Wellbore Stability- A Driller’s Guide

Updated by Ru MacLure

Rock Stresses
Rock Failure
Modeling Wellbore Stability
Wellbore Stability signatures
Cavings Analysis
Other factors that influence failure
Note: Extensive speaker notes
accompany this presentation
 Why does stability concern us ?
• We want to drill a hole that stays open.

• Once we drill a hole there are stresses exerted

upon the rock that can make it fail – we need to
control these.
– Well Design plays a fundamental part in this process.

• To get a grasp of what this information means we

need to have a basic understanding of the
stresses within the Earth and how these can make
rocks fail.
What can Wellbore Stability tell me ?
• What does an FIT / LOT tell us ?
• What can D&M tools tell us ?
• How do we use this data ?
– Mechanical Earth Model
• How will changing mud weight affect stability ?
– Mud Weight Window
• How will changing trajectory affect stability ?
– Changes in Inclination
– Changes in Azimuth
• Where to put casing shoes ?
 The cost of Wellbore Instability ?
Wellbore instability is a major problem in many wells during
drilling, tripping and casing.

The consequences of wellbore instability include:-

• Packoffs.
• Excessive trip and reaming time.
• Mud losses.
• Stuck pipe & BHA's.
• Fishing / Loss of equipment.
• Sidetracks.
• Inability to land casing.
• Poor logging and cementing conditions.

Cost to the Industry? $ 0.6 to $ 1.0 billion per year

Wellbore Stability- A Driller’s Guide
Updated by Ru MacLure

Rock Stresses
Rock Failure
Modeling Wellbore Stability
Wellbore Stability signatures
Cavings Analysis
Other factors that influence failure
Note: Extensive speaker notes
accompany this presentation
Overburden - Sv
The pressure exerted on a
formation due to the total weight
of the rocks and fluid above that
depth.

Terzaghi’s Law:
Sv = σv + Pp

As the rock is pushed vertically, it

is squeezed horizontally, causing
horizontal stresses to build.
 Horizontal Stresses – σH and σh
In many drilling environments,
the horizontal stresses are
nearly equal.

σh When drilling near massive

σH structures such as salt domes
or in tectonic areas, the
horizontal stresses can be
larger and more variable .

Maximum Horizontal Stress (σH) – estimated from rock mechanics

Minimum Horizontal Stress (σh) – determined from XLOT Fracture
Closure pressure.
 Creation of Stresses – σH & σh
Can we tell the
directions of σH
& σh from these
structures ?
E. Folding and faulting
associated with Salt
dome diapirism

Tectonic Loading is a typical mechanism for creating

Horizontal Stresses σH and σh within the earth.
 Far Field Stresses – σv σH and σh
σv σv

σh
σH σH σh

Before a well is drilled, the rock is in a state of equilibrium, its

stresses are known as Far Field Stresses.
When a well is drilled it introduces a new set of stresses known
as Wellbore Stresses (influenced by Far Field Stresses and MW.)
 Wellbore Stresses – what they mean
σt σa
σr Radial Stress (MW – PP)
The pressure exerted by
overbalance or underbalance

Axial Stress (σv – PP)

The effective pressure exerted by
overburden (Terzhagi), within the
σr rock. [For a vertical well the axis is aligned
with σv , else it could be σH or σh]

Tangential Stress (Differential stress – σr )

The stress acting around the circumference of the wellbore, within
the rock.
 Tangential ”Hoop” Stress
Tangential Stress
σH The stress acting around the
circumference of the wellbore,
σt within the rock.
The wellbore acts like an arch supporting
the differential stress (the difference
σr σh between the maximum stress and the
σh stress at 90° to this – in this case σH & σh).
The maximum stress is imposed at the
base of the arch – 90° from σH.
The radial stress will act to support this
σH stress also.

For a vertical wellbore

Wellbore Stresses – σr , σa and σt
σt σa σ = Radial Stress
r

σr σr = MW – PP

σa = Axial Stress
σa = σv - PP

σr σt = Tangential Stress
σt min = 3 σh - σH - MW – PP
σt max = 3 σH - σh - MW - PP
Influence of Far Field to Wellbore Stress

• The magnitude of the

Maximum stress (σH) and the
differential between it and
σh will determine the degree
of Tangential stress (σt)

• The Minimum stress (σh) is

the weakest stress confining
the radial stress (σr).
 How will Inclination affect this ?
Stress
Vector components
magnitude As the hole moves from the vertical, the vector
components of the stresses must be considered.
σv In this case the axial and torsional stresses will
change (radial is purely based on MW and PP).
σH Torsional Stress
σh Larger when the differential between the
orthogonal vector components (the stress acting
at 90° to the borehole) is higher – thus increases
Typically a larger when angle is built under normal conditions
stress differential
between σv & the
Exceptions
Stressed regions – salt domes, active mountain
horizontal stresses
ranges etc. have different stress magnitudes
 How will Azimuth affect this ?
Vector components
Stress As the hole moves from the vertical, the vector
magnitude
components of the stresses must be considered. In
σv this case the well will turn either toward σH or σh

Torsional Stress
σH Larger when the differential between the
σh orthogonal vector components (the stress acting
at 90° to the borehole) is higher.

If you turn toward σH then the stresses at 90° to

Typically a larger
stress differential the wellbore are σv and σh. This is a larger
between σv & the differential than if you turn toward σh – (stresses
horizontal stresses at 90° are σv and σH).

Most stable if you drill toward σh

 Trajectory v Stress Orientation
Horizontal σH σh
Well

Mud Weight
Increase the mud weight or (g/cc)
increase the risk of shear failure

Vertical
Well
Wellbore Stability- A Driller’s Guide
Updated by Ru MacLure

Rock Stresses
Rock Failure
Modeling Wellbore Stability
Wellbore Stability signatures
Cavings Analysis
Other factors that influence failure
Note: Extensive speaker notes
accompany this presentation
 Typical Failure Mechanisms
Tensile failure
Occurs when the Tensile STRESS
exceeds the formation Tensile STRENGTH
You pull the rock apart

Shear failure
Occurs when the Shear STRESS exceeds
the formation Shear STRENGTH.
The Shear Stress is found by the
difference between the maximum and
minimum wellbore stresses.
You crush the rock until it splits along
Shear (fault) planes at an angle to the
imposed force (stress)
 Shear and Tensile modes of failure

The most common forms of failure

• Shear failure causing breakout cavings
• Tensile failure causing vertical fractures
 What is the Friction angle?
The angle a fracture would have to
Large grains take to go between the grains in a rock
• Larger grained rocks have a larger friction
angle (measured from the vertical)

Friction angle affects stress

• Affects the way that vertical stress is
translated into horizontal stress

Friction angle affects strength

• Determines the angle the rock will fail at
under shear stress
• More shear stress exerted at lower friction
Small angle – vertical component larger
grains
Downhole Stresses in a Vertical Wellbore
 Vertical Wellbore Stress Plot – equal Horiz Stresses

Shear Failure
Modes

Tensile Compressive
Shear Stress

Tensile Stress

ECD (ppg)
Tensile Failure
Modes
 VERTICAL WELL EXAMPLE:
Most Common Tensile Failure – Hydraulic Fracture

σH
σh

Pmud
Wellbore is in
Tension

σh σH
 VERTICAL WELL EXAMPLE:
Most Common Shear Failure - Breakout

σH σh

Wellbore is in
Compression
Pmud

σh σH
 Breakout – Actual Core Sample

Minimum Wellbore Stress Minimum Wellbore Stress

Rock nearly Rock completely

broken off. broken off.

• How will this affect resistivity logs ?

 Mud Weight verses Failure

tver

swbo
DANGER RISKY SAFE

Pore
Pp Pressure σh Sh

MW Too Safe MW Too

Low Mud High
Weight
 Major or Minor breakout ?
S
1 • Minor Breakout
AAA – Restricted zone of shear failure
AAA
S3

AAAAA • Action
– Increase mud weight
AA – Minimise fluid loss
– Minimise disturbance to wellbore

• Major Breakout S1
– Failure all around the wellbore
AAAAAAAAA
• No relationship to rock fabric
S3 AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
• Action
AAAAAAAAA
– Minimise fluid loss
AAAAAAAAA
– Minimise disturbance to wellbore
– Consider remedial cement job
AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
Wellbore Stability- A Driller’s Guide
Updated by Ru MacLure

Rock Stresses
Rock Failure
Modeling Wellbore Stability
Wellbore Stability signatures
Cavings Analysis
Other factors that influence failure
Note: Extensive speaker notes
accompany this presentation
Presenting the data
 What do we model ?
Far Field Stresses
• Estimate Far Field Stresses from log data
• Create a Mechanical Earth Model (MEM) detailing the stresses
throughout the sequence within the field

Rock Strength
• Estimate the compressive strength of each rock unit
• Model the tensional strength of each rock unit

Mud Weight Window

• Determine the Wellbore Stresses for the planned trajectory in
relation to the Far Field Stresses calculated in the MEM
• Assess the relation of these to the Rock Strength for the individual
rock units – what stress level will each rock fail at ?
• Determine the mud weight equivalent for each of the stress
thresholds along the planned wellpath
 How do we model Far Field stresses ?
Mechanical Earth Model
• Estimate Far Field Stresses from log data

Vertical Stress (Effective)

• Terzaghi states Effective Vertical Stress =Overburden-Pore Pressure
• Measure Overburden by adding up the density of each rock unit
vertically from the surface down (density estimated from LWD /
Wireline nuclear tools or sonic/seismic data).
• Estimate Pore Pressure from resistivity or sonic data (Eaton’s model
etc.) or measure directly using MDT or FPWD. Note kick data also !!

Horizontal Stresses
• Measure minimum stress from leak off tests (LOT) or known mud
loss events while drilling nearby (unintentional LOT !!).
• Maximum stress is far harder to estimate – can be inferred from
core analysis
 What is an FIT, LOT and XLOT ?
Formation Integrity Test (FIT)
• Pressures up the borehole to a predefined pressure that does not
fracture the rock. Tests that it can hold this pressure.
• Tells us is that the Fracture pressure is higher than the FIT pressure.
FBP
Leak Off Test (LOT) FPP T0
• Pressures up the borehole until the rock deforms. LOT

• Tells us where inelastic strain begins (Hooke’s law). FIT

σh

Extended Leak Off Test (XLOT) XLOT

• Pressures up the borehole until the rock fractures, then holds the
pressure at surface until the pressure downhole is bled off and the
fracture closes. Releases pressure and then re-pressures to see where
the fractures reopen. The difference between this and FBP is To
• Tells us the minimum stress, σh, and the tensile strength, To.
 The Extended Leak Off Test

FBP
A – When the Grains start to
move apart and take mud. The
B
A Bi To
formation is at the threshold of
LOT FPP moving from elastic to plastic
P C deformation.
D
B – The formation is Fractured
Fracture closes σh and the operator stops pumping
(at Bi).
Bi).

TIME C - The fracture closure

pressure - This indicates the
point at which mud stops
But – the XLOT shows us we returning from the borehole as
can lose mud below the FBP the fracture closes. Also, this
• The fractures open at the FPP point gives us σh.
 How do we model stresses ?

Rock Solid (or Pore Pressure Window)

• Estimate Wellbore Stresses from Far Field stresses
 How do we model Rock Strength ?
Compressive Strength
• UCS / CCS (Unconfined / Confined) strength estimated from sonic
logs (based on research on cores equating elasticity to UCS).

Tensional Strength
• Assumed as a fraction of UCS (usually 1/10th)
• Adjusted to fit in with core data or data from leak off tests (XLOT)

Exceptions
• Rock with natural deformation (folds) or fractures
– Fractured rock has zero effective tensile strength
• Depleted / charged reservoirs
– The change in Pore Pressure will affect the stresses which will
impact the strength of the rock
How do we create the Mud Weight Window ?
Calculate Wellbore stresses
• Convert Far Field Stresses (σv , σH, σh) to
their Wellbore equivalent (σt , σr, σa) based
on the actual well plan (inclination & azimuth).

Assess relation of Wellbore Stress to

Rock Strength
• Determine the stress at which each rock unit
will fail in compression and tension (Shear
failure and Fracture gradients)

Plot Mud Weight Window

• Plot the stresses as their mud weight
equivalent (pressure gradient) using the
(imperial
relationship P=MW x TVD x 0.052 conversion
constant)
 What is plotted on the Mud Weight Window ?
Depth Rock
Plot Five trends
• Fracture Gradient
– Above this the rock will fracture
• Minimum Horizontal Stress
– Above this any existing fractures
will open, with losses possible
• Shear Failure Gradient
– Below this the rock will fail
creating shear cavings
• Pore Pressure
– Below this the well is
underbalanced and will kick
•Planned Mud Weight
– To see where it intersects
The Mud Weight Window

ECD

So, what Mud Weight to choose?

This is the ECD

Operating Window
Fracture Propagation Pressure

ECD

Danger of losses
 Using the Mechanical Earth Model
Pore Fracture
Pressure Pressure
estimate
from
Seismic
data

ECD

Pore Pressure estimate from

Resistivity data 6 different
Casing
Strings
were
required
 Multiple Failure Modes
Drilling vertically is a simple case. Just stay between the red (Tensile
Tensile)
Tensile
failure line and the blue (Shear
Shear)
Shear failure line, and we have no failure.
Drilling horizontally is a complex case, we might see Tensile as well as
Shear failure simultaneously.
Wellbore Stability- A Driller’s Guide
Updated by Ru MacLure

Rock Stresses
Rock Failure
Modeling Wellbore Stability
Wellbore Stability signatures
Cavings Analysis
Other factors that influence failure
Note: Extensive speaker notes
accompany this presentation
Common Failure Modes

Note this data can identify the

direction of the horizontal stresses
Common Failure Modes
 Recognising Fractures from Logs
Square ECD Response
13.00 800

Pump Rate (gpm)

12.75
600
ECD (ppg)

12.50
400
12.25
ECD
12.00 Flow 200
Tvd
11.75 0
19.9 20 20.1 20.2 20.3
Time (hrs)
 Recognising Fractures from Logs
Exponential Tails
13.00 Fracture opens 800
at 12.8 PPG

Pump Rate (gpm)

12.75 600
ECD (ppg)

12.50 400
ECD
12.25 Flow 200
Fracture closes Tvd
at12.00
12.3 PPG 0
56.8 57.2 57.6 58 58.4
Time (hrs)
 The Extended Leak Off Test (again)

FBP
B
A To
LOT FPP
P
C

Fracture closes σh

TIME

Notice where the Fracture Closing and Fracture Opening

Signatures are on the Extended Leak Off test (XLOT)
Fracture Opening - Repeat Analysis (OBM)

Fracture Opening
10 120

Res

Gr
1 0
5150 5175 5200 5225

Click to
view movie
Fracture Closeing - Repeat Analysis (OBM)
Fracture Closing
100 100

Res

Gr
10

1 0
6740 6750 6760 6770 6780

Click to
view movie
Wellbore Stability- A Driller’s Guide
Updated by Ru MacLure

Rock Stresses
Rock Failure
Modeling Wellbore Stability
Wellbore Stability signatures
Cavings Analysis
Other factors that influence failure
Note: Extensive speaker notes
accompany this presentation
 Angular Cavings
Resulted from Shear Failure Newly Created Fracture Surfaces
of the Wellbore, such as Breakout.

Characteristics:
Facets are non-parallel.
Facets may be curvi-planar.
2 failure regions, 180º separated.

Remedial:
If possible, raise Mud Weight.
Manage Hole Cleaning.
 Platy/Tabular Cavings
Resulted from pre-Existing
planes of weakness.
Characteristics:
Parallel surfaces are common.
Surfaces are smooth and planar.
Damage initiates from top of hole.

Remedial:
Maintain Mud Weight.
Manage Hole Cleaning.
Avoid Back Reaming.
Employ gentle drilling practices.
Use crack blocking additives.
 Splintered Cavings
Resulted from Tensile
failure of the wellbore.

Characteristics:
“Plume” structure on caving surface.
Typically seen in low-permeability shale.
Entire Circumference of Wellbore may be damaged.

Remedial:
Raise Mud Weight.
Reduce ROP.
Summary – How do we detect problems ?
• Images and caliper logs can identify Wellbore Failure

• Cavings Analysis provides a clue to many hole

instability problems. VISIT THE SHAKERS!!!!

• ECD Exponential tails confirms early diagnosis

• Fractured intervals can be precisely located with

Resistivity.

• Fracture ECD is measured by APWD

• σh can be found by analysing ECD Logs

Wellbore Stability- A Driller’s Guide
Updated by Ru MacLure

Rock Stresses
Rock Failure
Modeling Wellbore Stability
Wellbore Stability signatures
Cavings Analysis
Other factors that influence failure
Note: Extensive speaker notes
accompany this presentation
 Uncemented / Unconsolidated Rock
Sediments such as loose sands
• Rock has not been formed yet

Rock grains / clasts not stuck together

• No tensile strength
• No shear strength

Consider cementing the rock

• Squeeze cement to hold sediments together

Avoid cyclic stress

• Keep mud weight steady
• Pursue gentle drilling practices

Where possible drill vertically

Better yet - avoid these formations
 Mobile formations
Evaporites (salts such as Halite)
• These rock types are not rigid – they
flow slowly over time
• Any stresses will be accommodated
by movement of the rock – thus all
three far field stresses are equal
• Failure of the rock extremely unlikely

Swelling clays
• Clay swells due to absorption of water from the mud
• Stresses can be partially accommodated by movement of the rock
• This movement will act to relieve stress, making failure less likely
These movements occur over a long time, and will only allow stress
relief if given sufficient time.
 Generation of cavings from
pre-fractured rock
Existing fractures are planes of weakness
• Where these intersect other planes of weakness
(such as bedding planes, cleavage etc.) failure
blocks can form
• Tabular or laminar (platy) cavings can form

Wellbore stresses can work cavings free

• Hydraulic agitation – Pressure spikes
• Mechanical agitation – Shocks & side forces

Avoid cyclic stress

• Keep mud weight steady
• Pursue gentle drilling practices

Avoid backreaming
Bed direction verses Wellbore Direction
10 mm hole drilled both parallel and perpendicular to beds.

QUESTION:
Which sample was subjected
to the greatest Stress?
 What can Wellbore Stability tell me ?
• What does an FIT / LOT tell us ? – Fracture gradient, σh,
tensile strength
• What can D&M tools tell us ? – Density, porosity, sonic
& seismic data used for stress calculations.
- Images used to determine stress directions.
• How do we use this data ?- MEM, Mud Weight Window
• How will changing mud weight affect stability ?
– Mud Weight Window – Upper and Lower limits
• How will changing trajectory affect stability ?
– Changes in Inclination – Low Inclination best
– Changes in Azimuth – Drill toward minimum stress (σh)
• Where to put casing shoes ? – Keep within MEM