PART III - Substation Lightning Protection System – IEEE Std 998 – 1996

Scope
The scope of this guide is the identification and discussion of design procedures to provide direct
stroke shielding of outdoor distribution, transmission, and generating plant substations.

Definitions
The definitions of terms contained in this document are not intended to embrace all legitimate
meanings of the terms. They may only be applicable to the subject treated in this document. For
additional definitions refer to IEEE Std 100-1992

Effective Shielding:
That which permits lightning strokes no greater than those of critical amplitude (less design
margin) to reach phase conductors.
The zone of protection of a shielding system is the volume of space inside which equipment is
considered adequately protected by the system. A shielding system allowing no more that 0.1
percent of the total predicted number of lightning strokes to terminate on the protected equipment
is considered adequate for most situations.

Shielding System Grounding:

A shielding system cannot effectively protect substation equipment unless adequately grounded.
Multiple low impedance connections from the shielding system to the substation ground grid are
essential. It is beneficial to use at least two separate connections to ensure continuity and
reliability. Whenever non-conducting masts or supports are used, install separate ground cables
to establish a direct connection from the shield system to the substation ground system.

Surge impedance Zs:

The ratio between voltage and current of a wave that travels on a conductor.

where
h is the average height of the conductor
r is the metallic radius of the conductor, or equivalent radius in the case of bundled
conductors
Rc is the corona radius (use Eq. C.1 for a single conductor or refer to IEEE Std. 998 –
1996 Annex – C as appropriate)

Lightning mast:
A column or narrow-base structure containing a vertical conductor from its tip to earth, or that is
itself a suitable conductor to earth. Its purpose is to intercept lightning strokes so that they do not
terminate on objects located within its zone of protection.

Shield wire (overhead power line or substation):

A wire suspended above the phase conductors positioned with the intention of having lightning
strike it instead of the phase conductor(s). Synonyms :overhead ground wire
(OHGW), static wire and sky wire.
Keraunic level:
The average annual number of thunderstorm days or hours for a given locality. (1) A
daily keraunic level is called a thunderstorm-day and is the average number of days per year in
which thunder is heard during a 24 h period. (2) An hourly keraunic level is called a thunderstorm-
hour and is the average number of hours per year that thunder is heard during a 60 min period.

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Ground Flash density (GFD):
The average number of lightning strokes per unit area per unit time at a particular location.
It is usually assumed that the GFD to earth, a substation, or a transmission or distribution line is
roughly proportional to the keraunic level at the locality.
Various equations for GFD as developed by various researchers around the world, if thunderstorm
days are to be used as a basis, it is suggested that the following equation be used
NK 0.12 Td (2-3A)
Where,
Nk is the number of flashes to earth per square kilometer per year
Td is the average annual keraunic level, thunderstorm days
If thunderstorm hours are to be used as a basis, the following formula is recommended.
1.1
NK 0.054 Td (2-4A)
Striking distance:
The length of the final jump of the stepped leader as its potential exceeds the breakdown
resistance of this last gap; found to be related to the amplitude of the first return stroke.
Return stroke current magnitude and strike distance (length of the last stepped leader) are
interrelated. A number of equations have been proposed for determining the striking distance.
However, lightning investigators now tend to favor the shorter strike distances given by
Equation 2-1D which will be used in this guide:
Sm 8 I 0.65 (2-1D)
Equation 2-1D has been adopted for this guide. The equation may also be stated as follows:
I 0.041 S 1.54 (2-1F)
This relationship is shown graphically in Figure 2-3. From this point on, the return stroke current
will be referenced in this guide as the stroke current

Figure 2-3 - Strike distance vs. stroke current

Stroke current magnitude :

Since the stroke current and striking distance are related, it is of interest to know the distribution
of stroke current magnitudes.
The probability that a certain peak current will be exceeded in any stroke as follows:

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 1
P( I ) (2-2B)
I
1 ( ) 2.6
24
where
P(I) is the probability that the peak current in any stroke will exceed I.
I is the specified crest current of the stroke in KA.
Figure 2-4 is a plot of Eq. 2-2B.

General
Substation electrical equipment is subject to abnormal conditions as a result of direct lightning
strokes, lightning surges, switching surges, and faults on the system. These abnormal conditions
can cause overvoltages that may result in equipment flashover or insulation failure. To prevent
equipment damage and/or system shutdown from overvoltages, protective devices are used to
limit the overvoltages to reasonable levels. Application of these devices is usually a compromise
between the costs of the devices
and the degree of protection desired.
The protection provided for substations and substation equipment can be broken into two main
parts:
a) Surge protection, employed to protect the equipment from damaging overvoltages
caused by lightning surges, switching surges, and system faults . Brief description is
given in Annex – A .
b) Direct stroke protection, employed to protect the equipment from direct lightning
strokes

Surge Protection
Surge arresters are used to protect equipment against overvoltages caused by incoming surges.
The arresters function by discharging surge current to the ground system and then interrupt the
current to prevent flow of normal power frequency follow current to ground.

Direct Stroke Protection :

The scope of this guide is the identification and discussion of design procedures to provide direct
stroke shielding of outdoor distribution, transmission, and generating plant substations and to
provide design information for the methods historically and typically applied by substation
designers to minimize direct lightning strokes to equipment and bus work within substations.
Information is provided on the following two methods of design procedure found to be widely
used:
a) The classical empirical method
b) The electro-geometric model ( EGM).

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A third approach, which involves the use of active lightning terminals, is briefly reviewed below :

Active lightning terminals :

In the preceding methods a) & b) above and described clause 4&5 … , the lightning terminal is
considered to be a passive element that intercepts the stroke merely by virtue of its position with
respect to the live bus or equipment. Suggestions have been made that lightning protection can
be improved by using what may be called active lightning terminals. Three types of such devices
have been proposed over the years:
a) Lightning rods with radioactive tips. These devices are said to extend the attractive
range of the tip through ionization of the air.
b) Early Streamer Emission (ESM) lightning rods . These devices contain a triggering
mechanism that sends high-voltage pulses to the tip of the rod whenever charged
clouds appear over the site. This process is said to generate an upward streamer that
extends the attractive range of the rod.
c) Lightning prevention devices. These devices enhance the point discharge phenomenon
by using an array of needles instead of the single tip of the standard lightning rod. It is
said that the space charge generated by the many needles of the array neutralize part
of the charge in an approaching cloud and prevent a return stroke to the device,
effectively extending the protected area .

Direct Stroke Protection Methods:

1. Shielding: Since the effects of a direct lightning stroke to an unshielded substation can
be devastating, it is recommended that some form of direct stroke protection be provided.
Direct stroke protection normally consists of shielding the substation equipment by using
lightning masts, overhead shield wires, or a combination of these devices. The types and
arrangements of protective schemes used are based on the size and configuration of the
substation equipment.
2. Overhead Shield Wires: Overhead shield wires are often used to provide direct stroke
protection. The shield wires can be supported by the circuit pull-off structures, if
conveniently located, to extend over the substation. Since these shield wires are located
above substation buses and equipment, breakage could result in outage of and/or
damage to equipment. To minimize possible breakage, the overhead shield wire
systems are constructed from high-quality, high-strength materials. Sag has to be
considered to ensure adequate clearance from energized equipment. A complete
overhead shield wire system should include protection for overhead circuits entering or
leaving the substation. In areas not employing transmission line shielding, substation
shield wire systems should be extended at least 805 meters (one-half mile) away from
the substation to limit the exposure of the phase conductors to direct strokes near the
substation. Strokes occurring on the circuits beyond the shielding will usually be
attenuated enough by the time they reach the substation to be discharged successfully
by the surge arresters without causing equipment damage. For adequate protection, the
circuit wire systems should be directly connected to the substation shield wire system.
3. Shielding Masts: Shielding masts can be used for nearly all types of substations to
provide protection against direct lightning strokes. They are particularly useful in large
substations and those of low-profile design. Shielding masts can be guyed or self-
supporting steel poles or lattice-type towers and are usually made of steel. Other
materials, such as precast concrete or aluminum, can also be used.
In some instances, shielding masts can also be used to provide support for substation lighting
equipment.
Design Procedures :
a) Empirical design methods
Two classical design methods have historically been employed to protect substations from
direct lightning strokes:
1. Fixed angles.
2. Empirical curves
The two methods have generally provided acceptable protection.

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 b) The electro-geometric model ( EGM)
Only revised EGM will be discussed in this guide .
The two widely used methods for designing substation lightning protection are and will be
discussed in this guide:
1. Fixed angle
2. Rolling sphere
a) Empirical design methods :
1. Fixed angle method :
The fixed angle design method uses vertical angles to determine the number, position, and height
of shielding masts and wires. The shaded areas in Figure 4-17 illustrate the
zones of protection afforded by single- and double-mast or shield wire systems. For a single
mast, the zone of protection consists of a cone. For a single shield wire, the zone of protection is
a wedge. When two or more masts or shield wires are used, the zones of protection of each
overlap to provide complete coverage. Figure 4-17 also lists the ranges of angles that have been
used for various shielding systems.

Figure 4-17: Zones of Protection for Masts and Shield Wires Using Fixed Angle Method

The angles used are determined by the degree of lightning exposure, the importance of the
substation being protected, and the physical area occupied by the substation. The value of the
angle alpha that is commonly used is 45º. Both 30º and 45º are widely used for angle beta.
Application on 69 KV Outdoor Substation :
a) Assume a mast height and location .
b) Determine coverage at different bus or equipment heights using 60° and 45°
protective angles for the protective masts and dead end structures. Table B.2-1(b) gives the
coverage (protected area) at bus height A for each mast height.

Protected Distance X at Bus Height = (Mast Height – Equipment Height) x Tan (the Angle).
X = (H-A ) tan = (H – A) tan 45º
X = (H – A) tan 60 º

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c) Draw arcs of coverage for buses on plan view of station as shown in figure B.2-3.

d) Increase mast heights, relocate masts, and/or add masts as required to obtain complete
coverage.
NOTE - 60° angle can only be used if two arcs overlap. Otherwise, the 45° angle
coverage must be used.

1. Protection with Overhead earth wires

The protected zone, which should enclose all equipment and also the transformers, is
determined as shown in Fig. 5-13 or from a diagram (Fig. 5-14).
The sectional plane of the protected zone is bounded by an arc along an overhead
earth wire as shown in Fig. 5-13, whose midpoint M is equal to twice the height H of the
earth wire both from ground level and from the overhead earth wire B. The arc touches
the ground at a distance 3 · H from the footing point of the overhead earth wire.
The sectional plane of the protected zone for two overhead earth wires, whose distance from each
other is C 2 · H, is shown in Fig. 5-13b. The outer boundary lines are the same as with an
overhead earth wire. The sectional plane of the protected zone
between the two overhead earth wires B is bounded by an arc whose midpoint M1 is

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equal to twice the height 2H of the earth wire from ground level and is in the middle of
the two overhead earth wires. The radius R is the distance between the overhead earth
2
2 C
wire B and the midpoint M1 R = H
2
The angle between the tangents to the two bounding lines is 2 × 30° at their point of
intersection. If an angle of around 2 × 20° is required in extreme cases, the distance
1.5H must be selected instead of the distance 2H.
The arrangement of the overhead earth wires for a 245 kV outdoor installation is shown
in Fig. 5-13 c. The bounding line of the protected zone must be above the live station
components.

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 Figure 5-13A – Protected Area using Fixed angles for shielding wires
The height H of the overhead earth wire can be calculated from Fig. 5-14. The curves
show the sectional plane of the protected zone one overhead earth wire.
Example: equipment is installed at a distance of L = 12.5 m from the overhead earth
wire, with the live part at height h = 9.0 m above ground level: The overhead earth wire
must be placed at height H = 23.0 m (Fig. 5-14).

Fig. 5-14 Sectional plane of the protected zone for one overhead earth wire

2. Protection with Lightning rods

Experience and observation have shown that the protected zone formed by rods is larger
than that formed by wires at the same height.
A lightning rod forms a roughly conical protected zone, which in the sectional plane shown in Fig. 5-
15 a) is bounded by the arc whose midpoint M is three times the height H of the rod both from
ground level and the tip of the lightning rod. This arc touches the ground at distance 5 · H from the
footing point of the lightning rod.
The area between two lightning rods whose distance from each other is 3 · H forms another
protected zone, which in the sectional plane shown in Fig. 5-15 b) is bounded
by an arc with radius R and midpoint M1 at 3 · H, beginning at the tips of the lightning
rods.

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Fig. 5 – 15 Sectional plane of the zone protected by lightning rods: a) sectional plane of the
protected zone with one lightning rod, b) sectional plane of the protected zone with two lightning
rods.

Fig. 5-16 Sectional plane of the protected zone for two lightning rods

The height H of the lightning rod can be calculated from Fig. 5-16. The curves show the protected
zone for two lightning rods.
Example: equipment is centrally placed between two lightning rods, which are at distance C
= 560 m from each other; the live part is at height h = 10.0 m above ground level: the lightning rods
must be at a height of H = 19.0 m (Fig. 5-16).

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The width of the protected zone Lx – at a specific height h – in the middle between two lightning
rods can be roughly determined from Figs. 5-17 a) and 5-17 b) and from the curves in Fig. 5-17 c).
Example: equipment is centrally placed between two lightning rods at distance Lx = 6.0m from the
axis of the lightning rods; the live part is at height h = 8.0 m above ground level: When the lightning
rods are at a distance of C = 40.0 m the height of the lightning rods must be H = 18.5 m (Fig. 5-17).

Fig. 5-17 Protected zone outside the axis of 2 lightning rods

Application to 132/11 kV Mobile Substation : using Rods & Shield Wires :

132 / 11 KV , 40 KA
HV Trailer dimensions : 12.5m x 3m x 4.5 m
MV & LV Trailer dimensions : 9.5m x 2.5m x 3.7m
Shield Wire Height : 10.55 m

Introduction :
What are mobile substations?
Mobile substations are fully equipped electrical substations mounted on semi-trailers. The most
important advantages of these units are their rapid integration into the network and the ability to
reuse them in different places. They are a tool for increasing operational flexibility and reliability.

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 Why use mobile substations?
The main applications for mobile substations are: As emergency units:
In the event of equipment failure, for substations without spare transformer capacity
In the event of maintenance or repair activities in existing substations
In the event of natural disasters, for the supply of vital energy
Owing to its short delivery time (10 to 12 months), a mobile substation can be
used while a permanent installation is being built
As stand-by units for peak-load periods
As a substitute for conventional substations: in areas where the demand for
electricity rapidly expands beyond the scheduled increase in main system capacity
As sources of power in isolated areas.
Optimization of mobility and maneuverability

Since the mobile substations are normally connected to an existing OHL , the OHL shield wire
height may be or mostly more than the new mast height , the shield wire height on the new mast
is to be considered in the lightning protection design and calculations . This will give a better
design and more safe system .
Several aspects should be considered in applying mobile transformers or substations:
1. Size and maneuverability of the equipment
2. Installation location and provisions

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 3. Electrical clearances
4. Primary and secondary connections
5. Grounding
6. Auxiliary system requirements
7. Safety

Grounding
Adequate grounding of mobile transformers and substations is extremely important for safe
operation. At least two independent connections should be made between the trailer and the
ground system. The mobile equipment should be connected to the substation ground grid
whenever it is close to the substation. In situations where the mobile is located a long distance
from the substation and connection to the substation ground grid is impractical, a separate
ground system has to be provided.

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Designers using the fixed angle method may want to reduce the shielding angles as the
height of the structures increases in order to maintain a low failure rate. Using the EGM,
calculated shielding failures as a function of the height of the conductor above ground and the
protective angle for transmission lines. As can be seen from table 4-1, the protective angle must
be decreased as the conductor is raised in order to maintain a uniform failure rate.
A protective angle of 40° - 45° for heights up to 15 m (49 ft), 30° for heights between 15-25 m (49-
82 ft) and less than 20° for heights on up to 50 m (164 ft). A failure rate of 0.1- 0.2 shielding
failures/100 km/year was assumed in these recommendations. This approach could also be used
for selecting shielding angles for ground wires in substations.
A similar approach could be used for applying lightning masts in substations. Using the rolling
sphere method was suggested to compile a table of shielding angles vs. conductor heights.

Table 4-1 calculated frequency of shielding failures as a function of the height and the protective
angle

b) The electro-geometric model ( EGM)

Description of the revised EGM

The concept that the final striking distance is related to the magnitude of the stroke current was
introduced and Eq. 2-1D was selected as the best approximation of this relationship.

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A coefficient k accounts for the different striking distances to a mast, a shield wire, and to the
ground. Eq. 2-1D is repeated here with this modification:
Sm 8 k I 0.65 (5-1A)
where
Sm is the strike distance in meters
I is the return stroke current in KA
k is a coefficient to account for different striking distances to a mast, a shield wire, or the
ground plane.
Value of k = 1 for strokes to wires or the ground plane and a value of k = 1.2 for strokes to a
lightning mast.

Allowable stroke current

Some additional relationships need to be introduced before showing how the EGM is
used to design a zone of protection for substation equipment. Bus insulators are usually
selected to withstand a basic lightning impulse level (BIL). Insulators may also be chosen
according to other electrical characteristics including negative polarity impulse critical flashover
(C.F.O.) voltage. Flashover occurs if the voltage produced by the lightning stroke current flowing
through the surge impedance of the station bus exceeds the withstand value.
BIL 1.1 BIL
Is 2.2 (5-2A)
Z ZS
( S)
2
or ,

0.94 C.F .O 1.1 C .F .O

Is 2.068 (5-2B)
Z ZS
( S)
2
Where,
IS is the allowable stroke current in KA
BIL is the basic lightning impulse level in kilovolts
C.F.O is the negative polarity critical flashover voltage of the insulation being
considered in kilovolts
ZS is the surge impedance of the conductor through which the surge is passing in
1.1 is the factor to account for the reduction of stroke current terminating on a
conductor as compared to zero impedance earth
In Equation 5-2B, the C.F.O. has been reduced by 6% to produce a withstand level roughly
equivalent to the BIL rating for post insulators.

Adjustment for end of bus situation

Equations 5-2A and 5-2B address the typical situation in which a direct lightning stroke to a
conductor would have at least two directions to flow. The equations assume the surge
impedances are the same in both directions, and therefore the total surge impedance is the
parallel combination of the two, or 1/2 ZS. Occasionally a designer may be concerned
with a situation in which the entire direct stroke current produces a surge voltage across the
equipment. An example would be a direct stroke to the end of a radial bus. The surge can only
flow in one direction, and the surge voltage impressed across the insulators of the bus would be
the product of the total direct stroke current multiplied by the bus surge impedance. For such
situations, the allowable: stroke current IS can be determined by dividing the results of
calculations using equations 5-2A and 5-2B by 2.

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Adjustment for transformer, open switch or open breaker :

Another situation where a designer may have concern is at open points in the conductor (such as
open switches and open breakers), or points along, the conductor where the surge
impedance changes to a large value such as at transformer windings. At such locations,
the voltage wave will reverse its direction of flow and return along the
conductor. The voltage stress at these points will be up to two times the incoming value. This is
referred to as the voltage doubling effect. If the design has incorporated surge arresters at the
point of high surge impedance change, such as at the bushings of transformers, the concern for
voltage doubling is minimized. The arresters should operate
and maintain the voltage at the discharge voltage level of the arresters. However, if arresters
have not been applied at such points, the designer may wish to determine the allowable stroke
currents for these locations considering voltage doubling. The allowable stroke current IS can
again be determined by dividing the results of calculations using Equations 5-2A and 5-2B
by 2.

The designer should keep in mind that reduced BIL equipment is not protected by a design based
on stroke current Is. Such equipment should be protected by surge arresters in accordance with
IEEE Std C62.22-1991 [B45].

Application of the EGM by the rolling sphere method :

The previous explanation introduced the concept of the electro-geometric model and gave the
tools necessary to calculate the unknown parameters. The concept will now be further developed
and applied to substation situations.
It was previously stated that it is only necessary to provide shielding for the equipment from all
lightning strokes greater than Is that would result in a flashover of the buswork. Strokes less than
Is are permitted to enter the protected zone since the equipment can withstand voltages below its
BIL design level.
Lightning strokes have a wide distribution of current magnitudes, as shown in figure 2-4. The
EGM theory shows that the protective area of a shield wire or mast depends on the amplitude of
the stroke current. If a shield wire protects a conductor for a stroke current Is, it may not shield the
conductor for a stroke current less than Is that has a shorter striking distance. Conversely, the
same shielding arrangement will provide greater protection against stroke. Currents greater than
Is that have greater striking distances. Since strokes less than some critical value Is can penetrate
the shield system and terminate on the protected conductor, the insulation system must be able
to withstand the resulting voltages without flashover. Stated another way, the shield system
should intercept all strokes of magnitude Is and greater so that flashover of the insulation will not
occur.

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This will be illustrated by considering three levels of stroke current; Is, stoke currents greater than
Is, and stroke current less than Is. First, let us consider the stroke current Is.

1. Protection against stroke current Is

Is is calculated from Eq. 5-2 as the current producing a voltage the insulation will just withstand.
Substituting this result in Eq. 5-1 gives the striking distance S for this stroke current. Use of the
rolling sphere method involves rolling an imaginary sphere of radius S over the surface of a
substation. The sphere rolls up and over (and is supported by) lightning masts, shield wires,
substation fences, and other grounded metallic objects that can provide lightning shielding. A
piece of equipment is said to be protected from a direct stroke if it remains below the curved
surface of the sphere by virtue of the sphere being elevated by shield wires or other devices.
Equipment that touches the sphere or penetrates its surface is not protected. The basic concept
is illustrated in figure 5-3 . The radius of the sphere is determined by calculating the strike
distance. The strike distance is the length of the final jump of the stepped leader as its potential
exceeds the breakdown resistance of the last gap of air to ground. A stepped leader is the static
discharge that propagates from a cloud into the air.
The allowable stroke current that may be received by a substation bus without exceeding the
withstand value, or BIL, of the substation is defined by Equation (5 – 2A).
These equations provide a very basic evaluation of the lightning protection provided by the rolling
sphere method. The many nuances and criteria on which the procedure is based are found in the
engineer designing the shielding system needs to also take into account the isokeraunic level of
the area where the substation will be built. The isokeraunic level is the average annual number of
thunderstorm days for a given locality.

Continuing the discussion of protection against stroke current Is, consider first a single mast. The
geometrical model of a single substation shield mast, the ground plane, the striking distance, and
the zone of protection are shown in figure 5-4. An arc of radius S that touches the shield mast
and the ground plane is shown in figure 5-4. All points below
this arc are protected against the stroke current Is. This is the protected zone.
The arc is constructed as follows (see figure 5-4). A dashed line is drawn parallel to the ground at
a distance S (the striking distance as obtained from Eq. 5-1) above the ground plane. An arc of
radius S, with its center located on the dashed line, is drawn so the radius of the arc just touches
the mast. Stepped leaders that result in stroke current Is and that descend outside of the point
where the arc is tangent to the ground will strike the ground. Stepped leaders that result in stroke
current Is and that descend inside the point where the arc is tangent to the ground will strike the
shield mast, provided all other objects are within the protected zone. The height of the shield
mast that will provide the maximum zone of protection for stroke currents equal to Is is S. If the

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mast height is less than S, the zone of protection will be reduced. Increasing the shield mast
height greater than S will provide additional protection in the case of a single mast. This is not
necessarily true in the case of multiple masts and shield wires.
The protection zone can be visualized as the surface of a sphere with radius S that is rolled
toward the mast until touching the mast. As the sphere is rolled around the mast, a three-
dimensional surface of protection is defined. It is this concept that has led to the name rolling
sphere for simplified applications of the electro-geometric model.

2. Protection against stroke currents greater than Is

Item 1 demonstrated the protection provided for a stroke current Is. A lightning stroke current has
an infinite number of possible magnitudes, however, and the substation designer will want
to know if the system provides protection at other levels of stroke current magnitude.
Consider a stroke current Iso with magnitude less than Is. The striking distance, determined from
Eq. 5-1, is So. The geometrical model for this condition is shown in figure 5-6. Arcs of protection
for stroke current Iso and Is are both shown. The figure shows that the zone of protection provided
by the mast for stroke current Iso is less than the zone of protection provided by the mast for
stroke current Is. It is noted that a portion of the equipment protrudes above the dashed arc or
zone of protection for stroke current Iso. Stepped leaders that result in stroke current Iso and that
descend outside of the point where the arc is tangent to the ground will strike the ground.

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However, some stepped leaders that result in stroke current Iso and that descend inside the point
where the arc is tangent to the ground could strike the equipment. This is best shown by
observing the plan view of protective zones shown in figure 5-6. Stepped leaders for stroke
current Iso that descend inside the inner protective zone will strike the mast and protect equipment
that is h in height. Stepped leaders for stroke current Iso that descend in the shaded unprotected
zone will strike equipment of height h in the area. If, however, the value of Is was selected based
on the withstand insulation level of equipment used in the substation, stroke current Iso should
cause no damage to equipment.

3. Protection against stroke currents less than Is

It has been shown that a shielding system that provides protection at the stroke current level Is
provides even better protection for larger stroke currents. The remaining scenario to examine
is the protection afforded when stroke currents are less than Is.
Consider a stroke current Iso with magnitude less than Is. The striking distance, determined from
Eq. 5-1, is So. The geometrical model for this condition is shown in figure 5-6. Arcs of protection
for stroke current Iso and Is are both shown. The figure shows that the zone of protection provided
by the mast for stroke current Iso is less than the zone of protection provided by the mast for
stroke current Is. It is noted that a portion of the equipment protrudes above the dashed arc or
zone of protection for stroke current Iso. Stepped leaders that result in stroke current Iso and that
descend outside of the point where the arc is tangent to the ground will strike the ground.
However, some stepped leaders that result in stroke current Iso and that descend inside the point
where the arc is tangent to the ground could strike the equipment. This is best shown by
observing the plan view of protective zones shown in figure 5-6. Stepped leaders for stroke
current Iso that descend inside the inner protective zone will strike the mast and protect
equipment that is h in height. Stepped leaders for stroke current Iso that descend in the shaded
unprotected zone will strike equipment of height h in the area. If, however, the value of Is was

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selected based on the withstand insulation level of equipment used in the substation, stroke
current Iso should cause no damage to equipment.

Multiple shielding electrodes

The electro-geometric modeling concept of direct stroke protection has been demonstrated for a
single shield mast. A typical substation, however, is much more complex. It may contain several
voltage levels and may utilize a combination of shield wires and lightning masts in a three-
dimensional arrangement.
The above concept can be applied to multiple shielding masts, horizontal shield wires, or a
combination of the two. Figure 5-7 shows this application considering four shield masts in a
multiple shield mast arrangement. The arc of protection for stroke current Is is shown for each set
of masts. The dashed arcs represent those points at which a descending stepped leader for
stroke current Is will be attracted to one of the four masts. The protected zone between the masts
is defined by an arc of radius S with the center at the intersection of the two dashed arcs. The
protective zone can again be visualized as the surface of a sphere with radius S, which is rolled
toward a mast until touching the mast,
then rolled up and over the mast such that it would be supported by the masts. The dashed lines
would be the locus of the center of the sphere as it is rolled across the substation surface. Using
the concept of rolling sphere of the proper radius, the protected area of an entire substation can.
be determined. This can be applied to any group of different height shield masts, shield wires, or
a combination of the two. Figure 5-8 shows an application to a combination of masts and shield
wires.

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\
Changes in voltage level
Protection has been illustrated with the assumption of a single voltage level. Substations,
however, substations having Outdoor switchgears with two or more voltage levels in the same
yard . The rolling sphere method is applied in the same manner in such cases, except that the
sphere radius would increase or decrease appropriate to the change in voltage at a
transformer. The designer simply makes a separate calculation for each voltage level in the
station using the appropriate BIL and surge impedance. At the voltage interface (usually the
transformer) the designer should ensure that the lower voltage equipment is protected by using
the appropriate lower striking distance. This will not be discussed in this guide. (Refer to IEEE
998 – 1996 annex B, Example calculations for a substation with two voltage levels are given ).

Calculation of failure probability :

1. Failure probability
For the three conditions described in Items1 through Item 3 of this guide, if Is is chosen according
to Eq. 5-2, there should theoretically be no equipment failures due to direct strokes. This is
because only those strokes that could produce a surge voltage wave less than the BIL of the
equipment were able to penetrate the shielding system, and these strokes should, therefore,
cause no problem. Unfortunately, substation shielding that will provide such ideal protection is not
always economical. This is especially true when one is working with substation equipment BIL
levels below 550 kV.
The designer is then faced with the problem of first determining the level of failure risk he or she
is willing to base the design on, then developing a design that will meet this criteria. The following
clauses discuss a method of determining the unprotected area of a design and show how to
calculate expected failure rates.

2. Unprotected area
To visualize an unprotected area, refer again to figure 5-6. Assume that equipment is sized and
located as shown and further assume that, based on equipment BIL levels, equipment can
withstand stroke currents less than Iso. The associated strike distance is So. Based on the
layout, the shield mast will provide protection for all stroke currents
greater than Is. However, those stroke current magnitudes between Iso and Is could reach
equipment and would be expected to cause damage. The unprotected area for this condition
would be the shaded area shown in figure 5-6.

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 3. Probability of strokes causing equipment damage :
Equation 2-2B or figure 2-4 can be used to determine the probability that any stroke will be
greater than Is, which is the level above which the shield masts will intercept the stroke. This
probability is P(Is). The same equation or figure can be used to determine the probability that the
stroke will be greater than Iso, where Iso is the level of stroke current that can be handled by the
equipment based on its BIL. This probability is P(Iso). The probability that a stroke is less than Is
is 1.0 minus P(Is) or P(<Is). The probability that a stroke is less than Iso is 1.0 minus P(Iso)or
P(<Iso). For all lightning strokes that descend upon the shaded area of figure 5-6, the probability
that equipment damage will occur is
P(<Is) - P(<Iso) or P(Iso) - P(Is).
Example 1 :
These probabilities can best be demonstrated by the following example:
a) Assume that the stroke current for the striking distance So is 4.03 kA. Strokes of this
magnitude may strike within the protected area.
b) Assume the strike distance S, above which protection is provided, is 40 m. From Eq. 2-
1D, the stroke current above which protection is provided is 11.89 kA.
c) The probability that a stroke will exceed 4.03 kA, using Eq 2-2B or figure 2-4, is 0.990.
d) The probability that a stroke will exceed 11.89 kA, using Eq 2-2B or figure 2-4, is 0.861.
e) Therefore, the probability that a stroke which descends upon the unprotected area will be
of a magnitude that can cause equipment damage and failure is 0.990 - 0.861 = 0.129 or
12.9%.
4. Failure rate
The substation designer is basically concerned with the rate of failure of the shielding design or
the number of years expected between failures. In Item 3 , the methodology was presented for
the designer to determine the probability that a stroke in the unprotected area would cause
failure. By knowing the number of strokes expected to descend upon the area, the failure rate can
be determined.

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The number of strokes per unit area expected in the vicinity of the substation is the ground flash
density (GFD). GFD is calculated using Eq. 2-3 or 2-4. The number of strokes expected to
descend upon the area is the GFD multiplied by the unprotected area. The annual failure rate is
the product of the number of strokes to the area times the probability that the stroke in the area
will cause failure.
Example 2 :
The calculation of failure rate will be demonstrated by continuing the example begun in Example
1.
a) Assume the outside radius of the unprotected area is 35 m and the inside radius of the
unprotected area is 22 m. The unprotected area is p [(35)² - (22)²] = 2328 m² or
2328 10 3 Km².
b) Assume the isokeraunic level is 50 thunderstorm-days per year. (T values across the
USA can be read from figure 2-6). The GFD, from Eq. 2-3A, is 6.0 strokes per square
kilometer per year.
c) The annual number of strokes expected to descend into the unprotected area is 6.0 x
2328 10 3 = 0.01397 strokes/year.
d) The annual expected number of equipment failures due to direct lightning strokes, using
the 0.129 probability developed in Example 1, is 0.01397 x 0.129 = 0.00180
failures/year or 556 years between failures.
The above calculated failure rate would be for the simplified single mast substation described in
the example. If a utility had 20 such substations of identical design scattered throughout its
system, the total system substation failure rate due to direct strokes would be 556 divided by 20 =
28 years between failures.

EXAMPLE:
Lightning Protection Design Calculations for 132 / 11 KV Outdoor Substation with 132 KV AIS (
Air Insulated Switchgear ) , 40 KA with the following data and Layout :
Nominal System Voltage Un= 132 kV
Basic Lightning Impulse Level BIL=650 kV
Isokeraunic Level Th= 25 thunder-days per year
Ground Flash Density (GFD) GFD=3.84 strokes per km2 per year
Shielding Failure Risk SPmax=1 failure per 100 years
Substation area A= 120x200 = 24 000 m2
Height of the shield wires H = 16 m
Height of the mast H1 = 19 m
Height of the protected object (bus) Q = 12 m
Height of the protected object (equipment) Q1 = 5.7 m
Distance of two shield wires Lr = 13.5 m (or 12 m)
Distance of two masts Lr1= 12 m

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Transformer Bay was chosen because it was not considered earlier and it was covered by the
failure rate which was rejected and new masts were added in the design to cover the
transformers area and the capacitor banks area .

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Application of the Electrogeometric Model (EGM) :
Calculation of corona radius and surge impedance (According to IEEE Std 998-1996, Annex C)
1. Calculation of corona radius and surge impedance under corona

In case of a single conductor, the corona radius Rc is given by :

where
Rc is the corona radius in meters
h is the average height of the conductor in meters
Vc is the allowable insulator voltage for a negative polarity surge having a 6 ms
front in kilovolts (Vc = the BIL for post insulators)
E0 is the limiting corona gradient, this is taken equal to 1500 kV/m

Eq. C.1 can be solved by trial and error using a programmable calculator (an approximate
solution is given in figure C.1).

Corona radius:
Rc = 0.071 m
where

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 Rc is the corona radius in meters
h is the average height of the conductor in meters
2. Surge impedance under corona
The surge impedance of conductors under corona in ohms is given by:

where
h is the average height of the conductor
Rc is the corona radius (use Eq. C.1 for a single conductor or refer to IEEE Std. 998 –
1996 Annex – C as appropriate)
r is the metallic radius of the conductor, or equivalent radius in the case of bundled
conductors

Zs = 365 ohm
3. The allowable stroke current:
There are Two methods for calculating the Is :
1. Either using the Surge Arrester Current Rating which is normally 10 KA .
2. Calculate the Is from the following equation :
BIL 1.1 BIL
Is 2.2 ( 5 – 2A )
Z ZS
( S)
2
650
Is 2. 2 3.917 KA
365
a) Protection by shield wires
The coefficient to account for different striking distances to shield wires:
k = 1.0
Sphere radius:
Sm 8 k I 0.65 (Eq. 5-1A)
Sm 8 1.0 3.917 0.65
= 19.45 m
OR, if 10 KA is used .
Sm 8 1.0 10 0.65
= 35.73 m
Elevation difference between wire and bus:
D = H - Q =16 -12 = 4 m
Elevation difference between wire and OOS:
E = S – D =19.45 – 4 = 15.45 m
Half the separation between two wires:
L = (S² - E²)½ = [(19.45)² -(15.45)²]½ =13.02 m
Maximum separation between two wires:
X = 2L=26.04 m
(This value is the maximum separation of shield wires for protection of bus at height Q)
Distance of two shield wires Lr =13.5 m (or 12 m) < X=26.04 m
b) Protection by masts
The coefficient to account for different striking distances to mast:
k1 = 1.2
Sphere radius:
Sm 8 k1 I 0.65 = 8 1.2 3.917 0.65
= 23.34 m
Horizontal distance from OOS to equipment:

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Maximum separation from mast to equipment for protection:
T1 = S1 – C1 = 23.34 – 15.2 = 8. 14 m
(This value is the maximum separation between the mast and protected equipment at height Q 1)
Separation between the mast and protected equipment at height 5.7 m:
T1r= 6.7 m < T1 = 8.14 m

Lightning Protection Calculation for Capacitor banks and Aux. transformers

Nominal System Voltage Un= 33 kV
Basic Lightning Impulse Level BIL=170 kV
Height of the mast H2 = 11 m
Height of the protected object (equipment) Q2 = 3.8 m
Spacing of four masts Lr2= 12 m
Application of the Electrogeometric Model (EGM) :
Calculation of corona radius and surge impedance (According to IEEE Std 998-1996, Annex C) :
Corona radius:
In case of a single conductor, the corona radius Rc is given by :

Rc = 0.02 m
The surge impedance of conductor under corona:
The surge impedance of conductors under corona in ohms is given by:

Zs = 300 ohm
The allowable stroke current:
BIL 1.1 BIL
Is 2.2
Z ZS
( S)
2
170
Is 2. 2 1.25KA
300
Protection by masts
The coefficient to account for different striking distances to mast:
k1 = 1.2
Sphere radius:
Sm 8 k1 I 0.65 = 8 1.2 1.25 0.65
= 11.1 m
Elevation difference between mast and equipment:
D2 = H2 – Q2 = 11 – 3.8 = 7.2 m
Elevation difference between mast and OOS:
E2 = S2 – D2 = 11.1 – 7.2 = 3.9 m
Horizontal distance between OOS and mast:

Diagonal distance between masts when four masts support the sphere:
K2 = 2J2=20.8 m
Distance between masts when four masts support the sphere:

(This value is the maximum spacing of four masts for protection of equipments at the height Q2)
Spacing of four masts Lr2 =12 m < P2 =14.2 m

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Calculation of failure probability:
Note : (In my opinion ,this should not be considered for any Area within the substation where
equipment is installed and personnel attendance cannot be waived and can be considered only
for Empty Areas to save costs ).

Because Is is chosen according to Eq. 5-2A there should be no equipment failures due to direct
strokes on the protected area. (under the curves with radius S).
The curve with radius S (S=19.45 m) do not cover the whole Tr., but the curve with radius S1
(S1=22 m) cover the whole Tr.,
a) Assume that the stroke current for the striking distance S is Is=3.92 kA. Strokes of this
magnitude may strike within the protected area.
b) Assume the stroke distance S1, above which protection is provided, is 22 m. From
0.65
S1 8 I s1 Equation, (ref. Eq. 2-1D)
the stroke current above which protection is provided is:
1 1
S1 0.65 22 0.65
I S1 = = 4.75 kA
8 8
c) The probability that a stroke will exceed Is = 3.92 kA:
1 1
P( I s ) = 0.991 (ref. Eq. 2-2B)
I 3.92 2.6
1 ( ) 2.6 1 ( )
24 24
d) The probability that a stroke will exceed Is1= 4.75 kA:
1 1
P(IS1) = = = 0.985 (ref. Eq. 2-2B)
I 2.6 4.75 2.6
1 ( ) 1 ( )
24 24
e) Therefore, the probability that a stroke which descends upon the unprotected
area will be of a magnitude that can cause equipment damage and failure is:
P = P(IS) - P(IS1) = 0.991 – 0.985 = 0.006 = 0.6 %

Calculation of failure rate:

To evaluate the expected shielding performance of a substation site, proceed as follows:

a) Determine the ground flash density using Eq. 2-3 or Eq. 2-4.
NK 0.12 Td
b) Calculate the number of flashes to the substation area, Ns.
Ns = GFD x A / (1000)²
Where,
GFD is the ground flash density in strokes per square kilometer per year
A is the substation area in square meters
c) Calculate number of strokes per year penetrating the shield, SP.
SP = Ns x Exposure rate
1. The unprotected area 1 (at the Tr.-s) is:
6
Au1= 3 x 1.8 x 12 = 64.8 m² = 64.8 x 10 km²
a) The GFD=3.84 strokes per km² per year
b) The annual number of strokes expected to descend into the unprotected area 1 is:
6 6
Ns = GFD x Au1= 3.84 x 64.8 x 10 = 250 x 10 strokes per year
c) The annual expected number of equipment failures due to direct lightning strokes:
6
SP1= N1 x P=250 x 10-6 x 0.006 =1.5 x 10 failures per year
SP1= 0.00015 failures per 100 years

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2. The unprotected area 2 (outside of the area which is covered by the 132 kV AIS) is:
3
a) Au2= 670 m2 = 0.67 x 10 km²
b) The GFD=3.84 strokes per km² per year
c) The annual number of strokes expected to descend into the unprotected area 2 is:
3 3
N2=GFD x Au2= 3.84 x 0.67 x 10 10-3 = 2.573 x 10 strokes per year
d) The annual expected number of equipment failures due to direct lightning strokes:
SP2= 0.002573 failures per year
SP2= 0.2573 failures per 100 years
SP= SP1 + SP2 = 0.00015 + 0.2573 = 0.25745 failures per 100 years (or 390
years between failures)
SP = 0.25745 failures per 100 years < SPmax=1 failure per 100 years

Conclusions:
The shielding failure risk is not greater than one failure per 100 years as specified.
But, note that if a utility had 20 such substations of identical design scattered throughout its
system, the total system substation failure rate due to direct strokes would be 390 divided by 20 =
19.5 years between failures.

Indoor GIS Substation and Control Building Lightning Protection :

Lightning protection shall be provided on all buildings.
BS.6651 is widely used for the design, installation and materials for the lightning protection
systems . The lightning protection system may be inter-connected with the earthing system
provided the conductors form the most direct path for lightning currents from the air terminals to
the earth electrodes. Additional conductors and earth electrodes shall be installed as necessary
to ensure a direct path.
The adequacy of lightning protection shall be attained by installing air terminals and over the
buildings. The down leads shall be brought in such a manner that they pose minimum risk to the
personnel. As far as possible, the conductor shall be taken to the earth rod without any bends or
twist in the route.
Only brief description of the relevant BS 6651 clauses is given in this guidance . For more details
, please refer to BS 6651 .

Protective angle
For structures not exceeding 20 m in height, the angle between the side of the cone and the
vertical at the apex of the cone is known as the protective angle, as shown in Figure 6. The
magnitude of the protective angle cannot be precisely stated because it depends upon the
severity of the stroke and the presence within the protective zone of conductive objects providing
independent paths to earth. All that can be stated is that the protection afforded by a lightning
conductor increases as the assumed protective angle decreases. For structures exceeding 20 m
in height, the protective angle of any conductors up to the height of 20 m would be similar to that
for lower structures. However, for structures above 20 m, where there is a possibility of such
buildings being struck on the side, it is recommended that the protected volume is determined
using the rolling sphere method.
For the practical purpose of providing an acceptable degree of protection for an ordinary structure
up to 20 m high and up to a height of 20 m for a higher structure, the protective angle of any
single component part of an air termination network, namely either one vertical or one horizontal
conductor, is considered to be 45º [see Figures 6a) and b)].
A protection angle of 30° from the vertical plane is also widely used

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 .
Between two or more vertical conductors, spaced at a distance not exceeding twice their height,
the equivalent protective angle may, as an exception, be taken as 60º to the vertical; an example
is shown in Figure 6c). For a flat roof, the area between parallel horizontal conductors is deemed
to be effectively protected if the air termination network is arranged as recommended in 15.2 and
15.3. For structures requiring a higher degree of protection, other protective angles are
recommended

Air terminations
15.1 General
Basic guidelines on the design of air terminations are given in 15.2 and explanatory notes on the
various forms that are commonly used follow in 15.3.

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15.2 Basic rules
Air termination networks may consist of vertical or horizontal conductors or combinations of both
(see, for example, Figures 10 to 15). No part of the roof should be more than 5 m from the
nearest horizontal conductor and a 20 m x 10 m mesh should be maintained. For large flat roofs,
this is achieved typically by use of an air termination network mesh of approximately 10 m x 20 m.
to ensure that the lightning current at the point of strike is quickly dispersed throughout the air
terminations to all down conductors thus reducing mechanical and thermal stress and minimizing
the risk of side-flashing.

On multiple ridge roofs, additional conductors are necessary if the separation, S (in meters), of
the ridges is greater than 10 + 2H, where H is the height of the ridge (in meters). See Figure 12.
On a reinforced concrete structure, the air termination should be connected to the reinforcing bars
in the number of positions needed for down conductors.
All metallic projections on or above the main surface of the roof which are connected, intentionally
or fortuitously, to the general mass of the earth should be bonded to, and form part of, the air
termination network (see, for example, Figure 5 and Figure 7 Metallic coping, roof coverings,
handrails, window washing equipment and metallic screens around play areas should be
considered for inclusion as part of the air termination network (see Figure 5, Figure 7).
If portions of a structure vary considerably in height, any necessary air terminations or air
termination networks for the lower portions should be joined to the down conductors of the taller
portions in addition to being joined to their own down conductors.

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\
Figure 11 –Air terminations for flat roofs at different levels
Perimeter = 24 + 24 + 12 + 12 = 72
Number of down conductors required
= 72/20 = 4.
NOTE 1 An air termination along the outer perimeter of the roof is required and no part should
be more than 5 m from the nearest horizontal conductor, except that an additional 1 m may be
allowed for each meter by which the part to be protected is below the nearest conductor.
NOTE 2 Horizontal conductors are not necessary on the parapets of the light well; a zone of
protection of 608 is provided by the two adjacent horizontal conductors for structures less than 20
m high. This principle does not apply to taller structures.

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15.3 Forms of air termination

15.3.1 General
In practice, very few of the many forms of structure can be protected by any reasonable
arrangement of single conductors. Recommendations for various forms of air termination are
given in Figures 10 to 15. Guidance on their application is given in 15.3.2 to 15.3.6. Although, for
the sake of clarity, down conductors and earth terminations have been omitted from the figures,
these should be provided as recommended elsewhere in this code of practice, taking account as
necessary of the architectural and structural features of the structure and of the site conditions.
15.3.2 Simple vertical conductor(s)
Figure 6a) shows a simple vertical conductor and the zone of protection in plan and elevation.
Figure 6c) shows four vertical conductors with the increased angle of protection available
between them. The zones of protection for this arrangement are shown in the plan view.
However, although in suitable cases advantage may be taken of the increased protection zone,
there can be no certainty about the precise shape of the envelope since this is only a statistical
concept.
The position and spacing of down conductors on large structures is often governed by
architectural convenience. However, there should be one down conductor for each 20 m or part
thereof of the perimeter at roof level or ground level, whichever is the greater. Structures over 20
m high should have one per 10 m or part thereof.

15.3.3 Horizontal conductor(s) for flat roofs

Figure 6b) shows a simple horizontal air termination consisting of a roof conductor around the
periphery of a rectangular building. The resulting zone of protection is shown in plan and
elevation.
Figure 10 shows a typical arrangement for a structure with a large area of flat roof where the use
of a system of horizontal roof conductors is strongly recommended. The network of the air
termination on a flat roof is recommended to be in the form of a grid to reduce the effect of
flashover caused by large induction loops.

16 Down conductors

16.1 General
The function of a down conductor is to provide a low impedance path from the air termination to
the earth electrode so that the lightning current can be safely conducted to earth. This code of
practice covers the use of down conductors of various types including the use of strip, rod,
reinforcing bars and structural steel stanchions, etc. Any good conductor which forms part of the
building structure can be included, appropriately jointed to the air and earth terminations. In
general, the greater the number of down conductors used, the lower the risk of side-flashing and
other undesirable phenomena. Likewise, large conductors reduce the risk of side-flashing,
especially if insulated.
In brief, the down conductor system should, where practicable, be directly routed from the air
termination to the earth termination network and be symmetrically placed around the outside
walls of the structure starting from the corners. In all cases, consideration should be given to side-
flashing.

16.3 Recommended number

The position and spacing of down conductors on large structures is often governed by
architectural convenience. However, there should be one down conductor for each 20 m or part
thereof of the perimeter at roof level or ground level, whichever is the greater. Structures over 20
m high should have one per 10 m or part thereof.
16.11 Test points
Each down conductor should be provided with a test joint in such a position that, whilst not
inviting unauthorized interference, it is convenient for tests.
Plates indicating the position, number and type of earth electrodes should be fitted above each
test point

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17.2 Importance of reducing resistance to earth
An earth electrode should be connected to each down conductor. Each of these earths should
have a resistance (in ohms) not exceeding the product given by 10 times the number of earth
electrodes to be provided (see 16.3). The whole of the earth termination network should have a
combined resistance to earth not exceeding 10 V without taking account of any bonding to other
services.
If the value obtained for the whole of the lightning protection system exceeds 10 V, a reduction
can be achieved by extending or adding to the electrodes or by interconnecting the individual
earth electrodes of the down conductors by a conductor installed at least 0.6 m below the ground,
sometimes referred to as a ring earth electrode (see Figure 23). Ring earth electrodes should
preferably pass below incoming services.
Buried ring earth electrodes laid in such a manner are considered to be an integral part of the
earth termination network and should be taken into account when assessing the overall value of
resistance to earth of the installation.
A reduction in the resistance to earth to a value below 10 V has the advantage of reducing the
potential gradient around the earth electrodes when discharging lightning current. It may also
reduce the risk of side-flashing to metal in or on a structure

17.4 Isolation of earth electrode systems for testing

Isolation of earth electrode systems for testing Earth electrodes should be capable of being
isolated and a reference earth electrode (see 3.1.12) should be provided for testing purposes.
Where the steel structure of a building is used as the down conductors, sufficient points of test
should be provided to enable the low resistance continuity of the steel structure to be checked.
This is especially important for those parts of the structure that are not visible. A reference earth
electrode will be necessary for these tests.

Annex A :
Surge Arrester Protection : Lightning over-voltages
General remarks
The over-voltages in substations depend on amplitude and shape of the overvoltage impinging on
the substation from the overhead line conductor as well as on the travelling wave behavior of the
substation itself. The frequency with which such impinging over-voltages occur is given by the
lightning performance of the overhead line connected to the substation. For substations or parts
of a substation to which no surge arrester is connected, the most important parameter is the
amplitude of the impinging overvoltage; for substations protected by surge arresters, it is its
steepness and the separation distance between surge arrester and the equipment under
consideration.
The steepness of an impinging overvoltage surge is reduced mainly by corona damping effects
on the overhead line . This means that the steepness of the impinging surge can be only
sufficient to cause a certain overvoltage amplitude if the lightning stroke hits the overhead line
within a certain distance from the substation . For further strokes the steepness will be too low,
irrespective of the amplitude of the surge.The knowledge of this limit distance is of primary
importance.

Determination of the limit distance (Xp)

Protection with arresters in the substation
This sub-clause contains more detailed information on surge arrester protection , more than one
overhead line is connected to the substation, the original steepness (S) of the impinging surge
can be divided by the number of lines (n). However, it is emphasized that the number of lines
should correspond to the minimum number which reasonably remains in service taking into
account possible outages during lightning storms.
Allowing for the fact that the steepness of the impinging surge reduces inversely with the travel
distance on the overhead line, the steepness S of the impinging surge to be used in equation (1)
is approximately equal to:

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 (Eq. - 1 )
Where ,
n is the number of overhead lines connected to the substation; if multi-circuit towers
are involved and double-system back flashovers have to be taken into account, it is
recommended to divide the number by two;
Kco is the corona damping constant according to Table F.1 [µs/(kV.m)];
X is the distance between struck point of lightning and substation (m).

The use of this steepness value in equation (1) does not yield sufficiently accurate results for the
calculation of overvoltage at the equipment. However, it is sufficient (and conservative) to
estimate the limit distance Xp by:
(Eq. - 2 )
Where,
U is the lowest considered overvoltage amplitude;
T is the longest travel time between any point in the substation to be protected and the
closest arrester (µs);
Upl is the lightning impulse protective level of the arrester.
For distances larger than Xp the steepness will be reduced such that the overvoltage at the
equipment will in general be smaller than the assumed value U.

Reference Documents :

1. IEEE Std. 998 –1996 .

2. BS 6651 .
3. Design Guide for Rural Substations - United States Department of Agriculture - June
2001.
4. Example is from Contractor Submittal for Lightning Protection Design for 132 KV AIS S/S.