Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

EXPERIMENT NO-1

TITLE:-To obtain VI characteristics of SCR

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 1

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Title: Characteristics of SCR.

Aim: To obtain VI characteristics of SCR.

Apparatus: Trainer kit, Patch cards, Multimeters.

Specifications: power supply requirement:230VAC, 50 HZ.

SCR BT 151 -1Nos.
470 Ohm 1W Resistor-2Nos.
1K,1W Resistor.
Potentiometer-4K7.
Theory:

SCR:
An elementary circuit diagram for obtaining static V-I characteristics of a thyristor is shown
in Fig. 1.1
Fig.1.2 shows static V-I characteristics of a thyristor. Here V a is the anode voltage across
thyristor terminals A, K and Ia is the anode current. Typical SCR V-I characteristic shown in Fig.
1.2 reveals that a thyristor has three basic modes of operation; namely, reverse blocking mode,
forward blocking (off-state) mode and forward conduction (on-state) mode. These three modes
of operation are now discussed below:

Reverse Blocking Mode:

When cathode is made positive with respect to anode with switch open,
Fig.1.1, thyristor is reverse biased as shown in Fig.1.1. Junctions J1 J 3 are seen to be reverse
biased whereas junction J2 is forward biased. The device behaves as if two diodes are connected
in series with reverse voltage applied across them. A small leakage current of the order of a few
milliamperes (or a few microamperes depending upon the SCR rating) flows. This is reverse
blocking mode, called the off-state, of the thyristor. If the reverse voltage is increased, then at a
critical breakdown level, called reverse breakdown voltage VBR, an avalanche occurs at J1 and
J3 and the reverse current increases rapidly. A large current associated with VBR gives rise to
more losses in the SCR.
This may lead to thyristor damage as the junction temperature may
exceed its permissible temperature rise. It should, therefore, be ensured that maximum working
reverse voltage across a thyristor does not exceed VBR. When reverse voltage applied across a
thyristor is less than VBR, the device offers high impedance in the reverse direction. The SCR in
the reverse blocking mode may therefore be treated as an open switch.
Note that V-Icharacteristic after avalanche breakdown during reverse blocking mode is
applicable only when load resistance is zero, Fig. 1.2 In case load resistance is present, a large
anode current associated with avalanche breakdown at VBR would cause substantial voltage drop
across load and as a result, V-I characteristic in third quadrant would bend to the right of vertical
line drawn at VBR.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 2

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Forward Blocking Mode:

When anode is positive with respect to the cathode, with gate circuit
open, thyristor is said to be forward biased as shown in Fig.1.2 It is seen from this figure that
junctions J1, J3 are forward biased but junction J2 is reverse biased. In this mode, a small current,
called forward leakage current, flows as shown in Figs.1.2 and 1.3 (b). In case the forward
voltage is increased, then the reverse biased junction J2 will have an avalanche breakdown at a
voltage called forward breakover voltage VB0. When forward voltage is less than VBO, SCR
offers a high impedance. Therefore, a thyristor can be treated as an open switch even in the
forward blocking mode.

Forward Conduction Mode:

In this mode, thyristor conducts currents from anode to cathode
with a very small voltage drop across it. A thyristor is brought from forward blocking mode to
forward conduction mode by turning it on by exceeding the forward breakover voltage or by
applying a gate pulse between gate and cathode. In this mode, thyristor is in on-state and behaves
like a closed switch. Voltage drop across thyristor in the on state is of the order of 1 to 2 V
depending on the rating of SCR. It may be seen from Fig. 1.2 that this voltage drop increases
slightly with an increase in anode current. In conduction mode, anode current is limited by load
impedance alone as voltage drop across SCR is quite small. This small voltage drop vT across the
device is due to ohmic drop in the four layers.

Fig1.2: characteristics of SCR

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 3

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Fig: 1.2 static V-I characteristics of a thyristor.

(a) (b)

Fig: 1.3(a) J2forward biased and J1, J3 reverse biased

(b)J2forwardbiasedandJ1,J3reversebiased

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 4

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Procedure:

1. Make the circuit as shown in fig: 1.1.

2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Gradually increase anode to cathode voltage. Note down the value of anode
current and gate-cathode voltage at each step till the SCR fires.

Observation Table:

Sr. Anode-Cathode Gate-Cathode Anode

No. Voltage Voltage Current in
(mA)
1. 0.1
2. 0.2
3. 0.3
4. 0.4
5. 0.5
6. 0.6
7. 1.0
8. 5.0
9. 10.0
10. 20.0
11. 30.0
12. 40.0

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 5

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Conclusion:

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 6

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

EXPERIMENT NO-2

TITLE: - To obtain VI characteristics of TRIAC.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 7

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Title:VI characteristics of TRIAC.

Aim: To obtain VI characteristics of TRIAC.

Apparatus: Antenna Trainer Kit, Different types of Antenna.

Theory:

Radiation Pattern:-

The antenna is a reciprocal device, means it radiates or receives electromagnetic energy in the
same way. Thus, although the radiation pattern is identified with an antenna that is transmitting
power, the same properties would apply to the antenna even, if it was receiving power. Any
difference between the received and radiated powers can be attributed to the difference between
the feed networks and the equipment associated with the receiver and transmitter. The antenna
radiates the greatest amount of power along its bore sight and also receives power most
efficiently in this direction.
The radiation pattern of an antenna is peculiar to the type of antenna and its
electrical characteristics as well as its physical dimensions. It is measured at a constant distance
in the far field. The radiation pattern of an antenna is usually plotted in terms of relative power.
The power at bore sight, that is at the position of maximum radiated power, is usually plotted at 0
degrees; thus, the power in all other positions appears as a negative value. In other words, the
radiated power is normalized to the power at bore sight. The main reason for using dB instead of
linear power is that the power at the nulls is often of the order of 10,000 times less than the
power on the bore sight, which means that the scales would have to be very large in order to
cover the whole range of power values. For the convenience of the students to plot the polar
graph the readings are plotted after converting them in to dBμA
The radiation pattern is usually measured in the two principal planes, namely, the
azimuth and the elevation planes. The radiated / received dB is plotted against the angle that is
made with the bore sight direction. If the antenna is not physically symmetrical about each of its
principal planes, then one can also expect its radiation pattern in these planes to be un-
symmetrical. The radiation pattern can be plotted using the Polar or the Rectangular / Cartesian
Co-ordinates.

Polar Plots:

In a Polar Plot the angles are plotted radially from the bore sight and the levels dBμA are plotted
along the radius. The angles may be selected at any convenient interval. However 5 degrees or
10 degrees may be chosen. Choosing of 1 degree is also possible in the trainer but this does not
serve any special purpose because the readings will not change much and will consume more
time. The polar plot gives a pictorial representation of the radiation pattern of the antenna and is
easier to visualize than the rectangular plots.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 8

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Procedure:

1. Place the main unit on the table and connect power cord.

2. RF Generator : Adjust Level Potentiometer to middle position.

3. Modulation Generator : Select switch to ‘INT’ position and adjust Level Potentiometer to
middle position.

4. Directional Coupler : Select the switch to ‘FWD’ position and adjust FS ADJ
Potentiometer to middle position.

5. Install Transmitting mast, place it beside the main unit and connect it to the main unit’s
‘RF OUT’ using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.

6. Install Receiving mast and keep it at some distance from the Transmitter mast.
7. Place RF detector Unit beside the Receiving mast and connect it to the Receiving mast
using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.

8. Keep the base of Transmitting mast such that the ‘0’degree position of Goniometer
should be directed towards the RF Detector and also align the marker of the mast with ‘0’
degree position.

9. Install an Yagi UDA 5 element Folded Dipole Antenna on the Transmitting mast. Keep
its direction towards the Receiving mast by rotating it in counter clockwise direction.

10. Install Yagi UDA 3 element Folded Dipole Antenna on the Receiving mast. Keep its
direction towards the Transmitting mast by rotating it in counter clockwise direction.

11. Switch on the main unit and check the Display in DPM of Directional Coupler. It will
show some reading according to its level knob at starting.

12. Connect a +7.5V Adapter to the RF Detector unit, Switch it on and keep the Level knob
at middle position. It will show some reading according to its level knob at starting. (In
case of over loading, reduce it by level Potentiometer of RF detector)

13. Now vary the FS Adjust Potentiometer of Directional Coupler to make the display
reading 100 Micro Amp and then adjust the Level of RF detector to show the ¾ reading
of the main unit’s display.

14. Rotate the transmitting Antenna between 0-360 degrees and observe the display at RF
Detector.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 9

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

15. Convert the nA readings detector assembly into dBμA, with the help of the conversion
chart.

16. Plot the polar graph in degrees of antenna against level in the detector in dBs.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 10

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Diagram:

TX Antenna

RF Directional Antenna

Generator Coupler Match

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Transmitter

RX Antenna

Detector Meter

Ground

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Receiver

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 11

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Observation Table:

Antenna rotation in Detectot current in Detectot current in

(degree) (μA) (dBμA)
0
10
20
30
……... up to 360

Conclusion:

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 12

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Thus it is observed from the polar plot that, Yagi UDA 5 element Folded Dipole Antenna
radiates maximum power in the forward direction & less power in backward direction, i.e the
power at bore sight is the position of maximum radiated power,

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 13

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

EXPERIMENT NO-3

TITLE :- Antenna Gain Measurement.

Title: Antenna Gain Measurement.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 14

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Aim: To Measure the Gain of an Antenna.

Apparatus: Antenna Trainer Kit, Different types of Antenna.

Theory:

Gain of an antenna:-

The IEEE definition of gain of an antenna relates to the power radiated by the antenna to
that radiated by an isotropic antenna (that radiates equally in all directions) and is quoted as a
linear ratio or in decibels referred to an isotropic (dBi, i: for isotropic). When we say that the
gain of an antenna is, for instance, 20dBi (100 in linear terms) we mean that an isotropic antenna
would-have to radiate 100 times more power to give the same intensity at the same distance as
that particular directional antenna.
The radiation pattern of an antenna shows the power on the boresight as 0dB and the
power in other directions as negative values. The gain in all directions is plotted relative to the
gain on boresight. In order to find the absolute gain in any direction the gain on boresight must
be known. If this gain is expressed in decibels, (as is normally the case) then this value can
simply be added to the gain at any point to give the absolute gain. The absolute gain on boresight
is measured by comparison with a standard gain antenna, which functions as a reference antenna
whose gain is calculated or measured with a high degree of accuracy.

Procedure:

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 15

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

1. Place the main unit on the table and connect power cord.

2. RF Generator : Adjust Level Potentiometer to middle position.

3. Modulation Generator : Select switch to ‘INT’ position and adjust Level Potentiometer to
middle position.

4. Directional Coupler : Select the switch to ‘FWD’ position and adjust FS ADJ
Potentiometer to middle position.

5. Install Transmitting mast, place it beside the main unit and connect it to the main unit’s
‘RF OUT’ using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.

6. Install Receiving mast and keep it at some distance from the Transmitter mast.
7. Place RF detector Unit beside the Receiving mast and connect it to the Receiving mast
using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.

8. Keep the base of Transmitting mast such that the ‘0’degree position of Goniometer
should be directed towards the RF Detector and also align the marker of the mast with ‘0’
degree position.

9. Install Yagi UDA 5 element Folded Dipole Antenna on the Transmitting mast. Keep its
direction towards the Receiving mast by rotating it in counter clockwise direction.

10. Install Yagi UDA 3 element Folded Dipole Antenna on the Receiving mast. Keep its
direction towards the Transmitting mast by rotating it in counter clockwise direction.

11. Switch on the main unit and check the Display in DPM of Directional Coupler. It will
show some reading according to its level knob at starting.

12. Connect a +7.5V Adapter to the RF Detector unit, Switch it on and keep the Level knob
at middle position. It will show some reading according to its level knob at starting. (In
case of over loading, reduce it by level Potentiometer of RF detector)

13. Now vary the FS Adjust Potentiometer of Directional Coupler to make the display
reading 100 Micro Amp and then adjust the Level of RF detector to show the ¾ reading
of the main unit’s display.

14. Rotate the transmitting Antenna between 0-360 degrees and observe the display at RF
Detector.

15. Convert the nA readings detector assembly into dBμA, with the help of the conversion
chart.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 16

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

16. Plot the polar graph in degrees of antenna against level in the detector in dBs.

17. Gain of an Antenna is:-

G= (Maximum radiation intensity of Test antenna) / (Maximum radiation intensity of

isotropic antenna with same power input).

18. Since, we cannot have an ideal isotropic antenna we presume here that it’s maximum
radiation intensity is 1 dB and is 100% efficient. Under this assumption Gain of antenna
is -
G=(AA’)/1 dB.

Diagram:

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 17

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

TX Antenna

RF Directional Antenna

Generator Coupler Match

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Transmitter

RX Antenna

Detector Meter

Ground

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Receiver

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 18

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Fig: Gain of an Antenna.

Observation Table:
SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 19
Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Antenna rotation in Detectot current in Detectot current in

(degree) (μA) (dBμA)
0
10
20
30
……... up to 360

Conclusion:

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 20

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

The Gain of an antenna can measured from the polar graph by measuring Maximum radiation
intensity of Test antenna and Maximum radiation intensity of isotropic antenna with same power
input. Thus obtained Gain for Yagi UDA 5 element Folded Dipole Antenna is .

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 21

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

EXPERIMENT NO-4

TITLE :- Antenna Beamwidth Measurement.

Title: Antenna Beamwidth Measurement.

Aim: To Measure the Beamwidth of an Antenna.

Apparatus: Antenna Trainer Kit, Different types of Antenna.

Theory:

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 22

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

The beam width of an antenna is commonly defined in two ways. The most well known
definition is the -3dB or half-power beam width, but the 10dB beam width is also used,
especially for antennas with very narrow beams. The -3dB or half-power beam width of an
antenna is taken as the width in degrees at the points on either side of the main beam where the
radiated level is 3dB lower than the maximum lobe value. The -10dB value is taken as the width
in degrees on either side of the main beam where the radiated level is 10dB lower than the
maximum lobe value.

Procedure:

1. Place the main unit on the table and connect power cord.

2. RF Generator : Adjust Level Potentiometer to middle position.

3. Modulation Generator : Select switch to ‘INT’ position and adjust Level Potentiometer to
middle position.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 23

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

4. Directional Coupler : Select the switch to ‘FWD’ position and adjust FS ADJ
Potentiometer to middle position.

5. Install Transmitting mast, place it beside the main unit and connect it to the main unit’s
‘RF OUT’ using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.

6. Install Receiving mast and keep it at some distance from the Transmitter mast.
7. Place RF detector Unit beside the Receiving mast and connect it to the Receiving mast
using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.

8. Keep the base of Transmitting mast such that the ‘0’degree position of Goniometer
should be directed towards the RF Detector and also align the marker of the mast with ‘0’
degree position.

9. Install Yagi UDA 5 element Folded Dipole Antenna on the Transmitting mast. Keep its
direction towards the Receiving mast by rotating it in counter clockwise direction.

10. Install Yagi UDA 3 element Folded Dipole Antenna on the Receiving mast. Keep its
direction towards the Transmitting mast by rotating it in counter clockwise direction.

11. Switch on the main unit and check the Display in DPM of Directional Coupler. It will
show some reading according to its level knob at starting.

12. Connect a +7.5V Adapter to the RF Detector unit, Switch it on and keep the Level knob
at middle position. It will show some reading according to its level knob at starting. (In
case of over loading, reduce it by level Potentiometer of RF detector)

13. Now vary the FS Adjust Potentiometer of Directional Coupler to make the display
reading 100 Micro Amp and then adjust the Level of RF detector to show the ¾ reading
of the main unit’s display.

14. Rotate the transmitting Antenna between 0-360 degrees and observe the display at RF
Detector.

15. Convert the nA readings detector assembly into dBμA, with the help of the conversion
chart.

16. Plot the polar graph in degrees of antenna against level in the detector in dBs.

17. Look for the main lobe.

18. Draw boresight maxima line AA’.

19. Mark ‘-3db’ from maximum on the boresight line point ‘B’.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 24

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

20. Draw an arc of radius ‘AB’.

21. This arc will intersect main lobe at ‘C’&’D’.

22. Measure angle ‘CAD’.This angle is ‘-3db’ beamwidth.

Diagram:

TX Antenna

RF Directional Antenna

Generator Coupler Match

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 25

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Transmitter

RX Antenna

Detector Meter

Ground

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Receiver

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 26

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Fig: Beamwidth of an Antenna

Observation Table:
SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 27
Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Antenna rotation in Detectot current in Detectot current in

(degree) (μA) (dBμA)
0
10
20
30
……... up to 360

Conclusion:
SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 28
Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

The Beamwidth of an antenna can measured from the polar graph by taking half power
beamwidth or ‘-3db’ beamwidth. Thus obtained Beamwidth for Yagi UDA 5 element Folded
Dipole Antenna is

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 29

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

EXPERIMENT NO-5

TITLE :- Antenna Front to back ratio Measurement

Title: Antenna Front to back ratio Measurement.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 30

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Aim: To Measure Front to back ratio of an Antenna.

Apparatus: Antenna Trainer Kit, Different types of Antenna.

Theory:

The front-to-back ratio is a measure of the ability of a directional antenna to concentrate the
beam in the required forward direction. In linear terms, it is defined as the ratio of the maximum
power in the main beam (bore sight) to that in the back lobe. It is usually expressed in decibels,
as the difference between the level on bore sight and at 180 degrees off bore sight. If this
difference is say 35dB then the front-to-back ratio of the antenna is 35dB; in linear terms it
would mean that the level of the back lobe is 3,162 times less than the level of the bore sight.

Procedure:

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 31

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

1. Place the main unit on the table and connect power cord.

2. RF Generator: Adjust Level Potentiometer to middle position.

3. Modulation Generator: Select switch to ‘INT’ position and adjust Level Potentiometer to
middle position.

4. Directional Coupler: Select the switch to ‘FWD’ position and adjust FS ADJ
Potentiometer to middle position.

5. Install Transmitting mast, place it beside the main unit and connect it to the main unit’s
‘RF OUT’ using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.

6. Install Receiving mast and keep it at some distance from the Transmitter mast.
7. Place RF detector Unit beside the Receiving mast and connect it to the Receiving mast
using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.

8. Keep the base of Transmitting mast such that the ‘0’degree position of Goniometer
should be directed towards the RF Detector and also align the marker of the mast with ‘0’
degree position.

9. Install Yagi UDA 5 element Folded Dipole Antenna on the Transmitting mast. Keep its
direction towards the Receiving mast by rotating it in counter clockwise direction.

10. Install Yagi UDA 3 element Folded Dipole Antenna on the Receiving mast. Keep its
direction towards the Transmitting mast by rotating it in counter clockwise direction.

11. Switch on the main unit and check the Display in DPM of Directional Coupler. It will
show some reading according to its level knob at starting.

12. Connect a +7.5V Adapter to the RF Detector unit, Switch it on and keep the Level knob
at middle position. It will show some reading according to its level knob at starting. (In
case of over loading, reduce it by level Potentiometer of RF detector)

13. Now vary the FS Adjust Potentiometer of Directional Coupler to make the display
reading 100 Micro Amp and then adjust the Level of RF detector to show the ¾ reading
of the main unit’s display.

14. Rotate the transmitting Antenna between 0-360 degrees and observe the display at RF
Detector.

15. Convert the nA readings detector assembly into dBμA, with the help of the conversion
chart.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 32

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

16. Plot the polar graph in degrees of antenna against level in the detector in dBs.

17. Look for the main lobe.

18. Draw boresight maxima line AA’.

19. Look for the back lobe if any(At 180deg).

20. If there is back lobe then measure AE. Where ’E’ is the maximum of back lobe.
Therefore, Front to Back ratio= (AA’)/(AE) dB.

21. If no back lobe,

Then, Front to Back ratio= (AA’)/1 dB.

Diagram:

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 33

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

TX Antenna

RF Directional Antenna

Generator Coupler Match

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Transmitter

RX Antenna

Detector Meter

Ground

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Receiver

Conclusion:

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 34

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

The Front to back ratio of an antenna can measured from the polar graph by taking bore sight
maxima and back lobe. Thus obtained Front to Back ratio for Yagi UDA 5 element Folded
Dipole Antenna is ________________.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 35

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

EXPERIMENT NO-6

TITLE:- Antenna Modulation Test.

Title: Antenna Modulation Test.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 36

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Aim: To Measure Front to back ratio of an Antenna.

Apparatus: Antenna Trainer Kit, Different types of Antenna.

Theory:

Modulation:-

Modulation is the processes of superimposing low frequency voice information on high

frequency carrier signal. There are many instances when the baseband signals are incompatible
with media. e.g. voice signal cannot be transmitted directly by radio.

To transmit the baseband signals by radio modulation technique must be used. Techniques
using modulation are referred to as broadband. The modulation can be defined in another way as
process of having baseband voice, video or digital signal modify another higher frequency signal
called the carrier. The information to be send is said to be impressed upon the carrier is usually a
sine wave i.e. higher in frequency than highest intelligence voltage frequency. Three basic
characteristics of carrier can be changed by information signal. These three are amplitude,
frequency & phase. The information is also called as modulating signal.

Procedure:-

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 37

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

1. Place the main unit on the table and connect power cord.

2. RF Generator: Adjust Level Potentiometer to middle position.

3. Modulation Generator: Select switch to ‘INT’ position and adjust Level Potentiometer to
middle position.

4. Directional Coupler: Select the switch to ‘FWD’ position and adjust FS ADJ
Potentiometer to middle position.

5. Install Transmitting mast, place it beside the main unit and connect it to the main unit’s
‘RF OUT’ using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.

6. Install Receiving mast and keep it at some distance from the Transmitter mast.

7. Place RF detector Unit beside the Receiving mast and connect it to the Receiving mast
using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.

8. As the Modulation Switch is in ‘INT’ Position, it will select internally generated

Sine wave (1 KHz, 300mV) to modulate with the RF signal at ‘RF OUT’.

9. Observe demodulated output signal at the out terminals of RF detector with the
help of oscilloscope probe. It should be sine wave of low amplitude and slightly
distorted but indicating that this information signal (sine wave) was transmitted
& received by the antennas.

10. Vary the level of modulation generator and see the output of detector level.

Diagram:

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 38

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

TX Antenna

RF Directional Antenna

Generator Coupler Match

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Transmitter

RX Antenna

Detector Meter

Ground

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Receiver

Conclusion:

The sine wave of low amplitude audio signal has transmitted and received by the antenna but
slightly distorted. Also the output of detector varies as the level of modulation generator varies.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 39

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 40

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

EXPERIMENT NO-7

TITLE:- Antenna Radiation with Distance.

Title: Antenna Radiation with Distance.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 41

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Aim: To Measure the variation in the Radiation Strength at a given distance from the Antenna .

Apparatus: Antenna Trainer Kit, Different types of Antenna.

Theory:

The object of this exercise is to study the variation in the radiation strength at a given
distance from the antenna. The detector will show a higher strength when it is nearer to the
transmitting antenna and shall reduce gradually with increasing distance.

Procedure:

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 42

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

1. Place the main unit on the table and connect power cord.

2. RF Generator : Adjust Level Potentiometer to middle position.

3. Modulation Generator : Select switch to ‘INT’ position and adjust Level Potentiometer to
middle position.

4. Directional Coupler: Select the switch to ‘FWD’ position and adjust FS ADJ
Potentiometer to middle position.

5. Install Transmitting mast, place it beside the main unit and connect it to the main unit’s
‘RF OUT’ using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.

6. Install Receiving mast and keep it at some distance from the Transmitter mast.

7. Place RF detector Unit beside the Receiving mast and connect it to the Receiving mast
using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.

8. Keep the transmitting antenna at a distance of approximately 5 cm from the receiving

antenna. Adjust level of RF Generator & Detector so that the reading should be ¾ of the main
units reading.

9. Note the above reading for 10cm distance.

11. Similarly take the readings for 15,20,25,30.

12. Plot a graph of reading with distance and see whether it is linear or non-linear.
Same experiment can be done with other antennas.

Diagram:

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 43

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

TX Antenna

RF Directional Antenna

Generator Coupler Match

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Transmitter

RX Antenna

Detector Meter

Ground

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Receiver

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 44

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Detector level in

Distance in cm

Fig: Antenna radiation with distance

Observation Table:

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 45

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Distance in Detectot current in

(cm) (μA)
5
10
15
20
25
30

Conclusion:

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 46

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Thus we have observed that, as we increase the distance between transmitting and receiving
antenna, the losses in the transmission will increases and hence we will get increased back lobe.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 47

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

EXPERIMENT NO-8

TITLE:-Standing wave ratio Measurement.

Title: Standing wave ratio Measurement.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 48

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Aim: To Measure the standing wave ratio of an antenna.

Apparatus: Antenna Trainer Kit, Different types of Antenna.

Theory:

Standing Wave Ratio:-

The Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) is defined as the ratio between maximum and minimum values
of voltage (and current) along the line. Figure shows the SWR pattern along a line with a
mismatched load and helps understanding the definition of SWR. The SWR is an index of the
mismatch existing between the load and the line feeding it. The SWR equals 1 in the perfectly-
matched case, impossible to reach in practice, and tends to reach very high values (infinity) for
lines shorted or open. In practice SWR values in the range 1.4 to 2 are to be considered a good
matching condition in an antenna system, while rather larger values are acceptable with our
trainer. This is because unlike large power systems where the design aim is maximum power
transfer, in a trainer system the aim is in handiest operability and simple construction.

Fig: Standing Wave

Directional Coupler:-

To sense the direction of power travel, as well as the amount of power, is sensing device must
have diodes as circuit elements. The directional coupler of Figure consists of two line trunks
placed alongside a main transmission line carrying energy from generator to antenna. The power
travelling from input to output of the device will cause induced voltages in the upper and lower

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 49

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

loops. In the lower one the voltage will build across the sensing devices thanks to the forward
conducting diode, while this will not happen in the upper loop. As for the power travelling from
load to generator, the situation is reverted the upper loop will sense, the lower one will not.
The following Figure shows the separate metering of direct and reverse power.

Fig: Directional coupler

Diagram:

TX Antenna

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 50

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

RF Directional Antenna

Generator Coupler Match

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Transmitter

RX Antenna

Detector Meter

Ground

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Receiver

Procedure :-

1. Place the main unit on the table and connect power cord.

2. RF Generator : Adjust Level Potentiometer to middle position.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 51
Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

3. Modulation Generator : Select switch to ‘INT’ position and adjust Level

Potentiometer to middle position.

4. Directional Coupler : Select the switch to ‘FWD’ position and n ote the reading.
You can also adjust the Level for full-scale display (e.g. you set it at 100 in the case
of our trainer. Adjust RF Level if needed).

7. Switch the meter to REVERSE. Note the reading.

8. Calculate the SWR by the formula.

Antenna Matching

Let's consider a short-circuited transmission line having length ¼ of the wavelength of the signal
impressed by the generator. At the shorted end there will be a null voltage and a maximum
current while at the other end (Generator side), there will be opposite situation of maximum
voltage and zero current. The line therefore appears to the generator as infinite impedance, since
no current is drawn. Let's now consider another line, half wavelength long, shorted at the end
opposed to that of the generator. The junction point of the generator to the line will be a zero-
voltage, maximum current point. The impedance of the line, as "seen" from the generator, shall
be a short circuit (zero impedance). In all the intermediate cases of a line having length between
¼ and ½ wavelengths, the generator shall see impedance between zero and infinity. Going on
further with the same reasoning we find out that for shorted lines ¼ wavelength long to zero
length, the impedance goes again from infinity zero.
Since our line is loss less, the impedance must be purely reactive and if we consider the
pattern of the current together to that of the voltage, we soon find out that in the ½ to
¼wavelength interval the impedance goes from 0 to infinite and is capacitive, while in the ¼
wavelength to zero length interval the impedance goes from infinite to zero and is inductive. All
this leads us to think of a very handy way to match the impedance seen from the generator by

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 52

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

placing in parallel to the mismatched load a trunk of shorted line of a proper length. See Figure
10. These devices are generally called Matching Stubs.
An adjustable length matching stub can be adjusted to have a reactive impedance
equal in modulus and opposed sign of a mismatched load, in order to cancel its
reactive component and make it appear to the line as purely resistive.

 How to use the matching stub for measurement of SWR.

Matching Stub: A matching stub is a piece of transmission line which is normally short
circuited at the far end. Stub has an input admittance which a pure susceptance and it is used to
tune the susceptance component of the line admittance. Stubs are particularly used at higher
frequencies for variety of loads.

Matching procedure:

1. Mount yagi uda folded dipole antenna on the top of the transmitting mast and keep the
setup ready as per Experiment 1.

2. Now disconnect the BNC cable and connect a BNC to BNC male adapter and ‘BNC-Tee’
to the RF OUT of main unit.

3. Now connect one end of ‘BNC–Tee’ to transmitting mast using BNC to BNC cable of
25” long and other end to the Matching stub’s input using BNC to BNC cable of 18”
long.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 53

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

4. Keep the stub knob at ‘0’ of the Matching scale. You will observe that the reading on the
Detector has already gone down with the connection of the matching stub.

5. Now keep the Directional coupler switch to ‘REV’ position.

6. Start moving Stub knob from right to left slowly, and observe the reading on meter of the
main unit. You will observe that the meter has maxima and minima at some points. The
maxima indicate that the reverse power is maximum and line is mismatched. Choose the
minimum point while going from right to left. This position indicates that the line is
matched.

7. Calculate SWR.

Conclusion:-

Hence we conclude from this experiment that SWR is index of mismatch existing
between load and line feeding to it, which increase with increase in reflected waves.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 54

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 55

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

EXPERIMENT NO-9

TITLE:- Antenna Current Measurement.

Title: Antenna current Measurement.

Aim: To Measure the current in the antenna.

Apparatus: Antenna Trainer Kit, Different types of Antenna, Antenna current sensor, DC
Voltmeter.

Theory:

Antenna current sensor:-

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 56

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

This is used to measure the current in the antenna. This device consists of a sensing loop with
rectifying diode and capacitor. When the sensor is placed in the neighborhood of a radiating
antenna element, a part of the varying magnetic flux will cross the sensing loop and develop
along its voltage. This voltage, rectified and smoothened by a capacitor, will appear as a DC (or
modulated DC if we transmitting an AM modulated wave.)

Note the Following :-

1. For representing precisely the current flowing along a radiating antenna element, the loop
should be as small as possible, down to approximate a point like device. The signal voltage
developed in the loop is however proportional the magnetic flux crossing it i.e. to its section.
This implies that in order to have easy to measure signal values, the loop must not be too small.

2. The actual size of the sensor is a trade off between the two requirements above.

3. The E component of the wave radiated by the antenna also interferes with the sensor. For the
case of a radiating rod without other active or passive element near by, nor obstacles to the wave
propagation, the E field can be depicted as a vector orthogonal placed to the axis of the radiating
rod. The E components induce voltage contributions in the loop sensor arms and cable
connections. The contributions however have opposed signs and should balance out if the sensor
is held orthogonal to the rod and if the connection cable is made to leave the sensor straight and
orthogonal.

4. Any object in the space surrounding an antenna will perturb the field distribution, in a manner
that is generally difficult to predict except for rare, very simple cases. The current sensor behaves
like such a perturbation object and therefore should not be used when field measurement or other
propagation experiment are in course.
Not with standing the severe limitation in the use of the current sensor, this instrument is
didactically useful, since it demonstrates in an immediately perceivable manner the current and
field pattern of radiating antennas.

Diagram:

TX Antenna

RF Directional Antenna

Generator Coupler Match

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 57

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Transmitter

RX Antenna

Detector Meter

Ground

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Receiver

Procedure :-

1. Place the main unit on the table and connect power cord.

2. RF Generator : Adjust Level Potentiometer to middle position.

3. Modulation Generator : Select switch to ‘INT’ position and adjust Level

Potentiometer to middle position.

4. Directional Coupler : Select the switch to ‘FWD’ position and adjust

‘FS ADJ’ Potentiometer to middle position.

5. Connect a Simple dipole λ/2 antenna on the top of the transmitting mast.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 58

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

6. Now connect the current sensor near the feeding point of the antenna.

7. Connect a DC Voltmeter at the other end of the Antenna current sensor and note
down the voltage across the resistance.

8. Now move the sensor little away from the feeding point and again note the
Voltage.

9. Repeat the above procedure till the end point of the element.

10. Now connect a 5 E simple dipole antenna to the Transmitting mast and connect
the current sensor to the ‘Active Element’ of this antenna and note the voltage
reading.

11. Now shift the sensor to the next element i.e. director of the antenna .Again note
the reading.

12. Repeat the above steps till the last element of the antenna. Note down the
readings.

Observation Table:-

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 59

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Antenna current DC Voltmeter

Sensor Position Reading

Conclusion:-

Thus from the readings we have observed that, for a 5 E simple dipole antenna the
voltage decreases as sensor move away from the active element due to less flux linkages with the
elements. Also for a Simple dipole λ/2 antenna the voltage decreases as we move away from the
feeding point.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 60

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 61

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

EXPERIMENT NO-10

TITLE:- Antenna Polarization Test.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 62

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Aim: To Perform Polarisation Test.

Apparatus: Antenna Trainer Kit, Different types of Antenna.

Theory:

Polarisation of Electric Field:-

Polarisation is used almost exclusively to describe the shape and orientation of the locus of the
extremity of the electric field vector as it varies with time at a fixed point in space. This locus
could be a straight line, an ellipse or a circle. In the case of linear polarisation, the electric field
varies in sinusoidal manner in one plane. When this plane is vertical it is called vertical
polarisation. When this plane is horizontal, it is called horizontal polarisation. The electric field
can also be polarized in any other angle between 0 and 90 degree to the horizontal.

In general the only other commonly used angle is 45 degrees, which is known as the
slant polarisation. The polarisation of a receiving antenna must match that of the incident
radiation in order to detect the maximum field. If the angles are not the same, only those
components which are parallel to the Plane of incident polarisation will detect. If we have a
vertically polarized antenna and the incident radiation is slant Polarised the magnitude of its
component in the vertical Plane will be reduced by a factor cosine 45 degrees.

An electromagnetic wave

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 63

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Polarisation is an important factor for antennas. Both antennas and electromagnetic waves
are said to have a polarisation. For the electromagnetic wave it is effectively the plane in which
the electric vibrates. This is important when looking at antennas because they are sensitive to
polarisation, and generally only receive or transmit a signal with a particular polarisation. For
most antennas it is very easy to determine the polarisation. It is simply in the same plane as the
elements of the antenna. So a vertical antenna (i.e. one with vertical elements) will receive
vertically polarised signals best and similarly a horizontal antenna will receive horizontally
polarised signals.

It is important to match the polarisation of the antenna to that of the incoming signal. In
this way the maximum signal is obtained. If the antenna polarisation does not match that of the
signal there is a corresponding decrease in the level of the signal. It is reduced by a factor of
cosine of the angle between the polarisation of the antenna and the signal. Accordingly the
polarisation of the antennas located in free space is very important, and obviously they should be
in exactly the same plane to provide the optimum signal. If they were at right angles to one
another (i.e. cross-polarised) then in theory no signal would be received.

For terrestrial applications it is found that once a signal has been transmitted then its
polarisation will remain broadly the same. However reflections from objects in the path can
change the polarisation. As the received signal is the sum of the direct signal plus a number of
reflected signals the overall polarisation of the signal can change slightly although it remains
broadly the same.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 64

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Procedure:

1. Place the main unit on the table and connect power cord.

2. RF Generator : Adjust Level Potentiometer to middle position.

3. Modulation Generator : Select switch to ‘INT’ position and adjust Level Potentiometer
to middle position.

4· Directional Coupler : Select the switch to ‘FWD’ position and adjust FS ADJ Potentiometer
to middle position.

5. Install Transmitting mast, place it beside the main unit and connect it to the main unit’s
‘RF OUT’ using a BNC to BNC cable of 25” long.

6. Connect the ‘L’ shape BNC on the top of the Receiving Antenna mast and
mount the detector Antenna vertically.

7. Rotate the transmitting antenna from 0 to 360° gradually & observe the detector level.

8. Repeat this with other horizontally polarised antennas.

9. Also check with vertically polarised antennas.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 65

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Diagram:

TX Antenna

RF Directional Antenna

Generator Coupler Match

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Transmitter

RX Antenna

Detector Meter

Ground

Fig: Block Diagram of Antenna Receiver

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 66

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Observation Table:-

Antenna rotation in Detectot current in Detectot current in

(degree) (μA) (dBμA)
0
10
20
30
……... up to 360

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 67

Industrial Electronics TE (EXTC)

Conclusion:

Thus from the readings it is observed that ,if we change polarisation of receiving antenna then it
receives practically no signal or very less signal. Since, we have changed the plane of receiving
antenna to vertical, keeping transmitting antenna still in the horizontal plane that detector
antenna receives practically no signal.

SVERI’S COE, Pandharpur 68