Chapter #1

What is a computer?
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own
memory unit that can accept data (input), process data arithmetically and logically, produce result
(output).
OR
In simple words, computer is an electronic machine that;
1. Receives the data that we feed into it;
2. Stores the data inside it;
3. Processes the data according to our instructions and give the results.
History of development of computer
‘Abacus’ is the earliest and simplest device that qualifies as a computer .It permits the user to
represent numbers by the position of beads as a rack. Simple addition and subtraction can e carried out
rapidly and efficiently by positioning the beads appropriately.
ABACUS was first developed and used in China in 5000 BC and later on its use spread to
Egypt, Greece and Rome.
John Napier’s calculating device
With the introduction of ARABIC numerals from 0 to 9 the calculation process became much
easier. Using these numbers JOHN NAPIER developed a calculating device. Napier copied some of his
tables onto a set of IVORY RODS, known as NAPIER BONES. Napier’s idea of logarithm gave birth to
another very useful and commonly used calculating device called Slide Rule . This slide rule in its
improved shape remained in use till the introduction of electronic calculation.
Pascal’s invention
In 1642, Blase Pascal invented the first mechanical calculating machine. He designed a machine
which consisted of a series of number wheels or dials each numbered from 0 to 9 and geared to drum that
displayed the digits through windows . the results could be obtained up to eight digit numbers.
Gottfried w-von Leibniz’s invention
In 1671, he invented a better calculating machine which could not only add and subtract but also
multiply and divide numbers directly and find square roots.
Joseph Marie’s Jacquard
He was a French engineer. In 1801, he developed punched card system for the power-looms.
This system helped in creating specific weaving patterns on cloths automatically.
Charles Babbage’s Invention
He was a British mathematician. He worked n construction of a huge mechanical machine based
on the principle of difference of the squares of numbers. In 1823, he invented a machine and named it as
“Difference Engine”. It was accurate and could produce a print output.
In 1833, he began his lifetime project in building a new machine called the Analytical Engine. It
was a machine for general purpose
Herman Hollerith’s Electronic Computing Device
He was an American. In 1890, he designed the first electronic computing device. He also made
use of punched cards in this machine.
Howard’s Invention
In 1948, Howard H. Aiken developed an electronic mechanical computer named Mark-I. It is
considered to b4 one of the first true computer as it could store information and instructions.
The Mark- was 15.55 meter long and 2.44 meter high this machine contained 760,000 parts
including a combination of electromechanical devices. It had 3300 relays and weighted 5 tons.
Development of EDVAC
In 1946 John W-Mauchly and J.P.Eckert developed ENIAC. It was improved by John Von
Neumann in 1950 and he named it as EDVAC computer that could store both the program as well as the
data.
Contribution of Charles Babbage
Charles Babbage was a British Mathematician. In 1823, he worked on the construction if a huge
mechanical machine based on the principle of difference of the squares of numbers. He named the
machine as Difference Engine. It was accurate and could produce a printed output.
Then he began his lifetime project in building a new machine called the Analytical Engine (in
1833).He never converted his dreams into reality because the standard of engineering and technology was
not so high at that time.
Father of Modern Computer
In fact Babbage’s machine gave birth to the research in the field of computer. The modern
computers are largely based on the principle developed by Babbage. That is why Babbage is considered
as considered as Father of Modern computer..
Classification of Computers by Size
Computers are classified according to their size in four different classes. Computer size is
determined by a number of factors, e.g. the amount of data that can be stored in the memory and the
speed of internal operation. The four classes are as follows;
1 Microcomputers 2. Minicomputers.
3. Marco or Mainframe computers. 4. Supercomputers.
Microcomputers
Microcomputer is the name given to very small, low cost and digital computer. It contains a
microprocessor unit as its CPU, a memory unit and equipped with an output device and an output device
to constitute a complete computing system. These small computers are often called personal computers
(PCs). Manufacturer of microcomputers include IBM, Apple, Acer, Commodore etc.
Minicomputers
First introduce in the early 1970s, these machines, as the name suggests, are relatively small in size
and cheaper in cost than mainframe computers, Some minicomputers are uniprocessor system whereas
some are multiprocessor systems, A minicomputer can support up to 64 or even more terminals.
Macro or Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computer are very powerful large general purpose computers. They are faster and more
powerful than minicomputers.
Supercomputers
Supercomputers are extremely powerful computers. The term is commonly applied to the fastest
high-performance system available at any given time. Such computers are used primarily for scientific
and engineering work requiring exceeding high speed computations.
Types of computers on basis of their construction..
. Followings are the types of computers based on their construction.
1) Analog Computer
2) Digital computer
3) Hybrid computer
1. Analog Computer
The analog computer measures continuous types of data and uses a physical quantity that changes
along a constant scale.
Example
An analog processor is used at petrol stations which indicates the quantity of petrol delivered. A
thermometer is an analog device because it measures the length of a mercury column which varies
continuously. An analog clock measures time by means of the distance traveled by the hands of a clock
around a dial.
2 Digital computer
A digital computer represents data in terms of discrete numbers and processes data using the
standard arithmetic operation. It directly counts numbers(digits) that represents numerals, letters and
other symbols.
Digital computers use electronic circuits which can distinguish between just two values ‘O’ & ‘I’,
All the data must be encoded digitally as Os and 1’s in the digital computers.
Example;
Earlier analog devices got their digital equivalents such as digital watches, digital scales and digital
thermometers.
Most of the computers available today are digital computers and therefore, term “computer” usually
stands for “digital computer”
3. Hybrid Computer
A hybrid computer combines the vest features of analog and digital computers. It consists partly of
the components of digital computer and partly of analog computer to combine the characteristics of both
types (for example the speed analog computer and the accuracy of digital computer). Therefore, hybrid
computers help the user to process both continuous and discrete data. The results can be obtained either
in analog signal, that is, either as continuous output in the form of graphs or as discrete digits.
Example;
Hybrid computer for example, control passenger flight radar. Other example of hybrid computers is
the modern petrol pumps (see Fig) in which motor for pumping fuel runs in analogue fashion and the
quantity of the fuel delivered or the cost of that fuel is represented in digits.
The computer generations
There are totally five computer generations known till today.
First generation (1945-1955)
ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC and Mark-1 belong to the first generation of computers. These
computers used “vacuum tube”, which was a fragile glass device that could control and amplify
electronic signals. These vacuum tube computers are referred to as first generation computers.
Second generation (1955-1964)
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and gave birth to the second generation of computers like
UNIVACII, IBM 1401 and CDC 1604. These computers were smaller in size, faster and more reliable as
compared to the first generation computers
Third generation (1964-1970)
Advances in electronics technology continued and the advent of “microelectronics” technology made
it possible to integrate large number of circuit elements into very small (less than 5 mm square surface of
silicon known as “chips”. This new technology was called “integrated circuits” (ICs). The third
generation was based on IC technology and the computers that were designed with the use of integrated
circuits were called third generation computer.
Forth generation (1970 onwards)
A fourth generation computer, which is what we have now, has LSI chips as its brain. It is LSI
technology which has led to the development of very small but extremely powerful computers.
Fifth generation (yet to come)
Scientists are now at work on the fifth generation computers- a promise, but not yet a reality. They
aim to bring us machines with genuine I.Q., the ability to reason logically, and with real knowledge of the
world. Thus, unlike the last four generations, which naturally followed its predecessor, the fifth
generation will be totally different, totally novel, and totally new.
Basic concepts of computer programs and languages.
Computer program
The main function of a computer is to solve the problems very quickly and accurately which are
otherwise difficult to solve manually or time consuming. As problem-solving tool, it requires to be
controlled by a set of instructions called a computer program.
Software
Programs can be written by individual computer user or a group of computer experts to perform
specific as well as general type of computer related jobs. These programs are known as ‘software’
Languages
Some of the most important types of software provided by the manufactures or computer scientists
are the computer Languages. These are classified into different categories.
Generations of languages.
Many kinds of languages have been developed over the years. These languages can be classified in
the following five levels or generations of programming languages;
1. First generation of languages
There is only one language understood by the computer without using a translation program. This
language is called the machine language or machine code of the computer. Machine language is a
low level language and considered as first generation of languages.
Though machine language is efficient for computers, it is inefficient for programmers because it
requires a lot of time and complicated task to write the machine code program.
2. Second generation of languages the
difficulty faced in machine languages was overcome when numeric operation codes were replaced
with mnemonic codes, or symbolic codes. For example, the codes ADD, SUB will add and subtract
any two values. A special program that uses these symbolic codes is called an Assembler. It is used
to convert the program into machine code-equivalent known as the object program.
3. Third generation languages
The third generation languages are more like human languages (English-like) which require a
translator to convert the programs into Machine level program. These high-level languages were
designed to run the programs on different computers.
Neither assembly language nor high level-language programs can be understood directly by the
computer. The user-written programs (Source Program) needs to be translated into machine language for
processing .Thus special set of programs is required to convert the user’s programs into an object
program (Machine level program). This set of programs is called compiler.
Forth generation languages (4GLs) or very high level languages. They are nonprocedural
languages and let users carry out individual requests that do not match to normal format.
Language processors (translators) and their types.
Translators are programs those convert or translate programming language (high level language)
into 1’s and 0’s or machine language (low level language).
An interpreter is a program that translates a high level programming language into machine
language during the actual step-by-step execution of a program. An interpreter translates one instruction,
and the control unit executes the resulting machine language, the next instruction is translated, and the
control unit executes the machine language instruction, and so on.
Different characteristics of computer.
1. Speed
A computer is a very fast device. It can perform in a few seconds the amount of work that a human
being can do in an entire year. The signal can pass at the speed of electricity which is the same of light
i.e. 2. 997 10 m/s. A powerful computer is capable of performing about 3 to 4 million simple arithmetic
operations per second.
2. Accuracy
Computer works very accurately and results are always same as per design. Accordingly software
needs to be designed proper checks and controls are necessary in the program and data
3. Diligence
Unlike human beings, a computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration etc. and hence an work
for hours together without creating any errors.
4. Versatility
Versatility is one of the most wonderful things about the computer. One moment, it is preparing the
results of particular examination, the next moment it is busy in preparing electrical bills, and in between,
it may be helping an office secretary to trace an important letter in seconds
5. Power of remembering
A computer can store and recall any amount of information because of its secondary storage
capability. It can store and retrieve large amount of data, instructions and information from its secondary
storage devices.
6. No I.Q.
A computer is not a magical device. It can only perform tasks that a human being can. Its IQ is zero, at
least till today. It has to be told what to do and in what sequence. A user can determine what tasks a
computer will perform because a computer can’t take its own decision.
 Chapter 2
Input / Output Units
Input unit accepts the list of instructions and data from the outside world and converts these
instructions and data in computer acceptable form. Then it supplies the converted instructions and
data to the computer system for further processing
Output unit accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and hence
cannot be easily understood by us. It converted results to the outside world.
2. Central processing unit the
processor controls the operation of the computer. It fetches instructions from main storage, interprets
them, and issues the necessary signals. It also directs all hardware operations.
3. Arithmetic & logic unit
ALU is designed to perform the four basic arithmetic operations – add, subtract, multiply and
divide and logic operations or comparisons such as less than, equal to, or greater than.
4. Control unit
ALU and CU combine together to form the brain of the computer known as CPU. It is responsible
for activating and controlling the operations of other units of a computer system.
5. Storage unit
Storage unit holds all the data to be processed and the instructions required for processing. It stores
intermediate results of processing and final results of processing before these results are released to an
output device.
Working of ALU.
The ALU of a computer system is the place where the actual execution of the instructions takes place
during the processing operation.
It has two main functions;
a) It carries out the arithmetic e.g. add, subtract, multiply and divide.
b) It performs certain logical operations e.g. testing whether two data items match.
Mother board
It is circuit board inside the computer on which small Chips are connected. This motherboard is a
circuit designed by computer engineers and working of computer depends upon it.
Microprocessor
With the advances in large scale integration (LSI) and very large scale integration (VLSI) technology,
it became possible to build the whole CPY of a digital computer on a single integrated circuit (IC). The
microprocessor is an integrated circuit containing control unit (CU) and arithmetical logical unit (ALU).
It is the latest development in the field of computer technology as well as semiconductor technology.
Some of the microprocessors used in the early computers were INTEL 8086 and 8088.When a
main memory is added to work with the microprocessor then the device) are added to these to make a
completer computer system.
 Chapter 3
Input /Output Devices
Peripheral devices
“Peripheral units or devices are the hardware components used for input/output of data”.
They are keyboard, mouse, disk drives, printers and plotters etc.
They are connected to the main memory. They perform three main functions:-
1) Input
2) Output
3) Backing storage
A human user can communicate with the computer by giving instructions through input devices.
The output devices provide the means for the computer to communicate with the human user or a
computer gives the output of the instructions given by the user.
The backing storage devices are external memory units which function as extension to the primary
memory.
Types of input devices with examples
Input Devices
Input devices are machines which transmit information from the outside world into computer
memory. In most cases, we first have to put the information into a form suitable for use by the input
device, usually by some form of typing. The documents from which the information is keyed (typed) are
called source documents. Punched paper cards and paper tape were used in the past as input media. The
magnetic media commonly used now is floppy disk. The other input devices are mouse, keyboard,
modem, light pen, touch screen and microphone etc.
1. Mouse
A mouse is a pointing device used to control the motion of a pointer on the computer screen. A mouse
usually has two or three buttons that can be pressed to perform different function. It rolls on a ball over a
plain surface and causes a movement of the pointer cursor on the screen. So the cursor moves at the
direction of the mouse movements. It is connected to the computer with the help of a wire which looks
like a tail of a real moude. Now it has replaced the keyboard mostly.
Use
Mouse is now mostly used in windows environment (OS). It is used to draw pictures and also used to
select the display menu.
2. Light pen:
A light pen is a pointing device of pen-shaped. The pen consists of a photocell, placed in a small tube
of its front end. Its other end is connected to a computer terminal with a cable. As the user moves the tip
of the pen over the screen surface, then the photocell responds and it sends electrical response along the
cable to CPU for doing the work as directed by the menu option.
Use
Light en is used in picture drawings as well as engineering design .It is also used in cricket matches by
the commentators to mention different positions.
3. Joy Stick:
This is another input device. It is a single vertical stick. With the help of it, a user can control the
movements of objects on the screen in various directions. It also has buttons which can be used for
different actions. The function of joystick and mouse is similar.
Use
Joystick is very popular device for controlling objects in computer games. The joystick allows faster
interaction which is needed in the games.
5. Keyboard
Keyboard is the most commonly used input device. Nowadays in on-line system, keyboards are
directly attached to the computers. So we input the data and instructions by typing the keyboard.
Earlier keyboards used to have less then 60 keys but nowadays it is upto 104 keys. The keys are
grouped according to their functions as below:-
1. Alphabets
All lower case alphabets (a – z) can be typed using these keys and upper case alphabets (A- Z) can be
typed by pressing shift key or using caps lock on.
2. Numeric
The numeric keys are located on the top of typing keys and also in the form of keypad on the right
side of the keyboard . This keyad is used when all data input is numeric.
3. Punctuation Characters
! ; -- : ” ‘ “ etc.
4. Mathematical Symbols
% & + - / = etc.
5. Cursor Movement Keys
These keys are used for moving the cursor left, right, up and down
6. Editing Function Keys
Enter, Backspace, Escape, CTRL and ALT keys are also available.
7. Function Keys
These keys (F1 to F12) are situated on the top of the keyboard.
Home To jump at the beginning of the work done
End To go to the end of work done.
Print Screen For printing a page.S
Page up / Page down For jumping to a specific location.
5. Modem
Modems are used for communication between computers. When we receive any data, information,
instruction from another computer through modem then we call it input device because this data,
information or instruction is going into the computer.
6. Scanners
Scanners are basically input devices that are capable of recognizing marks or characters. Thus they are
used for direct data entry into the computer system. They eliminate some of the duplication of human
effort required to get data into the computer. Human beings do not have to enter the data. The reduction
in human intervention improves data accuracy and can increase the timeliness of the information
processed.
7. Trackball
The trackball is a ball inset in a small external box or adjacent to and in the same unit as the
keyboard. The ball is “rolled” with the fingers to move the graphics cursor. Some people find it helpful
to think of a trackball as an upside-dawn mouse with a bigger ball on the bottom. Trackballs are
sometimes configured with portable computers and workstations.
8. Muse Pen
Like a mouse, the mouse pen is rolled across any smooth surface, but it is held like a pen.

9. Digitizer tablet and pen

The digitizer tablet and pen are a pen and a pressure-sensitive tablet whose X-Y co-ordinates
correspond with those on the computer’s display screen. Some digitizing tablets also use a crosshair
device instead of a pen. The movement of the pen or crosshair is reproduced simultaneously on the
display screen. When configured with a PC, the digitizer tablet and pen enable the user to perform pen-
based computing applications, such as drawing and entering hand written data to the system.
10. Track points
Track points are usually positioned in or near a laptop’s keyboard. They function like miniature
joysticks but are operated with the tip of the finger.
11. Track pad
The track pad has no moving parts. Simply move your finger abort a touch-sensitive pad to move the
graphics cursor.
12. Digital Cameras
Most of us take photographs in the traditional manner—with a camera and film. We drop off our rolls
of film for developing, and then enjoy the results in the form of prints and slides. Some people use image
scanners to digitize photos for use in newspapers, magazines and so on. This process may change forever
as the price of digital cameras continues to plummet (currently priced from $400 to $7,000). When you
take a picture with a digital camera, a digitized image goes straight to 31/2 inch diskette, CD-R, or
onboard RAM. Once on disk or in RAM, it can be loaded to a computer and manipulated as you would
other graphic images.
There are many applications for digital cameras, not the least or which is expanding the family
photo album. Dermatologists use digital cameras to take close up shots of lesions and skin disorders.
Each time a patient comes in for an appointment, the doctor takes a file photo so that progress can be
compared from visit to visit.
13. Disk drive / Hard Disk / Magnetic Tapes
These devices are generally known as permanent storage devices. Any information, data or instruction
is stored on these different types of devices and can be used at any time. So when we use these devices
as source then we call it input devices and information goes into the computer from these devices.
14. Microphone
A microphone is used to input voice and sound on computer .A suitable software along with
microphone is required to talk to the computer and record voice and sound.
Types of output devices with examples
Output Devices
Output devices receive information from computer memory and transmit it to the outside world,
either in human readable or in machine-readable form. After inputting the data into the computer and
storing it into the temporary memory, these are means of output to communicate the results to the user.
Monitors, printers and plotters are commonly used output devices.
a) Television Screen
A home TV set screen can be used for computer output. But these screens have low resolution and
the graphical output is not impressive.
b) Monitors
Monitor looks like a TV set but it accepts different types of input signals.
Image that is too bright might become permanently visible. VGA (video graphics adapter) and EGA
(extended graphics adapter) graphic screens of monitors are used nowadays/
c) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
LCDs are used as display systems where output consists of a small set of characters e.g. calculators
and digital watches. It consists of two thin glass sheet with liquid crystal between them. These
characters can be seen only where current is passed through these thin glass sheets.
Light emitting diode (LED) , display panels and screens of the size of small blackboard are also
used as display unit for commercial purpose.
d) Modem
Modem is a device which communicates with another computer so we can also send our
information, results, data to other computer for further processing or for other people information .
Therefore, this device also acts as output as well as input device.
e) Hard Disk / Disk Drive / Magnetic Tapes
Disk drive, Hard disks and magnetic tapes serves as a permanent storage media. So we can also store
information permanently on these devices. These devices serve as input and as well as output
devices.
f) Plotters
A plotter is an output device used to produce hard copies of graphs and designs.
g) Printers
Printers are the most commonly used output devices. They are the primary output devices used to
prepare permanent documents in human-readable form (hard coy). There are several types of printers
that are designed for different types of applications.
Q.4 Differentiate clearly between the working principle of a Dot Matrix Printer, Line
Printer and Laser Printer.
Ans. Printers are output devices which produce permanent copies. T he output giben by a printer is
also called a hard copy.
Line Printer
These printers print one line at a time.
 Working Principle
The print speed is usually in the range 10 to 90 characters per second (cps) or 200 lines per
minute. A variety of styles or sizes of printing should b obtained by replacing daisy wheels of
different type fonts. These are noisy and require inked ribbons. It cannot print pictures and graphic
designs. Line prnters can print final official documents because this kind of printing is better than dot
matrix
The characters are embossed on the metal surface. This metal surface may be in the form of a
drum or a daisy wheel. A print hammer strikes to produce the print image on the paper when the
desired character comes to the desired position.
Dot Matrix Printers
These printers are faster than line printers and are often less expensive. The characters formed by
these are dots instead of continuous lines by the line printers.
Working Principle
DMP prints at a speed of 30 to 600 cps. Unlike the line printers, a DMP has a printing head
consisting of a vertical array of wires. A DMP can print both text end graphics. There are two types
of print heads in the market i.e 9pin or a 24pin head.
In dot matrix printers the desired characters are produced by an arrangement of tiny hammers
striking against the ribbon, producing small dots on the paper. These dots are arranged in a specified
pattern to form letters or characters.
Laser Printers
Laser printers are page printers. These are non-impact character printers which use laser beam to
produce the dots needed to form pages of characters. Laser printers are quite and produce high quality
output. These printers work as a office copier as well as printer in the offices and are also used for
commercial printing
Working Principle
The laser beam directly split over the drum. Wherever laser beams hit the drum, ink particles are
then fused on the paper. The printed image which can be in the form of text or pictures is made up of
tiny dots or ink particles fused on the paper.
Q.5 Define Plotters with their types.
Ans. Plotter or graph plotter is a device which prints or draws beautiful multicolored
pictures/diagrams under computer control. They are used fr producing business charts, architectural
plants and engineering drawings.
They are of two types:-
1. Flat Bed Plotter.
2. Drum Plotter.
1. Flat Bed Plotter
In this type of plotter paper is held stationary on a flat surface. The plotting pen is held above the
paper and can e moved up or down. When moved down, it contacts the paper and draw lines.
1. Drum Plotter
In these plotters, the drawing pen is mounted on a stationary arm. The pen can move up , down
and along the arm while the paper can also be moved by rotating the drum forward and backward.
The lines can be drawn anywhere on the paper by combining the drum movements with the pen
movements.
‘Hard Copy’ & ‘Soft Copy’
Output devices convert machine readable information into people- readable form. Output takes two
forms:
1. Softcopy
Softcopy means the output is in a form that cannot be physically touched. Softcopy output is best
for information that needs to be viewed only occasionally or a few moments, such as airline’s departures
and arrivals display
2. Hardcopy
 Hardcopy means the output is in a form that can be physically touched. Hardcopy output is best
for information that may be used later or that may have greater value over time. The principal hardcopy
output devices are printers, plotters, and microfilm output devices.
Softcopy Output Hardware
Softcopy output devices are of three principal types:
1. Monitors
2. Voice output devices
3. Sound output devices
Hardcopy output device are of three principal types:
1. Printers 2. Plotters
3. Computer output microfilm/microfiche (COM)