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Lab Manual 2

Prolog uses unification and backtracking to evaluate goals. Unification matches predicates to make them identical and bind variables, while backtracking allows Prolog to search through facts and rules to find solutions. The document provides examples demonstrating unification, backtracking, and recursion in Prolog programs for queries like finding ancestors and factorials. It defines a goal to print countries with a population over 10 million using facts for country populations.

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75 views2 pages

Lab Manual 2

Prolog uses unification and backtracking to evaluate goals. Unification matches predicates to make them identical and bind variables, while backtracking allows Prolog to search through facts and rules to find solutions. The document provides examples demonstrating unification, backtracking, and recursion in Prolog programs for queries like finding ancestors and factorials. It defines a goal to print countries with a population over 10 million using facts for country populations.

Uploaded by

sana mahmood
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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(AI) Lab Sheet # 2 Class: BS(CS)

OBJECT: TEST THE EVALUATION OF GOALS, USING UNIFICATION


AND BACKTRACKING

THEORY:

Unification is the process of matching two predicates and assigning free variables to make the
predicates identical. This mechanism is necessary so that Prolog can identify which clauses to call
and bind values to variables. These are the major points about matching (Unification) presented
in this session.

When a new call is made, a search for a match to that call also begins at the top of the program
When a call has found a successful match, the call is said to return, and the next sub goal in turn
can be tried.

Once a variable has been bound in a clause, the only way to free that binding is through
backtracking.
Backtracking is the mechanism that instructs Prolog where to go to look for solutions to the
program. This process gives Prolog the ability to search through all known facts and rules for a
solution. There are five basic principles of backtracking given in this session:
➢ Sub goals must be satisfied in order, from top to bottom.
➢ Predicate clauses are tested in the order they appear in the program, from top to bottom.
➢ When a sub goal matches the head of a rule, the body of that rule must be satisfied next.
The body of the rule then constitutes a new set of sub goals to be satisfied.
➢ A goal has been satisfied when a matching fact is found for each of the extremities
(leave) of the goal tree.
➢ A call that can produce multiple solutions is non-deterministic, while a call that can
produce one and only one solution is deterministic.

Example 1:
Facts:

parent(john,paul). /* John is Paul's parent */


parent(paul,tom). /* Paul is Tom's parent */
parent(tom,mary)./* Tom is Mary's parent */

Rules:

ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y). /* If X is a parent of Y, then X is an ancestor of Y */


ancestor(X,Y) :- parent(X,Z), ancestor(Z,Y). /* if X is parent of Z and Z is ancestor of Y, then X is ancestor of Y
*/

Query:

Execution scheme for the query “ancestor(john,tom).”


CALL ancestor(john,tom).
CALL parent(john,tom).
FAIL parent(john,tom).
CALL parent(john,Z).
TRY Z=paul (Unification)
CALL ancestor(paul,tom).
CALL parent(paul,tom). (Recursion)
SUCCEEDS parent(paul,tom).
SUCCEEDS ancestor(paul,tom).
SUCCEEDS with Z=paul
SUCCEEDS ancestor(john,tom).

Example 2:

talks_about (A, B):- knows(A,B).


talks_about(P,R):- knows(P,Q),
talks_about(Q,R).

Example 3:

factorial(0,1).
factorial(X,Y) :-
X1 is X - 1,
factorial(X1,Z),
Y is Z*X,!.

Recursion Breakup for ‘factorial(4,What).’


3 1 Factorial(0,1)
2 0
X1 is X – 1, (X1 is X – 1, (X1 is X – 1, (X1 is X – 1, (Z=1), Y is X * Z), Y is X * Z), Y is X * Z), Y is X * Z)

Decomposition:
X1 is 3, (X1 is 2, (X1 is 1, (X1 is 0, (Z=1), Y ==1 is X==1 * Z==1), Y==2 is X==2 * Z==1),
Y==6 is X==3 * Z==2), Y==24 is X==4 * Z==6)

X is decreasing step by step


Each Y has the value of Z form previous (inner) step

GOAL:
Name of few countries with population is given, define a general rule that Print the
name of countries having population greater than 10 million.

country(england, 3e7).
country(france, 2.3e7).
country(germany,1.6e7).
country(denmark,2.4e6).
country(canada,7.3e6).

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