20 Causes behind the Downfall of the Mughals in India

In the words of Stanely Lane-Poole, "As some imperial corpse

preserved for age in its dead seclusion, crowned and armed and
still majestic, yet falls to the dust at the breath of heaven, so fell
the Empire of the Mughals when the great name that guarded it
was no more."
V. A. Smith writes, "The collapse of the Empire came with a
suddenness which at first sight may seem surprising. But the
student who has acquired even a moderately sound knowledge of
history will be surprised that the Empire lasted so long rather
than it collapsed suddenly."
There were many causes which were responsible for the downfall
of the Mughal Empire; some of them were as follows:
(1) Religious Policy of Aurangzeb:
The most important cause of the downfall of the Mughal Empire
was the religious policy of Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb alienated the
sympathy and support of the Hindus by committing all sorts of
atrocities on them. He imposed Jajiya on all the Hindus in the
country. Even the Rajputs and Brahmans were not spared. He
dismissed the Hindu Officials from state service and allowed only
those to continue who were prepared to embrace Islam. An order
banning the building of new Hindu Temples in areas directly
under Mughal control was promulgated early in his reign.
Though old temples were not to be destroyed under this order, it
was decreed that temples built since the time of Akbar should be
regarded as newly built temples and on that plea were desecrated
in different parts of the Mughal Empire and those included the
Temples of Vishwanath at Kashi and the Temple of Bir Singh Deo
at Mathura. A number of schools attached to the temples were
shut down.
In 1679, when the State of Marwarj was under direct imperial
administration and the Rajputs prepared themselves to resist
Mughal a j Authority, old as well as new temples were destroyed
in different parts of the Empire. Thousands n of artisans and
labourers were employed to pull down Hindu Temples and
Mosques were built with their material. After the death of Raja
Jaswant Singh, Aurangzeb tried to keep Ajit Singh; under his
control. Durga Das managed to remove him and his Mother
Rajputana in spite of all the precautions taken by the Mughal
Government. That led to the Rajput War which continued from
1679 to 1681.
Although peace was made, Aurangzeb could not depend upon the
Rajputs.ff It proved to be a great handicap when he was busy in
the Deccan Wars. Instead of depending |g upon the support of the
Rajputs, he had to set apart Mughal Forces to meet any possible
trouble® from their side. The execution of Guru Teg Bahadur was
a blunder. That led to the alienation of the Sikhs who became a
strong military power under Guru Gobind Singh. Later on, these
very Sikhs gave trouble to the Mughal Emperors.
Although Banda was captured and put to death after a long
resistance, the Sikh Power was not crushed. It kept on growing
day by day and ultimately the Sikhs were able to out the Mughals
from the Punjab. The same policy of religious persecution led to
the rise of the Marathas under Shivaji. The persecution of the
Hindus hardened their character and they became the bitter
enemies of the Mughals. To quite Lane- Poole, "His mistaken
policy towards Shivaji provided the foundation of a power that
was to prove a successful rival to his own Empire.
(2) The Deccan Policy of Aurangzeb:
The Deccan policy of Aurangzeb was also partly responsible for
the downfall of the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb was bent upon
crushing the power of the Marathas. He found that the States of
Bijapur and Golcunda were a source of help to the Marathas who
were employed in those states in large numbers. They occupied
important places of trust and authority in civil administration.
Maratha soldiers were welcomed in those states. They got not only
money but also military training. Aurangzeb felt that if those
states were annexed, the source of the strength of the Marathas
will be stopped.
Moreover, the rulers of those states were Shias and for a fanatical
Sunni like Aurangzeb, there was no place for them in India. The
Marathas were able to get a lot of booty of raiding those states. It
was maintained that if those states were annexed, it will not be
easy for the Marathas to gain anything because they shall have to
fight against the might of the Mughal Empire.
With that object in mind, Aurangzeb himself went to the Deccan
and annexed Bijapur and Golconda in 1686 and 1687 respectively.
He might have claimed credit for the destruction of the Shia
States, but he had committed a blunder in doing so. He should
have followed a buffer state policy towards those states and
subordinated his religious zeal to statesmanship. If he had helped
these states against the Marathas he would have been able to keep
the latter in check with much less expense and waste of energy.
After the annexation of Bijapur and Golconda, Aurangzeb tried to
crush the power of the Marathas. Sambhaji, the son of Shivaji,
was captured and put to death under the orders of Aurangzeb. His
son, Sahu, was also captured and made a prisoner. He continued
in Mughal custody up to 1707. However, the Marathas carried on
their struggle against the Mughals under the leadership of Raja
Ram and his widow Tara Bai. When Aurangzeb died in 1707, the
power of the Marathas was still not crushed. They were stronger
than before.
V. A. Smith writes about AuYanzeb and his Deccan Policy in these
words, "The Deccan was the grave of his reputation as well as of
his body." Aurangzeb had to remain away from the North for a
quarter of a century. The result was that the whole of the Mughal
administration was thrown out of gear. There was complete
confusion everywhere. As the Emperor was busy in the Deccan,
the Provincial Governors did not send land revenue to the Central
Government. At a time when more money was required for the
Deccan war, very little was coming from the provinces. When
Bahadur Shah succeeded to the throne, the treasury was empty.
The Mughal Government being a centralised despotism, the
absence of the Emperor from the North for a long period
encouraged centrifugal tendencies among the Governors. After
the death of Aurangzeb, those tendencies continued to grow and
the result was that ultimately various provinces became
independent of the central authority. Thus, Awadh, Bengal, the
Punjab and the Deccan became independent.
The Rohillas became independent in Rohilkhand. The Rajputs
also asserted their independence. Thus, gradually the Mughal
Empire broke up. The failure of Aurangzeb in the Deccan wars
destroyed the military prestige of the Mughals. Too much of
expenditure made the Mughal Government bankrupt. The Deccan
wars can be called the ulcer which destroyed the Mughal Empire.
(3) Revolts in Provinces of the Empire:
Another cause of the downfall of the Mughal Fmpire was the
revolts in various provinces of the Empire. During the Reign of
Aurangzeb, no provincial Governor could dare to defy his
authority. However, there were many who were secretly hostile to
him. They were all trying to build up reserves of power and secure
such allies as could help them to realise their ambitions when the
aged Emperor passed away. All the sons of Aurangzeb fell into this
category among officers Bahadur Khan, Diler Khan and Zulfiqar
Khan were all suspected of harbouring such motives. After the
death of Aurangzeb, the Empire began to break up and the
process of breaking up was rather rapid.
(4) Size of the Mughal Empire Became unwieldy:
In the time of Aurangzeb, the size of the Mughal Empire became
unwieldy. It became physically impossible for any man to govern
the same from one centre when the means of communication and
transport were not developed. A centralised despotic Government
was not suited to the needs of the time. The Mughal lines of
communication were open to Maratha attacks to such an extent
that the Mughal Nobles found it impossible to collect their dues
from the Jagirs assigned to them and sometimes made private
pacts with the Marathas.
That raised the power and prestige of the Marathas, led to
demoralisation in the nobility and a setback to imperial prestige.
The view of Dr. Satish Chandra is that "Perhaps Aurangzeb might
have been better advised to accept the suggestion put forward by
his eldest son, Shah Alam, for a settlement with Bijapur and
Golconda, annex only a part of their territories and let them rule
over Karnatak which was away from and difficult to manage.'"
(5) Weak Successors of Aurangzebs:
Another cause of Mughal downfall was the weak successors of
Aurangzeb. If they had been intelligent and brilliant, they could
have stopped the decline that set in during the Reign of
Aurangzeb. Unfortunately, most of them were worthless they were
busy in their luxuries and intrigues and did nothing to remedy the
evils that had crept into the Mughal Polity. Bahadur Shah I was 63
years of age when he ascended the throne in 1707 and did not
possess the energy to perform the onerous duties of the state. He
tried to keep the various parties and courtiers satisfied by offering
them liberal grants, titles, rewards etc.
Rulers like Jahandar Shah (1712-13), Farrukh Siyar (1713-79),
Muhammad Shah (1719-48), Ahmad Shah (1748-54), and
Bahadur Shah II (1837-57) were no better. Some of them were
mere puppets in the hands of their Wazirs. To quote Edwards and
Garret, "The chronicles of the court of Delhi after the Heath of
Aurangzeb offer an unbroken tale of plots and counter-plots on
the part of powerful nobles, culminating at intervals in open
disorder and fighting with the titular Emperor serving as the sport
and plaything of contending groups."
(6) Absence of the Law of Primogeniture in the Matter of
Succession:
Another cause was the absence of the law of primogeniture in the
matter of succession to the throne. The result was that every
Mughal Prince considered himself to be equally fit to become the
ruler and was prepared to fight out his claim. To quote Erskine,
"The sword was the grand arbiter of right and every son was
prepared to try his fortune against his brothers." After the death
of Bahadur Shah, the various claimants to the throne were merely
used as tools by the leaders of rival factions to promote their own
personal interests.
Zulfkar Khan acted as the king-maker in the war of succession
which followed after the death of Bahadur Shah I in 1712.
Likewise, the Sayyid Brothers acted as king-makers from 1713 to
1720. They were instrumental in the appointment of four kings to
the throne. After their disappearance from the sconce, Mir
Mohammad Amin and Asaf Jah Nizam-ul-Mulk acted as king-
makers. Undoubtedly, the absence of the law of succession
contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire.
(7) Gradual Deterioration in the character of the Mughal
Kings:
Another cause of Mughal downfall was the gradual deterioration
in the character of the Mughal Kings. It is said that when Babur
attacked India, he swam all the rivers on the way. He was so
strong that he could run on the wall of a fort while carrying men
in his-arms. Unmindful of the difficulties confronting him,
Humayun was able to win back his throne after the lapse of many
years. The same hardy character enabled Akbar to conquer the
whole of the Northern India and a part of the Deccan. No amount
of riding on horse-back exhausted him.
He could walk miles and miles on foot. He could kill a lion with
one stroke of his sword. After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal
Emperors became ease-loving and cowardly. Their harems were
full. They went about in palanquins and were hardly fit to rule a
country where the mass of the people detested the Mughal rule.
S.R. Sharma writes. "Kam Baksh, as a captive on his death-bed,
regretted that a descendant of Timur was captured alive. But
Jahandar Shah and Ahmed Shah were not ashamed to be caught
up in the tresses of their concubines who came between them and
thier duties as Emperors:
The Former fooled himself in public with his Lai Kunwar and the
latter buried himself in his seraglio-which extended over four
square miles-for weeks together without seeing the face of male."
(8) Degeneration of the Mughal Nobility:
There was also the degeneration of the Mughal nobility. When the
Mughals came to India, they had a hardy character. Too much of
wealth, luxury and leisure softened their character. Their harems
became full. They got wine in plenty. They went in palanquins to
the battle-fields. Such nobles were not fit to fight against the
Marathas, the Rajputs and the Sikhs. The Mughal Nobility
degenerated at a very rapid pace.
Sir Jadunath Sarkar writes that "No Mughal Noble family retained
its importance for more than one or two generations, if the
achievements of a nobleman were mentioned in three pages, the
achievements of his son occupied nearly a page and the grandson
was dismissed in a few lines such as "he did nothing worthy of
being recorded here." The Mughal Nobility was taken from the
Turks, the Afghans and the Persians and the climate of India was
not suitable for their growth. They began to degenerate during
their stay in India.
The truth of this argument is challenged. It is pointed out that
there is no reason to believe that the people belonging to colder
climates are better warriors. Among the many well-known
administration and distinguished warriros produced by the
Mughal Empire, there were many Hindustanis and immigrants
who lived in India for a long time. The eighteenth century also
produced a large number of capable nobles and distinguished
generals. Their personal ambitions were unlimited and they
preferred to carve out independent principalities for themselves
rather than serve the Mughal Emperors loyally and devotedly.
The chief reason for the degeneration of the nobility was that
gradually it became a closed corporation. It gave no opportunity
of promotion of capable men belonging to other classes as had
been the case earlier. The offices of the state became hereditary
and the preserve of people belonging to a few families. Another
reason was their incorrigible habits of extravagant living and
pompous display which weakened their morale and drained their
limited financial resources. Most of the Nobles spent huge sums
on keeping large harems, maintaining a big staff of servants etc.
and indulged in other forms of senseless show.
The result was that many of the nobles became bankrupt in spite
of their large Jagirs. Dismissal from service or loss of Jagirs spelt
ruin for most of them. That promoted many of them to form
groups and factions for securing large and profitable Jagirs.
Others turned themselves into grasping tyrant who mercilessly
fleeced the peasants of their Jagirs. Many Nobles became ease-
loving and soft. They dreaded war and became so much
accustomed to an extravagant way of life that they could not do
without many of the luxuries even when they were on military
campaigns.
The Mughal Nobility was corrupt and fact-in-ridden. By giving
suitable bribes, any Government rule could be evaded or any
favour secured. The interests of the Mughal Empire did not appeal
to them. The British regularly brided Mughal Nobles for getting
their work done. Even the highest nobles took bribes which were
called Peshkash or presents. That lowered the tone of
administration. With the passage of time, corruption and bribery
increased. Later on, even some of the Mughal.
Emperors shared the money which their favourites charged as
Peshkash from people desirous of getting a post or seeking a
transfer. Factionalism kept on growing till it extended to all
branches of administration the two major causes of functionalism
were struggle for Jagirs and personal advancement and struggle
for supremacy between the Wazir and the monarch. Thus faction
fights weakened the monarchy, gave a chance to the Marathas,
Jats etc. to increase their power and to interfere in the court
politics and prevented the Emperors from following a consistent
policy. Factionalism became the most dangerous bane of the
Mughal Rule from 1715 onwards. To save themselves from these
faction fights, the Mughal Emperors depended upon unworthy
favourites and that worsened the situation.
Sir Jadunath Sarkar writes. "All the surplus produce of a fertile
land under a most bounteous Providence was swept into the
coffers of the Mughal Nobility and pampered them in a degree of
luxury not dreamt of even by kings in Persia or Central Asia.
Hence, in the houses of the Delhi Nobility, luxury was carried to
an excess. The harems of many of them were filled with immense
number of women of an infinite variety of races, intellect and
character.
Under Muslim Law the sons of concubines are entitled to their
matrimony equally with sons born in wedlock, and they occupy no
inferior position in society. Even the sons of lawfully married
wives became, at a precocious age, familiar with vice from what
they saw and heard in the harem, while their mothers were
insulted by the higher splendor and influence enjoyed in the same
household by younger and fairer rivals of servile origin or easier
virtue. The proud spirit and majestic dignity of a Cornelia are
impossible in the crowded harem of a polygamist; and without
Cornelias among the mothers there cannot be Grachhi among the
sons."
A reference may also be made to the moral degeneration among
the Mughal Nobles. "In a mean spirit of jelousy, they insulted and
thwarted new men drawn from the ranks and ennobled for the
most brilliant public services, and yet they themselves had grown
utterly worthless. We have a significant example of the moral
degeneration of the Mughal peerage. The Prime Minister's
grandson, Mirza Tafakhur used to sally forth from his mansion in
Delhi with his ruffians, plunder the shops in the bazar, kidnap
Hindu women passing through the public streets in litters or
going to the river, and dishonor them; and yet there was no judge
strong enough to punish him, no police to prevent such crimes.
Every time such an occurrence was brought to the Emperor's
notice by the news-letters or official reports, he referred it to the
Prime Minister and did nothing more."
(9) Deterioration and Demoralisation in the Mughal
Army:
Another cause of Mughal downfall was the deterioration and
demoralisation in the Mughal Army. The abundance of riches of
India, the use of wine and comforts had their evil effects on the
Mughal Army and nothing was done to stop the deterioration. The
soldiers cared more for personal comforts and less for winning
battles. In the words of Irvine, "Excepting want of personal
courage, every other faults in the list of military vices may be
attributed to the degenerate Mughals; indiscipline, want of
cohesion, luxurious habits, inactivity and commissariat and
cumbrous equipment."
The impotence of the Mughal Annies was declared to the world
when the Mughals failed to recapture Qandhar in spite of three
determined efforts made by them. In 1739, Nadir Shah not only
plundered the whole of Delhi but also ordered wholesale
massacre. When such a thing happened without any effort on the
part of the ruler to stop it, he forfeited the right to command
allegiance from the people. The Mughal States was a police state
and when it failed to maintain internal order and external peace,
the people lost all their respect for the Government.
The view of Sir Wolseley Haig is that "The demoralisation of the
army was one of the principal factors in the disintegration of the
Mughal Empire." The source of the weakness was the composition
of the army which consisted chiefly of contingents maintained by
the great nobles from the revenues of assignments held by them
for that purpose. As the authority of the sovereign relaxed, the
general tendency among the great nobles was naturally to hold as
their own those assignments which maintained their troops.
The general laxity of discipline converted the army into a mob.
Drill was unknown and a soldier's training which he might
undergo or as he liked, consisted in muscular exercise and a
individual practice in the use of the weapons with which he was
armed. He mounted guard or not as he liked. There was no
regular punishment for military crimes. Aurangzeb himself
habitually overlooked a matters of course acts of treason,
cowardice and deliberate neglect of duty before the enemy.
About the military system of the Mughals, it is contended that
their weapons and methods of war had became frost-gorwn and
outmoded. They put too much reliance on artillery and armoured
cavalry. The artillery was local in action and ponderous in
movement. It was rendered stationary by huge tail of camp which
looked like a city with its markets, tents, stores and baggage. All
kinds of people, men and women, old and young, combatants and
non-combatants, besides elephants, cattle and beasts of burden,
accompanied the Mughal Army.
On the other hand, the Maratha cavalry was swift and elusive like
wind. They suddenly erupted on Mughal Camps and launched
damaging attacks on their posts. Before the Mughals could get
time for recovery, the Marathas, "like water parted by the oar,"
closed and fell on them.
At the turn of the 18th century, musketry made rapid progress
and became prominent in the methods of warfare. Swift running
cavalry of matchlockmen was superior to army equipped with
heavy artillery and armour-clad cavalry. In spite of that, the
Mughals refused to charge their old methods of warfare and no
wonder they were defeated by the Marathas.
(10) Mughals Suffered from Intellectual Bankruptcy:
The Mughals suffered from intellectual Bankruptcy. That was
partly due to the lack of an efficient system of education in the
country which alone could produce leaders of thought. The result
was that the Mughals failed to produce any political genius or
leader who could "teach the country a new philosophy of life and
to kindle aspirations after a new heaven on earth.
They all drifted and dozed in admiration of the wisdom of their
ancestors and shook their heads at the gorwing degeneration of
the moderns." Sir Jadunath Sarka points out that "There was no
good education and no practical training of the Mughal Mobility.
They were too much patted by eunuchs and maid servants and
passed through a sheltered life from birth to manhood. Their
domestic tutors were an unhappy class, powerless to do any good
except by love of their pupils, brow-beaten by eunuchs, disobeyed
by the lads themselves and forced to cultivate the arts of the
courtier or to throw up their thankless office. Not much could be
expected from such teachers and their wards."
(11) Mughal Empire Faced Financial Bankruptcy:
After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire faced financial
bankruptcy. The beginning had already been made in the time of
Aurangzeb and after his death; the system of farming of taxes was
resorted to. Although the Government did not get much by this
method, the people were ruined. They were taxed to such an
extent that they lost all incentive to production.
Shah Jahan had increased the state demand to one-half of the
produce. The extravagant expenditure by Shah Jahan on buildings
was a crushing burden upon the resources of the country. The
venality of the officials and the tyrannical caprice of the Mughal
Governors, added to the misery of the people who had little or no
means, for obtaining redress. The financial collapse came in the
time of Alamgir II who was practically starved by his Wazir Imad-
ul-Mulk. It is stated that Alamgir II had no conveyance to take
him to the Idgah and he had to walk on foot.
Sir Jadunath Sarkar says that "On one occasion, no fire was
kindled in the harem kitchen for three days and one day the
princesses could bear starvation no longer and in frantic disregard
of Purdah rushed out of the palace to the city, but the fort gates
being closed, they sat down in the men's quarters for a day and a
night after which they were persuaded to go back to their rooms.
Such a thing happened in 1775 and obviously such a Government
had no justification to exist."
(12) The Mughal Rule was Alien to the Indian Soil:
It did not take its roots in the soil of the country. It failed to evoke
"such feelings as those which led the people of Maharashtra to
follow and fight for Shivaji, it drew no strength from ancient
tradition which has always exerted so marked an influence upon
Hindu ideas and sentiments." The orthodox Muslims felt that they
were in India but they did not belong to this country.
They were not allowed to take to their hearts the traditions,
language and cultural products of country. They had no imported
them from Persia and Arabia. Even the civil and criminal laws had
to be borrowed from the writings of jurists and decisions of judges
in Baghdad and Cairo. This not only arrested the mental and
social progress of the Indian Muslims but also made their hearts a
fertile soil for noxious weeds.
(13) Widespread Corruption in the Administration:
Another cause of Mughal downfall was the widespread corruption
in the administration. The exaction of official perquisites from the
public by the officials and their sub-ordinates were universal and
admitted practice. Many officials from the highest to the lowest
took bribes for doing undeserved favour.
Even the Emperor was not above it, Aurangzeb is started to have
asked an aspirant to a title. "Your father gaves to Shah Jahan one
lakh of rupees for adding Alif to his title and making him Amir
Khan. How much will you pay me for the title I am giving you?
The ministers and influential courtiers around the Emperor made
fortunes; Qabil Khan in 2'/2 years of personal attendance on
Aurangzeb amassed 12 lakhs of rupees in cash, besides articles of
value and a new house. Offices were reserved for old families of
clerks and accountants and outsiders were not allowed to come in.
Such a state of affairs was detrimental to the highest interests of
the state.
(14) The Mansabdari System Degenerated:
The Mansabdari System degenerated in the time of Aurangzeb
and his successors. There was corruption and oppression on all
sides. William Norris points out that "in the later years of
Aurangzeb's reign, the treasury was empty, the wars were
ceaseless, the army was disorganised and officers were
discontented and disloyal. Bernier says that "There were great
ministers and generals but the mass of the people were human
sheep."
(15) The stoppage of Adventurers from Persia:
Another cause of Mughal downfall was the stoppage of
adventurers from Persia, Afghanistan and Turkistan. While the
Mughal in India ruined themselves through luxuries and
pleasures, there was a death of men who could shoulder the
responsibilities of the Government. It is the adventurers,
particularly from Persia, a who had given able administrators and
generals and when that source stopped, the Mughal
Administrative machinery became like a corpse and it was not
able to deliver the goods.
(16) Another cause was an inner malaise, kind of general loss of
serve on the party of the Muslim Community in India. The
Muslims in India forgot that they had a mission to fulfill in this
country. The Muslims who counted in the country cared more for
personal aggrandizement than for the glory of Islam in India. The
ablest among them were keen to set up kingdoms of their own and
thereby perpetuate their names.
Theologians like Shah Wali Ullah took refuge in the concept of the
community of the faithful looking only to God instead of calling
upon the Muslims in rally round the throne. What were to be seen
was not patriotism or bravery but cynicism, opportunism and
indulgence. Much could not be expected in this sorry state of
affairs. 1
(17) Invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali:
The invasion on India by Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali
gave a serious blow to the already tottering Mughal Empire. The I
easy victory of Nadir Shah and the repeated invasions of Ahmad
Shah Abdali exposed to the world the military weakness of the
Mughal state.
The invaders sacked Delhi and carried away with them huge
booty. This affected adversely the prestige of the Mughal Empire
and the people lost all faith in the capacity of the Mughal Rulers to
protect them against foreign invaders. This also encouraged the
Indians to assert their independence.
(18) Neglected the Development of the Navy:
The Mughals neglected the development of the Navy and that
proved suicidal for them. The later Mughals did not pay any
attention to sea power and left their coast-line completely
undefended. That was exploited by the Europeans who ultimately
established their mastery over India.
(19) Unable to Satisfy by the Minimum Needs of the
People:
Another cause of the downfall of the Mughal Empire was that it
could no longer satisfy the minimum needs of the people. The
condition of the Indian Peasant gradually worsened during the
17th and 18th centuries. In the 18th century, his life was "poor,
nasty, miserable and uncertain". The burden of land revenue went
on increasing from the time of Akbar.
The constant transfer of Nobles from their Jagirs led to great evil.
They tried to extract as much from a Jagir as possible in the short
period of their tenure as Jagirdars. They made heavy demands on
the peasants and cruelly oppressed them, often in violation of
official regulations. After the death of Aurangzeb, the practice of
Ijarah or farming the land revenue to the highest bidder became
more and more common both on Jagir and Khalisah (Crown)
Lands.
That led to the rise of a new class of revenue farmers and
Talukdars whose extortions from the peasantry often knew no
bounds. There was stagnation and deterioration in agriculture
and impoverishment of the peasant. Peasant discontent increased
and came to the surface. There were instances of the peasants
leaving the land in order to avoid the payment of taxes.
Peasant discontentment found an outlet in a series of uprisings
such as the Satnamis, the Jats and the Sikhs and that weakened
the stability and strength of the Empire. Many peasants formed
roving bands of robbers and adventurers and thereby undermined
law and order and efficiency of the Government.
Bhimsen writes thus about the oppressive officers: "There is no
limit to the oppression of these men of their oppression and
cruelty what May one writer? For description can suffice." To
quote Khafi Khan, "The cruelty oppression and injustice of the
officials, who have no thought of God, has reached such a degree
that if one wishes to describe a hundredth part of it, it will still
defy description."
Professor Irfan Habily writes thus in his book entitled "The
Agrarian System of Mughal India". "But the Mughal Empire had
its own grave digger and what Sadi said of another great Empire
might well serve as its epitaph: The Emperors of Persia Who
oppressed the lower classes; Gone is their glory and Empire: Gone
their tyranny over the peasant:"
(20) Rise of the Marathas:
Another important factor which contributed to the decline of the
Mughal Empire was the rise of the Marathas under the Peshwas.
They consolidated their position in Western India and then
started entertaining plans for a Hindupad Padshahi or a Greater
Maharashtra Empire. The dream could be realised only at the cost
of the Mughal Empire. They gains of the Marathas were the loss of
the Mughals.
The Marathas became the strongest power in Northern India in
the mid-eighteenth century. They played the role of king-makers
at the Delhi Court. They acted as the defenders of the country
against foreign invaders like Ahmad Shah Abdali. It is true that
the Marathas did not succeeded in their great mission but their
conquests in Northern India in the 18th century gave a death-
blow to the Mughal Empire.
(21) The territorial gains of the English East India Company
destroyed all chances of the revival of the Mughal Empire. The
British won the Battle of Plassey and continued to expand their
Empire in the Deccan and in the Gangetic Region. With the
passage of time, they were able to establish their hold over the
whole of India and there could be not chance for the revival of the
Mughal Empire.
The Mughal Empire. He points out that Aurangzeb has been
criticized for having failed to unite with the Deccan States against
the Marathas, or for having conquered them thereby making the
Empire "so large that it collapsed under its own weight". A unity
of hearts between Aurangzeb and the Deccani states was "a
phychological impossibility" once the treaty of 1636 was
abandoned, a development which took place during the reign of
Shah Jahan himself.
After his accession, Aurangzeb desisted from pursuing a vigorous
forward policy in the Deccan. In fact, he postponed as long as
possible the decision to conquer and annex the Deccani states. His
hand was virtually forced by the growing Maratha power, the
support extended to Shivaji by Madanna and Akhanna from
Golconda and fear that Bijapur might fall under the domination of
Shivaji and the Maratha-dominated Golconda. By giving shelter to
the rebel Prince Akbar, Sambhaji virtually threw a challenge to
Aurangzeb who quickly realised that the Marathas could not be
dealt with without first subduing Bijapur and possibly Golconda.
Dr. Satish Chandra points out that the impact of the Deccani and
other wars of the Mughal Empire and of the prolonged absence of
Aurangzeb from Northern India should not be overestimated.
Despite the mistakes of policy and some of the personal
shortcomings of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire was still a
powerful and vigorous military and administrative mobile band of
the Marathas in the mountainous region of the Deccan. Maratha
forts might be difficult to capture and still more difficult to retain.
But in the plain of Northern India and the vast plateau extending
up to the Karnatak, the Mughal artillery was still master of the
field. Thirty or forty years after the death of Aurangzeb when the
Mughal artillery had declined considerably in strength and
efficiency, the Marathas could still not face it in the field of battle.
In Northern India which was the heart of the Empire and was of
decisive economic and political importance in the country, the
Mughal administration still retained much of it vigor. The
administration at the district level proved amazingly tenacious
and a good deal of it survived and found its way indirectly into the
British administration. Despite the military reverses and mistakes
of Aurangzeb the Mughal Dynasty still retained a powerful hold
on the mind and imagination of the people.
Dr. Satish Chandra further points out that as far as the Rajputs
were concerned; the breach with Marwar was not due to any
attempt on the part of Aurangzeb to undermine the Hindus by
depriving them a recognised head. That was due to a
miscalculation on his part. He wanted to divide the Marwar state
between the two principal claimants, and in the process alienated
both, as also the ruler of Mewar who considered Mughal
interference in such matters to be dangerous precedent.
The breach with Mewar and the long drawn-out war which
followed damaged the moral standing of the Mughal state.
However, the fighting was not of much consequence militarily
after 1681. It may be doubted whether the presence of Rathor
Rajputs in large numbers in the Deccan between 1681 and 1706
would have made much difference in the outcome of the conflict
with the Marathas.
In any case, the demands of the Rajputs related to the grant of
high Mansabs as before and restoration of their homelands. Those
demands having been accepted within half a dozen years of the
death of Aurangzeb, the Rajputs ceased to be a problem for the
Mughals. They played no role in the subsequent disintegration of
the Mughal Empire.
Dr. Satish Chandra maintains that the religious policy of
Aurangzeb should be seen in the social, economic and political
contexts. Aurangzeb was orthodox in his outlook and he tried to
remain within the framework of Islamic law. That was developed
outside India in vastly dissimilar situations and could hardly be
applied rigidly to India.
The failure of Aurangzeb to respect the susceptibilities of his non-
Muslim subjects on many occasions, his adherence to the time-
wom policy towards temples and re-imposition of Zajiya as laid
down by the Islamic law did not help him to rally the Muslims to
his side or generate a greater sense of loyalty towards a state
based on Islamic Law. On the other hand, it alienated the Hindus
and strengthened the hands of those sections which were opposed
to the Mughal Empire for political or other reasons.
By itself, religion was not at issue. Jajiya was scrapped within half
a dozen years of the death of Aurangzeb and restrictions on the
building of new temples were eased, but they had no effect on the
decline and disintegration of the Mughal Empire.
The conclusion of Dr. Satish Chandra is that "In the ultimate
resort, the decline and downfall of the Mughal Empire was due to
economic, social, political and institutional factors. Akbar's
measures helped to keep the forces of disintegration in check for
some time, but it was not possible for him to effect fundamental
changes in the structure of society. By the time Aurangzeb came to
the throne, the socio-economic forces of disintegration necessary
to effect fundamental changes in the structure or to pursue
policies which could reconcile the various competing elements.
Aurangzeb was both a victim of circumstances and helped to
create the circumstances of which he became a victim."
The view of Dr. Satish Chandra is that "India lagged behind the
world in the field of science and technology and the Mughal
Ruling class remained blind to this development. It was more
concerned with matters of immediate concern than matters which
would shape the future. The Mughal Empire had already reached
the limits of its development. The feudal aristocratic nature of the
state and the neglect of science and technology by the ruling class
were placing limits to the economic development of the country.'"
Dr. Satish Chandra concludes, "Thus, the roots of the
disintegration of the Mughal empire may be found in the
Medieval Indian Economy; the stagnation of trade, industry and
scientific development within the limits of that economy; the
growing financial crisis which took the form of a crisis of the
jagirdari system and affected every branch of state activity; the
inability of the nobility to realise in the circumstances their
ambitions in the service of the state and, consequently, the
struggle of factions and the bid of ambitious nobles for
independent dominion.
The inability to the Mughal Emperors to accommodate the
Marathas and to adjust their claims within the framework of the
Mughal Empire, and the consequent breakdown of the attempt to
create a composite ruling class in India; and the impact of all
these developments on politics at the court and in the country,
and upon the security of the north-western passes. Individual
failings and faults of character also played their due role but they
have necessarily to be seen against the background of these
deeper, more impersonal factors".
Sir Jadunath Sarkar writes. "The Mughal Empire and with it the
Maratha over lordship of Hindustan fell because of the rottenness
at the core of India society. The rottenness showed itself in the
form of military and political helplessness. The country could not
defend itself: royalty was hopelessly depraved or imbecile, the
nobles were selfish and shortsighted; corruption, inefficiency and
treachery disgraced all branches of the public service. In the midst
of this decay and confusion, our literature, art and even true
religion had perished.