Combination of these products of live activity of the personnel with ash formation
and gas liberation from radio components is conductive to 400 kinds of chemical
combinations relating to 22 chemical groups, among which, according to Manuelgoff
(FRG) highly toxic are indole, methane, creotine. The rise in toxicity, as stated by
Legersfer (USA) is also caused by the penetrating radiation from electronic tubes
located in the enclosure. The bacterial contents of the air also changes appreciably
and even highly effective ventilation systems are not capable of completely cleaning
the surrounding medium. It has been established that a change in the microflora
content and appearance of chemical admixtures in the air reduce the resistance of
the organism to the physical factors including the electric current.
To conclude, it should be pointed out that not all environmental factors
affecting, in this way or the other, the human organism, have been discussed in this
topic. To add, we shall mention such factors as dustiness and ultraviolet radiation,
which, at certain combinations and higher contents might aggravate the electrical
injury outcome. It is obvious that the reduce the severity rate and, moreover, to
eradicate the electrical accidents completely, it is necessary, first of all, to strictly
observe the sanitary and hygienic requirements, to organize the workplacese so as to
provide best possible work conditions and to promote the maximum resistance of the
organism to the adverse environmental effects, including the electric current. It is
possible that the future research could discover the surrounding medium with the
artificial gaseous content to be advised to the industrial and domestic premises.
The host of interrelated factors of the environmental and the state of human
organism, which bear upon the development and outcome of electrical injuries
depend primarily on distribution and absorption of electric energy in the human
body, varying with its electrical resistance.
2.10. SUMMARY
Various kinds of biophysical and bio-physiological effects of electric shock are
discussed with reference to human body in this unit.
2.11. QUESTIONS
Annamalai University
1. What are the hazards of electricity.
2. Explain how electrical injury affects the respiratory (or) blood vascular
system.
3. Explain the various environmental factors that influence electrical injury.

 35

UNIT - III

ELECTRICAL SAFETY EQUIPMENT

OBJECTIVES
The objective is to discuss various kinds of safety equipment used to prevent
electric shock to people operating the electrical equipment.
CONTENT
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Flash and thermal protection
3.3. Thermal performance evaluation
3.3.1. Flame Resistance (FR)
3.3.2. Arc Thermal Performance Value (Atpv)
3.3.3. Astm and Other Standards
3.3.4. Usage Standard
3.4. Clothing Materials
3.4.1. Non-Flame-Resistant Material
3.4.2. Cotton
3.4.3. Wool
3.4.4. Synthetic Materials
3.4.5. Synthetic – Cotton Blends
3.4.6. Flame-Resistant Materials
3.4.7. Nomex iii A:
3.4.8. Kermel
3.5. Work clothing
3.5.1. Flash Suits
3.6. Head and eye protection
3.7. Rubber insulating equipment
3.7.1. Rubber Gloves
3.7.2. Rubber Mats
3.7.3. Rubber Blankets
3.7.4. Rubber Covers
3.7.5. Line Hose

3.8.
Annamalai University
3.7.6. Rubber Sleeves
Hot sticks
3.9. Insulated tools
3.10. Barriers and signs
3.10.1. Barrier tape
3.10.2. Signs
3.11. Safety tags, locks and locking devices
3.11.1. Safety Tags
 36

3.11.2. Locks
3.11.3. Locking Devices
3.12. Safety voltage measurement
3.12.1. Proximity Testers
3.12.2. Contact Testers
3.13. Safety Grounding Equipment
3.13.1. Safety Grounding Switches
3.13.2. Safety Grounding Jumpers
3.14. Ground Fault Interruption
3.15. Human factors in electrical safety
3.15.1. Mythic Beliefs
3.15.2. Human factors
3.15.3. Hearing
3.15.4. Reaction Times
3.16. Summary
3.17. Questions
3.1. INTRODUCTION
The safety aspects of any job or procedure are greatly enhanced by the use of
proper tools and equipment. This unit outlines the construction and use of a variety
of electrical safety equipment. Some of the equipment is used to actually perform
work – items such as insulated tools or voltage-measuring devices fall into this
category. Other safety products are used strictly to protect the worker, for example,
flash suits and rubber goods.
3.2. FLASH AND THERMAL PROTECTION
The extremely high temperatures and heat content of an electric are can cause
extremely painful and/or lethal burns. Since an electric are can occur at any time,
the worker must wear protection when exposed to potential are hazards. Table 3.1.
itemizes the type of equipment required to protect the worker from the thermal
hazards of electric arc. Modern Technology has enabled the calculation of actual
incident are energies. When these arc energies are compared to the Arc Thermal
Performance Value (ATPV), the exact weight and type of thermal clothing can be
determined. The ATPV for any given material is calculated based on ASTM standard
F 1959/F 1959 M.
Annamalai University
Table 3.1. Equipment used to protect workers from arc hazard

Area of Board to be protected Equipment used

Torso, Arms, Legs Face shields, goggles, safety glasses
Head Insulating hard hats, flash hoots
Hands Rubber gloves with leather protectors
 37

3.3. THERMAL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

3.3.1. Flame Resistance (FR)
Most normal clothing will ignite when exposed to a sufficient heat source.
When the heat source is removed, normal clothing will continue to burn. Flame-
resistant clothing may burn and char when it is exposed to a heat source, but it will
not continue may burn and char when it is exposed to a heat source, but it will not
continue to burn after the heat source is removed. The most common test for flame
resistance is defined in method 5903.1 of federal test standard 1914 (Flame
resistance of cloth: vertical). This test suspends a 12-Inch-long specimen of fabric
vertically in a holder. The fabric is enclosed and subjected to a controlled flame on
the bottom edge of the fabric for 12 seconds. Table 3.2 lists the three sets of date
that are recorded in this test. Note that the results are gathered after the flame
source has been removed.
Table 3.2 Test drawn from method 5903.1 of federal test standard 1914

Test Result Measured Description

After flame The number of seconds (in Tenths) during which there is
a visible flame remaining on the fabric.
After glow The number of seconds (in Tenths) during which there is
a visible glow remaining on the fabric.
Char length The length of the fabric in tenths of an inch destroyed by
the flame that will readily tear by application of a
standard weight.

3.3.2. Arc Thermal Performance Value (Atpv)

Research by still and Chianta developed a curve (The so-called still curve) for
human tolerance to heat. The curve is based on the minimum incident heat energy
(in KJ/m2 or cal/cm2) that will cause a second-degree burn on human skin. Modern
standards that define the level of thermal protection required are based on the stoll
curve. That is, clothing must be worn that will limit the degree of injury to a second-
degree burn. This rating is called the arc thermal performance value (ATPV).
3.3.3. Astm and Other Standards
The American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) has two standards
namely F 1506, and F 1959 that apply to the thermal protective clothing to be worn
by electrical workers. ASTM standard F 1506 specifies three requirements for
Annamalai University
workers clothing. Standard F 1959 defines the technical specifications of measuring
the arc thermal performance value.
3.3.4. Usage Standards
The principal standards for electrical worker thermal protection are OSHA
1910.296 and ANSI / NFPA 70E. Of the these two, 70E is the most rigorous and
provides and best level of protection, and it defines used thermal protection
requirements on the basis of the ATPV.
 38

3.4. CLOTHING MATERIALS

Materials used to make industrial clothing fall into two major categories, with
several subcategories under each as follows:
1. Non-flame-resistant materials: When these materials are treated with a
flame-retardant chemical, they become flame resistant.
a) Natural fibers such as cotton and wool
b) Synthetic fibers such as polyester, nylon and rayon.
2. Flame-resistant materials
a) Non-flame-resistant materials that have been chemically treated to
be made flame-resistant.
b) Inherently flame-resistant materials such as PBI, Kernel and
Nomex. The following sections describe some of the some common
fibers and identify their general capabilities with respect to thermal
performance.
3.4.1. Non-Flame-Resistant Materials
Contrary to some misunderstandings, natural fibers such as cotton and wool
are not flame-resistant. In fact, the only advantage that natural fibers exhibit over
synthesis such as polyester is that they do not melt into the burn.
3.4.2. Cotton
Cotton work clothing made of materials such as denim and flannel is a better
choice than clothing made from synthetic materials. Cotton does not melt into the
skin when heated: Rather, it burns that natural fibers exhibit over synthesis such as
polyester is that they do not melt into the burn and disintegrates, falling away from
the skin. Thick, heavy cotton material provides a minimal barrier from arc
temperature and ignite quickly. At best, cotton provides only fair thermal
protection.
3.4.3. Wool
Wool clothing has essentially the same thermal properties as cotton clothing.
3.4.4. Synthetic Materials
Untreated synthetic clothing materials such as polyester and nylon provide
extremely poor thermal protection and should never be used when working in areas
where an electric arc may occur. Some synthetic materials actually increase the

Annamalai University
danger of exposure to an electric arc. Synthetic materials have a tendency to melt
into the skin when exposed to high temperatures. This melting causes three major
difficulties.
1. The melted material forms a thermal seal which holds in heat and
increases the severity of the burn.
2. Circulation is severely limited or cut off completely under the melted
material. This slows healing and retards the flow of normal nutrients and
infection-fighting white blood cells and antibodies.
 39

3. The removal of the melted material is extremely painful and may increase
the would already experienced by the burn victim.
3.4.5. Synthetic – Cotton Blends
Synthetic-cotton blends such polyester-cotton are used to make clothing that is
faster to care for. Although slightly less vulnerable to melting than pure polyster,
the blends are still extremely vulnerable to the heat of an electric arc and the
subsequent plasma cloud. Such blends provide poor thermal protection and should
not be used in areas where the hazard of electric arc exists.
3.4.6. Flame-Resistant Materials
Chemically treated materials. Both natural and synthetic fibers can be
chemically treated to render them flame resistant. Such materials are frequently
used in disposable, coverall-type clothing. While some chemical treatments (such as
borax and boric acid – salt combinations) may be temporary in nature, others are
quite satisfactory and may last for quite some time. In addition to the performance
issue, chemically treated materials in general do not have as high an arc thermal
performance value rating as do synthesis when the materials are compared by
weight.
Heavy weights of chemically treated natural fibers may provide superior
protection against certain molten metals.
3.4.7. Nomex iii A:
Nomex is an aramid fiber made by the Dupont company. It has a structure
that thickens and carbonizes when exposed to heat. This unique characteristic
provides nomex with excellent thermal protection. Nomex has been modified in the
years since it was first introduced. Nomex III A is made with an antistatic fiber and
is, therefore, suitable for use in hazardous environments such as those with high
concentrations of hydrocarbon gas. Since the characteristics of nomex are inherent
to the fiber, and not a chemical treatment, the thermal protection capabilities of
nomex are not changed by repeated laundering.
PBI is a product of the Hoechast Celanese corporation. It is similar to nomex in
that it is a synthetic fiber made especially to resist high temperatures. PBI is non-
flammable, chemically resistant, and heat stable. This heat stability makes it less
prone to shrinking or embattlement when exposed to flame or high temperatures.
3.4.8. Kermel
Annamalai University
Kermel is a synthetic polyamide imide aramid fiber manufactured in France by
Rhone-Poulenc. Kermel fiber is only offered in fabrics blended with other fibers.
Kermel is blended with wool for dress uniforms, sweaters, and underwear, and with
high-tenacity aramid for bunker gear and gloves. In the professional firefighter and
work wear areas, kermel is offered in a 50/50 blend with FR viscose rayon. Like
other synthetic flame-retardant materials, kermel is flame-resistant and does not
drip or melt when heated.
 40

3.5. WORK CLOTHING

Construction
Work clothing used for routine day-to-day electrical safety is employed
primarily as flash protection. Flame-retardant cotton, flame-retardant synthetic-
cotton blend, Nomex, PBI, or other flame-retardant materials are preferred. The
clothing should meet the following minimum requirements:
1. Long sleeves to provide full arm protection
2. Heavy weight for both thermal and mechanical protection.
When to use Thermally Protective Work Uniforms
Thermally protective work uniforms should be required for all workers who are
routinely exposed to the possibility of electric arc and / or flash. This applies
especially to workers in the industries which have the added hazard of flash fire. At
a minimum, all employees who are routinely exposed to 480 V and higher should
use the thermally protective materials.
Care of Thermally Protective Work Uniforms
Always refer to the manufacturers care and laundering instructions for specific
information. Work uniforms should be kept clean and free of contaminants.
Contaminated work clothing can be extremely hazardous. Table 3.3. lists typical
care and use precautions for thermal work clothing and flash suits.
Table 3.3 Care and use guidelines for thermal protective clothing

1. Clothing should not be allowed to become greasy and/or impregnated with

flammable liquids.
2. Launder according to manufacturer’s instructions. Generally, home
laundering in hot water with a heavy-duty detergent will be effective.
3. Do not mix flame-resistant garments with items made of other materials in
the same wash.
4. Do not use bleaches or other treatments unless recommend by the
manufacturer.
5. Remember that laundering may degrade the chemical treatment on some
flame-retardant materials. Observe manufacturer’s recommendations as to
how many washes constitute the life of the garment.
6. Inspect work uniforms and flash suits each use. If they are contaminated,
greasy, worn, or damaged in any way, they should be cleaned or replaced as
Annamalai University
required.

3.5.1. Flash Suits

A flash suit is a thermal-protective garment made of a heavier weight Nomex,
PBI or other flame-retardant material. This garment provides protection for
temperatures upto 450 degrees Fahrenheit. Flash suits are composed of a minimum
of two parts – the face-shield / hood and the jacket. Some flash suits are also
supplied with pants. The jackets should be securely sealed to prevent the entry of
the superheated plasma gas. Flash suits should be used any time an employee is
exposed to a higher than normal possibility of electric arc. The procedures are listed
 41

in table 3.4. Flash suits should always be used in conjunction with adequate head,
eye and hand protection. Note that all workers in the vicinity of the arc potential
should be wearing a flash suit.
Table - 3.4. Procedures which require the use of flash suits

1. Operating open air switches on circuits of 480v and higher

2. Open-door switching and racking of circuit breakers – 480v and higher
3. Removing and installing motor starters in motor control centers – 208v and
higher
4. Applying safety grounds – 480v and higher
5. Measuring voltage in any circuit which is uncertain or has exhibited problems
– 208v and higher
6. Working on or near any exposed, energized conductors – 208v or higher

3.6. HEAD AND EYE PROTECTION

Hard Hats
In addition to wearing protection from falling objects and other blows, electrical
workers should be equipped with and should water hard hats that provide electrical
insulating capabilities. Such hats should comply with the latest revision of the
American National Standard Institute (ANSI) standard 289.1 which classifies hard
hats into three basic classes.
1. Class G hard hats are intended to reduce the force of impact of falling
objects and to reduce the danger of contact with exposed low-voltage
conductors. They are proof-tested by the manufacturer at 2200v phase-to-
grounds.
2. Class E hard hats are intended to reduce the force of impact of falling
objects and to reduce the danger of contact with exposed high-voltage
conductors. They are proof-tested by the manufacturer at 20,000v phase-
to-ground.
3. Class C hard hats are intended to reduce the force of impact of falling
objects. They offer no electrical protection.
Electrically insulating class G or E hard hats should be worn by workers any
time there is a possibility they will be exposed to shock, arc, blast, mechanical
Annamalai University
blows, or injuries. Table 3.5. lists typical working conditions in which workers
should be wearing such protection. All components of the hard hats should be
inspected daily, before each use. This inspection should include the shell,
suspension, headband, sweatband, and any accessories. If dents, cracks,
penetrations, or any other damage is observed, the hard hat should be removed from
service.
 42

Table 3.5. Work Situations that Require Nonconductive Head Protection and Eye
Protection

1. Working close to exposed, overhead energized lines.

2. Working in switch gear, close to exposed energized conductors.
3. Any time that a flash suit is recommended.
4. When any local rules or recognized standards require the use of non
conductive hard hats or eye protection.
5. Any time there is danger of head, eye or face injury from electric shock, arc, or
blast.

3.7. RUBBER INSULATING EQUIPMENT

Rubber-insulating equipment includes rubber gloves, sleeves, line hose,
blankets, covers and mats. Employees should use such equipment when working in
an area where the hazard of electric shock exists. This means anytime employees
are working on or near an energized, exposed conductor, they should be using
rubber-insulating equipment. Rubber goods provide an insulating shield between
the worker and the energized conductors. This insulation will save the workers lives
should they accidently contact the conductor.
3.7.1. Rubber Gloves
A complete rubber glove assembly is composed of a minimum of two parts-the
rubber glove itself and a leather protective glove. In service, the leather protector fits
over the outside of the rubber glove and protects it from physical damage and
puncture. Sometimes the glove set will include a sheer, cotton insert that serves to
absorb moisture and makes wearing the gloves more pleasant. Rubber gloves are
available in six basic voltage classes from class 00 to class 4. Table 3.6 identifies
each class, its maximum use voltage, and the root-mean-square (rms) and direct
current (idc) voltages that are used to proof-test the gloves.
Table 3.6. Rubber insulating equipment classifications, use voltages, and test voltages

Class of Nominal Maximum Use

AC proof-test DC Proof – Test
Insulating voltage phase-phase,
voltages, rms, v Voltage, Avg, V
Blankets ac rms, max
00 500 2,500 10,000
0 1,000 5,000 20,000
1 Annamalai University
7,500 10,000 40,000
2 17,000 20,000 50,000
3 26,500 30,000 60,000
4 36,000 40,000 70,000

Rubber gloves and their leather protectors should be worn any time there is
danger of injury due to contact between the hands and energized parts of the power
system. Leather protectors should always be used over rubber gloves to provide
mechanical protection for the insulating rubber. Rubber gloves should be
 43

thoroughly inspected and air-tested before each use. They may be lightly dusted
inside with talcum power or manufacturer-supplied powder. This dusting helps to
absorb perspiration and eases putting them on and removing them.
3.7.2. Rubber Mats
Rubber mats are used to cover and insulate floors for personnel protection.
This type of mat is sold by many commercial retail outlets and is not intended for
electrical insulation purposes. Insulating rubber matting has a smooth, corrugated,
or diamond design on one surface and may be backed with fabric. The back of the
matting may be finished with cloth imprint or other slip-resistant material. Rubber
mats are available in five basic voltage classes, from class 0 to class 4, in two
different types, and in three subcategories. Employers should use rubber mats in
areas where there is an ongoing possibility of electric shock. Rubber mats should
only be used as a backup type of protection.
3.7.3. Rubber Blankets
Rubber blankets are rubber insulating devices that are used to cover
conductive surfaces, energized or otherwise. They come in a variety of sizes and are
used anytime employees are working in areas where they may be exposed to
energized conductors. Rubber blankets are available in five basic voltage classes (0
to 4), two basic types (I and II). And two styles (A and B). Type I blankets are made
of an elastomer which is not ozone-resistant. Type II blankets are ozone-resistant.
Both type I and type II blankets are further categorized into style A and B. Style A is
a non-reinforced construction, and style B has reinforcing members built in.
Rubber blankets should be used anytime there is danger of injury due to contact
between any part of the body and energized parts of the power system. Rubber
blankets may be used to cover switchgear, lines, buses, or concrete floors. They
differ from mats because they are not permanently installed. Rubber blankets
should be thoroughly inspected before each use.
3.7.4. Rubber Covers
Rubber covers are rubber insulating devices that are used to cover specific
pieces of equipment to protect workers from accidental contact. They include
several classes of equipment such as insulator hoods, dead-end protectors, line hose
connectors, cable and covers, and miscellaneous covers. Rubber covers are molded
and shaped to fit the equipment for which they are intended. Rubber covers are
available in five basic voltage classes (o to 4), two basic types (I and II), and five
styles (A, B, C, D and E). Many variables of rubber covers are available. Their size
Annamalai University
and shape are determined by the equipment that they are designed to cover. Rubber
covers should be used anytime there is danger of an injury due to contact between
any part of the body and energized parts of the power system. Rubber covers should
be thoroughly inspected before each use. They may then be applied to the
equipment which they are designed to cover. Any covers that appear to be defective
(or) damaged should be taken out of service until they can be tested.
3.7.5. Line Hose
Rubber insulating line hoses are portable devices used to cover exposed power
lines and protect workers form accidental contact. Line hose segments are molded
 44

and shaped to completely cover the line to which they are affixed. Rubber line hose
is available in five basic voltage classes (0 to 4), three basic types (I, II and III), and
four styles (A, B, C and D). Rubber line hose should be used any time personnel are
working on (or) close to energized lines (or) lines that could be energized. Line hoses
should be thoroughly inspected before each use. They may then be applied to the
lines which they are designing to cover. Any line hose that appears to be defective
(or) damaged should be taken out of service until it can be tested.
3.7.6. Rubber Sleeves
Rubber sleeves are worn by workers to protect their arms and shoulders from
contact with exposed energized conductors. They fit over the arms and complement
the rubber gloves to provide complete protection for the arms and hands. They are
especially useful when work must be performed in a cramped environment. Rubber
sleeves are available in five basic voltage classes (0 to 4), two basic types (I and II),
and two styles (A and B). Rubber sleeves should be inspected before each use. They
may be worn to protect the worker from accidental contact with energized
conductors. Be certain to check the last test date marked on the sleeve. If the date
is more than 12 months earlier than the present date, the sleeve should not be used
until it has been retested.
3.8. HOT STICKS
Hot sticks are poles made of an insulating material. They have tools/and / or
fittings on the ends which allow workers to manipulate energized conductors and
equipment from a safe distance. Hot sticks vary in length defending on the voltage
Level of the energized equipment and the work to be performed. Modern hot
sticks are made of fiber glass and / or epoxiglass. Older designs were made of wood
which was treated and painted with chemical-moisture and temperature – resistant
materials. Fig. 3.1. is an example of a simple hot stick fitted with a tool suitable for
operation of open-air disconnect switches.

Annamalai University
FIG. 3.1. TYPICAL HOT STICK (COURTESY AB CHANCE CORP.)

Hot sticks can be fitted with a variety of tools and instruments. Hot sticks can
also be purchased in telescoping models (Fig. 3.2) and so-called shotgun models
(Fig. 3.3). The telescoping type of hot stick is composed of several hollow, tubular
sections which nest inside of each other. The topmost section is first extended and
locked in place by means of a spring-loaded button which snaps into a hole. The
 45

user of the hot stick extends as many of the sections as are required to accomplish
the job at hand.
The shotgun hot stick (Fig. 3.3) has a sliding lever mechanism that allows the
user to open and close a clamping hook mechanism at the end. In this way the user
can attach the stick to a disconnect ring and then close it. After the switch is
operated, the shotgun mechanism is operated to open the hook. Fig. 3.4. Shows a
hot stick kit with several sections and various tools.

FIG. 3.2. TELESCOPING HOT STICK (COURTESY AB

CHANCE CORP.)

Annamalai University

FIG. 3.3. SHOTGUN TYPE HOT STICK. (COURTESY

AB CHANCE CORP.)
 46

FIG. 3.4. TYPICAL HOT STICK KIT FOR ELECTRICIANS AND LINE WORKERS.
(COURTESY AB CHANCE CORP.)

Hot sticks should be used to insulate and isolate the electrician from the
possibility of electric shock, arc, or blast. The specifies of hot stick use will depend
upon the task being performed and the location in which the worker is positioned.
As a general rule, if hot sticks are being used, the worker should also wear other
protective clothing. Before each use the hot stick should be closely inspected for
signs of physical damage which may affect its insulating ability. If the hot stick is
cracked, split, or otherwise damaged, it should be taken out of service.
3.9. INSULATED TOOLS
Insulated tools are standard hand tools with a complete covering of electrical
insulation. Every part of the tool is fully insulated. Only the minimum amount of
metallic work surface is left exposed. Such tools are used to prevent shock (or) arc
in the event that the worker contacts the energized conductor. Insulated tools
should be used anytime work is being performed on or near exposed, energized
conductors. They should be inspected before each use.
3.10. BARRIERS AND SIGNS
Whenever work is being performed which requires the temporary removal of
normal protective barriers such as penales (or) doors, barriers and signs should be
used to warn personnel of the hazard.
3.10.1. Barrier Tape
Annamalai University
Barrier tape is a continuous length of Abrasion – Resistant plastic tape. It
should be a minimum of 2 in wide and should be marked (or) colored to clearly
indicate the nature of the hazard to which employees will be exposed if they cross
the tape line. Fig. 3.5. Shows a type of barrier tape suitable for marking and
barricading an area where an electrical hazard exists.
 47

FIG. 3.5. BARRIER TAPE STYLES SUITABLE FOR ELECTRICAL HAZARDS (COURTESY
DIRECT SAFETY SUPPLY CO.)

3.10.2. Signs
Warning signs should be of standardized design and easily read. They should
be placed in such a way to warn personnel of imminent hazard. Fig. 3.6. shows a
type of sign suitable for use as an electrical hazard warning.

FIG. 3.6. TYPICAL ELECTRICAL HAZARD SIGN (COURTESY IDEAL INDUSTRIES, INC.)

3.11. SAFETY TAGS, LOCKS AND LOCKING DEVICES

Safety tags, locks and locking devices are used to secure and mark equipment
that has been taken out of service. They are applied in such a way that the

Annamalai University
equipment cannot be reenergized without first removing the tags / and / or locks.
3.11.1. Safety Tags
Safety Tags are applied to equipment to indicate that the equipment is not
available for service. They are tags constructed of a durable, environment-proof
material. They should be of standardized construction and include a waning that
says do not start, do not open, do not close, do not operate, or other such warning.
The tag must also indicate who placed it on the equipment and the nature of the
problem with the equipment Fig. 3.7. shows tags which are suitable for such an
application.
 48

FIG. 3.7. TYPICAL TAGS SUITABLE FOR TAGOUT PURPOSES. (COURTESY IDEAL
INDUSTRIES, INC.)

3.11.2. Locks
Locks are used to prevent operation of equipment that has been de-energized.
They must be strong enough to withstand all but the most forceful attempts to
remove them without the proper key. If a lock can be removed by any means other
than a bolt cutter of the key that fits it, the lock should not be used. Standard
padlocks are normally applied for lockout purposes (Fig. 3.8). Each employee
should have a set of pad locks which can be opened only by his (or) her key. A
master key may be kept for emergency situations which require that the lock be
opened by some one other than the one who placed it.

FIG. 3.8. TYPICAL PADLOCKS SUITABLE FOR LOCKOUT PURPOSES (COURTESY

Annamalai University
IDEAL INDUSTRIES, INC.)

3.11.3. Locking Devices

Some equipment, such as wall switches and molded case circuit breakers, do
not readily accommodate locks. In these instances, when lockout is required, a lock
device must be used. Fig. 3.9a shows locking devices which may be placed over the
handle of a molded case circuit breaker and clamped in place. The lock is then
installed through the hole left for that purpose. The breaker cannot be operated
until the device is removed and the locking device cannot be removed until the
padlock is open.
 49

Fig. 3.9b is a similar device which mounts on a standard wall switch. The
locking device is first attached to the wall switch with the switch face plate mounting
screws. The switch is moved to the off position and the hinged cover of the device is
closed. A padlock is placed through the flange supplied for that purpose. Fig. 3.10
shows locks, tags, and multiple lock devices being applied to electrical switching
equipment.

Fig. 3.9. Locking Devices, Courtesy Fig. 3.10. Typical application of Locks
Ideal Industries, Inc.) 2 Safety voltage tags, and Multiple-Lock devices.
Measurement (Courtesy Ideal Industries, Inc.)

Safety voltage measurement actually involves measuring for no voltage. That is,
a safety measurement is made to verify that the system has been de-energized and
that no voltage is present. Because of this, the instruments, that are used for safety
voltage measurement do not need to be highly accurate. They need only be accurate
enough to determine whether voltage is present in the system (or) not.
3.12.1. Proximity Testers
Proximity testers do not require actual metal-to-metal contact to measure the
voltage, in a given part of the system. They relay on the electrostatic field
established by the electrical potential to indicate the presence of voltage. Proximity
testers will indicate voltage levels through insulation. They will not provide accurate
results when cable is shielded. Proximity testers are not accurate and do not
indicate the actual level of voltage that is present. Rather they indicate the presence

Annamalai University
of voltage by the illumination of a light / and / or the sounding of a buffer.
Fig. 3.11. shows a simple neon light promixity tester. The end of the unit is plastic
and sized to fit into a standard 120-v duplex receptacle. It requires two AAA flash
light cells to operate. When placed in proximity to an energized circuit, the red
neon, located in the while plastic tip, glows.
 50

Fig. 3.11. “AC SENSOR” PROXIMITY VOLTAGE SENSOR FOR USE ON CIRCUITS UP
TO 600 V ALTERNATING CURRENT.
(COURTESY SANTRONICS, INC., SANFORD, NC.)

3.12.2. Contact Testers

Some personnel prefer the use of testers which make actual metal-to-metal
contact with the circuit being energized. Such instruments are called contact
testers. Contact testers may be simple indicators, but more often they are equipped
with an analog (or) digital meter which indicates actual voltage level. Fig. 3.12.
shows one of the more popular models used for voltages upto 600v alternating
current (or) direct current. This unit is a solenoid type of instrument. That is, a
spring-loaded solenoid plunger is connected to an indicator which aligns with a
voltage scale. The distance that plunger travels is proportional to the voltage level of
the measured circuit. The voltage scale is read in volts. The instrument also
indicates continuity and low voltage.
Fig. 3.13. shows a modern, digital readout safety voltmeter. This instrument is
suitable for circuits upto 1000v and is tested to 2300 v. It has an inherently high
impedance; therefore, it is not prone to arcing when the leads make contact. The
meter should only be used for voltage measurements. It has no continuity (or)
ammeter scales.
Fig. 3.14 shows a typical digital multimeter. These instruments are in common
use by virtually all electricians and electrical and electronic technicians. Such
instruments often have voltage ranges well above 1000v, however, use of them in

Annamalai University
power circuits with voltages above 600v is not recommended.
3.13. SAFETY GROUNDING EQUIPMENT
Even circuits that have been properly locked and tagged can be accidentally
energized while personnel are working on or near exposed conductors. For example,
 If capacitors are not discharged and grounded, they could accidentally be
connected to the system.
 Voltages could be induced from adjacent circuits. Such voltages can be
extremely high if the adjacent circuit experiences a short circuit.
 Lighting strikes could induce extremely high voltages in the conductors.
 51

FIG. 3.12. SAFETY VOLTAGE AND

CONTINUITY TESTER. (COURTESY IDEAL
INDUSTRIES, INC.)

FIG. 3.13. DIGITAL READOUT CONTACT-TYPE

SAFETY VOLTMETER. (COURTESY TEGAM. INC.)

Fig. 3.14. Digital readout multimeter. (courtesy fluke)

Annamalai University
Employees who are working on or near such exposed conductors could be
severely injured from shock, arc, or blast which results when the conductors are
accidentally energized. Because of this, safety grounding equipment should be
employed as one additional safety measure when employees must work near
exposed conductors.
3.13.1. Safety Grounding Switches
Grounding switches are specially manufactured units designed to replace a
circuit breaker in medium-voltage metal-clad switch gear. The switch rolls into the
space normally occupied by the breaker, and the switch stabs connect to the bus
 52

and line connections which normally connect to the breaker stabs. Fig. 3.15 to 3.17
show various views of a typical grounding switch.

FIG. 3.16. REAR VIEW OF A 15-KV GROUNDING

FIG. 3.15. FRONT VIEW OF A 15-KV GROUNDING SWITCH. (COURTESY UNO-VEN REFINERY,
SWITCH. (COURTESY UNO-VEN REFINERY LEMONT, IL.
LEMONT, IL).

FIG. 3.17. CLOSEUP OF JUMPER CONNECTIONS

FOR 15-KV GROUNDING UNO-VEN REFINERY,
LEMONT, II

3.13.2. Safety Grounding Jumpers

Safety grounding jumpers (also called safety grounds) are lengths of insulated,
highly conductive cable with suitable connectors at both ends. They are used to
protect workers by short-circuiting and grounding de-energized conductors. Thus if
a circuit is accidentally energized, the safety grounds will short circuit the current

Annamalai University
and protect the workers from injury. Safety grounds also drain static charges and
prevent annoying (or) dangerous shocks. Fig. 3.18 illustrates a typical set of safety
grounds.
 53

1. CLAMPS
2. FERRULES
3. CABLE

Safety Grounding Jumpers

1. Clampe: With Cable Strain Relief Sleeve
2. Forrules: Per Cable size & Clamp mat’l.
3. Cable/s: grounding: per system short circuit capacity. Length minimum
required to reach.
FIG. 3.18 Typical safety ground jumpers with component parts marked
(courtesy W.H. Salisbury and Co.)

3.14. GROUND FAULT INTERRUPTION

Fig. 3.19. shows a system that has been in use since the late 1960s. This
device, called a ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI), has a current transformer
which is applied to the hot and the neutral lead. The resulting output of the current
transformer is proportional to the difference in the current between the two leads.

Current
Molded transformer
case breaker
Hot load
Neutral
Ground

Sensor

Service box
Annamalai University Duplex outlet W/GFCI

FIG. 3.19. STANDARD 120-V SUPPLY WITH GROUND FAULT CIRCUIT INTERRUPTER.
(COURTESY AB CHANCE CORP.)

To understand its operation, consider what happens when a normal load is

attached to the duplex outlet of fig. 3.19. Under such circumstances, all the current
that flows through the hot wire will go to the load and return to the source on the
neutral wire. Since the currents on the hot wire and the neutral wire and equal in
 54

magnitude, the output from the GFCI current transformer will be zero and the GFCI
will not operate.
Now consider what happens when a grounded person contacts the hot wire
downstream of the GFCI. Under these circumstances current will flow from the hot
wire through the person and will return on the ground wire. Because of this the
currents on the hot wire and the neutral wire will not be equal. The current
transformer will produce an output to the sensor which will, inturn, cause the GFCI
breaker contacts to open.
This operation occurs instantaneously, that is, with no intentional time delay.
The circuit is disconnected very quickly and the person is spared the long-duration
shock. While a GFCI does not guarantee the complete safety of personnel, it is set
sensitively enough to save the life of the person an overwhelming percentage of the
time.
3.15. HUMAN FACTORS IN ELECTRICAL SAFETY
With regard to electrical safety, the term human factors refers to human
abilities, limitations, and other human characteristics impacting work.
3.15.1. Mythic Beliefs
The most human of characteristics is the ability to think. Mythic beliefs shape
how employees think about electrical safety. Furthermore, beliefs can influence
perception (or) what a person experiences in a specific work environment, by
affecting information detection. The following statements capture mythic beliefs that
directly affect electrical safety performance.
“I am experienced, so I won’t get injured”.
“Electrical Accidents happen when an employee isn’t paying attention”
“As long as I don’t touch an electrical source, I won’t get shocked”
“As long as I am at a safe distance I will be okay doing hot work”
“Flame – Retardant / Resistant gear is only worn for working on live parts”
“A flash can’t give me a shock”

3.15.2. Human Factors

About 80 percent of information about machines and systems cases to a worker
via his (or) her vision. Visual acuity is the ability of the eyes to see spatial details. It
is generally described by the visual angle approximated by the following equation:
Annamalai University
Visual angle (Minutes of Arc) = (57.3) (60) L/D
Where
L = The size of the object measured perpendicularly to the line of light.
D = The distance from the front of the eye to the object(s).
Visual acuity decreases as the complexity of the visual target increase. In other
words, when there is more to look, at, it is harder to see. The characterization of
visual acuity is described by the following parameters:
 55

1. Detection, that is, detecting the presence of an image / object.

2. Vernier, that is, detecting the alignment (or) misalignment of two images.
3. Separation; that is the observation of gaps between parallel lines, dots, or,
squares.
4. Forms. That is, the identification of shapes (or) forms physical factors that
influence visual acuity are the following illumination, contrast, time of
exposure, color of the target and of the larget background.
3.15.3. Hearing
Sound pressures needed for hearing depend on the material (or) media (eg. Air)
through which the sound or acoustic waves are propagating. The threshold by
hearing in the frequency rage of 1000 to 5000 hz is about 20  pascals (2.9 x 10 –9
psi) . Other influences on the ability to detect sound are the following.
1. The listener’s age.
2. The listener’s history of noise exposure.
3. The acoustic frequency expressed in hz.
4. The complexity of the bandwith tones.
5. The presence of competing sounds or masking.
3.15.4. Reaction Times
The important factors affecting reaction times are
1. Sleep deprivation
2. Fatigue
3. Time of day
4. Environmental causes
5. Drug use
6. Medical problems
7. Nutritional status
3.16. SUMMARY
This unit has dealt with various kinds of safety equipment and tools in a
detailed manner.
3.17. QUESTIONS
1. Write in brief about electrical safety equipment.

Annamalai University
2. Explain the various safety voltage measurement equipments and safety
3. Write a note on human factors in electrical safety.

 56

UNIT – IV

REVIEW OF I.E. ACT AND I.E. RULES

OBJECTIVE
The Objective is to discuss earthing applied to equipment and substations. IE
rules are also discussed.
CONTENTS
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Objectives of IE Act and ie rules
4.3. Classification of Electrical installations
4.4. Ground Clearances and Section Clearances
4.5. Metallic Earthed Fence for Switchyards
4.6. Clearances Between Lowest Point of Conductor and Ground for
Transmission Lines and Distributions Lines
4.7. Earthing of Equipment Bodies, structures Tanks and other Non-Current
Carrying Metallic Parts in Electrics Plants
4.8. Significance of Equipment Earthing and Earthing of Non-Current
Carrying Metallic Parts
4.9. Earthing of system Neutral
4.10. Electrical Safety – General Equipments as Per IE Rules
4.11. Electrical Layout, Switching Devices and short – Circuit Protection
4.12. Summary
4.13. Questions
4.1. INTRODUCTION
The laws regarding supply and consumption of electricity are promulgated by
the state Government and Union Government under the Authority provided by the
Constitution of India.
The rules regarding the safety in construction and use electrical
installations/plants/equipment are framed by Central Electricity Authority. These
Indian Electricity Rules protect the interests of general public; construction
workers/contractors/personnel; operation and maintenance staff engaged in
generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electricity.
The I.E. Act was first promulgated in 1903 and then amended in 1910, and in
1948. Annamalai University
The I.E. Rules were first framed in 1922 and amended in 1937 and 1956.
The I.E. Acts and E.E. Rules are amended from time to time to keep pace with
changing scenario of electrical technology.
4.2. OBJECTIVES OF IE ACT AND IE RULES
The objectives under the provisions of Indian Electricity Rules and Indian
Electricity Act are:
To regulate the relation between the Electricity supplier and the Consumer and
 57

To make the generation, distribution and use of electricity as safe, as possible.

For this purpose, the Act and Rules have identified five different categories of
persons each with its own functions and obligations, namely
i) Supplier.
ii) The owner or the consumer.
iii) Electrical Inspector.
iv) Electrical Contractor/Supervisor.
v) Authorized person.
All the five have been made responsible within their own jurisdiction for
achieving safety.
The IE Act 1910 and IE Act 1948 has following provisions:
1. To provide for issue of license and sanction to the Electric supply
Companies and regulate their working.
2. To provide for efficient supply of Electricity to consumers.
3. To provide for the appointment of the Electrical Inspector to administer the
act the rules that may be framed under the Act.
4. The provide for the Constitution of the State Electricity Board and the
Generating Company and the Generating companies.
5. To regulate the rate of the Electricity Sold by Supply Companies and
Licenses.
IE Rules (1922, 1937, 1956) cover safety requirements of various classes of
electrical plants, installations and define the scope of Electrical inspectors.
4.3. CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
The electrical installations are classified on the basis of nominal rated voltage
as:
1. Low Voltage Electrical Installation (LV or LT). Where the voltage does not
exceed 250 volts under normal conditions.
2. Medium Voltage Electric Installation (MV). Where the voltage exceeds 250
volts but does not exceed 650 volts under normal conditions.
3.
Annamalai University
High Voltage Electrical installation (HV or HT). Where the voltage exceeds
650 volts but does not exceed 33000 volts under normal conditions.
4. Extra High Voltage Electrical Installations (EHV). Where the voltage
exceeds 33000 volts under normal conditions.
Electrical installation of the above categories comprises of transformer,
substation, Switchgears, Operating devices, Panel Boards, Electric Motors, Portable
Equipment, Pumps, Lights, Fans, Ventilation Systems, Air conditioning System,
Auxiliary Electrical Distribution Power Cables, etc.
 58

As per IEC and CIRED classifications, the term Low Voltage (LV) applies to
voltages up to and including 1000 V, Medium Voltage applies to voltages above 1000
V and up to and including 36 KV, High Voltages (HV) includes all voltages above 36
K.V. Including and up to 245 kV, and EHV applies to voltages above 245 kV.
The Voltages refer to phase to phase to phase RMS voles of Sinusoidal AC
voltages of standard frequency of 50 Hz.
Each voltage level has three values of voltages: (1) Nominal Voltage, (2) Highest
Voltage, (3) Lowest Voltage.
Significance of Voltage Class
The voltage levels are standardized. With each voltage level, the highest system
voltage and lowest system voltage values are also specified. The power supply
company has to ensure that the voltages at various points in the system are within
the specified limits.
The equipments are designed to withstand the highest system voltage
continuously without failure.
The insulation levels of each equipment have a reference to the rated voltage of
the equipment. Thus, the voltage class is important with reference to insulation
requirements of the plant and equipment.
The clearances, creep age distances, test voltages and safety precautions to be
taken increase progressively with higher voltage class. For example, voltage stresses
are low in LV systems and high in HV systems. The LV systems are generally used
for domestic and commercial lighting loads.
And loads up to above 250 KVA. MV system are used for Industrial and Power
Plant auxiliaries and distribution systems. Rated up to about 2 MW.
The nominal system voltage is for reference and operational target. However,
during regular operation of the electrical system, the system voltage varies with
changes in the load and changes in the flow of reactive power. By effective voltage
control, the system voltages are held within specified limits. These limits are in
terms of Highest System Voltage and Lowest System Voltage. Thus each voltage
level in the system has following voltage values.
1. Nominal System Voltage.
2. Highest Systems Voltage.
Annamalai University
3. Lowest System Voltage.
4.4. GROUND CLEARANCES AND SECTION CLEARANCES
Clearances and their significance: The term Clearance denotes the clear
distance between two conduction points along a stretched string.
Important clearances include the following:
1. Phase – to – Earth Clearance. It is the clearance between live conducting
part and neighboring earthed parts (earthed structures, tanks, wall,
Screens, earth wire, etc.) or ground.
 59

2. Phase – to – Phase Clearance. It is the clearance between live parts of

different phase.
3. Isolating Clearance (Distance). It is the minimum distance along a
stretched string between the two sides of an open isolator (disconnect or)
pole.
The distance has significance from safety point of view, during maintenance.
The isolators on either sides of the dead section under maintenance are opened.
Positive visible isolation is useful to ensure safety.
While designing a high voltage equipment, adequate external phase to earth
clearance should be provided for each phase. IN case of CTs, VTs, Las, Circuit
Breakers, Isolators, Earthing Switches, Bus bars, Line traps etc., the live parts
(conducting parts) are supported on insulators. The length of these insulators and
size of ported on insulators. The length of these insulators and size of equipments is
governed by the minimum clearance requirements.
The three dimensional configuration of Switchyards and Electrical Plants are
dictated by requirement of minimum phases to phase and phase to ground
clearance.
4. Work Section and Section Clearance: A maintenance person can work
safely within the work section (maintenance zone). While working in the
work section some part of his body (Hand/Leg) may be outside the work
section (maintenance zone). Under such a situation adequate safe clearnce
must be available between the stretch part of the persons body and the
nearest live part. This clearance is called Section Clearance. In other
words, section Clearance is the distance between Maintenance Zone (work
Section) and nearest live part plus one stretched arm length of maintenance
person. The work section should be considered in form of 3 dimensional
contour with reference to nearest live part.
Certain minimum clearance (distance) should be provided to prevent flashovers
during transient over-voltages under worst atmospheric and pollution conditions.
The various standards recommend the minimum clearance distances in air for
outdoor installations and indoor enclosed installations. These recommendations
serve as a guide for equipment designers and substations designers.
5.
Annamalai University
Ground Clearance: The distance between the uppermost earthed metallic
point (on structure or tank) and the ground level (on which person stands)
is called Ground Clearance. Such a clearance is essential for safe distance
between raised finger of a man standing on the ground near the equipment
structure /tank and the uppermost earthed point. If such a ground
clearance is not available, fence/earthed/guard/screen-fence must be
provided around the equipment and entry in the enclosed fence area should
be prohibited.
 60

Table 4.1. Minimum air clearance values in substations as per I.E. Rules
Rules 64 (2), Phase to earth and sectional clearances to be maintained for H.V.
and E.H.V. installations (introduced in 1987).

Phase to Earth Sectional Clearance

Voltage Class
clearance (Meters) (Metes)
Not exceeding 11 kV 2.75 2.6
Not exceeding 33 kV 3.70 2.8
Not exceeding 66 kV 4.00 3.0
Not exceeding 132 kV 4.60 3.5
Not exceeding 220 kV 8.00 4.3
Not exceeding 400 kV 8.00 6.3

Ground Clearance (Minimum): 2.55m.

Minimum Ground Clearance (2.55m) is specified on the basis of height of a tall
man’s raised finger tip and the ground. User may provide ground clearance of 2.8 m
or 3 m, or even more to print movement of vehicles, tools carried by persons et.
without encroaching in phase to ground clearance.
4.5. METALLIC EARTHED FENCE FOR SWITCHYARDS
Switchyards have bus bars mounted on insulators and structures, CTs/VTs,
Isolators, Surge Arrestors etc. mounted on structures, Power Transformers mounted
on foundations.
Switchyards must be provided with metallic earthed fence of minimum 1.8 m
height.
Equipment which are not mounted on earthed, galvanized steel structures of
2.55 m height must be provided with additional earthed metallic fence of 1.8 meter
height.
The metallic fence has sections of 3 to 4 meter length around the entire
perimeter of the switchyard.
Earthing bars of earthing system are laid outside the fence along the entire
perimeter and the individual fence sections are connected to the earthing bar ring by
welding smaller earthing strips/bars with the welded joints per section of the fence.
Annamalai University
Consecutive fence sections are connected to each other by steel strips/clamps bolted
on either sides.
I.E. rule 68. In case of out door type sub-station on metallic fencing of not less
that 1.8 metres height stall be erected around transformer, and/or entire
switchyard.
 61

4.6. CLEARANCES BETWEEN LOWEST POINT OF CONDUCTOR AND GROUND FOR

TRANSMISSION LINES AND DISTRIBUTIONS LINES
Transmission lines and distribution lines have conductors which have natural
sag. The gas is maximum at mid span. The sag is maximum during summer and
peak loads. When the sag is maximum, the mid span clearance is minimum.
Certain minimum mid-span line conductor to ground clearance must be
provided to ensure that vehicles of normal height can pass under the line without
flashover. Table 4.2 gives the summary of I.E. Rules for line to ground clearance.
Table 4.2. I.E. Rules regarding Conductor to Grounds Clearance for overhead
transmission line

I.E. Rule Condition Class of Line Minimum mid span

conductor to ground
clearance
Rule 76 Across a street LV to MV HV Metres
6.1 metres
Along a street LV and MV HV 5.5. metres
5-8 metres
Anywhere else (not near LV, MV, HV: 4.6 metres
roads bare conductor) Upto
11 kV
Anywhere else (not near LV, MV, HV: 4.0 metres
roads insulated cond.) Upto
11 kV
Anywhere else (not near HV: Above 11 kV upto 5.2 metres
road) bare conductor including
33 LV
Anywhere else (not near EHV 6.1 metres
roads bare conductor)
HV above 33 kV 5.2 + 0.3 for every 33
kV
Rule 79 Line near Bldg. with flat LV and MV Vertical 2.5 metres
Roof or inclined Roof
Roof-top to line
Building to line LV and MV Horizontal 1.2 metres
Rules 80 Line Near HV Line 33 HV Vertical 3.7 metre
kV Line and Roof top or
Annamalai University
Bldg. Side
EHV Lines above 33 kV EHV Vertical 3.7 metre +0.3
and Roof top or building metre per each 33kV
side
Horizontal 11 kV to 1.2
metre 33k V to 2.0
metre avive 33kV 2
metre +0.3 metre per
each 33 kV
 62

Rule 77 and 82 specify the clearance for the service lines, electric transmission
and distribution lines at various.
Rules 82 specify the procedure to be adopted for construction of any building
structure addition, alteration or elevation of roads etc., in the vicinity of any electric
line.
4.7. EARTHING OF EQUIPMENT BODIES, STRUCTURES TANKS AND OTHER NON-
CURRENT CARRYING METALLIC PARTS IN ELECTRICS PLANTS
All non – current carrying metallic pats in electric plant must be connected to
the station earthing system for ensuring safety against shock. Such earthing is
essential safety requirement of every electric installation The IE Rules regarding
Equipment Earthing are given in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Summary of IE Rules for Equipment Earthing

IE Rule No. Description of Rules

Rule 33 Supplier of electricity shall provide earthing terminal at consumer’s
premises to which the earthing system in consumer’s installation shall be
connected. The consumer should protect the earthing terminal against
damage.
Rule 36 Lines should be disconnected and earthed terminal and earth connection
shall be provided for every non-current carrying metallic part associated
with electric plant equipment, lines cable.
Rule 51 to Separated and distinct earthing terminal and earth connection shall be
61 provided for every non – Current carrying metallic part associated with
electric plant equipment, lines cable.
Rule 66 Guard wires shall be earthed
Rule 88 Earthed guard wires shall be provided below HV and LV line conductors.
Earthed Guard wire shall be provided between power line conductor (HT or
LT) and Telecommunication lines.
Rules 107 Traction Guard wires shall be earthed
Rule 90 All metal fittings all support, all support, structure for line, stay wires,
metal parts in electric apparatus shall be earthed unless they are mounted
on insulator at appropriate height and distance from touch point.
Rule 92 Surge arrestor earthing terminals shall be connected by a separate
earthing strip to station earthing system and with additional earthing
electrodes connected to be earthing terminal.
Rule 61 (2)
Annamalai University
Frames of every stationary and portable electric motor, metallic parts of
transformer and every other electric apparatus shall be earthed by two
separate and distinct earth connection to underground earthing system.
Rule 61 (3) All metal casings and metallic covers containing electrical supply lines and
apparatus shall be connected to earth ensuring continuous good
mechanical and electrical connection of entire length and breadth with the
earth.
Rule 115, All non current carrying metals part in mines and mine fields shall be
117 earthed. The methods of earthing in mine are specified in Rule 115.
 63

4.8. SIGNIFICANCE OF EQUIPMENT EARTHING AND EARTHINGS OF NON-CURRENT

CARRYING METALLIC PARTS
Non current which are not at high potential with respect to earth and which
are normally near earth potential may give shock to operation and maintenance
personnel or general public due to
i) Leakage current through poor insulation,
ii) Induced current in metallic part duet to vicinity with power circuit,
iii) Dielectric charges in the capacitance associated with those metal parts.
By providing earthing to such metal parts (which are not at high potential and
which are not in the power circuit or auxiliary circuit) that part is held at ground
potential and following advantages are obtained.
Earthing of non current carrying metallic parts (at low potential with respect to
earth) ensures:
(i) The earthed part is at earth potential and therefore safe to touch
(ii) Leakage current are discharged to earth
(iii) Induced current are discharge to earth
(iv) Capacitive charge are discharge to earth
(v) Protective – gear/fure operates in the event of earth fault.
4.9. Earthing of System Neutral
Three phase AC System has three phase supply and three phase loads. The
Star point of 3 phase generator windings and three phase transformer windings (HT
or LT) are also called Neutral Point or System Neutral. Neutral Point should be
earthed at least at one star point at each voltage level at source – end. Connection of
star point of 3 phase AC system to earth (station earthing system) is called System
Neutral Earthing. The system natural earthing is different in purpose than the
equipment earthing (safety earthing).
All three phase AC power systems of today operate with grounded neutrals. In
some continuous process industries unearthed systems are used, however higher
insulation levels are necessary for such systems. Neutral grounding offers several
advantages. The neutral points (star point) of generator, transformer system, circuit,
rotating machines, etc., and star points of CT secondary circuit and VT Secondary

Annamalai University
Circuit are connected to earth either directly or through a resistance or a reactance.
In some cases the neutral point in is earthed through an adjustable reactor of
reactance matching with line to earth capacitance of a line. The neutral earthing is
one of the most important features of system design In every substation, neutral
grounding important because:
i) Neutral of 3 phase AC system must be held at earth potential to ensure
balance 3 phase AC supply. By neutral earthing. The neutral remains at
earth potential even though phase currents may be slightly unbalanced.
 64

ii) Earth fault protection becomes simpler. Earth fault current flows through
neutral and operates earth fault relay or earth fault current flows through
neutral and operates earth fault relay or earth fault fuse.
iii) Arcing grounds are minimized or eliminated. ‘Arcing grounds’ are small
phase to grounds are due to repeated charging and discharging of phase
to grounds capacitance through air gaps. By neutral grounding, the
return current through neutral is in phase opposition with capacitive
arcing currents. Hence arcing grounds are eliminated and voltages are
stabilized.
iv) Star points of CT and VT secondaries are earthed to ensure proper
balanced currents/voltages on secondary side for proper measurement,
protection, control of 3 phase AC system.
v) Transient lighting surges and switching surges are discharged to earth
through neutral earthing.
vi) Neutral Earthing plays an important role in the insulation Co-ordination
of power system.
In ungrounded neutral systems, higher class of insulation should be provided
for each equipment and pant (e.g. 33 KV class insulation for 22 kV class
equipment/plant) to prevent insulation failure during earth fault anywhere in the
system at that voltage level.
NEUTRAL GROUNDING PRACTICE
1. Generally one neutral ground is provided at each voltage level.
Between generator voltage level and distribution voltage level there are several
voltage levels. One ground is provided at each voltage level.
2. The grounding is provided with grounded neutral.
3. Each major bus section provide with grounded neutral.
4. Voltage Grounding type
Below, upto 660 V Low resistance of Reactance
22 kV and above Solid.
5. Star Point CT Secondary is earthed. Star point of VT secondary is earthed.

Annamalai University
4.10. ELECTRICAL SAFETY – GENERAL EQUIPMENT AS PER IE RULES
The following rules have important bearing on safety.
Rule 29: Construction, Installation, Protection, Operation and Maintenance of Electric
supply Lines and apparatus
All electric supply lines and apparatus shall be of sufficient ratings for powers,
insulation and estimated fault current and of sufficient mechanical strength, for the
duty which they may be required to personnel under the environmental conditions of
installation, and shall be constructed, installed, protected, worked and maintained
in such a manner as to ensure safety of personnel and property.
 65

Rule 30: Service Lines and Apparatus on Consumer’s Premises

The supplier shall ensure that all electric supply lines, wires, fittings, and
apparatus belonging to him or under his control which are on a consumer’s
premises are in a safe condition and in all respects fit for supplying energy and the
supplier shall take due precautions to avoid danger arising on such premises from
such supply lines, wires, fittings and apparatus.
Service lines placed by the supplier on the premises of a consumer which are
underground and which are accessible shall be so insulated and protected by the
supplier as to be secured under all ordinary conditions against electrical,
mechanical, chemical or other injury to the insulation.
The consumer shall, as far as circumstances permit, take precautions for the
safe custody of the equipment on his premises belonging to the supplier.
The consumer shall also ensure that the installation under his control is
maintained in a safe condition.
Rule 31: Cut out on Consumer’s Premises
The supplier shall provide a suitable cut out in each phase of every service line
other than an earthed on earthed neutral conductor or the earthed external
conductor of a concentric cable within a consumer’s premises, in an accessible
position. Such cut-out shall be contained within an adequately enclosed fireproof
receptacle.
Where more than one consumer is supplied through a common service line,
each such consumer shall be provided with an independent cut out at the point of
junction to the common service.
Rule 32: Identification of Earthed and Earthed Neutral conductors and Position of
Switches and Cut Outs Therein
Where the conductors include an earthed conductor of a two wire system or an
earthed neutral conductor of a multiwire system or a conductor which is to be
connected thereto, the following conditions shall be complied with:
An indication of a permanent nature shall be provided by the owner on the
earthed or earthed neutral conductor, or the conductor which is to connected there
to, to enable such conductor to be distinguished from any live conductor. Such
indication shall be provided:
a) Where the earthed or earthed neutral conductor is the property of the
Annamalai University
supplier, at or near the point of commencement of supply.
b) Where a conductor forming part of a consumer’s system is to be connected
to the supplier’s earthed or earthed neutral conductor, at the point where
such connection is be made.
Not cut out link or switch other than a linked switch arranged to operate
simultaneously on the earthed or earthed neutral conductor and live conductors
shall be inserted or remain inserted in any earthed or earthed neutral conductor and
live conductors shall be inserted or remain inserted in any earthed or earthed
 66

neutral conductor of a tow wire system or in any conductor connected thereto with
the following exceptions:
a) A link for testing purposes or
b) A switch for use in controlling a generator or transformer.
Rule 33: Earthed Terminal on Consumer’s Premises
The supplier shall provide and maintain on the consumer’s premises for the
consumer’s use a suitable earthed terminal in an accessible position at or near the
point of commencement of supply.
Provided that in the case of medium, high or extra high voltage installation the
consumer shall in addition to the afore mentioned earthing arrangement, provide his
own earthing system with an independent electrode.
The consumer shall take all reasonable precautions to prevent mechanical
damage to the earthed terminal and its lead belonging to the supplier.
Rule 34: Accessibility of Bare Conductors
Where bare conductors are used in a building the owner of such conductors
shall:
a) Ensure that they are inaccessible
b) Provide switch in readily accessible position for rendering them dead
whenever necessary.
Rules 36: Handling of Electric Supply Lines Apparatus
Before any conductor or apparatus is handled adequate precautions shall be
taken by earthing or other suitable means to discharge electrically such conductor
or apparatus and any adjacent conductor or apparatus if there is danger there from
and to prevent any conductor or apparatus from being accidentally or inadvertently
electrically charged when person are working thereon.
No person shall work on any live electric supply line or apparatus and no
person shall assist such person on such work unless he is authorized in that behalf
and takes the safety measures.
Every telecommunication line on supports carrying a high or extra high voltage
line shall, ensure by means of indication of a permanent nature that the respective
circuits are readily distinguishable from one another.

Annamalai University
Rule 42: Accidental Charge
The owner of a circuits and apparatus shall so arrange them that there shall be
no danger of any part there of becoming accidentally charged to any voltage beyond
the limits of voltage for which they are intended.
Where A.C. and D.C. circuits are installed on the same support they shall be so
arranged and protected that they shall not come into contact with each other when
live.
 67

Rule 45: Precautions to be Adopted by Consumers, Owners, Electrical Contractors,

Electrical Workmen and Suppliers
No electrical installation work, including additions, alterations, repairs and
adjustments to existing installations except such replacement of lamps, fans, fuses,
switches, low voltage domestic appliances and fittings as in no way alters its
capacity or character, shall be carried out upon the premises of or on behalf of any
consumer, owner or occupier, for the purpose of supply to such consumer or owner
except by an electrical contractor licensed in this behalf by the state Government
and under the direct supervision of a person holding a certificate of competency
issued or recognized by the State Government.
Rule 40: Periodical Inspection and Testing of Consumer’s Installation
Where an installation is already connected to the supply system of the supplier,
every such installation shall be periodically inspected and tested at intervals not
exceeding five years either by the Inspector or any officer appointed to assist the
Inspector or by the supplier as may be directed by the State Government in this
behalf.
RULE 64 (20
The following provisions shall be observed where energy at his or extra high
voltage is supplied converted, transformed or used.
a) Clearances as per Indian Standard Code shall be provided for electrical
apparatus so that sufficient space is available for easy operation and
maintenance without any hazard to the operating and maintenance without
any hazard to the operating and maintenance personnel working near the
equipment and for ensuring adequate ventilation.
b) The following minimum clearances shall be maintained for bare conductors
or live parts or any apparatus in outdoor sub-stations, excluding overhead
lines, of HV and EHV installation:

Ground Clearance Sectional clearance

Voltage class
(Metres) (Metres)
Not exceeding 11kV 2.75 2.6
Not exceeding 33kV 3.7 2.8
Not exceeding 66kV 4.0 3.0

Annamalai University
Not exceeding 132kV
Not exceeding 220kV
4.6
5.5
3.5
4.3
Not exceeding 400kV 8.0 6.5

c) Where transformer or transformers are used, suitable provision shall be

made, either by connecting with earth a point of the circuit at the lower
voltage or otherwise, to guard against danger by reason of the said circuit
becoming accidentally charged above its normal voltage by leakage from
or contact with the circuit at the higher voltage.
 68

d) A sub-station or a switch station with apparatus having more than 2000

litres of oil shall not be located in the basement where proper oil draining
arrangement cannot be provided.
e) Where a sub-station or a switch station with apparatus having more than
2000 litres of oil is installed, whether indoors or outdoors, the following
measures shall be taken namely:
The baffle walls of 4 hour fire rating shall be provided between the apparatus in
the following cases:
i) Single phase banks in the switchyards of generating stations and
substations.
ii) On the consumer premises
iii) Where adequate clearance between the units is not available.
f) Adequate fire protection arrangement shall be provided for quenching the
fire in the apparatus.
g) Cable trenches inside the substations and switch stations containing
cables shall be filled with sand, pebbles or similar non-inflammable
materials or completely covered with non-inflammable materials or
completely covered with non-inflammable slabs.
All EHV apparatus shall be protected against lighting as well as against
switching over-voltage. The equipment used for protection and switching shall be
adequately – coordinated with the protected apparatus to ensure safe operation as
well as to maintain the stability of the interconnected units of the power system.
The following additional provisions shall be observed where energy at high or
extra high-voltage is supplied, converted transferred or used namely.
Rule 64 A(1): Interlocks
Suitable inter – locks shall be provided in the following cases:
a) Isolators and the controlling circuit breakers shall be interlocked so that the
isolators can not be opened unless the corresponding breaker is in open
position.
b) Isolators and the corresponding earthing switches shall be interlocked so
that no earthing switch can be closed unless and until the corresponding
Annamalai University
isolator is in open position.
c) When two or more supplies are not intended to be operated in parallel, the
respective circuit-breakers or linked switches controlling the supplies shall
be interlocked to prevent possibility of any inadvertent paralleling or feed
back.
d) When two more transformers are operated in parallel, the system shall be so
arranged as to trop the secondary breaker of a transformer in case the
primary breaker of that transformer trips.
 69

e) All gates or doors which give access to live parts of an installation shall be
interlocked in such a way that these cannot be opened unless the live parts
are made dead. Proper discharging and earthing of these parts should be
ensured before any person comes in close proximity of such parts.
f) When two or more generators operate in parallel and neutral switching in
adopted, interlock shall be provided to ensure that generator breaker cannot
be closed unless one of the neutrals is connected to the earthing System.
Rule 64 (2): Protection
All system and circuits shall be so protected as to automatically disconnected
the supply under abnormal conditions.
The following protection shall be provided, namely:
a) Over current protection to disconnect the supply automatically if the rated
current of the equipment, cable or supply line is exceeded for that length
of time which the equipment, cable or supply line is not designed to
withstand.
b) Gas pressure type protection to give alarm and tripping shall be provided
on all transformers of ratings 1000 kVA and above.
c) Transformers of capacity 10 IVA and above shall be protected against
incipient faults by differential protection and all generators with rating of
100 kVA and above shall be protected against earth fault/leakage. All
generators of rating 1000 kVA and above shall be protected against faults
within the generator winding using restricted earth fault protection of
differential protection or by both.
In our country as well as in our State (M.P.) also most of the distribution mains
are over-head. In the past, it has been observed that good number of accidents have
taken plane due to improper clearance from ground to line and from building to
overheard to overhead line. As per Indian Electricity Rule 1956, the following
clearances have been specified which are as below:
Rule 77. Clearance Above Ground of the Lowest Conductor
No conductor of an overhead line, including service lines erected across a street
shall or any part there of be of a height less than:
a) for low and medium voltage line …. 5.8 metres
Annamalai University
b) for high voltage line …. 6.1 metres
No conductor of an overhead line including service lines, erected along any
street shall or any part there of be at a height less than:
a) for low and medium voltage lines …. 5.5 metres
b) for high voltage …. 5.8 metres
No conductor of an overhead line including service lines erected elsewhere than
along or across any street shall be at a height less than:
 70

a) for low, medium and …. 4.6 metres

b) high voltage lines upto and including, 11,000 volts, if bare
c) for low, medium and high voltage line upto …. 40 metres
and including, 11,000
volts in insulated
d) for high voltage lines …. 5.2 metres
above 11,000 volts.
For extra high voltage lines the clearance above round shall not be less than 5.2
metres plus 0.3 metre for ever 33,000 volts or part there of by which the voltage of
the line exceeds, 33,000 volts.
Provided that the minimum clearance along or across any street shall not be
less than 6.1 metres.
Rule 79: Clearance from Buildings of Low and Medium Voltage Lines and Service Lines
Where a low or medium voltage overhead line passes above or adjacent to or
terminates on any building, the following minimum clearances from any accessible
point on the basis of maximum sag, shall be observed:
a) For any flat roof open balcony, verandah roof and lean-roof and (i) when the
line passes above the building a vertical clearance of 2.5 metres from the
highest point and (ii) when the line passes adjacent to the building a
horizontal clearance of 1.2 metres from the nearest point.
Rule 80: Clearance From Building of High and Extra High Voltage Lines
Where a high voltage overhead line passes above or adjacent to any building or
parts of a building it shall have on the basis of maximum sag a vertical clearance
above the highest part of the building immediately under such line of the not less
than:
(a) For high voltage lines …. 3.7 metres
upto and including
33,000 volts.
(b) For extra high voltage …. 3.7 metre plus 0.30 metre
lines for every additional 33,000
volts or part there of.
Annamalai University
The horizontal clearance between the nearest conductor and any part of such
building shall on the basis of maximum deflection due to wind pressure be not less
than:
a) For high voltage line …. 1.2 metres
upto and including
11,000 volts.
b) For high voltage line …. 2.0 metres
above 11,000 volts and
 71

upto and including

33,000 volts
c) For extra high voltage ….2.0 metres plus 0.3 metre
lines for every additional 33,000
volts or part thereof
Even after these clear rules, every year there are about 80 to 90 fatal
accidents/non fatal accidents, due to improper clearance and lack of supervision
from Electricity Board Authority and electrical Inspectorate Authorities. It has been
observed that although proper clearance has been maintained as per Indian
Electricity Rules while constructing the buildings, but during the course of
construction of the second story, there have been cases of fatal electrical accidents,
while putting them. S.Bar for slab. Actually, length of these M.S. Bars is always ten
to fifteen metres, and while making them straight and putting for slab they tough
the over head lines passing about 8 to 10 feet away from the building causing fatal
electrical accidents.
4.11. ELECTRICAL LAYOUT, SWITCHING DEVICES SHORT – CIRCUIT PROTECTION
IE Rule 29, 32, 50 covers the important safety aspects related with electrical
layouts and switching/protective devices in supply circuits, motor circuits and on
either side of distribution transformers.
Every electric circuit has certain normal current, overload current and certain
short-circuit-current level. Short circuit level is six to twenty times the normal
current level. Every circuit needs certain switching devices for switching off normal
currents and overload currents. Also required is protective and automatic switching
device for breaking short-circuit currents.
Switching devices for normal currents and over load current switching are (1)
switches (2) switch – use (3) switch – fuse links (4) contactors (5) circuit – breakers.
Short – circuit protective devices are cut – out fuses, link fuses, miniature –
breakers, air – break circuit breakers of other type of circuit-breakers (in association
with sensing and tripping devices such as relays).
IE Rule 29, 32 and 50 are very important, and has a very wide scope. They
cover many safety requirements. The rules are summarized in table 15.

Annamalai University
 72

Table 4.4. IE Rules regarding capabilities of circuit components switching devices and
protective devices

IE Rule Description Remarks

General Rules Safety precautions are recommended
These are for guide lines and inspection points/check lists in general IE rules. These must be
followed at every electrical installation
Rule 35 Caution notices to be fixed on Elec. Caution notices in English and
Installation. Hindi/Local language must be
displayed along with
Rule 44 Shock treatment chart to be displayed. drawings/illustrations. This helps in
awareness and alertness for safety.
Rule 44 Shock treatment chart to be displayed
Unsafe conditions are noted down
Rule 45 Addition/alteration which alters the during periodic inspection and
characteristic of the installation shall only appropriate corrective actions are
be done by a licensed electrical taken for making the installation
Contractor. safer. This is a regular activity at
every plant/site.
Rule 46 Periodical Inspection of Installation is
necessary either by licenses or Electrical inspectors visit the
government construction site and the plant
regularly to ensure that all the safety
Rule 47 Testing of consumer’s installation rues are followed. Any deviation
48-49 precaution etc. required due to local condition shall
be with written permission from
electrical inspector.
Rule 51 (i) All conductors shall be completely Safety rules insist that live conductors
enclosed in strong metal casing should not be accessible. The user /
which is mechanically and operation maintenance person
electrically continuous and /General public should not get
adequately protected against contact shock from live conductor.
damage. Hence bare live conductor at normal
working zones and accessible levels
(ii) The switch board for medium or are not permitted. Conductors are
high voltage supply shall have a insulated or enclosed in earthed metal
clear space of not less than 20 enclosures or conductors are
centimeters behind or a gang way of supported on post insulators/string
over 75cms. In width and 1.8 insulators at specified level above
meters height behind. ground and at sufficient level above
(iii) All metal work enclosing or ground and at sufficient distance from
supporting installation to be buildings so that they are not
earthed. touchable by common man easily.
Neutral earthing at supply end is
essential for safely discharging over
voltages, operation of earth fault
protection, keeping balanced three
phase system voltages, eliminating
arcing arounds.

Annamalai University Neutral of CT secondaries and VT

secondaries must also be earthed.
(iv) Supply side transformer neutral
shall be solidly earthed. For each
voltage level only one neutral may
be earthed. Earthing of second
neutral at the same voltage level
would give continuous induced
currents or third harmonic
currents.
 73

Rule 66 Conductors shall be enclosed in metallic Metallic Enclosures, cabinets, guard

covering and suitable circuit breakers wires, doors, bodies, cabinets,
shall be provided to protect the structures etc. are earthed for safety.
equipments from over loading etc.
Rule 50 Motor switching circuits Contactor can perform several million
Suitable switch in device and protective switching operations with normal load
device shall be provided on supply side of current and certain overload current
LV, MV, HV Motors Motors should be limit. Contactors do not have
protected by either fuse switch unit or capability to break short circuit
reset type tripping device (contactor) or currents. Hence contactor starters
circuit breaker. Following combination is must be provided with HRC Fuse on
used in practice for motor switching and supply side. HRC fuse provides fast
protection. short circuit protection. Thermal
overload relays are provided within
contactor startor. Single phasing
preventers are also provided within
contactor starters.
Class of Switching of Protection For larger high voltage motors,
motor normal and against which are not started frequently,
overload short circuit circuit – breakers and motor
currents current. protection relay is provided on supply
side. Backup HRC Fuses are
LV Switch/ Fuse generally not necessary as circuit
contactor breaker breaks short circuit currents.
MV, HV Circuit Fuse/circuit Surge arresters and surge
breaker s breaker suppressors are provided phase to
ground in each phase between
switching device and motor terminals
for protection against switching
surges. Body of motor is earthed.
Rules 50 Essential conditions for supply of It should be possible to switch On/Off
electrical energy the supply during normal switching
(i) A suitable linked switch or circuit operation.
breaker is erected at the point of This function is served by suitable
common of supply fuse linked switch or circuit breaker
(ii) A suitable linked switch of circuit at supply point during fault in the
breaker is erected at the secondary load side, fuse link blows off or the
side of the transformer. circuit breaker trips. Fuse link
should be replaced or circuit breaker
(iii) Every circuit is protected by a should be reclosed after removal of
suitable cut out. fault and testing the load circuit.

Rule 50 Supply through power transformer The supply side of power transformer
(primary side) should have a
Sl. Trans- Control to be provided switching device and protective device
No. former against over load and short circuit
capacity On On
currents.
Annamalai University
1. Upto 100
primary
side
A linked
Secondar
y side
Cut out
The load side of transformer should
also have similar devices. However
short circuit level on load side of
kVA switch (to single feed transformer is less than
carry the short circuit level on double feed
full load transformers (parallel transformer
current connected to primary and secondary
and to bus).
beak the
magnetizi
ng
current
with
buses
 74

2. Above 100 - do - A linked

kVA and switch
upto 630 with fuses
kVA or a
circuit
breaker
3. Above 630 Circuit – Circuit –
kVA and breaker breaker
upto 5000
kVA
4. Above Circuit – Circuit –
5000 kVA breaker breaker
Rule 29 All electrical supply lines and apparatus Each apparatus/installation has
shall be of sufficient rating and size and of certain assigned ratings. These are
sufficient mechanical strength for the correlated wit respective Indian
work they may be required to do, and standard specification. The
shall be constructed, installed protected, capabilities of apparatus/installation
worked and maintained in such a manner are ensured by conducting relevant
as to prevent danger at all times. test. Essential specified ratings are
(1) Normal Current (2) Overload
current for specified time and
magnitude (3) Short circuit current
level for 1 sec/3 sec (4) Rate voltage
(5) Rated insulation level (6) Switching
duty (for switching devices) (7) Type of
enclosure (8) Service conditions.
Correct choice of apparatus is
essential for design safety.
Rule 32 Switches shall be in the line conductor.
No cut out, link or switch other then a
gang switch shall be inserted in the
neutral conductor. Code of practice of
shall be followed while marketing the
conductors.
Rule 64A Essential protection for HV and EHV
installations the rule also makes
following protection compulsory:
a) Over current protection.
b) Earth fault/earth leakage protector.
c) Gas pressure protection for
transformers of capacity 1000 kVA
and above.
d) Differential protection for transformer
10 MVA and above
e) Internal earth fault protection of

Annamalai University
capacity 1000 kVA and above
 75

Rule 45 Execution and commissioning of HV The IE Rules have made provision to

and EHV installation ensure that the electrical work is
Rule pertain to: excited by trained persons only. This
Ensures (1) safety of persons while
a) Agency for erection doing the work (2) work is done
b) Important provisions in respect of properly and the installation is safe
wiring and substation. during regular operations.
c) Commissioning tests. The factories and industries in some
d) Rule 45 prescribes all work shall be states have however, been allowed to
carried out by licensed electrical carry out their own electrical
contractor under the supervision of a installation work provided they
person holding certificate of employ the similar staff and possess
competency and by a person holding a the equipment as are required by an
permit issued or recognized by the electrical contractor under the rules.
State Government.
Rules 64A Interlocks in HV and EHV circuits. Interlocks ensure that the operations
Following interlocks are recommended as are carried out in desired safe manner
essential: and accidents/injury/damage does
a) Interlocks between isolator and not occur.
controlling circuit breakers. Circuit breakers are devices for
b) Interlocks between isolator and opening and closing during current
controlling circuit breakers. carrying sate of conductors. Current
is established by closing the circuit
c) Interlocks between different source of breaker (not by isolator).
supply controlling breakers or linked
switches. Current is switched off by opening the
circuit breaker (not by isolator).
d) Interlocks between primary and
secondary breakers of transformers Isolator is only for providing
operating in parallel. additional isolation into he circuit for
safety.
e) Interlocks between supply breakers
and gates or doors giving access to Earthing switches are for discharging
live parts with suitable earthing and the electrical charges after opening of
discharging arrangement. circuit breaker. Interlocks ensure
following correct sequence.
f) Interlocks between neutral switch of
two or more generators operating in
parallel and their controlling
breakers.
Opening a Closing a
circuit circuit
Circuit 1 first to 3 Next to
breaker open  close 
Isolator 2 Next to 2 Next to
open  close 
Earthing 3 Next to 1 First to
switch close open

Annamalai University
 76

Rule 64 Power transformers and cable trenches – Fires and explosions are not
Prevention of spreading of fire in high uncommon in substations and power
voltage switch yards and installation. pants. Large power transformers are
A suitable sockpit or arrangement to drain provided with oil soak pits for
out the oil shall be made in switch station draining of oil. In new installations,
or sub-stations where transformers are provision of filling nitrogen in the
erected. emptied tank is made. After draining
the oil the tank is filled with high
Cable trenches shall be filled by sand or pressure nitrogen to suffocate the fire.
other non-in-flammable material and
covered by bricks. The cable trenches near transformer
get filled by oil and the oil flow
through the trenches resulting in
spread of fire and damage to cables.
Hence sand filling is recommended.
Rule 63 & Special provisions for high and extra high The difference between LV and HV
Rule 64 voltage installations: installations is with respect to danger
The provisions which are important are of flashover through clearance zone in
discussed here. case of HV and EHV. hence several
additional safety rules are specially
Rule 63: Approval of inspector is recommended. Persons familiar with
necessary before energizing any high or work in LV circuits are generally not
extra high voltage installation. familiar with the risks related with
Rule 64: All apparatus and equipment flashover in HV and EHV circuits.
intended to be used at high or extra high This ignorance results in accidents.
voltage shall be inaccessible except to an IE Rules must be followed to avoid
authorized person. accidents.
Rule 65: The installation must be
subjected to the prescribed test before
energizing.
Rule 36A Maintenance Non-observance of this rule has
resulted in many accidents. It is not
(i) They work is to be carried out by infrequent that helper who is not
authorized persons only. authorized, allowed to work on live
(ii) Before commencing the work, lines. Wrong switch is opened while
discharging and earthing is the work is to be done some where
compulsory. else or the switch been put on even
(iii) Adequate precautions are to be taken before the permit is cancelled and
so that there should be no danger work is complete.
from any adjacent live part. Sometime a person may try to
(iv) Also precautions are to be taken that discharge the wrong terminal which
there should be on chance of may believe resulting in heavy
energisation of the equipment or line flashover and a serious accident.
on which the persons are working. While testing the supply on the switch
(v) The authorized persons required to terminals by test lamp having
work on an electric supply line or ordinary stranded wire leads has
apparatus shall be provided with resulted in accidents in factory by
tools and devices such as gloves, short circuiting either two phase

Annamalai University
rubber shoes, safety belts, ladders,
earthing devices, helmets, line testers
etc.
terminals or earthed metal parts with
phase. To prevent such accidents use
of rubber hand gloves, goggles and
insulated test probes are necessary.
All tools and devices are always to be
kept in safe and working conditions.
 77

Rule 43 First Aid and fire protection First aid is essential immediately after
First Aid Box must be kept at every work a accident. First Aid saves life of
place. The location must be displayed and victim.
shown to every working member. Site personnel must be trend for
giving first aid to the victim of an
accident. The victim should be
shifted to hospital for expert medical
Aid, and Resuscitation.
Rule 44 Fire Extinguishers and facilities for fire Site personnel must be trained for use
protection portable fire extinguishers and
Sand buckets and Portable fire emergency operations in the event of
extinguishers must be provided at each fire.
risk zone in the plant.
IE Rule Description Remarks
Rule 52 Appeal to Inspector regarding above
defects
Rule 56 Sealing of meter and cutout by licensee
Rule 57 Accuracy of energy meters.
Rule 58 Point of commencement of supply
Rule 133 Relaxation by Government.
Rule 134 Relaxation by Government.
Rules 138-141 Penalties for breach of rules.
Rule 47 and Before giving supply from mains to the Under rule 47 before connection is
Rule 63 new installation, the electrical inspector served, the supplier has to inspect
appointed by state government shall and test the consumer’s installation.
inspected and give clearance. Under rule 63 the written permission
Rule 60 and 65 provide for insulation of electrical Inspector is required for
resistance test to be carried out every time H.T. installations before
an equipment is to be connected after commissioning. The permission is
alternations, repairs, or maintenance. also necessary for any addition of
alteration made in any H.T.
installation. As regards the pre-
commissioning test the Rules
prescribed only for insulation
resistance and H.V. tests Rule 65
prescribed for H.V. tests to e carried
out in case of H.V. requirements. The
tests prescribed under the Indian
Standard are accepted under Rule 29.

4.12. SUMMARY
Earthing of equipment and substation earthing are discussed in this unit in a

Annamalai University
detailed manner. IE rules are also discussed.
4.13. QUESTIONS
1. Explain the objectives of Indian Electricity rules and Indian Electricity Act.
2. Discuss the significance of equipment earthing and earthing of non-current
carrying metallic parts.
3. Explain the IE rules regarding conductor to ground clearance for overhead
transmission lines.
4. Explain the general requirements Electricity Safety as per IE rules.
5. Explain the importance of earthing of system neutral.

 78

UNIT – V

ELECTRICAL SAFETY IN RESIDENTIAL, COMMERCIAL AND

AGRICULTURAL INSTALLATIONS
OBJECTIVE
The objective is to discuss electrical safety in residential, Commercial and
agricultural installations.
CONTENT
5.0. Introduction
5.1. Wiring and Fittings
5.2. Case Study
5.3. Agricultural Pump Installation
5.4. Do’s and don’ts for Safety in the Use Domestic Electrical Appliances
5.5. Safety Management of Electrical Plants
5.6. Summary
5.7. Questions
5.0. INTRODUCTION
As we all know, electricity is can kill instantaneously and cause fires. Analysis
of accident records would reveal that the ignorance, careless use and poor
installation and poor maintenance of the electrical equipments is the single largest
cause behind majority of the electrical accidents occurring in residential houses.
Number of persons exposed to electrical accidents in residential buildings and
commercial/public places in higher than those in industrial places.
In residential installations, the electrical accidents have been mainly occurred
due to faults in (1) Writing and Fittings (2) Domestic Appliances (3) Poor Protection
(4) Poor earthing (5) Ignorance of residents.
5.1. WIRING AND FITTINGS
Majority of the domestic consumers are normally not technically trained
persons. Some of the important safety requirements in this respect are as follows:
a) All outlets in electrical appliances shall be of 3 pin type and the third pin
shall be connected to the earth.
b) All single pole switches shall be on the phase conductor only.
c)
Annamalai University
The electrical outlets in a bath room shall be away from the shower or sink.
d) Wiring for power outlets in the kitchen shall be done in metallic conduits.
e) Electrical outlet shall not be located above the stove.
f) The clearance between the bottom-most point of a ceiling fan and the floor
shall not be less than 2.4 meters.
g) The metallic body of the fan regulators and all other appliances shall be
earthed effectively.
 79

h) It is desirable to provide an earth – leakage circuit breaker particularly

where electrical appliances are located e.g (heater, Kaiser) bath room or
other sensitive places.
i) All socket outlets should be provided with their individual switches located
in the phase. In addition all power socket outlets rated at 15A shall be
provided with individual fuse.
j) Where wiring is done on more than one phase, minimum distance of two
meters shall be provided between the phases.
k) Flexible cables shall not be used in places where they are liable to be
subjected to mechanical damage.
DOMESTIC APPLIANCES
A large number of domestic accidents are due to leakage or short circuit in
domestic appliances. It is therefore of utmost importance that only proper type of
appliances having the ISI mark are selected and care is taken in their use to see that
there is not chance of any fire taking place due to the heat generated by the
appliance. Care should also be taken to see that the earthing of the appliance is in
healthy condition and that the flexible cable conductor to the appliance is not worn
out and connections are not loose.
Poor Protection
5.2. CASE STUDY
1. Water Tab Giving Shock
A complaint was received in electrical maintenance section that water tap was
giving electric shock in the mornings. On investigation it was found that some
persons has connected on end of the water heater coil to the phase of the supply and
the other end of the heater coil was connected to the water tap for the return patch,.
This water pipe was not connected directly to the earth and provided a high
resistance path to the flow of current. As a result, the water tap attained voltage
(depending upon its resistance to the earth) and was giving electric shock.
As a remedy the other end of the water heater must be connected to the neutral
of the supply and not to the water pipe line. Water pipe line must be properly and
not to the water pipe line. Water pipe line must be properly earthed to bring its
resistance to earth well within safe limits.
2. Shock From Wet Well
Annamalai University
During the rainy more complaints came of wet wall giving electric shock. It was
found that the electrical wiring of the building was not in good condition. The
insulation of phase wires was found damages and was surrounded by the water
vapors or moisture. This led to electrical leakage due to the wall being wet. The wall
assumed some voltage and any body coming in contact with the wet wall got electric
shock. To rectify the situation, the damaged wires were replaced by healthy ones.
 80

3. Fan Giving Shock

The flexible wire supplying electricity to a table fan in the house and cracked.
Insulated bush was not provided. The wire was therefore touching the body of the
fan. A small child playing in the house touched the fan and got electrocuted.
5.3. MULTI – STORIED BUILDING
A multi – Storeyed building is defined to be a building which is more than 15
meters in height. A number of very serious incidents of fire have occurred in these
multi-storeyed building. May of these fires were initiated by faults or in the
electrical system.
Sub – Station
(I) Power-transformer with oil capacity more than 2000 liters shall not be
located in the basement where oil cannot be drained. If it is required to locate a
sub-station in the basement, it shall be in a separate fire resistant room of 4 hours
fire rating. The room shall be at the periphery of the basement. A curb or still the
suitable height shall be provided to prevent the flow of oil from the transformer room
to other parts of the basement. There shall be an access to the transformer direct
from the outside. The switchgear shall be separate from the transformer by
installing it in a separate room, the separating wall being of not less than 4 hours
fire rating. The transformer shall be protected by automatic high velocity water
spray system.
Oil filled transformer shall not be located on any floor above the ground floor.
Where the oil capacity exceeds 2000 liters a soak pit of an RCC construction capable
of a accommodating entire oil shall be provided.
Stand – By Generating set
Stand – by generating set should be provided to supply the emergency load in
case if the failure of mains. Emergency load will consists of emergency lighting. Fire
pump and fire-fighting equipment and other critical loads.
Fire Safety
Fire fighting arrangements as required by relevant regulations shall be
provided. A manually operated electrical fire alarm system shall be installed with
one or more call boxes located at each floor. The call boxes shall be so located that
they are easily accessible.
CASE STUDY
4. Shock From Motor – Pump
Annamalai University
In a high rise building a motor was being used to pump water from
underground sump to overhead tank at the top of the building. The supply to the
motor was given through wires coming from the terminal box of the motor. No bush
was used in the terminal box with the result that the wires were touching the edge of
the terminal box hole. After some period, the insulation of one of the wires got
damaged and the bare conductor came in contact with the metallic cover of the box.
An operator accidentally touched the motor and got fatal electric shock. No earthing
was provided for the motor.
 81

Proper earthing of the motor could have save the precious human life as
earthing could have isolated the motor from the supply in case of fault.
5.4. AGRICULTURAL PUMP INSTALLATION
A number of accidents have occurred in agricultural installations due to
leakage in the well water. Extreme care should be taken in such installations to see
that:
(i) Proper earthing is provided and at least one of the earth is continuous right
up to the suppliers neutral.
(ii) Proper type of protection should be provided. It is advisable to provide
earth – leakage protection as well as required by rule 61A.
(iii) The work shall be carried out by only the trained persons.
(iv) No one shall enter into the well without first switching off the supply to the
installation.
5.5. DO’S AND DON’TS FOR SAFETY IN THE USE OF DOMESTIC ELECTRICAL
APPLIANCES
- While purchasing, buy only standard electrical appliance
- The supply cord should be in good condition, free from cuts or damage
insulation or entanglement.
- Always use 3 – ping plugs in the appliances/equipment and connect then to 3
– pin sockets only.
- Check that the pins of the socket or the plug or any other electrical
connections are not loose.
- Put the switch ‘OFF’ when the appliance/equipment is not in use. Remove
the plug from the socket.
- Get your appliances/equipment and wiring checked periodically for any
defect or electrical leakage. Even a few milliamperes of current leaking and
passing through the human body result in serious or even fatal shock.
- Always check the rated voltage, current and the operating time of your
appliance/equipment and ensure that are not exceeded.
- Protect appliance/equipment against humidity.
- Always keep the rotating electrical equipment like the table fan out of reach of
Annamalai University
children and pets.
- Before replacing a lamp or handling a fan, make sure that the supply is
switched OFF.
- Always call a qualified persons for any repair to the electrical
circuit/appliance/equipment.
- Always use the correct size and quality of fuse wire for replacement.
- While removing a fuse carrier, pull the supply – end first. While replacing it,
the supply end should be inserted last.
 82

- Always treat an electrical circuit as “LIVE” unless found ‘DEAD’ by testing.

- For any electrical accident or fire, switch off the power supply immediately.
- Give artificial respiration to the victim of an electric shock and immediately
call for a doctor.
Don’ts
- Never assume an electric circuit as ‘DEAD’
- Don’t have temporary or naked joints or writing
- Don’t touch the water or the metallic container when the immersion heaters
is ‘ON’
- Don’t work with wet hands, shoes or chappals on electrical appliances and
equipment.
- Don’t clean electrical switches, boards etc., with wet cloth.
- Don’t connect domestic electrical appliance/equipment to a lamp holder,
connect it to a socket of suitable current rating.
- Don’t replace a “BLOWN” fuse unless the defect in the circuit/appliance has
been rectified.
- Don’t touch exposed electrical circuit.
- Don’t throw water on live electrical appliance/equipment /circuit. In case of
fire, use dry sand or an approved fire extinguished such as Carbon-dioxide,
dry chemical powder or vaporizing liquid types.
- Don’t join flexible cords by twisting the wires and taping them together.
- Don’t remove the mesh guard of a table or pedestal fan
- Don’t touch the T.V. antenna without disconnecting the T.V receiver from the
circuit. You may get shock due to feedback.
- Don’t touch pins of a plug while putting it and removing it from the socket.
- Don’t place cloths, paper or other combustible materials near an electrical
appliance when it is in use.
- Don’t put too many plugs I one socket to avoid overload.
SAFETY MANAGEMENT OF ELECTRICAL PLANTS
Management is an art and science of setting objectives, planning, organizing,
Annamalai University
directing, executing supervision, monitoring improving various functions to achieve
the objectives.
Principles of Safety Management
Safety Management aims at eliminating unsafe acts and unsafe conditions by
applying management techniques.
Principle 1: Safety is an important management function of every organisation
(Like production, Marketing, finance and planning)
 83

The Company Must Have a Written Safety Policy

Management is responsible for creating Safety Organization, set safety
objectives, plan, monitor and achieve desired results towards total safety.
Principle 2: Accidents are caused by unsafe and unsafe conditions. Safety
Management in responsible for both.
Principle 3: The accident is a culminating effect of multiple cause: One root
cause and several supplementary causes. For example, electrical flash over was
caused by a person entering in a clearance zone while circuit was live. Principle
cause was unsafe act of entering in the clearance zone. Supplementary causes were
lapse of management in electrical safety. Following questions were asked:
1. Why the person was allowed to enter the clearance zone?
2. Why safety – fencing not aware about the risk?
3. Why person was not aware about the risk?
4. Why was he not trained?
5. Who gave work permit?
6. Why work permit was given without making the circuit dead earthed?
In conclusion The accident was caused by lapse in safety system.
Principle 4: Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions can be identified in advance and
eliminated at the root.
For example a bare live conductor can be replaced by insulated cable. Oil filled
transformer can be replaced by dry resin cast transformer, Oil circuit breaker can be
replaced by vacuum circuit breaker.
Principle 5: Safety Management systems and Human Resource Development
(HRD) in safety are the tools of every organisation for ensuring safety.
The employees and contractors persons must be trained to fellow the safety
management systems.
Principle 6: Safety is a line Function in the organisation. The line refers to the
line of authority viz. Managers, Supervisors, Workers.
Management’s Safety Policy
The company must have a written Safety Policy. They policy refers to the

Annamalai University
principle and directive from course of actions to be adopted and followed by the
company.
Policy should have following features:
- The policy should spell out range objective of the company.
- All the management level personnel must believe in the policy.
- The policy is accepted and committed at all the levels in the company for
purpose of daily actions.
 84

The policy should indicate the scope for decisions and descriptions at lower
management levels.
Safety policy should be a part of company’s management policy.
Safety Policy Should Include the Following
- management’s intent and desire to achieve safety of personnel and plant.
Management’s active concern regarding safety.
- Scope of safety activities to be covered. Activities that are not covered in
the particular safety policy document.
- Organization and responsibilities and accountability.
- Safety Authority
- Safety Documentation
- Rules, acts and standards
- Safety Audit Team and interval of Safety Audits.
SAFETY ORGANIZATION
The organization is represented by simple organization charts. Organization is
not the end in itself it is the means to achieve the objective. The organization
structure is built by considering the following:
1. Listing the essential activities.
2. Grouping and assigning activities to the group
3. deciding line of authority delegation
4. Co-ordination of the activities.
The Safety organization will depend on the size and complex of the plant for a
large plant safety manager is usually appointed and the reports to the plant manger.
The safety manager co-ordinates the safety activities is association with other
line managers.
A typical organization chart is shown in the block diagram 1
1. Organization Chart for condition Phase of Project
The safety department may be combined with field engineering and field quality
department. The responsibilities of safety manager may include conducting safety
audits, getting safety documents prepared, establishing safety procedures,
Annamalai University
eliminating unsafe conditions monitoring safety etc., organization of safety
department is shown in the bock diagram 2.
 85

Annamalai University

2. Organisation Chart for Safety Department

Safety Auditing
The safety audit is the process that identifies unsafe conditions and unsafe acts
in the plant and recommends safety improvement. Safety Audit gives
recommendation to safety management. There are three types of safety audits.
 86

1. Walk – through safety audit.

2. Intermediate safety audit.
3. Comprehensive safety audit.
Walk Through safety Audit
It is the least expensive safety audit it evaluates the unsafe conditions
noticeable to ked eye during walk through the plant with keen observation from
safety view. During the walk through, many unsafe conditions may be notices.
These are listed, discussed and commitments for there dissolving are taken from line
manger/supervisors.
The team for walk through safety audit includes:
1. Safety manager
2. Safety consultant
3. Insurance Inspector
4. Electrical Inspector
5. Manager Civil/Erection/Commissioning/Operation-Maintenance.
Intermediate safety Audit
The intermediate safety audit involves more detailed study and review of plant
design and plant operation than a walk through audit. Detailed measurements of
high-risk zones are conducted. Tests may be conducted on unsafe conditions /
equipment. Intermediate audit identifies weaknesses in plant design, equipment
and subsystems and operation maintenance procedures with view of improvements
are also suggested.
Comprehensive Safety Audit
The comprehensive audit is a full scale audit that evaluates the safety factors in
the plant on the basis of engineering analysis, testing measurement, module
analysis etc., full scale improvements in the plant design, renovation, operating
procedures, staffing etc., are recommended, the comprehensive audit consist of the
following.
Envelope Audit
This covers civil works, switchyard, electrical plant auxiliaries, stores, offices,
canteen, ventilation system, security arrangements, lighting etc.,
Functional Audit

Annamalai University
This covers organizational weakness, training
responsibilities and delegation, documentation, etc.,
requirements, clarity of

Safety Facility Audit

This audit reviews unsafe conditions of high risk and the existing safety
facilities vis-à-vis recommended safety facilities for high risk, medium risk, and low
risk zones.
Recommendation
The unsafe conditions and unsafe acts are listed. The corrective actions and
required improvements are recommended. The unsafe conditions and unsafe acts
 87

observed are subjected to ABC analysis (A = High risk, B = Moderate risk, C = Low
risk) attention is focused on A and B categories.
Economic Benefits
Safety managements results in the following:
1. Reduced accidents
2. Reduced down time of plant and equipment (which would otherwise occur
due to accidents).
3. Reduced compensation to victims of accidents.
4. Improved personnel relations between management and workers. Reduced
strikes.
Annual Reports
The safety manager should give annual report to management. The annual
report may cover the following:
1. Summary of safety activities during the previous year.
2. The list of accident during previous year and cause and corrective action.
3. Improvement in safety systems during previous year and there benefits.
4. Budget estimates for next year as against expenditure in previous year.
5. Important aspects above high risk zones and essential precautions to be
taken
Based on these annual reports to the management by the safety mangers the
management will take necessary precautionary effects. Expenditure on safety
management gives economic returns in terms of reduced accidents and
consequential losses.
5.6. SUMMARY
This unit has dealt with electrical safety in residential commercial and
agricultural installations in a detailed manner.
5.7. QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the safety requirements for residential and agricultural
installations.
2. Explain the various principles of safety management.
3. What is meant by management’s safety policy? Mention the criteria to be
included in the policy.
4. Draw and explain a typical organisation chart.
Annamalai University
5. Write short note on safety audit.