TE1 Unit5 Chapter2-2019 PDF

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Unit 5

Chapter 2
Air Standard Cycles

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Study of air/gas power cycles will involve the study of those heat engines in which the
working fluid remains in the gaseous state throughout the cycle. We often study the
ideal cycle in which internal irreversibilities and complexities (the actual intake of air
and fuel, the actual combustion process, and the exhaust of products of combustion
among others) are removed.

We will be concerned with how the major parameters of the cycle affect the
performance of heat engines. The performance is often measured in terms of the
cycle efficiency.

Wnet
 th 
Qin
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Carnot Cycle

The Carnot cycle is the most efficient heat engine that can operate between two fixed
temperatures TH and TL. The Carnot cycle is described by the following four
processes.

Carnot Cycle
Process Description
1-2 Isothermal heat addition
2-3 Isentropic expansion
3-4 Isothermal heat rejection
4-1 Isentropic compression

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Note the processes on both the P-v and T-s diagrams. The areas under the process
curves on the P-v diagram represent the work done for closed systems. The net
cycle work done is the area enclosed by the cycle on the P-v diagram. The areas
under the process curves on the T-s diagram represent the heat transfer for the
processes. The net heat added to the cycle is the area that is enclosed by the cycle
on the T-s diagram. For a cycle we know Wnet = Qnet; therefore, the areas enclosed
on the P-v and T-s diagrams are equal.

TL
 th , Carnot  1
TH
We often use the Carnot efficiency as a means to think about ways to improve the
cycle efficiency of other cycles. One of the observations about the efficiency of both
ideal and actual cycles comes from the Carnot efficiency: Thermal efficiency
increases with an increase in the average temperature at which heat is supplied to
the system or with a decrease in the average temperature at which heat is rejected
from the system.

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Air-Standard Assumptions

In our study of air/gas power cycles, we assume that the working fluid is air, and the
air undergoes a thermodynamic cycle even though the working fluid in the actual
power system does not undergo a cycle.

To simplify the analysis, we approximate the cycles with the following assumptions:
•The air continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas.

•All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.

•The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external


source.

•A heat rejection process that restores the working fluid to its initial state replaces the
exhaust process.

•The cold-air-standard assumptions apply when the working fluid is air and has
constant specific heat evaluated at room temperature (25oC or 77oF).

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Terminology for Reciprocating Devices
The following is some terminology we need to understand for reciprocating engines—
typically piston-cylinder devices. Let’s look at the following figures for the definitions
of top dead center (TDC), bottom dead center (BDC), stroke, bore, intake valve,
exhaust valve, clearance volume, displacement volume, compression ratio, and
mean effective pressure.

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The compression ratio r of an engine is the ratio of the maximum volume to the
minimum volume formed in the cylinder.
V max VBDC
r 
V min VTDC
The Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) is a fictitious pressure that, if it operated on the
piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as
that produced during the actual cycle.

Wnet wnet
MEP  
Vmax  Vmin vmax  vmin

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Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines

Consider the automotive spark-ignition power cycle.

Processes
Intake stroke
Compression stroke
Power (expansion) stroke
Exhaust stroke

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The air-standard Otto cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the spark-ignition
combustion engine.

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection 9
Thermal Efficiency of the Otto cycle: (Important)

Wnet Qnet Qin  Qout Qout


 th     1
Qin Qin Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply first law closed system to process 2-3, V = constant.

Thus, for constant specific heats,


Qnet , 23  U 23
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )

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Apply first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant.

Thus, for constant specific heats,

Qnet , 41  U 41
Qnet , 41  Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )
The thermal efficiency becomes

Qout
 th , Otto  1
Qin
mCv (T4  T1 )
 1
mCv (T3  T2 ) 11
(T4  T1 )
 th , Otto  1
(T3  T2 )
T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1
T2 (T3 / T2  1)
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

T2 T3
Since V3 = V2 and V4 = V1, we 
see that T1 T4
or
T4 T3

T1 T2 12
The Otto cycle efficiency becomes
T1
 th , Otto  1
T2
Is this the same as the Carnot cycle efficiency?

Since process 1-2 is isentropic,

where the compression ratio is r = V1/V2 and

1
 th , Otto  1 
r k 1 13
We see that increasing the compression ratio increases the thermal efficiency.
However, there is a limit on r depending upon the fuel. Fuels under high temperature
resulting from high compression ratios will prematurely ignite, causing knock.

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Example 9-1

An Otto cycle having a compression ratio of 9:1 uses air as the working fluid.
Initially P1 = 95 kPa, T1 = 17oC, and V1 = 3.8 liters. During the heat addition
process, 7.5 kJ of heat are added. Determine all T's, P's, th, the back work
ratio, and the mean effective pressure.

Process Diagrams: Review the P-v and T-s diagrams given above for the Otto
cycle.

Assume constant specific heats with Cp=1.005 kJ/kg.K, Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K,
k = 1.4.(Ratio of specific heats)

Process 1-2 is isentropic; therefore, recalling that r = V1/V2 = 9,

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The first law closed system for process 2-3 was shown to reduce to (your homework
solutions must be complete; that is, develop your equations from the application of
the first law for each process as we did in obtaining the Otto cycle efficiency
equation)
Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )
Let qin = Qin / m and m = V1/v1
RT1
v1 
P1
kJ
0.287 (290 K ) 3
kg  K m kPa

95 kPa kJ
m3
 0.875 16
kg
Qin v1
qin   Qin
m V1
m3
0.875
kg
 7.5kJ
.  103 m3
38
kJ
 1727
kg
Then, qin
T3  T2 
Cv
kJ
1727
kg
 698.4 K 
kJ
0.718
kg  K
 3103.7 K 17
Using the combined gas law (V3 = V2)
T3
P3  P2  9.15 MPa
T2
Process 3-4 is isentropic; therefore,

k 1 k 1 1.4 1
 V3  1 1
T4  T3    T3    (3103.7) K  
 V4  r 9
 1288.8 K

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Process 4-1 is constant volume. So the first law for the closed system gives, on a
mass basis,

Qout  mCv (T4  T1 )


Qout
qout   Cv (T4  T1 )
m
kJ
 0.718 (1288.8  290) K
kg  K
kJ
 717.1
kg
The first law applied to the cycle gives (Recall ucycle = 0)

wnet  qnet  qin  qout


kJ
 (1727  717.4)
kg
kJ
 1009.6
kg 19
The thermal efficiency is
kJ
1009.6
w kg
 th , Otto  net 
qin kJ
1727
kg
 0.585 or 58.5%
The mean effective pressure is
Wnet wnet
MEP  
Vmax  Vmin vmax  vmin
wnet wnet wnet
  
v1  v2 v1 (1  v2 / v1 ) v1 (1  1/ r )
kJ
1009.6
kg m3kPa
 3
 1298 kPa
m 1 kJ
0.875 (1  )
kg 9
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The back work ratio is (can you show that this is true?)

wcomp u12 Cv (T2  T1 ) (T2  T1 )


BWR    
wexp u34 Cv (T3  T4 ) (T3  T4 )
 0.225 or 22.5%

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Air-Standard Diesel Cycle

The air-standard Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle that approximates the Diesel
combustion engine

Process Description
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant volume heat rejection

The P-v and T-s diagrams are

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Thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle (Important)

Wnet Qout
 th , Diesel   1
Qin Qin
Now to find Qin and Qout.

Apply the first law closed system to process 2-3, P = constant.

Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 23  U 23  P2 (V3  V2 )
Qnet , 23  Qin  mCv (T3  T2 )  mR(T3  T2 )
Qin  mC p (T3  T2 ) 24
Apply the first law closed system to process 4-1, V = constant (just as we did for the
Otto cycle)

Thus, for constant specific heats

Qnet , 41  U 41
Qnet , 41  Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )
Qout  mCv (T1  T4 )  mCv (T4  T1 )
The thermal efficiency becomes
Qout
 th , Diesel  1
Qin
mCv (T4  T1 )
 1
mC p (T3  T2 ) 25
Cv (T4  T1 )
 th , Diesel  1
C p (T3  T2 )
1 T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 1
What is T3/T2 ?
k T2 (T3 / T2  1)

PV PV
3 3
 2 2 where P3  P2
T3 T2
T3 V3
  rc
T2 V2
where rc is called the cutoff ratio, defined as V3 /V2, and is a measure of the
duration of the heat addition at constant pressure. Since the fuel is injected
directly into the cylinder, the cutoff ratio can be related to the number of degrees
that the crank rotated during the fuel injection into the cylinder.

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What is T4/T1 ?
PV PV
4 4
 1 1 where V4  V1
T4 T1
T4 P4

T1 P1
Recall processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, so

PV  PV
1 1
k
2 2
k
and PV  PV4 4
k
3 3
k

Since V4 = V1 and P3 = P2, we divide the second equation by the first equation and
obtain

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1 T1 (T4 / T1  1)
 th , Diesel  1
Therefore, k T2 (T3 / T2  1)
1 T1 rck  1
 1
k T2 (rc  1)
1 r 1
k
 1 c
r k 1 k (rc  1)
where rc is the cutoff ratio,
r is Compression ratio
K ratio of specific heats

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When rc > 1 for a fixed r, th, Diesel  th, Otto .
But, since rDiesel  rOtto , th, Diesel  th, Otto .

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Questions
 What is an air standard cycle? list assumptions made in the analysis of
air standard cycle

 Define i. Compression ratio ii. MEP (Mean Effective Pressure)

 Derive an expression for air standard / thermal efficiency of constant


volume cycle (Otto cycle) (SI engine cycle) in terms of compression ratio
and ratio of specific heats

 Derive an expression for air standard / thermal efficiency of constant


pressure cycle (Diesel cycle) (CI engine cycle) in terms of compression
ratio, cut-off ratio and ratio of specific heats

 Problems on Otto and Diesel cycles

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