HERITAGE STUDIES

Heritage is a set of inherited traditions, monuments, objects, and culture. Heritage also the range
of contemporary activities, meanings, and behaviors that we draw from them. Heritage includes,
but is much more than preserving, excavating, displaying, or restoring a collection of old things.

'heritage' is also defined as 'property that is or may be inherited; ''valued things such as historic
buildings that have been passed down from previous generations', and 'relating to things of
historic or cultural value that are worthy of preservation' (The Oxford English Dictionary)

IMPORTANCE OF HERITAGE STUDIES

Promotes preservation of national resources

Builds self confidence

Provides opportunities to improve the community

Encourages tolerance of cultural differences/diversity

Develops research skills

Promotes school and community partnerships

Encourages individuals to value their life and experiences

SOCIALISATION

Socialization is the lifelong process of social interaction. Through socialization individuals

acquire a self-identity and the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society.

Socialization in the community involves

 Acquiring language
 Acquiring culture
 Dress code
 Male/female roles (gender)
 Relating to members of the opposite sex
 Knowing what is important and valued

SOCIALISING AGENTS
 Family
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  Community
 Church
 School
 Media
 Peers (friends)

ROLE OF THE COMMUNITY IN SOCIALISATION

A community is a group of people living in the same area and usually with shared values and
interests. Community is also a group of people living in the same geographic area under
common laws; it is also a group of people sharing fellowship, a friendly association, and
common interests. The community plays an important role in socialization of individuals within
it.

Factors which influence socialization in the community include

Physical factors and economic factors

Physical Factors

Children in a homogenous community may find it difficult to interact and relate with children
from different backgrounds whereas children from heterogenous communities can relate well
with children from different backgrounds and cultures

Economic Factors

Children from well up families can grow up to be stable and responsible adults while children
from a communities affected by poverty are most likely to indulge in prostitution and drug
abuse.

Rituals and Ceremonies and Socialisation

These include

Marriage, circumcision, Appeasement ceremonies

There is often a certain belief attached to a ritual or ceremony.

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 ROLE OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS IN SOCIALISATION

Religion can be defined as a set of beliefs, values and norms which guides an individual or a
community. Religion plays an important role in socializing the individual

Types of Religious beliefs

 Christianity
 Indigenous religion/ African Traditional Religion
 Islam
 Rastafarianism
 Buddhism
 Hinduism

Role of religion in socialization includes

 Teaching good morals

 Giving a sense of unity and belonging
 Giving individuals a sense of purpose in life
 Bringing social control by controlling people’s behavior
 Reducing crime rate
 Helping man to connect with his creator
 Creating a positive attitude/ mindset during difficult times
 Restores order in society e.g. fighting oppression /slavery and colonialism

ROLE OF MEDIA IN SOCIALISATION

Media is the platform for transmitting and receiving information.

Media also refers to the tools that are used to store/deliver and send information

There are two types of Media i.e. Print Media – this includes newspapers, magazines
and photographs

Electronic media includes –television, radio,

Electronic media now comes in the forms tablets, laptops, desktops, cell phones, mp3
players, DVDs, game systems, radios, and television.

Media and Socialization

Media plays both a positive and negative role in socializing individuals

TASK: Draw a table with advantages and disadvantages of the media in socialization

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 TOPIC: ROLE OF FAMILY AND COMMUNITY IN SHAPING IDENTITY

Types of families

 Child headed family

 Elderly headed family
 Single parent headed family
 Nucleated family

The role of family in shaping identity.

The family is the first socializing agent for a child. The family teaches language, values ,
manners, beliefs and choices in life. The following are some of the roles of family in shaping
identity.

 Self confidence- A strong united family builds a child’s confidence. Encouraging

children helps them to make choices on their own and discover their individuality.
However a divided and unsupportive family may negatively affect a child’s confidence
and interaction with others
 Love and belonging-Individuals from families with strong family traditions, such as
yearly vacations or birthday parties, identify strongly with their families. A strong family
identity may reduce the influence of the media and peer pressure on children.
 Political and career identity- Open family discussions about occupation and political
views may help the children to make wise career and political choices. On the other hand
a hostile /unfriendly environment can lower a child’s esteem. Children may also want to
emulate their parents career paths.
 Cultural identity- family gives a child cultural values and norms
 Gender roles – some parents raise their children with the idea that boys should mow the
grass, chop the wood and tend livestock while girls cook meals and clean the house.
There is a possibility that the children will grow up with these assigned gender roles
 Religious identity is also shaped by the family since children are likely to adopt the
religious practices of their parents/guardians

Reference: The Family's Influence on Identity by

Martha Holden

The Family's Influence on Identity by Stacy Tabb

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 Task: Community work

FAMILY AND IDENTITY

The family is a unit of people related by blood or by marriage. It is the basic unit that consists of
the father, mother and the children. The children could be the biological children or the adopted
ones.

Monogamous Family

This type of family involve the relationship between a man and a woman, that is, one man and
one woman. The family size is small and with clear structure. Duties and responsibilities are well
distributed among members of the family. The responsibilities of the bread winner is lesser than
in polygamous family system. The means of survival in monogamous families is therefore
usually cheap and less expensive than in polygamous families.

Polygamous Family System

The polygamous family system is indigenous and practised more in the olden days. Polygamous
family is of two types namely polygyny and polyandry. Polygyny is when a man marries more
than one wife while polyandry is when a woman marries more than one man. Polygyny is the
common type of polygamous in Nigeria. In the traditional era, men take in many wives and have
many children with large families. In that period, the number of wives a man has determines his
social status and prestige in the society.

The men with many wives are seen as powerful and wealthy. Some even are given chieftaincy
titles based on how large their families were. Another reason why the men in the olden days have
numerous wives and large families is because of their large plots of farmlands. These people
(wives and children) are used for hard labour on the large farms.

Modernization and the coming of the missionaries have reduced the number of polygamous
marriage and family in Nigeria. There are few polygamous marriages with more monogamous
marriage. Many men end having polygamous marriages due to many reasons.

Polygamous families can be characterized by jealousy, conflict and power struggles . However
some advantages of polygamy include division of labour, teamwork, solidarity and co-operation.
The family can be filled with laughter of children as compared to small households.

FAMILY ROLES

According to Miller, family roles are the patterns of behaviour by which individuals fulfill
family functions and needs

Individuals in a family
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  Father
 Mother
 Children


INDIVIDUAL ROLES
father Provides resources such as
money, food, clothing and
shelter. Sets and enforces
disciplinary standards
Mother Manages family finances,
Counselling and support to
children. Maintains
discipline
Children Uphold standards of
behavior. Performs chores
in line with age and gender
roles

ROLE OF COMMUNITY IN SHAPING IDENTITY

Everyone has an identity. This identity is largely influenced by outside forces, uncontrollable to
the individual. Although each person has their own individual personality, ideas and thoughts,
we are shaped by the society and culture which surrounds us every day. Our gender, which is a
culturally constructed concept, is the most obvious thing to shape our identity. Through our
gender, society tells us the jobs that are suitable for us, what we should wear, how we should
look, who we are to socialise with and what is acceptable or not.

Nowadays women are more independent than a century ago, however men still seem to have the
real power. Most of the big leaders of our world are male, whether it is the president, the CEO of
a company or the governor of a state. Just because society thinks one way, others are pressured
to change themselves to fit in with society.

Task: Group work.************* Influence of community on Identity

NORMS AND VALUES AT THE WORKPLACE

Values- these are beliefs about what is right and what is wrong

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 Norms- these are usual and acceptable ways of behaving (Longman Active Study Dictionary)


 Values and norms are important in the workplace to help keep order, ensuring that a company
runs smoothly and remains profitable. Each individual company makes its values and norms
known almost immediately after hiring an employee, or many times, during the interview
process. And in many businesses, no matter how well an employee performs, if he doesn’t
follow workplace values and ethics, it can result in termination.

 Examples of values and norms

 Responsibility
 Accountability
 Respect
 Integrity
 Transparency
Competence
Dedication

Teamwork

Integrity
An important aspect of workplace values and ethics is integrity, or displaying honest behavior at
all times. For instance, an employee who works at a cash register is expected to balance the
drawer and deposit the correct amount of money at the end of the night. Integrity in the business
world also might mean being honest when turning in an expense report or not attempting to steal
a sales account from a co-worker.
Accountability
Employees in all industries are expected to act accountable for their actions. That means showing
up when they are scheduled and on time, and not taking advantage of time allotted for breaks. It
also means accepting responsibility for when things go wrong, gathering yourself and willingly
working toward a resolution. And sometimes it might mean working longer than planned to see a
project through to completion.

 Responsibility

If one is responsible for something is in charge of it or it is their job to do it.When one is hired
for a job, their manager provides them list duties, also known as responsibilities. They will tell
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them that it is their job to ensure the tasks on the list are completed when due. While you can be
assigned a variety of responsibilities, whether or not you are accountable depends on your
character. A person who demonstrates accountability takes the hit if she doesn't complete the
task on schedule. When you refuse to be accountable, you'll place the blame on someone else for
the project's failure.

Respect

Respect can be defined as consideration for self and of others. Respect includes consideration for
other people's privacy, their physical space and belongings; and respect for different viewpoints,
physical ability, beliefs and personality. In order to earn the respect of others, one must first have
respect for themselves. One must recognize they are a person worthy of respect. They refrain
from making jokes or negative remarks that demean their abilities, skills or other aspects of
them. They don't make jokes or negative comments about the ability, skills or other attributes of
others. One earns respect by giving respect to one’s self and to others.

Dedication

How hard an employee works, or how much effort she puts forth, can go a long way. Obviously,
companies want results, but most employers prefer a worker who gives an honest effort to one
who might be considered a “natural” at the job, but is otherwise disruptive. Either way, when an
employee signs on with a business, she is agreeing to perform her best to help the company
flourish.
Transparency
The simplest definition of a transparent workplace is operating in a way that creates openness
between managers and employees. Transparency in the workplace has an enormous effect on the
overall morale of the environment and how employees relate to the company. Research shows
that lack of trust in the workplace directly correlates to lack of transparency. When employees
feel like the bosses are not being truthful, it leads to an unhappy workforce. And an unhappy
workforce makes for an unhappy work environment.
Competence At workplace competency is a description of a required skill, attribute or behavior
for a specific job used to define and measure an individual’s effectiveness. Competencies are
arranged into a framework that brings together a number of job roles and the required
capabilities that the job holder must possess or acquire in order to perform his job effectively.
While aiming to provide a fair and consistent approach to employee engagement and
development, workplace competencies are especially popular in large Organizations. The

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principles also enable small businesses to focus on key management and operational
performance.
Teamwork in the workplace involves cooperation among workers. This cooperation is usually
for the sake of a common goal that the entire team is working toward such as a sales quota or
some other measurable outcome. Teamwork requires that all workers contribute their fair share
to the workload so that the company can accomplish its goals in a timely and satisfactory
manner.

BIRTH AND DEATH RITES CEREMONIES IN AFRICA

A rite is an important act (or set of rituals) performed according to social rules and
customs. Birth and death are treated with much respect in African culture and religion

BIRTH RITES

The Rite of Birth is a major African initiation rite and it involves initiating the infant into the
world through a ritual and naming ceremony. Nearly all African cultures hold the belief that the
infant has come from the spirit world with important information from that world, and is
bringing unique talents and gifts to offer to the community. The infant, in fact, is believed to
have been commissioned to come to the world and accomplish a particular mission or project,
and often has a great message to deliver.

Preparation for the birth of a child begins during pregnancy when the pregnant mother is
expected to take prescribed herbs to ensure safe delivery. In some societies during the first or
other pregnancies the woman is expected to leave her husband and live with her parents.

Realizing birth is near; women attendants prepare ingredients for application to the child’s
umbilical cord.

Ingredients are also prepared for the child’s head (nhova). When the child is of the traditional
leadership clan the rituals are accompanied by special ceremonies to welcome and prepare the
future clan leader.

Naming of the child is also an important rite and the right of naming is usually given to the father
of the child and an important meaning is usually attached to the name of the child.

Some communities in central and southern Africa also perform circumcision ceremonies on the
boy child. The age for circumcision differs according to the society. All male Congolese babies
are circumcised, usually at 0-3 weeks of age.

The girl child is also trained in domestic chores.

On the other hand, African societies systematically initiate boys and girls. They often take the
young initiates out of the community, and away from the concerns of everyday life, to teach

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them all the ways of adulthood: including the rules and taboos of the society; moral instruction
and social responsibility; and further clarification of his/her mission or calling in life.

DEATH RITES AND CEREMONIES

In the religions of Africa, life does not end with death, but continues in another realm.

Usually it is believed that illness and death are a result of an external force and it is common
practice during illness and death to consult the spirit world on the causes of illness or death

Concept of Death

Death, although an unwelcome event, is seen as the beginning of a person's deeper relationship
with all of creation, and the beginning of the communication between the visible and the
invisible worlds. The goal of life is to become an ancestor after death. This is why every person
who dies must be given a "correct" funeral, supported by a number of religious ceremonies. If
this is not done, the dead person may become a wandering ghost, unable to "live" properly after
death and therefore a danger to those who remain alive.

Burial and Mourning

After death family and friends are accorded the chance to mourn and eventually bury the
individual. The mourning period before burial differs according to customs and the status of the
deceased.
During Mourning women and children in some customs are expected to wear black clothing to
symbolize a dark cloud in their lives. Upon the death of a husband a wife is expected to wear
black dresses/ apparel for a year. During this period she is not allowed to be involved
romantically with another man.

The grave site of the deceased is usually identified by the closest relatives who are usually uncles
and Aunts.
Adults are expected to spend one final night in their home before burial and specific sitting
positions are assigned to the wife, parents, and husbands of the deceased.African funerals are
community affairs in which the whole community feels the grief of the bereaved and shares in it.
The purpose of the activities preceding the funeral is to comfort, encourage, and heal those who
are hurting. Thereafter, the churches see to it that the bereaved make the transition back to
normal life as smoothly and as quickly as possible. This transition during the mourning period is
sometimes accompanied by cleansing rituals by which the bereaved are assured of their
acceptance and protection by God. Because the dominance of Christianity and Islam in Africa
has resulted in the rejection of certain mourning customs, the funeral becomes an opportunity to
declare faith.

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After-Funeral Rituals

After the funeral, people go back to the family home to eat. Mourning Rituals and Practices in
Cotemporary South African Townships (page 26) states that people are expected to wash off the
graveyard dust and may go through a ritual cleansing at the gate. Some mourners put pieces of
the aloe plant in water as this is said to ward off evil. Christians may also sprinkle mourners with
holy water to purify them.

Mourning Customs
Mourning rituals may continue for at least a week after the burial, notes Mourning Rituals and
Practices in Contemporary South African Townships. During the formal mourning period
traditional practices include:

 Not leaving the house or socializing

 Abstaining from sexual activity
 Not talking or laughing loudly
 Wearing black clothes, armbands or pinning pieces of black cloth to the mourner's clothing
 Men and women of the family shaving their hair, including facial hair, which symbolizes
death and new life
Widows are expected to mourn for six months to a year and children who lost a parent are
expected to mourn for three months. After the formal mourning, family can stop wearing black.
The family may hold a ritual or create a shrine a few days or weeks after the funeral to honor and
respect their dead. At some time later, the family may hold a ceremony to commemorate the
deceased becoming an ancestor.

Ritual Cleansing

Africans believe that anyone or anything that came in contact with the dead is unclean or
polluted. According to Macmillan Encyclopedia of Death and Dying, cleansing rituals start
before burial and again about seven days or more after the funeral. Ritual cleansing may include:

 Ritual cleansing of the dead before burial - In the Ashanti tribe of Ghana, for example, the
oldest woman if the family washes the body three times, dries and dresses it.
 Items that touched the deceased, including bedding and clothes, are washed.
 Things the deceased used, such as chairs and utensils, are put away until the local traditional
period of mourning is over.
 The dead's clothing is bundled and stored until mourning ends, and then the items are given
to family members or burned.
 After a time, according to community custom, the house and family members undergo
cleansing, usually involving herbs, to remove misfortune and "darkness."
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An animal may be sacrificed at the time of the ritual cleansing of the home and family and again
about a month later to put the dead's soul at rest.

Some rites and ceremonies include

Nyaradzo

Kugova nhumbi and Kurova guva

INHERITANCE AND HEIRSHIP IN MODERN TIMES

In law, an heir is a person who is entitled to receive a share of the deceased's (the person who
died) property, subject to the rules of inheritance in society.

The African society is dominantly patriarchal and inheritance is usually along male lines.
However modern society and law provides equality for both the male and female child. The
deceased’s property is shared according to a written or verbal will or according to the family and
societal norms.

The Zimbabwean government has put in place a n act to govern Wills and Inheritance and this
act ensures that inheritance goes to the rightful persons. When a married person dies inheritance
is done according to the type of marriage or the number of children.

Types of Marriages in Zimbabwe

There are three types of marriages in Zimbabwe, namely civil marriage (Chapter 5:11),
registered customary marriage and

Unregistered customary marriage.

Customary marriages are traditional unions. They are sometimes registered or can remain
informal.

ADMINISTRATION OF ESTATES
Administration of an estate of a deceased person is the registering of the estate and the
distribution of the property thereof. When a person dies leaving behind property, the nearest
relative or connection of the deceased must, within 14 days register the estate of the deceased.

REGISTRATION OF AN ESTATE

An estate is registered either at the High Court or at the Magistrates Court. Where an estate is
registered is determined by the following:

 When a deceased person leaves behind a will, the estate is registered at the High Court.

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  Non Africans and Africans married under the Marriage Act [Chapter 5:11] (popularly
known as [Chapter 37]) should have their estates registered at the High Court.
 If a person is a single African and his or her parents are married under the Marriage Act
[Chapter 5:11], that person’s estate should be registered at the High Court.
 Africans married under the Customary Marriages Act [Chapter 5:07] (popularly known
as Chapter 238) or living under unregistered customary law unions, should have their
estate registered at the Magistrate Court.
 If a person is a single African and his or her parents have a registered customary marriage
or living under an unregistered customary law union then the estate should be registered
at the Magistrates Court.

If one is not sure of where to go then he should approach the nearest Magistrate Court for
assistance as to where to register an estate.

General Law applies to those estates that are registered at the High Court.

Appointment of an executor
An executor is a person appointed to carry out the obligation of the deceased. Upon the death of
the deceased, the Master will call upon the surviving spouse, if the person was married, and five
relatives of the deceased to an edict meeting where they can choose an executor. If they fail to do
so then the master may appoint someone to be an executor.

Duties of an executor
The executor has the following duties:

 List the property of the deceased in an inventory.

 Publishes the estate in the Government Gazette and newspaper circulating in the district
where the deceased resided at the time of his death to inform debtors and creditors so as
to enable him to pay creditors and collect debts for estate;
 Prepares an account, which shows what the deceased had and what he owed to creditors;
and distributes the estate property to the beneficiaries.

Removal of the executor

If the beneficiaries are not satisfied with the way the executor is performing his duties they can
lodge a complaint with the Master of High Court who has the authority to remove him.

Distribution of the estate property

If the deceased had a spouse and children, then the spouse is entitled to the house and household
goods and effects. All legitimate children of the deceased will get an equal share each from the
residue of the estate after the spouse has been given her entitlements.

INTESTATE SUCCESSION UNDER CUSTOMARY LAW

this is regulated by the Administration of Estates Amendment Act No. 6 of 1997, which applies
to people to whom customary law applied at the time of their death.

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Mixed marriages

 All customary law marriages whether registered or unregistered, are valid for the purpose
of inheritance except that if a person contracts a registered or unregistered customary law
marriage when he is already married to someone else under the Marriage Act [Chapter
5:11] the customary marriage will not be valid.
 If a woman marries under the Marriage Act [Chapter 5:11] a man who is already married
under customary law to someone else, then the last marriage will be treated as a
customary law marriage for purposes of inheritance.

Appointment of an executor
When a person dies, the Master of High Court will call his family to appoint an executor of the
deceased’s estate at an edict meeting. If the family does not agree to an executor, the Master will
appoint one.

Duties of an executor

The executor has duties similar to those of an executor under general law. The only difference is
that under customary law the executor has to draw up an inheritance plan, which should address
the following issues:

 Distribution of the estate amongst the beneficiaries

 Conservation or application of the net estate for the benefit of the beneficiaries;
 Disposal or sale of any property of the net estate, and for the benefit of the beneficiaries;
and
 Maintenance of any beneficiaries

The executor does this in consultation with the family of the deceased and intended beneficiaries
and he should try to obtain the beneficiaries’ agreement to the plan. The executor should then
submit the inheritance plan to the Master. If the Master is satisfied that the inheritance plan has
been drawn in terms of the law then he may approve it and authorize the executor to distribute
the estate in accordance with it. If the Master is not satisfied that the plan has been done in
consultation with the family and beneficiaries and that all the beneficiaries’ consent has been
obtained, he shall refuse to approve the plan until the requirements of the law have been
complied with.

Property Distribution
If the deceased is survived by more than one wife and had more than one child then one third of
his net estate is shared among his wives of which the first wife gets two shares and the other
wives get the remainder of the one third in equal shares. The remaining two thirds of the net
estate are shared equally amongst the deceased’s children or their descendants if any.

If the wives were living in different houses owned by the deceased person at the time of his
death, then they each get ownership of the house and all household goods in the house in which
they so lived or if ownership of the particular house is not possible the wife should get a usufruct

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over that house. If they all lived in one house and if it is impossible to get ownership then they
will retain the right to use the house.

In case where the deceased is survived by one wife and one or more children, the surviving
spouse should get ownership of the house.

If the deceased person is a woman who is survived by a husband with more than one wife and
she had one or more children, the husband is entitled to a third of the net estate and the remainder
goes to the children in equal shares.

Where the deceased person is not survived by a spouse but by a child or children, then the net
estate should devolve upon that child or those children in equal shares.

Under customary law an heir is only entitled to inherit the name, tsvimbo or intonga or any
traditional items of the deceased, which under customary law pass to his heir.

A Justice for Children Trust Publication Sponsored By: Sida, SAT, GTZ, DED

INDEGENOUS TRADITIONAL GATHERINGS AND CEREMONIES

Birth Ceremonies

Kusungira

Marriage Ceremonies

Marooro/lobola

Chimanda

Death Ceremonies

Nyaradzo/

Kurova guva/ umbuyiso

Other Ceremonies

Mukwerera

DANCE AND MUSIC

Dance and occupies a crucial place in Zimbabwean culture. There are about 12 prominent
traditional dances in Zimbabwe, namely Shangara, Mbira dance, Dinhe, Mbakumba,
Muchongoyo, Jerusarema, Mhande, Isitschikitsha, Amabhiza, Ingquza, Chinyobera and Ngungu.

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The Jerusarema dance and the Muchongoyo are widely regarded as the most important and
distinctive dances of Zimbabwe.

Jerusarema dance, Shangara, Dinhe, Mbakumba, Mbira dance and Mhande are popular dances
among the Shona people who constitute about 76% of the Zimbabwean population. Jerusarema,
also known as Mbende, is perhaps the most celebrated dance of the Shona people. It is practiced
by the Zezuru Shona-people living in the Murehwa and Uzumba-Maramba-Pfungwe (UMP)
districts in eastern Zimbabwe. Because of its sexual movements, the dance was originally
performed exclusively during the marriage ceremony of a chief's daughter but it is now open to
all men and women. Jerusarema is characterized by a single polyrhythmic drum sound
accompanied by woodblock clapper sounds, handclapping, yodeling and blowing whistles.
Unlike most dances, Jerusarema does not rely on intricate foot stamping or many drummers.
Instead, the music is performed by one master drummer. In the course of the dance, men often
crouch while jerking both arms and vigorously kicking the ground with the right leg in imitation
of a burrowing mole. Before colonial rule, this ancient fertility dance was called Mbende, the
Shona word for “mole”, which was regarded as a symbol of fertility, sexuality and family. In
modern Zimbabwe, Jerusarema can be performed at funerals, festivals, celebrations and even
recreational competitions.
Mbira dance is perhaps the most religious of all Shona dances. It is usually performed by
community elders at important ancestral ceremonies such as the Bira. The dance is accompanied
by Mbira music and used as a medium to invite ancestral spirits into the midst of the
community. Mbira dance and music therefore play a significant role in bringing the spirits of the
ancestors into the community. Mbira dance is regarded as unique for its intricate foot
movements, graceful pauses and high-energy jump bursts. While Mbira dance is performed in
community with others, it can also be a solo dance for purposes of entertainment and building
physical strength.

Popular dances among the Ndebele include Mushongoyo, Isitshikitsha, Amabhiza and Ingquza.
Historically, Muchongoyo dance was performed by men in preparation for war or after war, and
especially when the Ndebele warriors were victorious. The dance is typically performed with a
stick and a shield. Men do the dancing and women are responsible for the singing. It is also a
social and recreational dance, and does not have a religious feature; instead it highlights the
events of the society. The signature movement is stamping, and dramatic gestures as well as a
mimetic element are essential.
Another important dance for the Ndebele is Isitshikitsha - a ceremonial dance, historically
performed for the King’s pleasure. Isitshikitsha was also commonly performed at the injelele, a
rainmaking ceremony held during drought seasons by the Ndebele people of Matabeleland
Province in Zimbabwe. The dance routine employs a unique brand of rhythm and style. In
contemporary times Isitshikitsha is performed at social gatherings, weddings or first fruits
ceremonies. It is accompanied by singing, clapping, ululation and whistling.

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Ceremonial Tools

These include

Drum/ ngoma

Mbira

Magagada/ leg rattle

Hari/ clay pots

Relevance and importance of Indigenous ceremonies and gatherings

 Helps to preserve traditional culture

 Helps to unite communities

 To promote good morals

 To preserve cultural heritage

DANCE AND DRAMA

Definitions

Dance-: an act of stepping or moving through a series of movements usually in time to music.
(https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dance)

Dance is also to move one's feet or body, or both, rhythmically in a pattern of steps, especially to
the accompaniment of music.

Drama is defined as an act performed on radio, television or in a theatre depicting real life or
imagined situations.k

DANCE

Importance of Dance

 Provides entertainment
 Physical exercise
 Preserves cultural values
 Aesthetical i.e. pleasing to the eye, provides beauty
 Motor skills i.e. co-ordination
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  Cultural medium and storage of culture
 Politically it can depict war dances
 Can be a source of employment
 Social interaction

DRAMA

-HELPS PEOPLE TO REMEMBER easily e.g Chinese proverb “tell me and I will forget, Show
me and I will remember, involve me and I will understand”

-stimulates creativity, provides an outlet for emotions, thoughts and dreams

Drama is a form of communication, it promotes teamwork and collaboration

It fosters discipline and self control, Develops tolerance

Helps to build responsible citizens, Is also a form of employment e.g Safirio Madzikatire,
Kapfupi

Social uses

1. Dandanda- originated from the korekore- has religious functions

2. Chihoda- exclusive women dance announcing their fertility
3. Chinyambe-hunters dance
4. Mhende-puberty-fertility dance
5. Mbakumba celebrates good harvests
6. Muchongoyo-nguni war dance
7. Jerusarema-love dance

THE ROYAL CHARTER

This was the official document which granted Rhodes the power to occupy Zimbabwe on behalf of the
British. Rhodes was assisted to obtain the charter by individuals such as Earl Grey, Duke of Fife, Duke of
Abercon, Alfred Beit, Lord Gifford and George Cawston.

Terms of the Charter

1. The British South Africa Company (BSAC) would administer the colony (Zimbabwe)
2. The BSAC would enjoy full mining rights
3. The BSAC would promote good governance
4. The BSAC would recruit police to maintain order
5. The BSAC could issue mining concessions
6. The BSAC would respect local customs
7. THE charter was valid for 25 years and was to be reviewed after 10 years

The Pioneer Column .

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 This was the invading force recruited by Rhodes to occupy Zimbabwe.
Leaders included #.Frank Johnson, Starr Jameson, Allan Wilson, Maurice, Heaney, Burrow,
Frederick Selous, Colquhoun, Pennefeather, Marshal Hartley

The column
It was advertised for in the newspapers and Rhodes had to select from over 2000 applicants.
Men were aged between 20-29. The men were each promised 15 gold claims and 3000 acres of
land upon arrival in Zimbabwe.It had 200 pioneers, 5000 policemen and 5000 Ngwato labourers
provided by Khama in Barotseland.The column had various professions e.g hunters, doctors,
engineers, bakers, builders and policemen. They departed from Camp Cecil and crossed the
Macloutsie river. They moved and crossed the Shashi river .They covered about 12 miles per
day. They avoided Matebeleland for fear of Ndebele Amabutho. They rested at night and built
laagers for protection at night. They established forts e.g Fort Tuli, fort martin, Fort Victoria, Fort
charter and Fort Salisbury. At fort Charter some members were sent to Manicaland to stop the
Portuguese who were advancing from the East. The column arrived in Salisbry on 12 September
1891 and they raised the Union Jack (British flag). Officially Mashonaland was now under
Bristish control.

THE ANGLO-NDEBELE WAR

Causes
 Conflict over the Shona
 Conflict over the Boundary issue
 Need to construct a railway line via Matebeleland
 Settlers were attracted by large herds of Ndebele cattle
 Need for Ndebele land
 Failure to find the Second rand in Mashonaland
 Need to destroy Ndebele Amabutho
 The Victoria telegraph wire incident

The Victoria incident

In 1893 some men from Chief Bere/Gomara in Zimuto stole telegraph wire from the
settlers to make some snares. The men were caught and arrested and fined, However
they paid the fine using cattle stolen from Lobengula herd. Lobengula was angered by
this and sent some Amabutho to punish the offenders. The leaders of the Amabutho
Manyao and Mgandani were then confronted by settler troops and ordered to return to
their territory within two hours. This proved impossible and when the settler troops
followed the Amabutho they caught up with them and killed them. Lobengula tried to
avoid war but the settlers kept provoking him and the war began.

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 COURSE OF THE WAR.

Battle of Shangani-25 October 1893

Settlers arranged themselves into 3 forces. The Salisbury force led by Major Forbes, The
Victoria force led by Allan Wilson and the South African force led by Captain Raaf. The
settlers were armed with the maxim guns and riffles while the Ndebele had spears and
old fashioned riffles. At Shangani the settlers lost about a dozen troops while the
Ndebele lost over 1500. The Amabutho were also affected by small pox and over 6000
men could not fight.
The Mbembesi Battle 1 November 1893
This was 2 weeks after the Shangani battle. The settlers advanced towards Bulawayo
and despite the Amabutho’s bravery they still lost the battle. Lobengula realised that he
could not win and burnt his arsenal and fled with some indunas and Amabutho. Allan
Wilson and some 30 troops pursued Lobengula and were ambushed and killed by the
Amabutho. Lobengula is believed to have later died of small pox in the Zambezi valley.
He was buried in a secret place.
Results of the war
 Ndebele lost their king
 Ndebele lost their cattle, Ndebele were driven to the dry and rocky reserves of
Gwai and Shangani,
 Ndebele Amabutho were weakened, Ndebele were forced to pay tax, Ndebele
forced to provide labour for settlers (chibharo). Ndebele were defeated.

Reasons for Ndebele Defeat

Inferior weapons, settlers had superior weapons, Ndebele were not assisted by
the Shona neighbors, Settlers were assisted by the South African forces.
NB: Homework –The first Chimurenga/Umvukela-Causes

Compiled by A.Chikerema

THE SHONA RISINGS

Causes

 Taxation loss of cattle

 Forced labour chiefs lost their powers
 Drought, rinderpests and locusts police brutality
 Loss of land women abuse
Course of the war
War started in Mashayamombe’s area of Mhondoro on June 1896.it took some days before it spread to
Mashonganyika’s area where the fighters were organized by Kaguvi spirit medium. In the Mazoe area,
the Nehanda spirit medium inspired the people to fight some days after kaguvi’s people had entered the
war. Following the same pattern ,the war spread to Manicaland where Makoni viciously attacked the

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whites .notable chiefs who took part in the war at different times included kunzwi-Nyandoro, Nyamweda,
Maromo,Mutekedza,Sango and Makoni. Some Shona chiefs who collaborated with the settlers included
Zimuto,Chirumhanzu (chirimuhanzu),Mutasa,Matibi and the Njanja chief.
When the Shona rose, the whites were not expecting it. The whites in Salisbury made a laager to house
white rescued farmers. The Shona armies were divided, small and were easily forced to take defensive
positions which made it easy for white to open supply routes .this meant that the war was fought over a
wide area making it difficult to end. The company was thus forced to employ dynamite to force the Shona
from their hiding places. Whites also poisoned drinking water and burnt crops in desperate attempts to
force the Shona to surrender. Eventually one chief after another was defeated .Nehanda and Kaguvi were
captured, tried and hanged .some chiefs who surrendered were gunned down in clear violation of
international law. Without the spirit mediums and chiefs the Shona could not continue with the war .
Results of the war
 loss of people
 loss of independence
 The defeat of the Shona strengthened the grip of the settler rule.
 The Shona were not allowed to build their villages near kopjes.
 The whites embarked on the construction of roads and railways for easy transportation of troops and
supplies.
Reasons for the Shona defeat
Shona weaknesses
 Division
 Collaboration with settlers
 Poor ineffective and insufficient weapons.
 Wrong timing of war.
 Arrest of spirit mediums and chiefs

White strengths
 Use of modern military technology e.g. machine guns and explosives.
 Very mobile e.g. horses
 Scotched earth policy.
 External assistance from south Africa and Britain
 Better military training and strategies

THE SECOND CHIMURENGA

This was a protracted struggle against colonial occupation and it was spearheaded by nationalist
movements and their military wings. The armed struggle began in 1966 in Chinhoyi (Chinhoyi battle) .
The preparation for the struggle began way back in the 1950s.

Definition of Terms-

Nationalism- the love for one’s nation and the desire to see your nation and people free from oppression

Colonialism- when a powerful country rules a weaker one and establishes its own systems in the weaker
state

Freedom fighter-one who sacrifices personal desires in order to fight oppression

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Nationalist movement and Leaders

City youth league James Chikerema and Gearoge Nyandoro

National Democratic Party Joshua Nkomo and Michael mawema

Zimbabwe African People’s Union Joshua Nkomo

Zimbabwe African nationalist Union Ndabaningi Sithole

The two dominant Nationalist movements after 1966 were ZAPU and ZANU. They formed military
wings which recruited and trained freedom fighters.

ZAPU-ZIPRA- (Zimbabwe People’s revolutionary Army)

ZANU-ZANLA (Zimbabwe National Liberation Army)

These military wings were trained in bases outside Zimbabwe e.g. Ghana, china and Mozambique,
Algeria, Tanzania, Russia and North Korea

CAUSES OF THE SECOND CHIMURENGA

 Oppressive laws by the settlers e.g Land Apportionment Act, Maize Control Act, Lawa and Order
Maintenance Act Industrial Conciliation Act
 Lack of voting rights for Africans
 Arrest of Africans without trial
 IAN Smith’s repressive rule
 Press censorship
 Limited freedom of movement

THE ARMED STRUGGLE

The Armed struggle can be divide into three phases

1. The First phase 1966-68

2. The Second Phase/ Mobilisation of the masses 1968-1972
3. The decisive phase 1972-1979

The First Phase

The Chinhoyi battle

It took place on the 28th of April 1966 in Chinhoyi. Seven guerillas or freedom fighters were killed in
battle after a hard fought battle with the Rhodesian forces. This marked the beginning of a fierce war
between African nationalist freedom fighters and the Rhodesian forces. The battle lasted a full day. The
seven fighters of the battle are namely Christopher Chatambudza, Godwin Manyerenyere, Arthur

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Maramba, David Guzuzu, Ephraim Shenjere, Nathan Charumuka and Simon Chimbodza. The guerillas
were on their way from Zambia to their deployment base.

In the following year some guerrillas also fought a series of battles with the Rhodesian troops in Hwange
area. These two battles were seen as victories for the Africans.

The Second Phase

This came after realization by the nationalist leaders that the armed struggle was not progressing as
expected. There was need for a more collaborative approach between the freedom fighters and the
civilians. This phase of involving the masses was adopted from the teachings of the Chinese revolutionary
leader Mao Tse Tung who believed that The Freedom fighters are the Fish and masses are the water. This
meant that without the masses the armed struggle was bound to fail.

The masses would support the fighters in various ways

Men and young men who supported the freedom fighters were known as Mujibhas while women and
young girls were known as chimbwidos.

Homework

List any five duties of the Mujibhas and five duties of the Chimbwidos.

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