The Inca Empire, also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire, was the

largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military

center of the empire was located in the city of Cusco. The Inca civilization arose
from the Peruvian highlands sometime in the early 13th century.

The Inca civilization flourished in ancient Peru between c. 1400 and 1533 CE, and
their empire eventually extended across western South America from Quito in the
north to Santiago in the south, making it the largest empire ever seen in the
Americas and the largest in the world at that time. Undaunted by the often harsh
Andean environment, the Incas conquered people and exploited landscapes in
such diverse settings as plains, mountains, deserts, and tropical jungle. Famed for
their unique art and architecture, they constructed finely-built and imposing
buildings wherever they conquered, and their spectacular adaptation of natural
landscapes with terracing, highways, and mountaintop settlements continues to
impress modern visitors at such world famous sites as Machu Picchu.

STONE BUILDING

Inca architecture includes some of the most finely worked stone structures from any
ancient civilization. Inca buildings were almost always practical and pleasing to the
eye. They are also remarkably uniform in design with even grand imperial structures
taking on a similar look to more humble buildings, the only significant differences
being their much larger scale and quality of finish. Fond of duality in many other areas,
another feature of Inca architecture is that it typically incorporated the natural
landscape yet at the same time managed to dominate it to create an often spectacular
blend of geometrical and natural forms.

Materials
Stone was the material of choice and was finely worked to produce a precise
arrangement of interlocking blocks in the finest buildings. The stone was of three types:
Yucay limestone, green Sacsayhuaman diorite porphyry, and black andesite. Each
block of stone could weigh many tons and they were quarried and shaped using
nothing more than harder stones and bronze tools. Marks on the stone blocks indicate
that they were mostly pounded into shape rather than cut. Blocks were moved using
ropes, logs, poles, levers and ramps (tell-tale marks can still be seen on some blocks)
and some stones still have nodes protruding from them or indentations which were
used to help workers grip the stone. The fine cutting and setting of the blocks on site
was so precise that mortar was not necessary. Finally, a finished surface was often
provided using grinding stones and sand.

That rocks were roughly hewn in the quarries and then worked on again at the their
final destination is clearly indicated by unfinished examples left at quarries and on
various routes to building sites. The meticulous process of laying, removing, re-cutting
and then re-laying blocks to make them fit exactly together was slow but experiments
have demonstrated that it was much quicker than scholars had previously thought.
Even so, it would have taken many months to produce a single wall. Interlocking
blocks and sloping walls make Inca buildings extremely resistant, but not immune,
to earthquake damage. 500 years of earthquakes have done remarkably little damage to
Inca structures left in their complete state.

More humble structures used unworked field stones set with mud mortar or used
bricks of dried mud (adobe) in areas with a drier climate. Both types of structure were
typically covered in a layer of mud or clay plaster and then painted in bright colours.
Walls at Puka Tampu, for example, still have traces of red, black, yellow and white
paint.

Roofs were generally made of thatch from grasses or reeds placed on poles made of
wood or cane. The poles were tied together using rope and fixed to the stone walls
using stone pegs which protruded from them. These pegs could be fitted into the wall
or be carved from one of the blocks, they could be circular or square, and they
sometimes appear on interior walls to function as pegs, perhaps for textile wall
coverings. Sometimes the top of the gable had a stone ring, again for attaching the roof.
The incline of roofs was steeper in rainier parts of the empire, often 60 degrees.

INCAN ROADS

The Inca road system formed a network known as the royal highway or qhapaq ñan,
which became an invaluable part of the Inca empire, not only facilitating the movement
of armies, people, and goods but also providing an important physical symbol of
imperial control

Roads and Communication

The Incas built a large system of roads that went throughout their empire. The roads
were usually paved with stone. Stone steps were often built into steep areas in the
mountains. They also built bridges where the roads needed to cross rivers.

The remains of an Ancient Inca road by Bcasterline

The main purpose for the roads was for communication, moving army troops, and to
transport goods. Commoners were not allowed to travel on the roads.

Communication was accomplished by runners on the roads. Fast young men called
"chaskis" would run from one relay station to the next. At each station they would pass
the message on to the next runner. Messages were either passed verbally or by using a
quipu (see below). Messages traveled quickly this way at the rate of around 250 miles
per day.

SCIENTIFIC IDEAS AND TOOLS THAT INCAN DEVELOPED

 One of the main forms of medicine used by the Inca was the coca leaf.
 The Inca developed aqueducts to bring fresh water into town.
 The basic unit of distance used by the Inca was one pace or a "thatki".

Aqueducts

The Incan aqueducts refer to any of a series of aqueducts built by the Inca people. The Inca built
such structures to increase arable land and provide drinking water and baths to the population. Due
to water scarcity in the Andean region, advanced water management allowed the Inca to thrive and
expand along much of the Pacific coast of South America. Such structures, some of which survive
today, show the advanced hydraulic and civil engineering capabilities of the Inca.
The water came mostly from nearby rivers, but was also brought down from fresh water springs on
mountains. The ancients discovered that if they diverted certain amounts of water from rivers, then
they didn't have to worry about scarce rain and drought and they could also stimulate plants to grow
faster by getting enough water in time. Workers dug tunnels through mountains and cut channels
into cliffs to complete the project.
In seasons when too much mountain snow melted, the flood waters were carried to huge masonry
reservoirs for storage, channeling water to their cities and religious centers.

First suspension bride

Inca rope bridges are simple suspension bridges over canyons and gorges and rivers (pongos)
constructed by the Inca Empire. The bridges were an integral part of the Inca road system and
exemplify Inca innovation in engineering. Bridges of this type were useful since the Inca people did
not use wheeled transport – traffic was limited to pedestrians and livestock – and they were
frequently used by Chasqui runners delivering messages throughout the Inca Empire.

Construction and maintenance[edit]

The bridges were constructed using ichu grass[2] woven into large bundles which were very strong.
Part of the bridge's strength and reliability came from the fact that each cable was replaced every
year by local villagers[3] as part of their mit'a public service or obligation. In some instances,[citation
needed]
these local peasants had the sole task of repairing these bridges so that the Inca highways or
road systems could continue to function. Repairing these bridges was dangerous, as those
performing repairs often met death. An Inca author praised Spanish masonry bridges being built, as
this rendered the need to repair the rope bridges moot.[4]

Calendar and Astronomy

The Inca used their calendar to mark religious festivals as well as the seasons so they
could plant their crops at the correct time of the year. They studied the sun and the stars
to calculate their calendar.

The Inca calendar was made up of 12 months. Each month had three weeks of ten days
each. When the calendar and the sun got off track, the Inca would add a day or two to
bring them back into alignment.

Government and Taxes

The Inca had a complex system of government and taxes. Numerous officials kept
watch over the people and made sure that the taxes were paid. The people were
required to work hard, but their basic needs were provided.