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SAPIENZA UNIVERSITA` DI ROMA
XXVII CICLO , CURRICULUM –A
Islamic Garden and Urban

Development in Syria.
((The role of the historical garden in the

sustainable development of Latakia city
urban landscape))
PhD candidate: Nabila Dway

Tutor: Prof. Alessandra De Cesaris
Co-tutor: Prof. Laura Valeria Ferretti
Dottorato di Ricerca in Architettura –

Teorie e Progetto .
Coordinator: Prof. Antonino Saggio.
Page 1 of 223
‘’If there be a paradise
On the face of the earth
It's here, it's here, it's here.’’
(Jellicoe. 1975; p. 49.)
Page 2 of 223
Provisional index:
Introduction.
The thesis is divided into four chapters:
Chapter I:
1-1 The definition of the garden.…………………………………..15
1-2 An Overview study of the garden historic development
at different Muslim communities:
1-2-1 The Garden in the Early Islam ‘Oasis’………………………….16
1-2-2 The Islamic garden in Iran, Spain and Turkey…… ………… ...22
1-2-3The technique of irrigation in the Islamic landscape…………. ..64
1-2-4 The garden as a metaphor of paradise………………………….75
1-3 Historical development of the Islamic gardens in

the Syrian traditional landscape: …………………………..……..98
1-3-1 The Garden in the Umayyad and Abbasid Period in Syria……98
1-3-2 Garden in the traditional Islamic landscape in Syria,
patterns and forms:
1-3-2-1 The courtyard: The house, palace and mosque
Courtyard. ...…….......................................................................118
1-4 Characteristics of the Islamic garden and its architectural
functional elements:
1-4-1 Sense of unity and privacy…………………………………….132
1-5 The main architectural elements of the garden:

1-5-1 The walls……………………………………………………...137
1-5-2 The gradation and successive levels……………………... 139
1-5-3 Pavilions…………………………………………………….. 140
1-5-4 Shadows…………………………………………………... 142
1-5-5 Water features………………………………………………...143
1-5-6 Plants and trees ………………………………………………146
1-5-7 Birds and animals…………………………………………… .147
1-5-8 Arabesque and ornaments…………………………………… 148
1-5-9 Calligraphy on walls…………………………………………..153
1-6 Conclusion……………………………………………………154
Page 3 of 223
Chapter II A Brief History of Syria and Its Urban
Development :
2-1 Syria…………………………………………………..159
2-2 Syria’s urban settlement ……………………………. 162
2-3 The urban structure of the Islamic city …………….. 165
Chapter III Latakia city case study:

3-1 The Historical urban development of Latakia city
Through ages……………………………………………………. 166
3-1-1 Early history of Latakia …………………………… 166
3-1-2 History of Latakia during the Expansion of Islamic
Powers. …………………………………………….. 172
3-1-3 Latakia during the Ottoman Rule.……………………173
3-1-4 The French Mandate Period (1920-1947)…………….175
3-1-5 The early independence period (1947-1970)………....182
3-1-6 Latakia during the period of big urban changes
(1970- 2010)………………………………………..184
3-2 Analytical study of actual evolution of the

gardens and green areas in Latakia city nowadays. …… 187
Chapter IV Conclusion and Final Recommendations..211
Page 4 of 223
Table of Figures:
Figure 1: The International Trade Road.

Figure 2: The Photo of the Silk Road.
Figure 3, Irrigation Channel in Palmyra.
Figure 4, The Photo of Oasis of Palmyra.
Figure 5, The Photo of Palmyra, Syria
Figure 6. Garden of Bagh-e-Shazdeh .
Figure 7. Painted Vessel, 1000 BCE.
Figure8 ; The Photo of Halafian Ware.
Figure9 ; Diagram of a Qanat System.
Figure10; Simulation of Cyrus’ Garden.
Figure11 ; The Achaemenid Empire .
Figure 12. The plan of Chahar Bagh .
Figure 13. Miniature of Safavid Garden.
Figure 14. The Plan of Fin Garden.
Figure 15. The Photo of Fin Garden.
Figure 16: (b) A View of Fin garden.
Figure 17: (a) Arial Picture of Fin Garden.
Figure 18: Plan of Chehel Sotun Garden.
Figure 19: Photo of Chehel-Sotun Garden.
Figure 20: Photo Shahzadeh-Mahan Garden. .
Figure 21: The Shahzade-Mahan Pavilion.
Figure 22 :(A,B,C) Alhambra Palace Plan
Figure 23: Al-Hambra Palace Garden.
Figure 24, Alhambra Palace Courtyard.
Figure 25; Panorama of Alhambra Site.
Figure 26: Plan of the Alhambra Palace.
Figure 27: (A,B,C) Generallife Palace .
Figure 28:"Bayad ",Arabic Manuscriptin .
Figure 29: The Landscape from Miradors.
Figure 30: Musical Entertainment in garden.
Figure 31: An entertainment scene in garden.
Figure 32: A detail of Sugar orchard models.
Figure 33: Sadabad in the 19th century.
Figure 34: The Waterfront houses.
Figure 35: A floral landscape in Istanbul.
Figure 36, The Aquifer flowing in Granada.
Figure 37, The norias of Hama , Orontes River.
Figure 38, A saqiya in Ma'arrat al-Nu'man .
Figure 39: Traditional irrigation systems.
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Figure 40: Photo of the Qanat system.
Figure 41: Photo of the Qanat network.
Figure 42(A),(B): Qanat network.
Figure 43: photo of Qanat network.
Figure 44 :The Jar in Crete and Trojan .
Figure 45: Abstract inscription on pottery.
Figure 46: Water-Goddess statue, Mari city .
Figure 47: The tree of the moon – Babylon.
Figure 48: The three phases of the moon (A, B).
Figure 49: Middle East 750AD.
Figure 50: (A),(B),(C): Qasr Alhyr Alsharqi.
Figure 51 (A,B,C),Qasr al-Heir East, views.
Figure 52 (A ,B,C): Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi.
Figure 53 (A, B), Rusafa archeological site.
Figure 54: View of the Sergiopolis (Rusafa)
Figure 55(A,B). Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
Figure 56, Baghdad city period 762-764 AC.
Figure 57, Mari city on Euphrates River 2600 B.C.
Figure 58: Plan of the Bulkawara Palace at Samarra.
Figure 59: d’une ambassade vénitienne à Damas.
Figure 60: The Palace plan of Mari city.
Figure 61: Courtyard house in Damascus.
Figure 62: Fountain in Achik Bash House ,Aleppo.
Figure 63:Photo of Maktab Anbar in Damascus.
Figure 64 (A,B):Azem Palace elevation and plan
Figure 65 (A,B): Ass`d Pasha Al`zem Palace in Hama.
Figure 66 (A,B,C):Photos of Umayyad Mosque
Figure 67: Great Mosque courtyard, Aleppo.
Figure 68: The mosque complex in Damascus .
Figure 69: Water features in Andalucía.
Figure 70: Alhambra palace lion courtyard.
Figure 71: Alhambra palace in Spain
Figure 72: Interior Alhambra palace.
Figure 73: The Alhambra palace in Spain
Figure 74: Damascus Umayyad mosque.
Figure 75: Umayyad and Alhambra mosque.
Figure 76: the palace of The Alhambra, Granada.
Figure 77:-
Figure 78: Calligraphy in Andalucia palaces.
Figure 79: The ancient civilization in Middle East
Figure 80. Map of Syria.
Figure 81. Fertile Crescent Map.
Figure 82, Ramita location on the Ras Ziyarah
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Figure 83 (A,B,C,D), Ancient Phoenicia’s city.
Figure 84, Plan of Latakia in the antiquity
Figure 85. The National Museum of Latakia
Figure 86, Port of Latakia- (1755–1803).
Figure 87,Photo of Latakia city, 1924-1928
Figure 88: Photo of Latakia city ,period 1953
Figure 89 ; latakia plan -The French period.
Figure 90 :Latakia view, period1930.
Figure 91 :Latakia city period 1932.
Figure 92. Saint Batarni Public Garden
Figure 93. Al Batarni Garden in Latakia
Figure 94, View of the Latakia city.
Figure 95, Al Sheikh Dahir (1930 – 1936)
Figure 96. Latakia map in period 1927.
Figure 97, Latakia city plan, period 1944.
Figure 98. Latakia map in French period.
Figure 99. Latakia -AlBatarni Garden.
Figure 100, Latakia city – period 1952.
Figure 101 (A), Project of Latakia city port.
Figure 101 (B), New port of Latakia city.
Figure 102, Extension sides of Latakia 1968
Figure 103, Photo of sport city in Latakia .
Figure 104. The View of the harbor of latakia.
Figure 105. The main parts of the city Latakia.
Figure 106 (A,B,C,D,E,F)Alsheikh-Daher centre.
Figure 107: Mar Taqla garden in Latakia city.
Figure 108, Martaqla garden in Latakia city.
Figure 109 (A,B): Garden in Rome-Italy.
Figure 110 (A,B): Albatarny garden -Latakia.
Figure 111, Map for the Latakia city.
Figure 112, Burj Islam region in Latakia
Figure 113 (A-B-C): Northern part of Latakia city.
Figure 114 (A, B, C, D, E, F); Heiligenhafen city park.
Figure 115, Grand North River in Syria.
Figure 116: Plan of the North grand river-Latakia.
Figure 117 (A,B,C), Project Manzanares River Park .
Figure 118 (A,B,C,D,E,F); Palace garden- Siegen.
Figure 119, Latakia in different periods.
Figure 120, location of the street, Bagdad Street.
Figure 121. The Latakia city Harbor`s façade.
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Acknowledgements;
Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my

advisor Prof. A. De Cesaris and to co-tutor Prof. L. Valeria
Ferretti, for the continuous support of my PhD study and
related research, for their patience, motivation, and encour-
agement.
My sincere thanks also go to Coordinator of Doctorate: Prof.
Antonino Saggio for his support and collaboration.
I would like to thank the rest of my professors in La Sapienza
University for their encouragement and advice during the
PhD study period.
Last but not the least; I would like to thank my family in
Syria for their support throughout writing this thesis, and to
the families and friends that supported and helped me to
continue in spite the difficulties. Thanks to all of them.
Page 8 of 223
Abstract:
The Garden as part of the broader context of the landscape
design reflects a particular relationship between man and
nature ¹, in the limited geographic dimensions and conditions.
Since the early Islamic settlements, the garden has played an

important role in the Islamic society’s life. Its traditional
pattern has embodied many symbolic meanings associated
with the image of paradise as a metaphor from the Islamic
religion. Its form and design reflects the character of the
Islamic culture and its properties.
Nowadays many of Syria`s cities as Damascus and Latakia

has many problems linked to the absence of the public green
areas, public gardens and parks. They play an important role
in reducing Fragmentation, spatial discontinuity of the urban
plan of the city, enhancing the identity, protecting it against
pollution, and conserve the community’s resources as well.
These problems are related to the impact of the socio-political

factors on the urban plan of the city.
The research aims to present a scientific analytic study about

the concept of the Islamic garden, the form, pattern and its
architectural functional elements as a historical aspect of the
traditional landscape in Syria. Besides that, it examines its
role nowadays in Latakia -Syrian city, as well as its role in the
future in the process of the sustainable urban development.
It is a strategy to explore the cultural heritage, factors, causes

and philosophy that formed the landscape of Syria in the past.
References:
¹ Lehrman, J., B., Earthly Paradise: Garden and Courtyard in Islam,

university of California press, Berkeley and losangeles,1980
Page 9 of 223
As well to the importance of the environmental role of the
green areas as natural resources and the advantages of the
heritage experiences and techniques to solve many environ-
mental problems which confront Syria nowadays as the
climate changes problems in the region particularly.
Page 10 of 223
Introduction
The research presented an analytic study for Islamic garden,
its meaning and form during the different periods of Islamic
civilization and in Syria particularly.
The first chapter presents an overview study of the garden

historic development at different Muslim communities.
It explains the identification of the garden according to the

different resources and dictionaries, to understand its meaning
and description in many cultures as well as the Arabic, and
traced the evolution process of the garden form in Islamic
period from the early development of Islam, and discusses the
three concepts of the nature in the three civilizations that
share the same geography and influence each other during
this period of Islam, such as Iran, Spain and Turkey.
The chapter also presented a study of the irrigation techniques

that used and employed in the Islamic landscape, as well as
explore the concept of paradise that associated with Islamic
religion and the four-part form garden, beside that, this part
examined the historical development of the garden in Syria’s
landscape particularly during the Islamic period.
It gives a detailed explanation to its main Characteristics,

architectural elements and the ideology that has influenced
the urban plan formulation and landscape of Syria since the
7th century.
The second chapter gives a brief overview of Syria’s history

to explain better the morphology of cities, and the important
factors and events that affected its urban development in
general.
Thirdly, the thesis examines the historical urban development

of Latakia city through ages, finds out the main factors that
formulate the landscape of the city and its urban plan pattern.
The fourth chapter presents a study of the actual evolution of

the gardens and green areas in Latakia City, examines the
Page 11 of 223
current green areas by discussing some examples of the city
gardens, and analyze their role, characteristics as a part of the
landscape in Latakia City which is the main port on
Mediterranean Sea in Syria.
The study focuses on the Islamic period in Syria as a part of

the history of Syria since the 7th century, during this period a
symbolic form of garden has affected the historical landscape
and it has become a formal plan for the gardens in Islamic
countries that presented the Islamic ideology, and the unique
form of the garden that developed over years in the Ancient
East by different Islamic civilizations. But in Syria, this
historical element has used just in a few palaces during the
Islamic period.
The research aims to verify the Islamic garden form and

philosophy as historical elements used in Syria landscape in
target to examine its role in the new urban development, and
to explore the culture and heritage for the sustainable deve-
loppment of the urban landscape of latakia city.
Page 12 of 223
The Methodology:
The Methodology of the research has depended on different
resources of the Landscape studies as architectural, historical,
archaeological and mythological references that scope on the
theme of Islamic garden and landscape, and used in different
parts of the thesis.
The overall framework is set up through linking the landscape
studies on this theme with the other mentioned disciplines as
archeological and mythological ones, in order to understand
better the Factors that affected the formation process of the
Islamic landscape , and as a consequences to figure out the
traditional characteristics and elements of the formal design
of the garden in the Islamic period in the Middle East.
That will help to understand in a better way the form and its
philosophy, and to study its role in the developing urban
process in the Syrian landscape.
The overall methodology leans on the archive researches ,

thesis, articles, and studies in the field of Islamic landscape
and garden, brought from the internet and the archives
libraries of Rome, Germany, Syria museums and institutions
(the most of the references brought from Syria in year of
2013 and before).
In the first chapter: the study depends on theoretical
background of the historical evolution of the architectural
form and the philosophy of the Islamic garden in the
different periods of Islamic history depending on the recent
historical and archaeological studies beside mythological
studies on this theme.
The chapter depends also on the comparative study between
different countries that played an important role in the deve-
lopment process of the garden as a physical form and
Philosophy in the Islamic period of the Middle East.
As well as, the chapter verifies the Islamic garden as a

historical form carried the ideology of Islam, and finds out the
role of this garden in the future of sustainable development of
the landscape in Syria and particularly in Latakia city urban
plan.
The second chapter relies more on the theoretical background
Of Syria's history and a general overview on the urban deve-
lopment of the main cities as Damascus.
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The third chapter presented theoretical background of Latakia
City history and urban development during history as a main
Case study and according to many historical and archeo-
logical references.
The chapter also depended on the Analytical study of actual
evolution of the gardens and public green areas in Latakia
city nowadays.
Besides that, it presents analytical and comparative study for
many examples of the gardens and green areas in Latakia city
and examples of landscape study and urban development in
different countries as Spain, Rome and Germany.
Page 14 of 223
Chapter I: An overview study of the garden historic
development at different Muslim communities.
1-1 The definition of garden.

The linguistic term of the concept ‘’garden’’ in Arabic
language carries implications about its formative elements
and structure.
The Arabic sources and dictionaries identify the garden as; an

orchard surrounded by walls, or cultivated land with trees and
flowers surrounded by a barrier or a wall (Almaany Dictio-
nary).
And the English language (Oxford Advanced Dictionary 7th

edition by ( Sally Wehmeier ) explains garden`s meaning as
a piece of land next to or around the house for growing
flowers, fruit, vegetables ,etc, usually with an area of grass
called a lawn.(page 639).
And Merriam Webster dictionary defines garden as a plot of

ground where herbs, fruits, flowers, or vegetables are culti-
vated, or a public recreation area or park usually ornamented
with plants and trees.
Emma Clark, explains that a garden was conceived as a

walled orchard or a vineyard (As, Hadiqa, Rawda, or Riyadh)
and was irrigated by a channel of water or a well.
But garden has a spiritual role; ‘the purest of human pleasures

and the greatest refreshment to the spirits of man’ (Bacon
1883).
According to Hunt, gardens are; “concentrated or perfected

forms of place-making’ (Hunt 2000).
D. F.Ruggles also explains that gardens expressing the
position of humankind with respect to the earth and cosmos,
and reflecting the need to produce a food crop².
Page 15 of 223
1-2 Historical development of the Islamic gardens:
Analyzing the formative process of traditional organization
in the desert, and its spatial structure helps us to understand
the symbolic meaning and the origin of the constitutive
elements of the garden in the Islamic regions.
1-2-1The oasis:
Islam came from the Arabian Desert, at this period of Islam in
early ages of it, and in Arabia desert there were no evidence
about the Islamic gardens by its four- parts or its structural
geometric scheme, the garden was an oasis, it was like that
until Islam conquered other countries and civilizations 3.
Emma Clark refers that Oasis was a garden too for the pre-
Islamic Arabs and the early Muslims, Where they were
accustomed to living in a hostile environment, the smallest
amount of water and the slightest indication of nature
greenness was considered precious and sacred, the oasis
offered mercy through water and shade.4
The oasis is considered as an early development of agriculture

and urban organization in an arid and semi arid areas, and it
calls “ garden “in the desert areas, and a geographical areas
where prevailed in the Islamic landscape , and as an exclusive
area which the Availability of water in the desert transforms
the place into a boom of vegetarian.
References:
² , D. Ruggles,F., Islamic Gardens and Landscapes, University of

Pennsylvania, 2006 .
3
, Clark, E. ,The art of Islamic garden ,Times offset, Malaysia ,2013.
4
, Cornell, V., J., Voices of Islam: Voices of art, beauty, and science,
praeger, London ,2007.
Page 16 of 223
The process of safeguard life in the desert ,where the
environment or matrix is poor naturally, has a clear impact
on the architectural features and characteristics of the Islamic
garden4 , and the concept of the nature in Islam in general is
generated from this point of view “The impact of the place”
on the architecture form and philosophy. 5
The human being is a result of the environment which

produces and shapes man culture and social life ,the desert is
the place geographically where few organisms could escape
unless the adapting process that could take place on .
Oasis of al Igiaz 6 was the origin of the Islam , where it was

the centre of the caliphate before its capital was moved to
Damascus.
The oasis has formed urban settlements and communities

developed from the presence of water in it or grew up around
a sanctuary which in turn often owed its existence to the
presence of a well or aquifers. The importance of these
settlements lay in their role as places for rest and
replenishment of food and water for the caravans that passed
through them on their way from South Arabia to Egypt and
the Fertile Crescent and beyond. North and Central Arabia
contributed by way of merchandise to this trade in dates from
the oasis; Caravans from Yemen and Hadramawt and from
faraway India brought back incense or sandalwood and
spices.
References:
5,Petruccioli,A, Dar al Islam architetture del territorio nei paesi

islamici,Carucci, Roma 1985.
6
, laoreano, P., The oasis, the origin of the garden. Garden as a city,
Journal of the Environmental design research center, Edit by Attelio
Petruccioli ,Roma.
Page 17 of 223
Figure 1:International trade road.
Source: https://chronicle.fanack.com/saudi-arabia/history-past-to
present/from-antiquity-to-the-ottoman-period/
Figure 2: In 1877 the term "Seidenstraße" (Die Seidenstrassen, literally

"Silk Road") was coined by the German geographer, cartographer and
explorer Ferdinand von Richthofen.
Source: https://de.pinterest.com/pin/161918549077811875/
through oasis was also passed the Silk Road which is a

network of ancient overland trade routes that extended across
the Asian continent and connected China to the Medite-
rranean Sea and then to Europe. By this network extensive
exchanges were conducted in terms of politics, culture,
knowledge, ideas and economy between the various regions
Page 18 of 223
and nationalities and between the Eastern and Western
world7.
The role of the Silk Road did not stop as being trade line
between the old nations and communities, but exceeded to the
other humanitarian prospects. Religions has Moved through
it, and as Asia knew Buddhism, it knew Islam as well.
The trade road networks in the Arabic countries were the

same trade line the overland and marine one both of them
have long history that extends to pre-Islamic era which is
known as Incense Rout and the commercial connection and
marine connection road are known in the third millennium
BC.
And this trade network was full of movement and continuity.

Syria was an important station on land of the silk rout caravan
which comes from china far the world overland across Asia.
All the caravans’ routs met in Palmyra and then distributed to
three different roads taking three years, until they meet in
Palmyra with the naval caravan that comes from Japan across
the ocean up to the gulf, and then Euphrates, Then distributes
all these caravans toward the northwest toward Aleppo, to
meet with the European ones that is coming to the mainland
via a so-called overland Silk Road, And westward to meet in
Latakia and Tartous with European caravans coming via the
Mediterranean and called the Maritime Silk Road, and
towards the south-west to meet in Damascus with caravans
coming from Palestine, Egypt and the Arab countries in North
Africa, and to the south to meet the caravan in Bursa with
another one of winter and summer coming from the island
Arab. 8
Each of the caravan carries its country goods as products,

heritage, customs, culture and ideas, exchange with their
counterparts from the caravan where it was a moving
embassy, landing in Syrian boxes, which represents the
meeting point in that era, so the importance of Syria on that
Page 19 of 223
road because it was the meeting point of civilizations and
cultures, and was not just a transit point.
Figure 3,Irrigation channel in the Palmyra oasis, By Simon Gascoin,

CESBIO, Toulouse, France. Taken on 1 July 2003-
source: http://imaggeo.egu.eu/view/107/
The photo (Figure, 3) shows the Main irrigation channel in

the oasis of Palmyra which is located in the arid Syrian steppe
(Tadmur in Arabic). Irrigation is an ancestral technique in
Palmyra that is now threatened by excessive groundwater
pumping 9.
Reference:
7
, http://www.silkroutes.net/DefinitionHistorySilkRoad.htm
8
, Hesham Alnassan, D. M ., Silk Road, the land of civilizations, website:
http://www.landcivi.com/new_page_220
9
, Albert E. Dien, Palmera as a caravan city, Stanford University,
website:https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/cities/syria/palmyra/palmy
ra.html.
Page 20 of 223
Figure 4, Palm trees in oasis and desert Palmyra,Syria
source: http://www.hiromiyazawa.com/stock/Images/48010005.jpg
Figure 5, Palmyra, Syria

Source :http://www.hiromiyazawa.com/stock/Images/48010005.jpg.
Page 21 of 223
1-2-2 The Islamic Garden in, Iran, Spain, Turkey
The form of the Islamic garden in the major parts of the
Middle East was determined not only by symbolism but also
by climate and topography, in Iran the geographic and beliefs
factors have played crucial role on its development.
And while commonly attributed to Islamic origins, actually
originated long before the Arab invasion and the introduction
of Islam to the area.
The most of physical landscape of the Ancient Persians with
few exceptions was characterized by a flattish plateau
bounded on three sides by mountains with height from three
to five thousand feet to more than eighteen thousand feet,
with the result that seventy percent of the region was
uninhabitable desert. 10
Figure 6. Water as the main element in Persian garden, Bagh-e-Shazdeh

pools and water channels (Khansari et al.1998)
Sources:Official Journal of the International Association for Landscape
Ecology . Farahani. L., M. , B, Motamed, E, Jamei, (Persian gardens,
meanings, symbolism, and design), Deakin University, 2016.
Reference:
10
, Adlard, M., C., The Garden as a Metaphor for Paradise. Rhodes
University,January 2001.
Page 22 of 223
The extent of the aridness had restricted cultivation to a few
hidden valleys, and considering the water necessity, the
nomadic peoples who had migrated into this region around
1000 BC, They settled in the valleys where there was a source
of water, or an ability to collect water by a technique
depended on canal. 10
In the context of the hostile vastness of the desert, the form of

garden available in this desert was an oasis, with little
vegetation or water. It was the primary form of the garden
that consists of a fertile area, and it is speculated that the
garden developed in response to the effect of crop irrigation
on the desert. Its pattern was probably dictated by the
geometric plan of open channel irrigation. These gardens
were laid out within protective walls, where the primary
content was irrigation channels and trees with its shadows
used to rest.
In this period of Iran history, there were no actual evidence of
early Ancient Persian quadripartite design gardens, but
Wilber (1978; p. 3.) mentions pots depicting a world divided
into four quadrants, some of which contain a pool at their
centre. 10
Figure 7. Painted Vessel, 1000 BCE, Isfahan, Museum of Iranian

Antiquities, Tehran, Iran.
Source : L. Halsted ,D. College ,The Perso-Islamic Garden,
April 11, 2014
Reference:
10
, Adlard ,M., C., The Garden as a Metaphor for Paradise. Rhodes
Page 23 of 223
The archeological references have referred to many sites
dated back to the Neolithic period in the Middle East, where
the pottery works was spread on many locations in the ancient
settlements in Syria and Mesopotamia, the communities deity
was associated by many symbols as Firas Alsawah refers in
his book ‘’Mystery of Ashtar’’. And as many sites like the
site of Halaf 5400-5000 BC.11
Figure8 ; Halafian ware

Source, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halaf_culture
This quadripartite design was adopted as a feature of the plan

of the Ancient Persian garden. It was known as a Chahar
Bagh meaning ‘four gardens’. (Wilber. 1978; p. 3) 12
Beside the form, they also adopted the canal technique, a way
of moving water to a particular area. Without exposing it to
the evaporating by the high heat of the desert. This
achievement was achieved by the people of the Kingdom of
Urartu, (the city of Uhli, present now a day Marand, just
north of Zagros) who used underground conduits to channel
snowmelt to the dry plateau. These underground irrigation
channels are known as a simple system, using gravity as its
basic force12.
References:
11
,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halaf_culture.
12
, Adlerd, M., C., The Garden as a Metaphor for Paradise, Rhodes
University, January 2001.
Page 24 of 223
Another reference as Tom Turner in his book13, also refers
that the use of channels as garden features probably
originated in Mesopotamia which relied on irrigation canals
(Turner, page73).
Huge armies of people were dedicated for this work to build,

maintain and derive the water from the snow-fed subterranean
water at the base of the Persian mountains, directed to irrigate
gardens and crops.
Figure9; Diagram of a Qanat System.

Sources: M, C, ADLARD, The Garden as a Metaphor for Paradise,
Rhodes University, January 2001
References:
13
, Turner ,T., Asian gardens, History, beliefsand design, Routledge,
New York, 2011.
Page 25 of 223
At the first Ancient Persian Era the Achaemenid dynasty
which was established by Cyrus the Great, Adopted this
system, and the use of Qantas spreads throughout the land and
over the region, provides high amounts of water which helped
to extend widely the agricultural landscape, this in turn led to
an economic and political changes, and this formation of
landscape emerge the earliest formal plan of garden which
has become one of hallmarks of Islamic gardens 14. In Iron
Age at The Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BC), which
includes various civilizations and becoming the largest
empire of ancient history , they have built great palaces
complexes and gardens with the system of Qantas, they
literally made the desert bloom.
Figure10; Simulation of Cyrus’ garden at Pasargadae exhibiting

quadripartite division.
Sources: L. Halsted, The Perso-Islamic Garden: A Reclassification of
Iranian Garden Design after the Arab Invasion, Davidson College ,
April 11, 2014.
Reference:
14
, D. Ruggles, F., Islamic Gardens and Landscapes, University of
Page 26 of 223
The empire was influenced by the already well-established
practices of the conquered lands and was based on the
previously existing Akkadian, Assyrian and Median
administration systems as well as the Egyptian15, and the
Mesopotamian influence continued until the end of the
Sasanians period, It played an important role in the formation
of the culture of the empire which is reflected on the form and
meaning of the garden plan.
Figure11 ; The Achaemenid Empire during the reign of Cyrus the Great,
559 BCE-530 BCE. Major cities are, marked and modern borders are
superimposed.
Source :http://www.ancient.eu/image/265/ by SG ,published on 26 April
2012.
The earliest garden form used in the royal palaces , with a

sophisticated irrigation system , was recorded (559-530 )B.C.
in the Palace area of Pasargadae16, The location was In the
southern region of the Iranian plateau ,an area known today as
Fars ,this part participated the traditional Ancient Near East
with Elam the ancient Pre Iranian civilization .As well as was
part of the Fertile Crescent where most of humanity's first
major crops were grown17.
References;
15
,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire
16
Pennsylvania, 2006 ,page.40.
17
,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Iran.
Page 27 of 223
The philosophical design concept of gardens based on the
Zoroastrian the four sacred elements of water, wind, fire and
soil of the cosmos. The other distinctive feature of Persian
gardens as many of desert inhabitants, the thick brick walls,
which surround the entire rectangular plan of the garden.
A. Petruccioli explained; ‘’Persia. Here a biaxial symmetry,

although a third zenithal axis is always implied, is the means
of drawing earth and cosmos together. Everything is
organized according to this principle: the layout of
architectural elements, the hierarchical organization of
decorative symbols, even the practice of gardening.
Sophisticated and passive’’
This form helped organizing the landscape and it was a part
of the irrigation system that has been followed in the wide
structured landscape, it plays a key role in the economical
transformation during the empires period.
D. Ruggles refers” the classic quadric partite, cross axial
form of the garden as a reflection of the agricultural
landscape, and garden symbolism, as environmental,
economic, and political rather than explicitly parasitic.’’ 18
The geographical features of the mountains border of the
Iranian Plateau have helped The Achaemenids to use the
irrigation system Quant. These subterranean tunnel systems
provide water to arid areas and store it for drinking or
agriculture through the gardens in stone or linear tile rills, the
water was usually channeled in a square or rectangle around
the perimeter of the garden. Then, by an axial rills that cut the
body of the garden, to a four- parts design. These rills were
flooded in order to water the garden, whose geometric and
symmetrical plan allowed for equal amounts of water to reach
the plants 19.
References
18
, D. Ruggles, F.,Garden, landscape,and vision in the palaces of Islamic
spain,The Pennsylvania state university press,U.S,A,2000.
19
, Halsted, L., The Perso-Islamic Garden: A Reclassification of Iranian
Garden Design after the Arab Invasion ,Davidson College , 2014
Page 28 of 223
The form of four-part garden served as one of the easiest
ways to water plants and save the water in the arid climate
and usually it is more important in the large agricultural
landscape.
’’The gardens form was considered as a highly structured

geometrical scheme, it became a powerful metaphor for the
organization and domestication of the landscape, And even
more this function promoted it as a symbol of political
territory ‘’ (Ruggles, 39) 20.
Beside the practical purpose of the four- part garden design,

the form carries many symbolic and cultural meanings,
influenced by the ancient civilization of the Mesopotamia
through its historical formation and development. This has
been presented by the design of the royal palaces and its
relation to the landscape and garden. The royal palace was
complex characterized by the physical hierarchy which
distinguished the ruler, The entire complex rises high above
the surrounding area or the garden, this early development of
the architectural practice carries a great deal of symbolism
which connected to a religious tradition of the empire .
In Achaemenids followed the Zoroastrianism religion which
the ruler was considered as Ahura Mazda’s “representative on
earth” and was held to great regard in a religious context,
mirroring similar divine rights of kingship.
The ruler reflected not only terrestrial might, but other power
extend to another worlds after the death , which was perhaps
best expressed by elevating him to the heavens literally with
raised platforms and palaces21.
References
20
Pennsylvania, 2006 ,page 39.
21
, Halsted, L. The Perso-Islamic Garden: A Reclassification of Iranian
Garden Design after the Arab Invasion ,Davidson College , 2014.
Page 29 of 223
G. SMITH explains that ‘’linking the king to the divine life
giving force of the god on the earth, is one of the world's
oldest religions , and this metaphor of a god as ruler dates
back to the protoliterate age and continued throughout
Mesopotamian history,
The terminology of kingship and lordship which dominates
the Mesopotamian literature suggests that the power and
authority of the gods was an essential factor in their
thinking.’’ 22
The garden-four parts became an expression of a powerful
symbol for territory, possession and sovereign rule, there for
it used as a palatine garden served as a metaphor, it refers to
the ability of the production and economic power , which
always plays crucial importance for the ruler and his control
over a vast empire extends widely.
The controlling position of the properties imposes an

important architectural position in the layout of the garden, in
the central location or the middle of the garden; it emphasizes
the superior and controlling of the landowner to view over his
properties and to his powerful ability of transforming this arid
land to a remarkable productive one. Organizing the lands-
scape, increasing the natural resources and controlling the
productive territories in the geography where the majority of
it suffered from the desert, it is an important achievement
when the agriculture has crucial importance for its wealth and
continuity, and it's an act of making civilization in the history
of the empires.
‘’the inscription of human activity on the landscape as a

whole was a sign of civilization and within the palatine
pleasure garden was a sign of sovereign territory.’’Ruggles
References
22
,Gary V. Smith ,The concept of God /The Gods as king ,the ancient
near east and the Bible ,Trinity Journal (1982) .
https://faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/ted_hildebrandt/OTeSources/20-
Proverbs/Text/Articles/Smith-ANEGods-TJ.pdf
Page 30 of 223
Figure 12. Chahar bagh garden design.
Sources: L. Halsted,The Perso-Islamic Garden: A Reclassification of
Iranian Garden Design after the Arab Invasion,April 11, 2014
This idea will continue to be presented also in the Islamic

period in the different countries, from the Umayyad to
Abbasside and Islamic Spain period, A. Petrucciol has
referred to this idea in regard to the garden and the
power;’’Despite the regional differences, Islamic anthropic
processes behave according to the same rules underlying
governing the culture: on one side, religious imagery and
hierarchy; on the other side, the necessity (and vanity) of
expressing the power of the dominator’’.
And In reference to the paradise concept and the garden, In

401 BC Xenophon (c. 431-355 BC), the Greek historian,
wrote about the garden of the Achaemenian king Darius I:
“…in all the districts he resides in and visits, he takes care
that there are ‘paradises’ as they call them, full of all the good
and beautiful things that the soil will produce….” (King.
1979; p. 21). This is the first historical reference to the so-
called paradeisos. 23
References
23
, Adlard, M, C, The Garden as a Metaphor for Paradise. Rhodes
University,January 2001
Page 31 of 223
In the new period of Persian dynasty Sassanians, its capital is
Ctesiphon, on the Tigris and in central Persia, the palace
complex of the king Khusrau II Parvis (591 – 628 AD), had
similar qualities. it is raised on a walled terrace with a
roughly rectangular plan, and this space is in turn enclosed
within a much larger walled area, clearly a ‘paradeisos’ or
hunting park. Between the raised palace enclosure and the
outside wall of the ‘paradeisos’ there was an immense pool,
probably exactly rectangular and indicating the intention to
provide vistas from the palace or from the arcades of the
raised palace enclosure along the pool.
(Thacker. 1979; p. 27.) 24
According to Edward Gibbonb, the park was immense and
many exotic animals were kept and were turned loose for
sport. He credits the royal stables with six thousand mules
and horses, and says that nine hundred and sixty elephants
were kept for the king’s use. (Thacker. 1979; p. 28.) 24
Philipe Pregill in his book , ‘’landscape in history’’

mentioned that The earliest planned landscape including
gardens towns , parks and cities appeared in Mesopotamia
during the Sumerian period ,Assyrian and neo-Babylonian
periods ,and the Assyrian who ruled Mesopotamia from 1250-
612 BC, Introduced the concept of private parks into the
middle east, notably the hunting parks of the various kings,
These gardens contained ornamental plants brought into the
region during Assyrians expeditions25.
References:
24
, Adlard, M, C, The Garden as a Metaphor for Paradise, Rhodes
25
,Pregill , P., Volkman N., Landscapes in History: Design and Planning
in the Eastern and Western Traditions, john wiley, 1999.
Page 32 of 223
And in this period the Sassanian kings actually declared
themselves to be gods and they used the figurative position of
superiority to look down upon their four -part gardens, the
garden represents the four sacred elements they believed in. 26
When the Byzantine and Persian were weakened by war

between them the Islam as a new power at (637–651)
conquest Persia and led to the end of the Sasanian Empire ,
Zoroastrian religion in Persia declined, and Islam had been
the official religion of Iran since then. The previously un-
Islamic Zoroastrian origins of the chahar bagh were imbued
with Islamic significance. But the form of the chahar bagh
was adopted by the Muslims and widely used in their later
gardens, but Islam represents another meaning for the gardens
form of the four parts which depend on the description of
Qur’an (which Muslims believe to be the literal word of
God).The four parts- garden represents the paradise concept
which was mentioned in details in their holy book with its
four rivers. The Koran promises believers who perform these
and other righteous acts. 27
In Quran mentioned that:

God has promised to believers,
Men and women, gardens
Under which rivers flow,
To dwell there in,
And beautiful mansions
In gardens of everlasting bliss.
(Koran. Surah 9: 72)
References:
26
, Halsted, L. The Perso-Islamic Garden: A Reclassification of Iranian
27
, Adlard, M, C, The Garden as a Metaphor for Paradise , Rhodes
Page 33 of 223
A difference has occurred to the garden function in the
Islamic period in Iran, the Iranian gardens before Islamic
period have always been as places to be viewed rather than
used, and it was constant in all later Ancient and Islamic
Persian garden Layout. ‘’the Persian garden is a place for
contemplation: “Persians don’t walk in gardens as we do, but
look at them from one viewpoint only,” writes the 16thcentury
traveler and merchant Jean Chardin 28.
In Islamic period, the gardens will be more committed to the

Islamic religion practices, they became the backdrop for
religious discussion, and prayer, the gardens became in the
center of theological schools, alongside the mosques, and in
public squares, providing ease of access to everyone and
cementing them as staples of daily life. Because they were
viewed as terrestrial manifestations of heaven, and the central
pavilions and raised platforms were used for poets to recite
their poems, and for students of theology to recite the Qur’an.
But we will find another development in the form of the

Islamic gardens in Iran at the Safavid era (1301-1749), the
gardens presented the cultural aspect of the Safavid era which
characterized the current Iranian identity, it’s based on the
two aspects of Iran history and combined them, the ancient
Persian Empire and the Muslim empires that flourished in
Iran after the Arab Invasion.29
References:
28
, Adlard, M., C., The Garden as a Metaphor for Paradise, Rhodes
29
Page 34 of 223
Figure 13. Safavid 16th c. miniature from “The Seven
Thrones” of Jami (Khansari et al. 1998).
Sources; L. M. Farahani , B. Motamed, E.Jamei ,Persian Gardens:
Meanings, Symbolism, and Design, research article. Deakin University,
2016.
The gardens in this period presented the same elements and

philosophy of the previous culture of Achaemenids and
Assyrian, they surveyed their domains from their palaces,
saved the pavilion as a function of sovereign, and have
developed with more emphasized on the pre- Islamic aspects
like hierarchy order. 30
From this period an important example of the Islamic garden
is built by Shah Abbas the Great (1587-1628 AD). It’s called
The Bagh-e Fin near Kashan and it is the only extant garden
created by Shah Abbas on the Caspian coast. Kashan is on the
edge of the great salt desert where the mountains begin, and
remains the oldest living garden in Islamic Persia.
Shah Abbas built the garden to honor and glorify the season
of spring.
References:
30
Garden Design after the Arab Invasion ,Davidson College , 2014.
Page 35 of 223
Typical of the style of the Islamic garden in general, and as
with the gardens in Granada, the garden is enclosed. A high
wall surrounds the Bagh-e Fin, and from the outside all that
can be seen of it are the tops of the numerous trees planted
within. The layout of the Bagh-e Fin displays a variation on
the theme of chahar-bagh form.31
Figure 14. Hierarchy of spaces in Fin Garden plan (Khansari et al. 1998)
Sources; Farahani L. M., Motamed, B., Jamei, E.,Persian Gardens:
Meanings, Symbolism, and Design, research article. Deakin University.
References:
31
, Adlard, M, C, The Garden as a Metaphor for Paradise.Thesis, Rhodes
Page 36 of 223
In the centre of the garden is the customary rectangle of the
chahar-bagh, created in this case by a pool and immediately
beyond it a pavilion. Water channels run through it on three
of its four sides; it even has its own small square pool in the
middle of it.
Figure 15. The art of symmetry in all component of Fin Garden with
view to four directions. Kashan.
Source: Photo by: Jakub Jerabek from Flickr.
L. M. Farahani ,B. Motamed,E.Jamei ,Persian Gardens: Meanings,
Symbolism, and Design, research article. Deakin University.2016.
The pavilion is a square building with an arched ceiling

supported on four great pillars which, in turn, support large
arches providing a view down the shady promenades and
Channels with running and bubbling water.
The use of water within the pavilion is a common feature. It
was used to calm and cool the people and the air within it.
The pavilion becomes therefore, a perfect sanctuary protect-
ting those who sat in it from the heat and dust of the region. It
was a type of ‘open air’ living room, and was in keeping with
the idea of contemplating the garden, rather than walking
around in it.
Page 37 of 223
Figure 16: (b) A view of Fin garden central Pavilion, Kashan.
Source: Photo by: Ninara from Flickr Figure.
L. M. Farahani ,B. Motamed,E.Jamei ,Persian Gardens: Meanings,
Symbolism, and Design, research article. Deakin University, 2016.
Kashmir, with its striking natural sites “…was to provide a

new stage in the evolution of the Islamic garden, even though
the traditions and strengths of the original……………..
[Persian]…concept was retained. “
(Lehrman. 1980; p. 141.) 31
A, Figure 17. (a) Arial picture of Fin garden enclosed between walls
(Khansari et al. 1998).
Source: L. M.Farahani, B. Motamed, E. Jamei,Persian Gardens:
2016.
Page 38 of 223
Another example of this period garden is Chehel Sotun
garden was built in the 1640s by Safavid King, Shah Abbas
II, in a 15-acre site in the heart of Isfahan plain, situated at the
centre of the Iranian plateau. At the time, Isfahan was the
capital of the Safavid Empire. The garden is located close to
the most important square of the city, Naghsh-e Jahan Square,
and was used for royal ceremonies and official receptions.
Figure 18:The Plan of Chehel Sotun Garden, Esfahan (Khansari et al.

1998).
Source: L. M.Farahani, B. Motamed, E. Jamei,Persian Gardens:
2016
Page 39 of 223
Figure 19. Openness of landscape in Chehel-Sotun garden, Esfahan.
Source: Photos by: Alan Cordova from Flickr.
L. M.Farahani, B. Motamed, E. Jamei,Persian Gardens: Meanings,
Symbolism, and Design, research article. Deakin University, 2016
The last garden is the desert isolated garden of Shahzadeh

(Prince) Mahan, which is located at a point 35 km from
south-eastern Kerman near a village called Mahan. The
garden was built in Qajar dynasty (1850-70) in a strategic
fertile land in the middle of arid and barren lands, which has
turned it to one of the famous gardens of Iran. Moreover,
Locating near the tomb of Shah Nematollah Vali, a famous
Persian poet, has increased the visitor’s
Attraction to this garden. 32
References:
32
,Farahani, L. M .,Motamed, B., Jamei, E., Persian Gardens: Meanings,
Symbolism, and Design, research article. Deakin University, School of
Architecture and Built Environment.2016
Page 40 of 223
Figure 20: Shahzadeh-Mahan Garden. Kerman (Hobhouse 2003)
Source:L. M.Farahani, B. Motamed, E. Jamei,Persian Gardens:
2016
Page 41 of 223
Figure 21: (a): A view of Shahzade-Mahan pavilion, Kerman.
Source: Photo by: Maite Elorza from Flickr.
Despite the small differences between the Persian gardens

they have evolved from the same initial structure and
components. Most gardens have rectangular plans and have
been divided into square or pseudo-square shapes.
The rectangular shape might slightly change in response to

different climatic situations and in regard to the sites’
opportunities and limitations. The plan of Shahzadeh-Mahan
Garden (in Kerman) is an extended example of chahar-bagh
pattern in the shape of an elongated enclosed rectangle in
which the pavilion is located in the center of the main water
channels defining the north-south axis .
The structure of Fin Garden (in Kashan) is also an extended
form of chahar-bagh in a series of squares and rectangles with
a pavilion and square basin in the center .The water axes
defining the chahar-bagh include a main one which leads the
user from the entrance gateway to the central pavilion and a
secondary one with a turquoise-tiled water channel. The
Chehelsotun Garden design also stretches to a square shape
with a pavilion located at the intersection of the primary axis
defined by two large pools and a secondary asymmetric axis
with a smaller pool on the western side. 32
Page 42 of 223
Despite the Islamic period has presented one ideology for the
form of cross- axis garden design depending on the Quran
imaginary of paradise, and the whole Islamic landscape share
the garden meaning, but the gardens in the Andalusia palaces
has presented many symbolic vocabulary with manipulation
of irrigation system exploiting the site features and
Mediterranean climate in a new development to the Islamic
gardens form. The open courts and gardens in Spain give
excellent example to the supreme level of the landscape in
Islamic period; When Muslim occupied North Africa and
southern Europe 711-1492 A.D, they transferred the
developed agricultural techniques and innovations with many
new crops, trees and flowers from Syria and the Western
Mediterranean into Western Europe and Al-Andalusia in the
medieval period, beside the previous Roman irrigation
constructions which had been renewed and developed to be
used again .
This in turn led in this period of Spain to a dramatic

agricultural transformation which was known as "The Green
Revolution." The innovations increased the amount of water
available for irrigation throughout the year and overcame the
limits of previously used gravity-fed irrigation. During the
height of Umayyad rule, historic sources indicate over 5,000
waterwheels were built along the Guadalquivir River alone.
Watson argued that these introductions, along with an
increased mechanization of agriculture and irrigation, led to
major changes in economy, administration, population
distribution, vegetation cover, agricultural production income,
and urban growth. 33
References:
32
,Farahani, L. M .,Motamed, B., Jamei, E., Persian Gardens: Meanings,
Architecture and Built Environment.2016
33
, Ferrari, C., Segal, S., Cohen, E.,The Golden Age of Islamic
Achievement, the Middle East Studies Center at Portland State
University.http://www.arabicalmasdar.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/06/G
olden-Age-of-Islamic-Achievement.pdf
Page 43 of 223
The period was characterized by an expansion of trade and
culture, and saw the construction of masterpieces of al-
Andalusia architecture, A language of landscape developed
for palace gardens that encoded a system of values in a set of
visually organized objects, Which presented the sovereign's
ability to maintain rule and display the wealth, the stability
and the power over his property.
Ruggles refers to this development :’’Production in al-

Andalusia increased in quantity and quality resulting in
surpluses, flourishing markets, and capital investment in the
countryside where farms were located, which in turn
contributed to greater yields, this prosperity affected the way
in which landscape was used and perceived. Because land
generated wealth, elements of landscape began to be used
symbolically to express that value.’’
Islamic gardens with its physical form and characteristics has

Crystallized by This developments, it presented a set of visual
relationships includes the architecture of the palaces and the
surrounding landscape, it was a part of these whole set of
constructions which becomes one whole. It reflected the
system of values that organized in response to the expansion
of agriculture and change in its practices as well as cultural
and political reorganization according to Eastern models34.
The initial meaning of the garden metaphor has continued to

be presented as a paradise, it is arranged with garden paths,
water streams, pavilions, and fountains in a geometric form of
landscape ,place full of peace and comfort, that is to present
the 'earthly paradise.'
References
34
, D. Ruggles, F.,Garden, landscape,and vision in the palaces of islamic
Page 44 of 223
the cross-axial plan continued appearing in the most if not
entire palatine setting as in the large agriculture landscape,
but in the palaces the scale was reduced, The daily irrigation
canals and wells that provided the water for the agricultural
landscape were presented as a decorative water channels and
fountains in palace gardens, as in the Alhambra Palaces in
Granada, 1370. The Courtyard of the Lions is an oblong
courtyard, 35 m in length and 20 m in width, surrounded by a
low gallery supported on 124 white marble columns.
A pavilion projects into the courtyard at each extremity, with

decorative walls and light domed roof, elaborately
ornamented. The walls are covered 1.5 m up from the ground
with a border above and below enameled blue and gold. The
columns supporting the roof and gallery are irregularly
placed, with a view to artistic effect; and the piers, arches and
pillars are adorned by varieties of foliage, above each arch
there is a large square of arabesques; and over the pillars is
another square of filigree work.
In the center of the courtyard is the celebrated Fountain of

Lions, a magnificent alabaster basin supported by the figures
of twelve lions in white marble 35 .The architectural pattern of
the palace with the courtyard and fountain in the center was
similar to the traditional palaces and court houses of Syria,
beside the advanced and complex technique of the irrigation
system, the palace presented the water construction that
became a remarkable sign of the Andalucía palaces gardens.
The courtyard palaces used many symbols in the

distinguished water constructions and canals in the lion’s
courtyard with its divided four parts.
References
35
, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_the_Lions
Page 45 of 223
Its composition presents symbolic meanings, in regard to the
lion statues which used previously in the courtyard house of
Damascus, and originally it could be linked to the ancient
history of Syria, where associated to one of the Neolithic
deity, And agricultural societies beliefs and myths. It looks
like an unconscious expression of the memory, carried its
symbolic through the history, and by the time it lost its
provenance to be used in another place and time but the
meaning of this figure still refer to power and influence, some
of these references could be found in the ancient sites as
example Halaf site 36, this ancient culture used lion symbol in
the temple of their deity37
This symbolic vocabulary still in the unconscious of the

societies of the Ancient East, and after the religions emerged
as a result of the social classes as Angeles explains, most of
these beliefs have disappeared and the Myths of that period of
the human history has associated as the reference with the
new holy books, and so Islam when entered Syria and
Mesopotamia. It has contained this heritage that extended to
many thousand years ago, with its new ideology and make the
Quran the main references to all this Myths that have already
existed in the history of the ancient Levant or in Syria and
Mesopotamia legacy .Therefore, the religion presents
continuity in the culture of the ancient east while it has
contained many of the heritage of the ancient east and its
early civilizations.
References
36
, Ishtar, Goddess of fertility. And one of the important deity in Syria
and Mesopotamian which was extant from the Neolithic period, until its
gradual decline between the 1st and 5th centuries AD in the face
of Christianity, And the lion refers to Tammuz, and known as Adon in
Canaanite, and it became one of her symbol.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishtar
37
,Halaf site on the Euphrates river where a palace façade composed of
many lion figures , its dated back to the period between 6100 and 5100
B.C.E,and the site belong to Neolithic period , and their deity was Ishtar.
Now the facade of the palace became the Aleppo museum facade.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halaf_culture
Page 46 of 223
Figure 22 (A) ,AlHambra palace,Lions courtyard
Figure 22 ( B ) ,AlHambra palace,Lions courtyard
Page 47 of 223
Figure 22(C) ,Alhambra palace,Lions courtyard
Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_the_Lions#/media/File:A
lhambra_-_Patio_de_Leones_-_Status_2012.jpg
In the Nasrid General Life summer palace in Granada, The

palace and gardens were built during the reign of Muhammad
III (1302–1309), the complex contains the Water-Garden
Courtyard, which has a long pool framed by flowerbeds,
fountains, colonnades and pavilions, and the Sultana’s Garden
or Courtyard of the Cypress. The palace was linked to the
Alhambra by a covered walkway across the ravine that now
divides them.
Page 48 of 223
Figure23: Gardens of the Al-Hambra Palace,Granada, Spain
Source:http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/gardens-islam
Figure24 ,Alhambra palace ,Flllppo Barattl, The Sultana, 1872, oil on

canvas, Private collection. Source,http://islamic-arts.org/2011/history-of-
U
the-nasrids-of-granada/U
Page 49 of 223
Figure25; Panorama of the Alhambra from Mirador de San Nicolas.
From left to right: Generalife, Pico del Veleta (mountain), Palacios
Nazaríes, Palace of Charles V, Alcazaba
Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_the_Lions#/media/File:A
U
lhambra_-_Patio_de_Leones_-_Status_2012.jpg
Figure 26: Plan of the Alhambra palace with: (A) the Court of the
Myrtles,(B) the Court of the Lions, (C) the Court of Daraxa.
(Brookes. 1987; p. 95)
Reference: M. Adlard, The Garden as a Metaphor for Paradise.Thesis,

Submitted in,Rhodes University,2001
Page 50 of 223
Figure 27 (A):The Partial Garden in the General life palace.
Figure27 (B):The Partial Garden in the General life palace.
Page 51 of 223
Figure27 (C): The Partial of Garden in the General life, 1964
Source;http://www.doaks.org/resources/middle-east-garden-
traditions/andalusian-gardens/introduction.
This example of palaces gardens is considered as the best

surviving example of the sophisticated and combined uses of
water for symbolic decorative and practical purposes. The
sample of arts and water enhancing and formulating the space
and the whole context of the scenery, the Ornamental Arabic
calligraphy, and all these sensual aspects that developed in a
suitable way to organize a closed place and private place that
belongs to the elite and caliphate properties ensuring his
sovereignty and power.
D.Ruggles refers that the image of the pleasure garden in

Abbasid period palaces and even in Syria Al Rusafa site, has
been developed in Spain palaces.
The palaces were adorned with fountains, trellises, and plenty

displays of water. In palatine environments, stunningly
theatrical transformations of natural vegetation by the
application of rich textiles and gems. They created living
walls with smelling flowers, various sweet fruits, and singing
birds. The Bayad and Riyad one of the few Andalusia
manuscripts with representations of gardens shows a garden
Page 52 of 223
with a pool and a domed kiosk to one side while the left a
figure leans forward while grasping one of the structural
supports of trellis.
‘’trellising,irrigation,fertilisation,pruning, and grafting were

necessary procedures for both agriculture and pleasure
gardens, and its translation from the purely utilitarian farm
to the perfumed,colorful,and exotic garden, that the
expressive function of gardens lies’’. 38
Another development in the gardens function in this period in

Spain has achieved in the domain of botanical science, the
botanical gardens have presented in many palaces of The
Umayyad caliphates, and they expressed their interests and
passion of flowers and plants.
At eighth century, many of the exotic plants where

transplanted into Andalusia gardens, in Rusafa, the country
palace estate of Abd al –RahmanI, he procured and obtained
many special plants and from another foreign parts, as well
from his hometown Syria, and stocked it in Rusafa which
became famous for its excellent plant varieties that presents
the early interest in botany and practical agronomy.
D.Ruggles referred that most of the new plants introduced to
Andalusia before 1492 came from the east 38.
References
38
, D.Ruggles, F., Garden, landscape, and vision in the palaces of
Islamic spain,The Pennsylvania state university press,U.S,A,2000.
Page 53 of 223
Figur28: "Bayad plays the oud to the lady",Arabic manuscript for Qissat
Bayad wa Reyad tale (late 12th century)
Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadith_Bayad_wa_Riyad,
U U
The Bayad and Riyad manuscript is believed to be the only illustrated

manuscript known to have survived from the more than eight centuries of
Muslim medieval life in Spain and Portugal. The sole manuscript is in
the Vatican Library, where it is catalogued as Codex Vat. Arab 368. It is
a 13th-century Arabic love story. The main characters of the tale are
Bayad, a merchant's son and a foreigner from Damascus, Riyad, a well-
educated girl in the court of an unnamed Hajib (vizier or minister) of
'Iraq (Mesopotamia) and a "Lady" (al-sayyida).
By the tenth century, the royal gardens at Cordoba became

botanical gardens, with fields for experimentation with seeds,
cuttings and roots brought in from the outermost reaches of
the world. Other royal gardens, in Spain and elsewhere, also
became the sites of serious scientific activity as well as places
of amusement.38
‘’gardens distilled the elements of the greater landscape,with
all the attached political, economic,social and religious
meanings,into a form that was intended for the pleasure as
well as comprehension of an elite group of court patrons.’’38
The new relation between gardens and the surrounding
landscape as a view was developed in the places of Spain
rulers in a form of mirador.
Page 54 of 223
In Cordoba this new means or construction , the ‘’mirador’’
was used in the palaces garden of Abd Al Rahman which
enabled the king to hold the public views and to see over his
properties .This new position brings more wide relation with
the landscapes and available views from the distance.
The mirador has not only provided a place for viewing ,but
also has enabled the very act of vision wide landscape , This
made deference from the previous experiences, as example
the Umayyad palaces in Syria desert ,the palaces situated in
artificial oasis and plain site ,the underground Qantas and
irrigation made agriculture and pleasure gardens possible. But
these complexes lacked elevated vantage points from which
to survey the surrounding cultivations.
Figure29: The landscape with term mirador — balcony, in Spanish —

implies a space of viewing. ‘’View from the Mirador’’,
Source: http://archleague.org/2013/03/re-reading-ornament-textures-in-
islamic-spain-by-fiyel-levent/.
References
38
Page 55 of 223
In Spain the mirador was part of the construction of views to
naturalize social hierarchy and serve state ideology, it has
became part of Islamic palace typology in Umayyad and the
rest of Islamic rulers palaces in Spain and moreover , it`s
transported abroad to the other Islamic countries like
Maghreb. (Ruggles, P.107). Ruggles explains this shifting
‘’The miradors and gardens of Al Hambra exemplify the shift
from symbolism derived from the agricultural landscape to
the symbolism of Quranic paradise, and from the worldly to
the spiritual, Expressed in the visual continuities that united
architecture with gardens.’’ 38
But in Turkey there are other factors that have played a role
in the garden development during Islamic period as meaning
and form, the relationship between Turks and nature is
considered an important factor in their long settled urban
lives, extending from the Seljuk until the collapse of the
Ottoman Empire.
The geographical location and features of turkey on two part

of continentals, with long coastline overlooking several sees,
helped to develop a new relation with the surrounding nature
and territory topography, within the Islamic culture that
expanded over three continents, and took place in Turkey in
the 1071, where the Islamic rule replacing Byzantium when
the Turks came from Central Asia.
‘’The Turkish world, settled in the high plains, is inspired by

the wide open space of the prairies: a landscape to explore
rather than contemplate. The garden becomes a resting spot
in a never-ending journey. Its types and techniques, foreign to
the nomadic world, had been imported from nearby Iran’’. 39
References:
38
39
, Petruccioli ,A.,Rethinking the Islamic Garden ,Islamic Environmental
Design Research Centre, Como, Italy.
http://environment.yale.edu/publication-series/documents/downloads/0-
9/103petruccioli.pdf
Page 56 of 223
Turks originally were nomads. They came from Central Asia
where an arid land, carrying with them their ancient traditions
and searching for more fertile lands, they settled during the
rule of the Seljuk Empire in Mesopotamia and continued in
Anatolia . In the middle ages ,when Muslim Suljuki Turks
conquest central Anatolia it was ruled by the Christian
Byzantines, The Turkish language and the Islamic religion
were gradually prevailed, and this period marks the start of
Anatolia's slow transition from predominantly Christian and
Greek-speaking, to predominantly Muslim and Turkish-
speaking.
This change brought along a new garden culture and urban

change, Muslim Seljuk Turks developed a synthesis eman-
ating from various lands together with different cultures that
they were acquainted with, during this period , Turks created
a pleasure gardens and employed luxury in their palaces ,they
used the quadripartite garden layout of intersecting waterc-
ourses, and that was by the contact and influence of The
Persian culture ,as example the Artuqid palace , in the Diyar-
bakir Citadel in the 13th Century ,it is Surrounded by gard-
ens, rich in amenities as well as in decorative and artistic
elements (such as statues . during this period there was less
strict observance of ban on human representation in the early
centuries of Islam) in addition to a mosaic-decorated pool
and a water channel , the palace belong to dynasty of Artu-
kids who ruled Eastern Anatolia and Jazira in the 12th and
13th centuries. It is possibly inspired by a tradition dating
back to the Umayyad palace of Khirbat al-Mafjar in Jericho,
and in many other gardens like these elsewhere in Anatolia40.
References:
40
,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artuklu_Palace
Page 57 of 223
Figur30: Musical entertainment in the garden
(By Palace Museum. No: B408) permission of the Topkapı
Source , B.Alarslan , Islamic Gardens with a Special Emphasis on the

Ottoman Paradise Gardens: The Sense of Place between Imagery and
Reality , Bahcesehir University- Turkey.
http://www.ojcmt.net/articles/14/143.pdf
In this period of the thirteenth-century Anatolia, has

developed by many gardens surrounding the cities, the
Magnificent gardens reflected the wealth of the dynasty, the
might of the state, the just rule of the sultan and the ideal
landscape.
The imperial gardens have been built for the sultan in this
period out of the city, with mansion and fortified with high
walls which did not block the view surrounding outside, like
running water elements as, lakes, rivers, ponds and fountains
facing the green wetland mountains and meadows. Behind
these garden walls the kiosks stood. Garden with hierarchy
orders also used, summer palaces/pavilion and gazebos (the
kiosks built for watching were constructed. In these gardens,
fruits and vegetables were planted for nutritional needs; while
other fruit trees, cypresses and some similar plants were
planted solely for aesthetic purposes and heavenly images.
Apart from these, the hunting fields, dating back to the
Iranian Seljuk, these garden-palaces were organized usually
for the use of the sultan and the members of the court. 41The
entertainment of the ambassadors, hunting parties, banquets
Page 58 of 223
and the preparation of the soldiers for the military campaigns.
(Redford, 2001, pp. 217-218).
These heavenly fields were tenures of the elites. As examples
were a palace estate built on top of a rocky hill which
protruded towards the lake in the heavenly surroundings on
the southwestern shore of BeyĢehir Lake at the foot of the
Anamos Mountain Chain - a branch of Toros Mountains. This
palace, built by Alaeddin Keykubad in 1227, is named Kubad
Abad. On the palace‟s hunting field, known as the Imperial
Garden‟ or Garden of Eden‟, a dam was built utilizing the
nearby fresh water. Because the springs provided much water
there was a fertile coastal plain and there was a cool breeze
from the lake.
But in the 15th century during the Ottoman empire this
influence of the Persian tradition on the gardens have been
limited, just few examples were found in Istanbul as karabali
and Sultaniye gardens. 41
Figure31: A female entertainment scene in the garden

(Palace Mueum. No: B408)
Source http://www.ojcmt.net/articles/14/143.pdf
References:
41
, Alarslan , B., Islamic Gardens with a Special Emphasis on the
Reality , Bahcesehir University- Turkey. 2011
Page 59 of 223
Figure 32: A detail of Sugar orchard models. Circumcision ceremony of
the sons of III.Ahmed.
Source :(By permission of the Topkapı Palace Museum. No: A3593
161b),http://www.ojcmt.net/articles/14/143.pdf
Even they were in contact with other cultures like

Mesopotamia, Persian, and influenced directly by Byzantines,
and Roman cultures, they have reinterpreted them to create a
brand-new synthesis. Their garden`s layout has featured pools
and fountains but lack the severity of formal layouts and a
strict formal organization like the Iranian gardens layout.
Their approach to gardens was that they should be a part of
nature; in planting them with flowers and trees, their concern
was only to enrich and embellish upon what nature had
already provided.
The Ottomans planned their gardens to fit their environment

conditions, as climate, dimensions, topography , and they
took advantages of the natural aspects of the natural
surroundings landscape as mountains, rivers, see views,
they embellished upon what nature had already provided ,
preserving the natural setting ,therefore they plant trees and
put in flowerbeds without adhering or adapting to a
particular rigid plan ,fixed rules or to employ artificial layout
over their landscape .
They thought of the Islamic garden as a concept of natural
elements presented by the trees, flowers and the beauty of the
nature .While building upon the heritage of the Seljuk, the
Ottomans interacted with a variety of cultures on a vast
geographic scale from the inner corners of Europe to North
Page 60 of 223
Africa and to India, As a Muslim state, the Ottomans created
their own synthesis; neither resembling that of the other
Islamic states nor being a mere western imitation. The
Ottoman man, with his own conception of the world, life
philosophy and the values behind these, displayed a unique
character differing from other cultures (Cansever, 2010 a,
pp.116-117). 41
The Ottoman city became an organism existing in a
continuously changing, open-ended process where additions
were made and the individuals preserved their supremacy
without losing their individualities (Cansever, 2010b, p. 102).
On the other hand, the Ottoman gardens preserved their
glamour because of their natural functional qualities. The
plant and vegetation elements defined a place as a garden or
recreational area, along with the element of water emphasized
as an indispensable factor.
The ponds and selsebils, normally placed in gardens, also

could be seen in home interiors where water served the space
coolness and peacefulness (Eldem, 1976, p. 292) 41.
They planned their urban space around the water including

the headwaters, sea and rivers just as it existed in the
environment in its natural form. Within the course of
historical development, especially during the reign of Ahmed
III, typically came to be known as ‘’Tulip Era’’
Muslims value spaces that reflect peace. Peacefulness is an

ideal where as paradise images are a means which could be
carried from internal rather personal spaces to reality spaces;
from outdoors to indoors. While trying to determine the form
of architectural intervention in the city texture, people
directed great care and passion towards the landscape and
panoramic view. 41
References:
41
, Alarslan, B. , Islamic Gardens with a Special Emphasis on the
Reality , Bahcesehir University- Turkey.2011
Page 61 of 223
Figure 33: Sadabad in the 19th century from Fazıl Hubbanname
Zennanme. In the garden where there are kosks and pavilions surrounded
with fountain ponds and fountains, women are entertaining themselves.
Source; Ġstanbul University Library T5502 78.
The original space design and the type of the interventions

made to nature determined the styles for distinction and
interwove, which led to its emergence as an emphasized
version (Cerasi, 2001, p.228). 41
Figure 34: The Waterfront houses by the Bosphorus and woods on the
hills. Source: http://www.ojcmt.net/articles/14/143.pdf
Even though the pleasure gardens (Bauman, 2002, pp. 99-

141) of the rich and the elite emerged as a much envied
luxury, with their spiritual dimensions, they also were formed
for evoking the abundant and reviving plants of Paradise.
Page 62 of 223
Figure 35: A floral landscape design dominated with tulips in Emirgan
Woods (by Permission of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality) .
Source:http://www.istanbulagac.com.tr/tr/modul/album/04_resimbak.asp
?id=17
Le Corbusier described the Ottoman city texture by

remarking that New York was like hell and quarry like
whereas Istanbul was heaven on earth with fruit gardens (Le
Corbusier 2001, p.188). The celebrated architect drew
attention to Turks‟ close relationship of nature marked with
the houses surrounded by gardens (Le Corbusier, p.190). The
use of the heavenly descriptions not only emphasized the
beauty of the Ottoman capital located in historical Peninsula
but also the character of the empire itself. The historical
Peninsula was reflecting the Islamic paradise with the
expressions of cypress trees, blossoming trees and flowers in
the background whereas Galata was representing the non-
Muslim districts with so many densely packed buildings. 41
References:
41
, Alarslan, B. , Islamic Gardens with a Special Emphasis on the
Reality , Bahcesehir University- Turkey.2011
Page 63 of 223
1-2-3 The technique of irrigation in the Islamic
landscape:
The Large part of the conquered lands by Islam was arid and
semiarid landscape .The desert is the land where the irrigation
system is highly important and should adapt to a new
technique to save and transport water. Many difficulties
impeded this function in this hot and dry climate like the
quick evaporating. Desert soil has a high rate of evaporation,
hence for rainfall to have an effect it must be collected and
stored and distributed in a managed network.
The Water was used in garden, for agricultural purpose to
irrigate crops, and provide pleasure in the form of the
fountains and basins that adorned the courtyards in the
palaces in addition to the immersion pools in the bathouses42.
The skillful acquisition of obtaining and using water brought

flourishment to domestic agricultural economy, stimulated
productivity. Islamic communities employed many of irriga-
tion techniques which are inherited and developed from the
precedent civilizations and communities that coexist in the
region. When Islam entered Syria, the region has already had
a long history of agriculture practices, and irrigation techni-
ques, as a part of the Fertile Crescent and with such sites like
the Kingdom of Mari and the ancient Semitic city in Syria.
One of the wonderful architectural achievements in Mari was
the aquatic constructions and irrigation canals and dams that
were built to allow the city to play its role successfully.
References
42
Page 64 of 223
Mari had a large net of canals that brought water to the
farthest parts of the kingdom. One of these is the Daroni
canal, 120 km long, which linked the Khabour River with the
Euphrates at the level of Aboukamal. Professor Jean Claude
Marjeron referred to this point saying: “Mari was built
according to well designed and arranged plans as its water
projects and defensive walls.43 as well as the other important
foundation of the Sumerian civilization.
Beside the achievements of another civilization that coexist in

the middle east, as example Roman and Persian, and The
economic benefits of irrigation technologies were quickly
learned.
Canals and gravity were used to carry the water from a high
point of collection such as cistern and lake, to a lower point to
be distributed later on in an irrigation network. These
techniques have been in use since the beginning of large -
scale agricultural settlement in Syria.
We can find that ancient Romans built impressive aqueduct
that carried water for a long distance through the landscape
and into the cities such as aqueduct in Valens and In Madinat
Al-Zahra. Roman aqueducts littered the Mediterranean
landscape, and early Islamic civilization proved highly
efficient at building and preparing these waterworks 44 .
References
43
,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mari,_Syria,2016
44
, D. Ruggles,F., Islamic Gardens and Landscapes, University of
Pennsylvania, 2008 ,page 18
Page 65 of 223
Figure 36, An acequia flowing toward Granada from the spring in the
village of Alfucar in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, was first built in
the 13th century and is still flowing today.
Source:http://www.historysciencetechnology.com/articles/articles%2071
.html
These systems of irrigation had migrated from Spain to other

parts of the world like America where we find them still
practiced in San Antonio in Texas. 45
Reference:
45
,http://www.history-sciencetechnology.com ,2016
/articles/articles%2071.html History of Science and Technology in Islam,
PART II
Page 66 of 223
Diverse irrigation methods were developed to extend
cultivation in the Middle East where the lifting of the water
from rivers and wells for irrigation is highly required. The
means of water wheel is called the ‘’Saqiya’’ used for lifting
water for drinking and irrigation to the considerable height.
There are numerous containers that hang along the length of a
chain or a rope loop which is attached to a horizontal bar. The
horizontal bar has cogwheel at one end that is rotated by a
larger horizontal cogwheel which is turned steadily by a draft
animal as a mule which walks around continual circles. The
buckets tilt at the highest point and the water splashes into a
raised canal and from there flows to the agricultural field,
garden bed or basin.
This system is considered ideal for lifting water from a deep

and confined source like a well or cistern, but the water is
transported in this system in a small quantities. 46
It is used widely in the Arabian Peninsula. In the eighteenth

century, it had Maximum expansion in the Valencian
Country. But they have been replaced by hydraulic pumps
throughout the twentieth century.Today, this ancient water
raising machine is found in a few farms in the northern
Mexican states. Where they are reverting back to us the trad-
itional technology of the saqiya. 47
Another water lifting device was the Shaduf, consisting of a

long lever with a bucket at one end, and a counterweight or a
handle at the other. (Ruggles, page 20).
Reference:
46
, D.Ruggles, F, Islamic Gardens and Landscapes,university of
pynnsylvania,2008.
47
,http://www.history-sciencetechnology.com ,2016
/articles/articles%2071.html History of Science and Technology in Islam,
PART II
Page 67 of 223
This was used extensively at the ancient Egypt to raise water
from the Nile River to the fields along its banks. When the
water wheel were introduced from the near east. In the eighth
century, it gradually replaced the Shaduf. The system is best
suited for low-lying areas such as the Nile river valley where
the source of the water is not far below or far away from the
fields.
The na'ura (noria) is also a very significant traditional device.

It consists of a large wheel made of timber and provided with
paddles. The large-scale use of Nora was introduced to Spain
by Syrian engineers. An installation similar to that at Hama
where there fifteen of them within the city for catchment river
water along the Orontes River , and seventy one in the
vicinity 48, only seventeen of the original Norias remain. They
are mostly unused now and serve an aesthetic purpose.
Figure 37, The norias of Hama on the Orontes River.

Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norias_of_Hama#/media/File:Ham
a-3_norias.jpg
Reference:
48
,UNESCO,Arab muslim civilization in the mirror of the universal:
philosophical perspective,united nation educational,scientific and
cultural organisation,paris,2010
Page 68 of 223
Figure 38, A saqiya in Ma'arrat al-Nu'man near Aleppo
Sources: http://www.history-science-
technology.com/articles/articles%2071.html
The Na'ura (Noria) is set up in different part of Al-Andalusia.

Some of them in Toledo, on the Tagus until the end of twelfth
century, and in Cordoba known as’’ Kulaib’’, which stands
until now, served to elevate the water of the river until the
Palace of the Caliphs. Its construction was commissioned by
Abd al-Rahman I, and has been reconstructed several times49.
Reference:
49
, History of Science and Technology in Islam, http://www.history-
science-technology.com/articles/articles%2071.html.2016
Page 69 of 223
Many reasons make this means less effective, it is the most
economical and rapid means of lifting water into irrigation
system, but their effectiveness is limited because their ability
to left water is connected to the diameter of the wheel itself.
They lift water more in winter than the summer where the
level of water becomes less.
Besides that, the supply of water cannot be far from the field
that it irrigates. But there is another means which can
transport large amounts of water over long distance called the
‘’Canal’’.
Figure 39: traditional irrigation systems.

Source: Nazia Ansari,Origin of Islamic Gardens,
https://www.academia.edu/1861364/Origin_of_Islamic_Gardens
Page 70 of 223
The Qanat
Another traditional technique was come up by ancient
civilizations to create a reliable supply of water for human
settlements in harsh conditions was the irrigation technique. It
provides the four -parts garden of water which was used as an
irrigation technique during the whole Islamic period. The
‘’Qanat’’ is a subterranean tunnel that caries water from an
elevated source as mountain to a lower point that could be
more than 30 km away, as example it brought the water to the
residential and agriculture complex 16 km distance at Qaser
al Hier west.
It has originated in Persia in the early first millennium B.C.
The system is simple and basically consists of a gently
sloping horizontal shaft (Qanat channel) and vertical access
shafts.
Figure 40: Qanat system.

Source:http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/qanat
The first step for constructing a Qanat is finding the water.

The next step is deciding on a path for the Qanat to serve (a
town, village, field,Gardens, etc.). Then, more vertical shafts
are added along the path. The vertical shafts serve as a way
to ventilate the Qanat as well as guidance for digging the
Qanat along the path. The average of a typical Qanat is
Page 71 of 223
usually 6-10 miles long. The Qanat transports a large amount
of water all the day hours. It was used broadly in Abbasid
period; Bagdad had been suited to settlement because of
canals that bring water from both Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
The Qanat system has the advantage of being resistant to

natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods and to
deliberate destruction in war. Furthermore, it is almost
insensitive to the levels of precipitation, delivering a flow
with only gradual variations from wet to dry years. From a
sustainability perspective, Qantas use the force of gravity to
surface up groundwater with no energy requirement and, thus,
have low life cycle operation and maintenance costs once
built. They are keeping the water underground and saving it
from evaporation. And over the years, keeping the water
underground can save millions of gallons. Qantas transfer
freshwater from the mountain plateau to the lower lying
plains that have a saltier soil. This helps to control the salinity
of soil and prevent desertification. 50
Reference:
50
, History of Science and Technology in Islam, http://www.history-
science-technology.com/articles/articles%2071.html,2016
Page 72 of 223
Figure 41: Qanat network1, plan shows the remnants of aQantas
network.
Source:The QANAT: an ancient technology still delivering water
today, in Sustainable Practices,wash, watertechnology.May 8, 2014 ·
Figure 42(A).
Figure 42(B): Qanat network2, Shows underground water qanat

and the outlet of a qanat
Page 73 of 223
It spread westward to a number of other countries throughout
the world like North Africa, Spain, and Sicily. And From
Spain the Qanat technology was transferred to the New
World. They have been found in Mexico, Peru, and Chile.
Also in Palermo, Italy, a Qanat system from the Arab days
was used to bring fresh water to the city and to irrigate its
beautiful gardens. They reconstruct the Arabic Qanat and
utilize it to solve the acute needs of the modern city of
Palermo for potable water10. Today, there are also still
37,000 Qanat in use that are providing water to millions of
people in Iran.50
Figure 43: Qanat network3 shows further distribution of water into the
main settlement.
Source:https://www.academia.edu/1861364/Origin_of_Islamic_Gardens
References:
50
,http://www.historysciencetechnology.com/articles/articles%2071.html,
2016
Page 74 of 223
1-2-4 The garden as metaphor of paradise:
‘’Paradise envisioned as a garden in Muslim thought, Quran

gives detailed description of it, according to many verses, that
awaits the faithful, it is described as a shady garden with four
orchards and four stream that burst forth from the earth, with
various fruitful trees, And is presented powerful ideas of both
spiritual and physical refreshment.’’ 51
Islam arose in an arid land. The most of it is desert. It was a

harsh environment, where there were high temperature, few
sources of water, and lack of the agriculture areas. The
environment has crucial impact on the human life and on the
perception to the world. From this point greenery and
productive nature for Arabs Muslims were considered as a
miracle in their desert linked to a particular divine sanctity.
Quran mentions the paradise as a garden full of greens and
fruitful trees, as gardens which rivers go beyond it, and
where the life is safe with no danger, and it is calm and
immortal as well , and that is contradictory to the surrounding
desert nature where Islam arose. The Arabic historian Iben
khaldoun mentioned that the lack of the resources and the
hard living in the desert led the Bedouins or the Arab
nomads to live on the stealing and plundering the caravans
which passed the desert, and how this poor and harsh
environment had affected the life of the Arab nomads52.
References:
51
pynnsylvania,2008.
52
,Petruccioli,A, Dar al Islam architetture del territorio nei paesi
islamici,Carucci, Roma 1985
Page 75 of 223
The idea of scarcity of the nature resources of greens and
water in the desert is the contrast of the idea of abundant and
productive green nature. In addition to that, the big difference
between the well-organized landscape and the desert which is
empty of life features and the endless spaces of sand which
represents the unplanted space or the savage land that is not
controlled. In other words, it is the wild land which forms a
permanent threat of existence and continuity that is full of
dangerous .This big difference has created a sanctification of
the green and domesticated nature for the Muslims.
Therefore, Muslims considered the aspect of the green,
fruitful and irrigated nature as a marvel of God linked with an
extraordinary divine unity power.
And the aspect of the nature was given a clear symbolic
sacredness in the Islam religion. 52
And the aspects of nature, as the elements that make up the
site: greenery, water, and shades, play the main role in
evoking the heavenly theme in the Arab Muslims
imagination, which Quran described. So we can find their
main interest and intention of building gardens and
agriculture landscape in their palaces, and within many
Islamic periods, as the geographers and the traveler described.
Quranic description for the paradise is similar to the Chahar

bagh Form in spite that the Chahar bagh garden form has pre-
dates Islam according to the historical records ,where it is
associated with the Achaemanids period and some references
dates back to 1000 bc .
References:
52
Page 76 of 223
D.Ruggles referred that this detailed description is not the
Chahar bagh garden, even it’s the same descriptions of parts
and elements, and it is not the form that reflects specifically
the Muslim conception of paradise. But rather the description
of paradise that reflects a preexisting vocabulary of garden
forms 53.
But Garden as a paradise was mentioned in the three

Religions; Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The three
religious books, mentioned the garden as the Quran did and
they shared the same description of the aspects of the garden
such as trees, shades and rivers. So that, the three Religions
depend on a common description of the paradise in the
afterlife which relates in these texts to the Aden paradise and
Adam and Eve's paradise as well.
D.Ruggles refers that these concepts and forms arose in a

given cultural context because they flourished in the same
geographical area and the communities of the Ancient East
contacted with each other and that in turn reflected on the
religions.
While Emma Clark 54 explains and indicates that the idea of

the garden is a very old one and it precedes the three religions
where she mentioned the Sumerian period around 4000 BC
and before any of the three religions.
Since the Civilization of Mesopotamia including the

civilization of Sumer that had myths in which the garden was
mentioned as a paradise.
References:
53
pynnsylvania,2008.page89.
54
Clark, E.,The Symbolism of the Islamic Garden, Islamic art and
architecture. http://islamic-arts.org/2011/the-symbolism-of-the-islamic-
garden/,2016
Page 77 of 223
We find the myth of Gilgamesh, Adam and Eve have been
reported, as well as the Garden of Eden, all these texts were
mentioned in the first written texts in Mesopotamian and
Sumerian civilization, where the legends formed an important
reference as a historical text, where the beliefs and the rites of
the peoples throughout the history of the long intellectual
ideological evolution had written. James Franser says ; that
the legends has been derived from the rituals, and legends
mentioned in the Qur’an in the verse: “ They said the
ancients legends write them down so they are dictated for him
in the morning and in the afternoon”. 55
The writer Firas Asswah refers in his book about the Myth of
Ishtar that the religions used the same old legendary ideas
resulting from the first agricultural communities that
inhabited the ancient East in Syria and Mesopotamia55.
Is despite the appearance of symbolism associated with the

Islamic garden but it is just a product of the agricultural
civilization where the first human activity in the human
communities during the development played a major role in
the process of drafting the philosophical vocabulary and its
cultural symbols.
‘’The garden is often regarded as a manifestation of refined

beauty and intricate symbolism, essentially as an object. In
reality, it is but the aesthetic distillate of an agricultural
civilization, always playing a decisive role in any anthropic
process.’’ 56
References:
55
Alsswah , F., Mystery of Ishtar,The divine feminine and the origin of
religion and the legend ,Dar Alaa Al Dien,Damascuss,1985.
56
, Petruccioli , A.,Rethinking the Islamic Garden ,Islamic Environmental
Page 78 of 223
In the archeological approach, Cauvin referred that; the
emergence of agriculture was associated clearly with the
emergence of the first divinities of the human societies which
is an important stage of the distinctive transition at the
intellectual and cultural level, that resulted of discovery of
agriculture56.
‘’the birth of agriculture is linked to the birth of divinities. In
sum, the increased intervention in the environment associated
with agriculture implies a human agency that is derived from
envisaging the power of personal divinities’’ Cauvin
Due to the several factors in addition to the climatic and

environmental factors led to the socio-cultural changes which
considered as Cauvin refers the principal motivation for the
Neolithic Revolution.’’
The Neolithic Revolution term was coined by Gordon Childe

who emphasized as its key feature the beginnings of a
productive economy based on agriculture and stock-breeding.
And he identified the Near East as the geographical origin of
this process. It was primarily because only in the Near East
do the wild ancestors of our modern domestic cereals grow.
This shift causes a comprehensive change in all aspects of

life ,while During the Paleolithic Period, which lasts from the
beginnings of human life until about 10,000 BCE, people
were nomads, They lived in groups depending on their living
on the hunting and gathering.
References:
57
Cauvin, J., Review of The Birth of the Gods and the Origins of
Agriculture, translated by Trevor Watkins (New Studies in
Archaeology).
https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/12220716/s09597743010000
63a.pdf?sequence=1,2016
Page 79 of 223
The Neolithic Revolution is a major turning point in human
history. The shift from hunting & gathering to agriculture and
to cultivate crops which led to settle in the land and to build
the first permanent settlements. The discovery of the primeval
agriculture which organize the production of food and taming
the cattle. This shift occurred at the ninth millennium, the
beginnings of the first Neolithic revolution. Where the arch-
aeological excavations have proved that the first human
populations stable and the first built villages in the open
plains were in the southern of Syria in the area of Palestine
and Jordan Valley during the tenth and the ninth millennium
BC.
And the first agricultural experiments had been in the interior

of Syria .In the main sites Tel Mriebit in the North at the
shores of Euphrates and the site of Jericho in the Jordan
Valley. It was about the end of the ninth millennium and the
beginning of the eighth millennium BC. Over the next two
millennia the agriculture spread out from the first positions in
all directions and during the sixth millennium BC to the
Neolithic revolution had paid off all the old parts of the east
and set off towards Asia, southern Europe. Thus, the
archeology comes to support the theory of the first civil-
ization focus and the spread of civilization from a single
center against the parallel evolution theory, and it refers to the
Fertile Crescent as a home of this focus, where the stability
appeared in the land followed by agriculture in the century of
the Western Crescent. This transformation caused a big
convulsion in the human societies structure, the establishment
of social classes and the eventual rise of civilizations. This
shift was led to the emergence of the first cities in the human
history in Mesopotamia, with all its advanced political and
religious organization; this shift was called the urban revo-
lution. 58
References:
58
,Alsswah , F., Mystery of Ishtar, The divine feminine and the origin of
religion and the legend,Dar Alaa Al Dien,Damascuss,1985.
Page 80 of 223
That modern archeology suggests that revolutions Neolithic
and urban happened for the first time in human history in the
Ancient Near East region. The urban revolution and the
emergence of the first cities have been in Sumer in the
Mesopotamia Valley and from there it moved south to Egypt
and eastward into India.
Establishment of social classes has led to emerge of

religion , And during this period the reflections religious
59
perceptions and myth of the initial human has matured, it’s

The religion of the first Neolithic culture and the legends of
the first wheat planter.
The first religious beliefs were expressed in symbols, and

graphics, this stage considered a starting point of a specific
rites and beliefs and that indicates a high degree of
intellectual progress and known according to Cauvin as
revolution of symbols, which began in the tenth millennium
BC preceded the agricultural revolution which is in the ninth
millennium BC. In such sites as Al-Khaiamie, and Al-Ahmer
Jerf sites which documented the first appearance of the
pictorial forms of a woman and the bull, these symbols
represent the first beliefs and which they will become the
slogans of the new religion as with other new religions which
did not present in the first stages a complete set of symbols. 60
References:
59
, Harman, C., Engels and the Origins of Human Society. International
socialism, 1994.
60
, Cauvin, J., Review of The Birth of the Gods and the Origins of
Agriculture, translated by Trevor Watkins (New Studies in
Archaeology).
63a.pdf?sequence=1,2016
Page 81 of 223
Cauvin indicates that the area where this evolution or
revolution appeared was in the middle Euphrates and then it
spread radially to the north where in Anatolian was the first
spread of it where a group of them was settled and imposed
its culture on the others. After it spread in the east of Turkey,
and had developed a culture of Neolithic to achieve an
evolution at the large religious level.
Cauvin explains: this stage is considered ‘a change in

collective psychology which must have preceded and
engendered all the others in the matter of the process of
neolithization’ (Cauvin, page 23). The factors of social,
intellectual and psychological factors are considered as an
introduction which led to the economic transformations that
have shaped Neolithic process.
In the subsequent Neolithic era, the religion of the Neolithic

man evolved in terms of agricultural and cultural Neolithic.
The Neolithic era inherited the cultural data of the previous
age and developed them in a way that fit the new style of life.
In the religious sphere the images of divine powers in the

form of feminine, who is the grandmother of the universe,
was inherited from the last rings of the Paleolithic era 30000-
10000 BC, but the Paleolithic man built around this old divine
form a serious structure of perceptions, beliefs and legends
with a content related to agriculture, which has become the
essence of his life and the basis of his political and social
organizing .61
References:
61
Page 82 of 223
The Neolithic religion was an agricultural religion which was
centered on goddess, who was a woman of nature in the wild
form and the new domesticated form, which the hand of the
farmer involved in making and rehabilitating it .The
goddess of Paleolithic era and the beginning of the Neolithic
era was alone sits on the throne of the universe, but with the
maturity of Neolithic culture with the completion of the new
economic shape and with the increasing of the man's role
when the society was motherly in its essence. We find
near the great goddess her son, who the writing eras called
him Tammuz or Adonis.
And in Canaanite myths named; Adon62.The statues deployed

at each site of the Neolithic Age sites. The social place of
women and her image in the conscience of the community in
those ages played an important role in shaping the first
religious and metaphysical perception and the birth of the first
legend.
The woman for the Paleolithic age man was as love and
desires also it was the subject of fear and awe at the same
time.
From her body a new life arises and her chest gives the milk
for life, her body shall establish a new life and its monthly
follow comes from the moon cycle with her fertility, she
presents the fertile nature, and when the human knew the
agriculture he found in the earth a synonym for woman, she
carries the seeds and gives from her womb a new implant. 63
References:
62
,Alsswah , F ,The first adventure of the mind, a study in the
legends, Syria and Mesopotamia,Dar Ala Aldien,Damascus,1996.
63
Page 83 of 223
The religious Neolithic beliefs were shaken with the
emergence of the era of writing, which took place around
4000 BC, in Sumer; this era was recognized by the emergence
of big cities with large complex economic, political and civil
orders. With the transition of power in society entirely for the
man and the formation of the State of powerful city with the
central strong power on the ruins of the simple agricultural
regime.
The Matriarchal society has achieved peace sufficiency and

stability, and it was closer to a Paradise climate, which the
man lost by the male society that missed the peace and
complacency perhaps forever.
The archaeological research has proved the existence of

stable societies in the first ancient maternal in Syria since the
ninth to the sixth millennium BC.The Matriarchal society
passed over the phase of fluctuations which ended by the man
to take the power from the woman and founding the
Patriarchal society.
At the roots of all civilizations from Japan in the East to the

West Indian communities, the researchers found maternal
foundations which the modern male communities built on.
The statues of Ishtar were the first work of art coined by man
embodied the first idol, Ishtar the great mother was his God. 64
References;
64
Page 84 of 223
Ishtar prevailed first human settlements in Syria in the
Paleolithic age and it was the goddess of unspoiled nature
with its waters, rainfall, grasslands, trees, storms, lightings
and thunders. In the Neolithic era, Ishtar turn to be the
Goddess of nature which was maintained by human hand and
his best contributed to direct her goals.
It's the Lady of agricultural cycle and a center of the first

agricultural religion which will become a source of subse-
quent religions and as Ishtar was the absolute lady of the
Paleolithic era as well as the Neolithic era of its first phase in
the pre-pottery during the seventh and eighth millennium. We
find with the beginning of the sixth millennium the God Son
will begin to appear with her and start the joint works to
image them together.
The archaeological excavations at sites eighth and seventh

millennium gave lot of statues of the mother goddess Ishtar as
in Jericho and al-Bayda in Jordan and in Palestine in Fallah
Valley, Khiam , Tel Aswad, Tel Ramed , Tel Martibt in Syria
and Stahl Hyuk in southern Anatolia and this indicates that
worship in the ancient Near East in that period were
variations on a common ground which is what we call the
central religion.
During the Neolithic era, in Syria, the symbols have matured

that moved with the movement of Neolithic religion to other
parts. One of those symbols was the swastika and the normal
Cross and they were sacred symbols of all Ishtarian religions
The Neolithic artist sketched with early pottery era these

icons in decorative abstract units and with technician manner
which rules still going on until the present time, starting from
the civilization of Tell Halaf and Samarra, the Neolithic
human invented for the first time the geometric integrated
artwork with abstract units interconnected in a whole unified,
Along with the abstract symbols the major animal symbols

associated with the great mother and every fine art work has
Page 85 of 223
them and the most important were the dove, the snake and the
bull.
These icons moved with transmission of the worship

Neolithic mother to other cultures. First, they moved to Crete
and from there carried by ships through the other world lands
and since human learned the pottery jars industry.
Figure44 :The Jar provided in Crete 1300 BC and And Trojan 1200 BC.
Source: Alsswah , F., Mystery of Ishtar.
The pottery joined the other mother goddess symbols. So that,

the female body is a magical vessel in which the blood turn
into milk and explodes out of the breast nozzle.
The cosmic female body is a pottery jar containing the blesses
and causes of life and then released outside, and the industry
of the holy jars has moved from Neolithic times, which was
full of them until ages of writing. The Colorful patterns were
formulated and they visualized the most important elements
in the woman's body, which is the secret of tender such
breasts, followed by the navel which was full of great
symbolic value because the Ishtar's navel was the center of
the universe and her temple was the earth navel 64 .
References:
64
Page 86 of 223
And later the symbol of the navel became an affair in the
male religions where all the peoples saw the main temple of
the God that is the navel, as well as the temple was Apollo in
Delphi for Greece and the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem
for Hebrew and the Kaaba for the Arabs 64.
Figure45:Abstract inscription on pottery.

Source; Alsswah , F., Mystery of Ishtar.
References:
64
Page 87 of 223
Here we find Ishtar herself carries many of the fees and
sculptures in hand, there is a pottery jar tilted her neck
forward. The statue was known as the goddess of fountain
which is in Aleppo Museum in Syria, and it represented Ishtar
in Mary City in Syria.
Figure46: To the right ,Water-Goddess with vase and water spouting

from the vase. Stone statue,Mari kingdom 2500 B.c , National Museum,
Damascus, Syria , the second to the left Its Ashtar from the Neolithic
period,9000Bc.
References:
64
Page 88 of 223
And we find in the mind of the ancient human that Ishtar
image carries many implications which refers to all the nature
aspects. It is connected with fertility of the land. And any part
of this universe as a whole formulates in time and space her
presence and symbolizes the greatest mother, abstractions and
incarnations. They are linked with the goddess ‘’the mother’’
so the material and the divine worlds are not separated from
her.
During the history of man on earth and despite the

fragmentation, which image of the major mother suffered in
the scope of the official religion of the state, it has kept the
old features inside Ishtar Religion Foundation in the hearts of
ordinary people who worship the Gods because of fear and
followed the worship of Ishtar by love.
In Sumer, which witnessed the first gathering of the males

gods headed by the God of heaven who claimed for himself
most of features of the first creative mother. The legends,
songs and the prayers of the major mother remained to refer
to high position that no one can override it. there is a prayer
raised to the goddess Inanna nature, the fertile land,
agriculture cycle and reproduction Says:(Our Lady of cosmic
laws, O shining light, the donor of life, the humans beloved,
you greater than the big god and you're bigger than the
mother who bore you, oh wise the queen of the country.)
In India, the Kajaba the Indian tribe in Colombia in South

America: (( O, Lady of chants and songs, or the mother of
humankind bears us from the start, the mother of all of the
races and the different tribes, the Lady of thunder and rain,
the mother of rivers and trees, the lady of rocks , stones,
grains and every living thing , mother of the neighboring
peoples, the foreigners and the outsiders, the lady of dancing
and songs, the goddess of all the temples, mother of all the
divine animals, the lady of the shining galaxy, we have no
mother but her. Ishtar in the conscience of man through the
ages)). 64
Page 89 of 223
We also find in the cultures of the ancient Near East the
relationship between the moon and Ishtar symbolically refers
to the earth fertility and the growth of planting and trees,
driven by the ideas that they inherited from the Neolithic
cultures, so we find in many of the drawings that the moon
and the tree united in the unit.
Figure47: The tree of the moon – Babylon,2000BC.

Source; Alsswah , F., Mystery of Ishtar.
In the Sumerian legend we find a reference of descending the

Goddess Inanna to the inferior world, where the Sumerian
mother at the legend was eager to leave her heavenly chair.
Here is a metaphor for the moon and the migration of earth
that she took care in the trip to the inferior world, the
darkness world, passing the seven portals of death .
The connection between the moon light and the preparing of

field and agriculture produces this symbolic legend. This
Section represents the completion of the full moon in the
middle of the lunar month, and her fallen indicates according
to a detailed section for decreasing the full moon piece by
piece and decline gradually from the center of the sky every
day for seven days, which represents the seven degrees of
death when Inanna takes off a part of her adornments
represented the last seven days of the lunar month when it
sets in the last days completely. The moon passes in three
phases since its rise in the first month, and even it sets
Page 90 of 223
completely, The ancients believed that the blessing of the
moon was in the phase of complete light, so they were
engaged to prepare their fields for agricultural seasons and
they farmed and seeded within the days when the moon
increases and they start all the work they want to have success
during that period. If the moon starts to decrease that was the
harbinger of all the poor as possible, they were to kick up the
agricultural activities and initiate any activity hoping it to be
good. So that, the lunar mother is responsible for the negative
forces in the universe as well as responsible for the positive
power and goodness as the responsibility for evil and
responsible for life and death as well 64.
Figure48: (A)The three phases of the moon - (B)The three phases of

The inscription from Babylon. - The moon ,Phoenician inscription.
Source; Alsawah , F., Mystery of Ishtar.
The legend is a long human experience and a long history and

a slow evolution , all that provide a saturated text full of
difficult symbols, the text goes back to the third millennium
BC, but its roots go back to the Paleolithic era when the man
contemplates the strange universe features , trying to explain
what is happening around him.The imagination of the
Neolithic man had embodied and linked between the Goddess
mother of Ishtar, who is the mother of nature and the
universe, and between multiple aspects of nature. They
evolved and varied due to the evolution of his consciousness
of the universe and it’s secret. Ishtar was linked to the moon,
the sun and the animals, such as the bull and the cow that
their worship appeared in different parts of the geographies
Page 91 of 223
such as India. For example, they depended on the fertility and
tender.
The myth represents the completion of the full moon in the

middle of the lunar month, ascending at the throne of heaven,
with all its glory and splendor.
Because the moon will not be completed but in order to

descend decreasing during the next part of its cycle, here
Ishtar puts on her adornments and wears the sovereignty and
authority cloths and put the glittering gems as a preparation
for landing to the inferior world.
And her fallen indicates according to a detailed section for

decreasing the full moon piece by piece and decline gradually
from the center of the sky every day for seven days which
represent the seven degrees of death when Inanna takes off a
part of her adornments represented the last seven days of the
lunar month when it sets in the last days completely.
The ancient fine works showed the Three Faces of Ishtar, the
Moon Lady by various symbolic means. In Syria, the
Phoenicians symbolized the three phases of Ishtar by three
columns of varying in length topped with a crescent or three
columns which all of them take crosswise surmounted by a
crescent, and the moon was painted as a circle contains three
crescents where each one symbolizes a phase as it is the case
in Babylonian inscriptions.
The triangulation of the moon Lady may lead to be worshiped

in three forms, as the mother Brigitte, the mother of Goddess
and the Lady of nature. It was also the lunar and was called
Mona, a name that remained standing in the European
languages to signify the moon. In Christianity these gods
mingled Mary, and she was called mother of Christ.
Perhaps the triangulation of the greater mother in the Arabian
Peninsula was the cause to be divided into three which were
Lat, Uzza and Manat, and they were the highest Arabs
goddess.
Page 92 of 223
And their names were mentioned during the circumambu-
lation around the Kaaba in a known acclamation which the
opening lines say: " Lat , Uzza and Manat the other three,
they are great and their intercession is to be asked"Quran’’
has mentioned in its definition of the pre-Islamic belief of the
first half of this acclamation, despite the independence of
each Arab tribe to worship one of these goddess, each
goddess showed clear triangulation characteristics, "The
Idols" by Ibn al-Kalbi we read about the triangulation of the
Greater Arab Mother: " The Uzza had been worshiped
Polyphonic in three trees of rushes in a valley named Hrad.
Also the Lunar mother was worshiped through the code of

blocks, the stone which is the symbol of the Earth is also a
symbol of the moon, and the color of the stone where Ishtar
was worshiped reflected the enlightening phase or the dark
phase. The greater mother of the Arabian Peninsula has had
more than sacred stone. The black stone for the goddess
Mouna, which were glorified by the Arabs especially the Aws
and Khazraj, and remained so until the Apostle came out of
the city and sent Ali to destroy the stone. For the Lat there
was a white stone in Taif which was destroyed by Al-
Moughera Bin Shaabeh. In Asia Minor for the greater mother
Cybele there was a sacred Black stone. The Romans
transferred it in a historic celebration to chronicle the
transmission of worship of Cybele to Rome.
The Canaanite Ishtar had a white stone in Byblos and other

like it in Cyprus, and the shape of the stone block could turn
to form an elongate shaft or conical and it appears in the
monuments and sculptures and it has crescent.
Firas Al Sawah points out in his book (Ishtar mystery) ((The

cross symbol seemed to be more closely associated with the
greater mother in the lunar manifestation, the crossed lines
of the Cross symbolize the infinite expanse of the Divine
presence and to the comprehensiveness of the Great Mother,
and if the cross had been found on the walls of the Neolithic
temples and engraved on ceramics of Tell Halaf and
Page 93 of 223
Samarra, the great mother herself has carved and depicted in
the form of the cross as in Stek Hyuk settlement where the
great mother was painted in a classic way known in that era,
and in simple and symbolic way. in the second type the body
of the Goddess formed the line of the vertical cross, while the
arms paint its horizontal line, while the legs are extended to
the end and crossed with the body that nothing appears from
it but the navel.))
With the early writing ages the cross continued to be

associated with the moon. In the pyramids of Giza they found
decorative forms represent the great mother in the form of the
cross on which a crescent, where the head was replaced by a
Crescent. This badge was particularly used by the religious
art of Egypt to signify eternal life and in all the civilizations
of the Near East and the Mediterranean the Cross combined
with the Crescent.
The cross symbol was not limited to the ancient civilizations

and some of the world religions. Red Indians represented in
California the great mother where her four limbs stretched
crosswise. And other Indian tribes took the cross as a symbol
the four directions, and the members of the Maori tribe put a
Cross in their necks as a symbol of Lunar mother.
The Cross accompanied the Great Syrian mother man since

the beginning of the major spiritual adventure and what still
remains to confirm the unity of the spiritual experience of the
mankind through the ages.
The movement of the moon is the only indicator for the old
man of the passage of time. The passage of days was
calculated as nights and the passage of months related to
seeing the moon. The movement of the moon was not just
simply a cosmic clock monitors the time, but it makes the
movement of time. The great Lunar mother began the
universe time-bound after she got out it from the first times of
cytoplasm (here is a reference to the myth of the first creation
Page 94 of 223
of the universe), she is its mistress who controls the cont-
inuity and flow.
They did not put a solar calendar even the late time of the
history of civilization.
The Babylonians were representing the months of the lunar

year by the sky twelve constellations which they called the
Moon homes.
The Islamic peoples who associated the lunar months with the
worship and religious events where The moon was mentioned
in more than one position.
The image of Ishtar the great mother has been associated with
her relationship with the fate and destiny, as the carrier of fate
plates, the Lady of destinies.
The names of the Great Mother Lat, Uzza and Menah in the
Arabian Peninsula indicate in the Arab dictionaries which
considered Lat as feminine which means God and Uzza is
from Aziz's name, while Menah means the fate, the legend
continues to be active in the popular imagination after the
demise of the spiritual and religious influence through the
tales of children, after the disintegration of the legend Ishtar ,
nothing remains of the great mother only the negative dark
side which is enriched by the masculine gestures legend.
The Male culture succeeded to remove Ishtar from the moon

and to deny her to the planet to Venus. The Babylonians
called the planet Venus as Ishtar, while the Canaanites called
Ishtar, the Greece as Aphrodite and the Romans as Venus
In fact they are the Canaanite names of Ishtar which came to

Cyprus with the Phoenicians after their supremacy on the
Mediterranean Sea.
For the Arabs the planet of Venus has been associated with
Greater Arab mother, they worshiped it when it appeared and
they called it Uzza. 64
Page 95 of 223
The Eden Garden as it was mentioned in the sacred texts of
the three religions. In mythology and legends the writer Firas
Aswah refers in "First adventure of mind" that the legend of
Delmon or the Paradise of Dilmun as it was mentioned in the
Torah and the Paradise is the place for the immortals and it is
a divine green paradise where the headwaters of the rivers.
Some curved plates were found in Ugarit and talked about a
similar paradise dating back to the period before the religions.
The god Eill lives at the headwaters of the rivers as well as
the case in the Delmon, The Paradise of Torah where the
rivers originate Seihoun and Gihoun and the gardens of
Euphrates.
The Paradise in Torah is a place which the God Eill planted in
the east of Eden, a place for repose where he let Adam to live
therein .It is a place where peace and tranquility as explained
in the text where the man can live safely not compelled to
work to make a living and where he does not know the
disease, sorrow or death, this paradise lies at the headwaters
of four rivers as the Canaanite paradise also where Eill the
Lord of heavens lives. The author Feras Alsawah refers to the
place of Aden where the Jehovah's transplant his paradise, the
writer Firas Alsawah explained that the word may be a
variation of the name of the Syrian god " Adon " the Lord of
the plants, fertility and greenery. And the expression of the
Garden of Eden is possibly derived from the gardens of Udon
which is well-known in the ritual of the Old Syrian fertile.
James Fraser tells us in his book " The Golden Bough "about
that by his saying that the Syrian women in the holidays of
Adonis, they were making wide baskets and fill them with
shallow soil and grow many kinds of flowers and plants, and
then they take care of these small gardens for eight-days, till
they foliate and blooms, but they eventually die as a result of
the shallowness of the soil, then the women carry the Adonis
gardens and attached a picture of God towards the river or
the sea and throw them, and the significance of this practice is
that the quick growth of plants in the baskets is a symbol of
the power of fertilizing the god Adon and the death of this
Page 96 of 223
plants is a symbol of the death of the young God, and the
impact of that on plant life that disrupted by his death, while
throwing the plants in water is intended to give the
impression to rain to fall to water the nature that died.
He sent Udon from his tomb. Here Mr. Fraser65 tells some
Christian rituals similar were still in Europe. In the
Mediterranean basin in the holiday of Easter and Good Friday
where the women planting small tubs and put a picture of
Jesus Christ instead of the image of Adonis. In the Arabic
language we use and the Garden of Eden Gardens of Delight,
here the similarity between the word Numan and the word
bliss, Numan is one of the names of Adonis. And so the
Garden of Eden (Udon) and Gardens of Delight (Numan) are
two names of the same thing which is the Gardens of
Adonis.65
The mythological interpretation gives an explanation of the

concept which the ancient societies and the first man brought
to his gods. The goddess of agriculture and its symbols that
spread in different regions which were the first to know the
agriculture and with it the first religious beliefs formed. This
cultural aspect that has determined the historical identification
of the communities that settled in the ancient Levant
References:
64
65
,Alsswah , F ,The first adventure of the mind, a study in the legends, of
Syria and Mesopotamia,Dar Ala Aldien,Damascus,1996.
Page 97 of 223
1-3 Historical development of the Islamic gardens
in Syria traditional landscape:
1-3 Garden in the early Islamic period
‘’Islamic expansion out of the Arabia peninsula brought
dramatic changes to the landscape which it inhabited ,With
the urban system of oasis settlement that bought both of
economical transformation with their agricultural products
and powerful form of cultural expression .’’ D. Ruggle, F.
1-3-1 (Umayyad 661-750 and Abbasid period
750-1258):
Umayyad period 661-750
Figure 49: Middle East 750AD, Source:

http://www.timemaps.com/history/middle-east-500ad.
U
The Middle East territory has seen changes radically In the

7th century where Arab tribes united under the banner of a
new religion, Islam, swept outwards in a surge of conquests:
Iraq , Iran, Syria , Palestine, Egypt , North Africa and Spain,
all have fallen to them . In this period, The Persian Empire
vanished under the onslaught, and the Byzantine Empire lost
its most valuable provinces. In their place, the Arabs
established a vast empire, called the "Caliphate" ("caliph"
means "successor", in this case to the Prophet Muhammed). 66
References:
U
66
, http://www.timemaps.com/history/middle-east-500ad
U
Page 98 of 223
Under the Umayyad caliphs, the seat of Islamic power was
transferred from the Arabian Peninsula to Syria; Damascus
was transformed into the capital of an empire that exte-
ded from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indus River.
Administratively, The Umayyad Caliphate governments bas-
ed on the structure of the tribal aristocracy which had its roots
in the pre-Islamic era, sometimes was influenced by political
tradition and conquered territories. 66
The early Islamic community was transformed into a pow-
erful empire. Arabic became the official language and Islam
the principal religion of the diverse lands unified under
Umayyad rule. It is often considered the formative period
in Islamic art and architecture regarding to the new cultural,
social and economical changes in the region.
The landscape was formed during the period of Umayyad rule

8th-10th centuries as a result of expansion of agriculture and
change in its practice as well as cultural and political organ-
ization according to eastern model67.
Caliphs used to build their residences out of the urban centers

in the harsh and arid environments, but these settlements,
basically, played a commercial and strategic role as an inter-
mediary location between the nomadic tribes and settled
groups where is the market centers, agricultural and animal
products were traded, as well as they were pleasure places
where they harnessed the available water resources in the
sites and territories they have conquered.
References:
66
, http://www.timemaps.com/history/middle-east-500ad
67
, D. Ruggles, F., Garden, landscape, and vision in the palaces of
Islamic Spain, The Pennsylvania state university press, U.S, A, 2000.
Page 99 of 223
Among this political and economical context, the first Islamic
garden in Syria was emerged with this urban settlements
which sustain communities with agricultural production and
was formed with these functions of fortified residence or
caravanserai, mosque, bath, farm houses and large granary.
The gardens in these settlements spaces often formed the
spatial connection between two elements; the Baths and
audience halls composing an architectural model in which the
pleasure provided and the expression of power and dignity
and testimony to the wealth of their patrons.
This kind of functional connection provided in residences of a
more or less private character and became a feature in the
most of the urban palaces.
There are many of these palaces were scattered in the
Jordan’s deserts from the Umayyad era, as an example of the
garden function and form in this period. The case of palatine
complex in The Amman Citadel, Qusayr ‘Amra (711–715),
was the earliest of these residences, Qasr al-Hallabat
(between 800–825), the latter included cultivated areas were
enclosed by walls.
These gardens ,formed with the audience hall/bathhouse one
union and an independent part of the main residence, declare
clearly the intimate connection between two forms of
personal and social pleasure that are always found in Islamic
culture 68.
Another example is Al-Mafjar (ca. 739–43), built by the

Umayyad caliph Hisham in the Jordan Valley, near Jericho.
The bath gains monumental dimensions that rival those of the
main residence.
References:
68
, Ruggles,F, Almagro, A ,Early Islamic Gardens in Syria, Jordan, and
Iraq.http://www.doaks.org/resources/middle-east-garden-
traditions/early-islamic-gardens-of-greater-syria/introduction.
Page 100 of 223

The mosque stands between them and as a mediating element
for all three structures. There is a large garden with a free-
standing pavilion (or kiosk) of sophisticated design68
The same methodology was followed in Syria desert by
Umayyad Caliphs, where the trade network was continued to
be controlled by their palaces which lettered in irrigated
landscapes, such as Qasr al Hayr East, and Qasr al-Hayr al-
Gharbi.
Qasr al –Hayer east (al-sharqi) was A medieval Islamic site
and an oasis settlement, lays in the center of semi arid zone
between fertile Euphrates valley and Damascus northeast of
Palmyra.
It is placed at the foot of one the few mountain passes in the
central Syrian Desert, built in the years (700-730),
The site consisted of an extensive walled enclosure about 7 sq
meters, with permanent residences, a caravanserai for
transient merchants, a mosque; olive presses, large bath, an
artificially developed area for agriculture, clear evidence that
the economy of the estate was passed on olive production,
Fruits and seasonal crops68 .
Depending on the natural features of the site and the
topographical characteristics, the water control system for
Irrigation was achieved by trapping the rain fed seasonal
stream called Al Wadi, within the low enclosure walls, at the
north and south ends of the enclosure. Enormous sluices
controlled the water ingress and egress.
References:
68
, D.Ruggles,F, Almagro, A ,Early Islamic Gardens in Syria, Jordan,
andIraq.http://www.doaks.org/resources/middle-east-garden-
traditions/early-islamic-gardens-of-greater-syria/introduction
Page 101 of 223

This effective system of walls and sluices ensured the
maximum use of rainfall inhabitants make long periods of
irrigation possible.
The site had only one canal which ran from northeast portion
of the enclosure to the southwestern portion.
Figure 50(A):photo of Qasr al-Heir East
Figure 50:(B): Qasr alhyr alsharqi-elevation

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qasr_al-Hayr_al-Sharqi
Page 102 of 223

Figure 50(C) :Qasr al-Heir East, plan,
http://monumentsofsyria.com/places/qasr-al-heir-al-sharqi-east.
Figure 51(A,B,C),Qasr al-Heir East, views.

Source; http://romeartlover.tripod.com/Paldeser1.jpg
Another settlement of this period is Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi.

It was constructed by the Umayyad Caliph Hisham From 724-
727. It is Located about 60 kilometers west Palmyra. The site
almost had similar function of desert palaces at these periods.
It contained the palace, bathhouses and caravanserai stood
Page 103 of 223

within rectangular enclosure, devoted to irrigate agriculture
and olive trees.
The settlement features an impressive irrigation system
complete with a complex network of underground canals
originating at a Roman dam (Harbaqa) about ten miles to the
south. There was also a seasonal stream and a semicircular
stone barrage.
Figure 52(A): Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi (West), Syria (724-27)-

Floor plan of Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi,
Source: http://web.mit.edu/4.611/www/L4.html.
Figure 52(B): Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi (West), Syria –perspective

https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/272/flashcards/57227
2/png/screen_shot_2012-03-24_at_14430_pm1332611190107.png
Page 104 of 223

The garden design in this formative phase of Islam in Syria
was walled enclosure and cultivated area with productive
trees like olive. It played an important role as an agriculture
organization.
Such of these landscape has changed from one made
artificially fertile through the introduction of water to one that
is drier and without productivity as today and even abandoned
It’s the change in the physical landscape.
Beside the social and cultural view of these settlements that

was reflected on the garden function and form in this phase of
Islamic civilization in Syrian territory, the importance of the
worth of a landscape was measured by its degree or potential
of settlement. The productive and economic aspect of
vegetation was more highly valued.
Figure 52(A,B,C) Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi (West), Syria (724-27)-

Source:http://www.museumwnf.org/images/lo_res/monuments/isl/sy/1/3
5/1.jpg.
Page 105 of 223

One different example of
the garden design appeared
during Umayyad period is
in the Rusafa residence
(also known as Sergiopolis),
and this because it was
originally Byzantine
settlement. The garden also
had enclosure that can be
Figure 53(A),Rusafa location
Identified as a pleasure garden (Ulbert 1993, Ruggles1993).

It was a Byzantine settlement with white gypsum walls
located 180 miles east of
Aleppo also in a desert
landscape in Syria.
During the Umayyad
period it was taken and
became the site for the
Caliph Hisham’s palace
estate between 724 and
743.
Figure 53(B), Rusafa archeological site.

Source:http://byzantinemilitary.blogspot.de/2014/07/the-fortress-of-
sergiopolis-in-syria.html
The site contained an extensive residential area of mud brick

walls traversed by a seasonal stream. They discovered an
irregularly enclosure shape with a central pavilion which is
open on each of its four sides toward the surrounding garden.
The site indicated that this pavilion was part of a palace

complex. One of two built on the outskirts of Rusafa. On
three of the four sides, paths with steps leading up to the
pavilion, and the archaeologists speculated that there was
form relay fourth path that had since been obliterated.
Page 106 of 223

This is the earliest known Islamic example of a pavilion
occupying the intersecting point of the axes in a quadripartite
space and as such it is of considerable importance for garden
history. The four-part layout was to become a classic and
ubiquitous garden type that would be repeated with variations
throughout the Islamic world.
Figure 54: Aerial view of the city of Sergiopolis (Rusafa)

Source:http://web.mit.edu/4.611/www/L1.html
The same name of this palace was founded by the Umayyad

prince who was to become’ Abd al-Rahman I’ when he fled
from Syria to al-Andalus (the Islamic kingdom on the Iberian
Peninsula) in the mid-eighth century. He built himself an
estate outside of Cordoba which he named Rusafa in memory
of his grandfather’s desert palace where he had spent part of
his youth 70.
References:
69
,D. Ruggles, F.,'Islamic Gardens and Landscapes, Umayyad
Palaces Reconsidered, journal article, 1993.
70
, D. Ruggles, F.,Garden, landscape,and vision in the palaces of
islamic spain,The Pennsylvania state university
press,U.S,A,2000.page42-45
Page 107 of 223

Abbasid period: ‘750-1258’
‘’The love of gardens during the Abbasid period, whether in

Baghdad or in Samarra, was born within the already existing
cultural tradition of Mesopotamia, where the art of gardening
had been perfected many centuries before’’. Qasim Al-Samarrai
When the Arabs first came out of the desert of Arabia they
had conquered some of the most ancient and highly
developed centers of civilization known to human history.
Within the confines of the Islamic domains were located the
centers of the Hellenistic, Assyrian, Persian, Indian, Egyptian,
and Mesopotamian civilizations.
The famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon, was located
Figure 55(A). Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 20th-century interpretation

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon
On the Euphrates about 80 km south Baghdad. The city

mentioned in the Bible was the capital of a mighty empire
during the second millennium BC, but it was later destroyed
by Cyrus II of Persia in 539 BC.
Notices:
Qasim Al-Samarrai, Professor of Arabic and Islamic studies

alongside member of the International Advisory Board of the Foundation
for Science, Technology and Civilization (FSTC).
Page 108 of 223

Figure 55 (A,B): this hand-colored engraving, probably made in the 19th
century after the first excavations in the Assyrian capitals, depicts the
fabled Hanging Gardens, with the Tower of Babel in the background,
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon
The Hanging Gardens were described as a remarkable feat of

engineering; an ascending series of tiered gardens containing
all manner of trees, shrubs, and vines. The gardens were said
to have looked like a large green mountain constructed of
mud bricks. It was built an irrigation system able to lift water
from the river 71.
The Islamic Abbasid period is characterized by main aspects.
The Islamic political and cultural life shifted eastward from
Syria to Iraq. This shifting of leadership and seat of caliphate
within the Islamic Empire reflected a series of fundamental
transformations within evolving Islamic civilization.
In this period, there was the great influence of non-Arab
Muslims and the creation of a complex administration. 72
Reference:
71
Hanging Gardens of Babylon,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon
72
, Al-Samarra, Q., Abbasid Gardens in Baghdad and Samarra,
http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/abbasid-gardens-baghdad-and-
samarra
Page 109 of 223

Islamic civilization spread even farther under the Abbasids
and witnessed significant development, from the religion of a
small ,Arab warrior elite, Islam became a cosmopolitan and
genuinely universal faith with tens of millions of adherents
from Spain to the Philippine islands. 73
In 762, Abbasid dynasty founded new capital to their empire

was named, Baghdad, The new city soon acquired an official
name: Madinat al-Salam (the city of peace) or Dar al-Salam
(the abode of peace), an appellation which occurs twice in the
Koran (6:127; 10:26) to mean: the Heavenly Paradise. As the
Abbasid dynasty came to power through a religiously
motivated movement and sought in religion the basis of unity
and authority. 73
Figure 56, Baghdad 762-764 AC.

Source:http://1.bp.blogspot.com/nbSEBa2Uqow/U9g1_lBJSiI/AAAAA
AAAByo/wgDR4seKSr4/s1600/Abbasid_Bagdad.jpg-2016
Reference:
73
samarra
Page 110 of 223

The city was designed as a circle about 2 km (1.2 mi) in
diameter, leading it to be known as the "Round City". The
original design shows as single ring of residential and
commercial structures along the inside of the city walls, but
the final construction added another ring inside the
first. Within the city there were many parks, gardens, villas,
and promenades. In the center of the city lay the mosque as
well as headquarters for guards74.
The circular plan of the city has been used in the history of
the ancient east, in Syria and around 2600 year B.C on the
Euphrates River. The city of Mari has circular plan also or
defined as a, "Round City". It was an Acadian-Amorite
center in the middle of a Sumerian presence that covered all
the Mesopotamian Peninsula, and it was constructed by the
social administration /or the municipal authority at that time
and was built according to a pre-planned architectural style to
fulfill a historical, economical, and industrial role in that early
stage of human history .
Figure 57, Mari city on Euphrates river 2600 B.C.

Source: http://earlyworldhistory.blogspot.de/2012/03/mari-
mesopotamian-city.html
References:
74
,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad.
Page 111 of 223

There are many world cities that have followed this pattern as
London and Paris. Later on, another city was also established
in the north of Baghdad and it was called Samarra’ (an
abbreviation of the sentence "He who sees it rejoices"), which
replaced the capital for a brief period (836–83).
The shifts of the location of central power to the

Mesopotamian area and results in a corresponding
displacement of the influence of classical and Byzantine
artistic and cultural standards in favor of Persian and local
Mesopotamian models.
The great urban expansion in The Abbasid age was linked to

a revival of the Afro-Eurasian trading network, The Abbasid
domains in the west and the great Tang and Song empires in
the east became the pivots of the revived commercial system.
From the western Mediterranean to the South China.
The first three centuries of Abbasid rule were a golden age in

which Baghdad and Samarra’ functioned as the cultural and
commercial capitals of the Islamic world. Generally, the two
cities were very important in the history of the Abbasid art of
gardening.
During this period, a distinctive style emerged and new
techniques were developed that spread throughout the Muslim
realm and greatly influenced Islamic art and architecture,
As well as gardens art 75.
We can find numerous allusions in literary and historical

works to gardens and fountains, but there are rarely any
specific references to the architectural design of an Abbasid
garden.
Reference:
75
, Guimaraes Lima, M., Islamic art and architecture, PhD research
2011.
Page 112 of 223

Evidently at the beginning the monastic art of horticulture, as
it seems, was a major factor in influencing the Abbasid style,
but it soon started to be transformed into under Persian
influence. This was characterized by a taste for costly and
glittering materials and ostentatiously displayed to impress
and to present the rank, wealth and pomp of the owner. This
is very much in evidence in the palaces in Samarra.
‘’The wonders of Harun al-Rashid’s garden described in A

Thousand and One Nights have never existed. They were
fictional hyperbole. But not everything is poetry and
imagination. The renowned description recalls many gardens
in Dar al-Islam from Samarra to Granada, Lahore, and
Isfahan.’’ 76 .
Bagdad as a residence of Islam's Commander of the Faithful

for nearly five hundred years and after the city was
largely destroyed at by the Mongol Empire in 1258, it retur-
ned to rebuild by the enormous array of the caliphs’ palaces
that sprang up on the east bank of the river, and practically
created a town of their own, with their many edifices and
gardens, all included in an encircling wall. 77
Aspects of Luxury, extravagance and Opulence have been

employed in these palaces. One of the most famous places of
this period was built by the reigning prince Muk’tãdõr and
named the House of the Tree.
References:
76
, Petruccioli, A., Rethinking the Islamic Garden, Islamic Environmental
9/103petruccioli.pdf.
77
,Islamic garden design,
http://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/library_online_ebooks/ml_go
thein_history_garden_art_design/islamic_garden_design
Page 113 of 223

It stood in the midst of lovely gardens, and took its name
from a tree made of gold and silver, standing in the centre of
a great round pond, between the trees of the garden. This tree
had eighteen boughs of gold and silver and innumerable
branches covered with all sorts of fruits that were really
precious stones. On the branches sat birds’ which were made
of gold and silver and when a breeze passed through they
whistled and sighed in a wonderful way. At the side of the
palace, right and left of the pond, were sculptures of fifteen
knights on fifteen steeds, dressed in silks and brocades and
girt with swords. And this had followed later in many palaces,
wherever there was a fine garden court, there was bound to be
an artificial tree.
After the House of the Tree, the thing that most interested
ambassadors to the Islamic court was the new, or modern, so-
called Kiosk. This word (gausak = kiosk) means a pleasure-
house with its gardens. In certain cases the kiosk might be
strong enough to serve as a defense at need for the caliphs
and for a considerable time. This "New Kiosk" had a fine
garden round it. In the middle was a tank lined or filled with
pewter, at that time more costly than silver, and a canal
treated in the same material. The basin was thirty yards long,
and twenty wide, and beside it were four grand summer-
houses. Their seats were made of gold. It was surrounded by
gardens, wherein grew 700 dwarf palms. These palms bore
large dates, and were so trained that ripe fruit was always
there, in the beds were melons and other fruits. Palms set the
stamp of the desert, so to speak, on all these gardens, since for
the Arab they were the venerated trees of his true home, and
gave him, all in one, his cool shade, his repose, and the
beauties of the natural world. 77
References:
77
, Islamic garden design,
Page 114 of 223

Other palaces in Baghdad, Al-Mu'tadid founded two palaces
Al- Taj palace (the Crown Palace) on the Tigris nearby, and
palace, al- Thurayya palace (the Pleiades palace), they linked
to each other with an underground passage of more than three
kilometers. He surrounded it with magnificent gardens and in
their middle he ordered an immense lake to be dug out and
filled with water, which was brought through a canal
connecting two rivers; the Musa river to the east of the palace
and the Tigris to the west. He, moreover, ordered the building
of a large zoo to house all sorts of animals.
In the ninth century, a son of Harun al-Rashid's has founded a
new Abbasid capital, Samarra, on the Tigris which exceeded
even Baghdad in luxury and Splendor. The geographer, al-
Ya'qubi, writing about this city in 889 CE reports that 'the
whole land was converted by al-Mu'tasim into gardens for the
upper class'. In every garden there had to be a palace and
herewith halls, ponds and playgrounds for riding and for the
game of polo.77
In Samarra an extensive irrigation system had been built to
bring water from the river. It was accomplished by digging
huge underground canals some 40 km up the river, and been
used the Noria (waterwheel) technology to pump the water
through the town by means of smaller sub-canals, which in
their turn were conducted to almost every garden and pond in
the city, and the rest of the water, would end in the river
again. On some gardens, waterwheels were erected and that
ostriches were employed to rotate the waterwheels instead of
oxen. One of al-Mutawakkil's seventeen palaces called al-
Jawsaq al- Khaqani consisted of 432 acres, 172 of which were
gardens with pavilions, halls and basins, the whole complex
being surrounded by a wall 78.
References:
77
78
pynnsylvania,2008.
Page 115 of 223

Figure58: Plan of the Bulkawara Palace at Samarra, built in 849 AD.
Source:http://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/library_online_ebook
s/ml_gothein_history_garden_art_design/islamic_garden_design
Page 116 of 223

The Bulkawara Palace built in 849 AD I Samarra is present
an example of the chahar bagh plan. Brookes (1987; p. 36)
says that this is one of the earliest examples in which the
concept of the chahar-bagh can be seen in the Islamic garden.
In this garden we find the influence of the Persian four –parts
plan gardens which are clearly evident: the paradise, or
Hunting Park, and the smaller decorative garden area have
been incorporated into the plan. In this garden clearly laid out
chahar-bagh form which can be seen running along the
central axis of the garden from its entrance down to the Tigris
River. 79
Palaces gardens in Abbasid period presented the important
example of the mythic palaces of the thousand and one nights,
and it is no coincidence that the architecture and the narrative
tale belong to the same period. There are many historical
discount them as pure fable.
They expressed the luxury, opulence and exaggerated wealth;
And they also presented many developed industrial materials
like trees from gold or silver or copper machinery birds can
sing and move. Gardens became more factitious and artificial.
It’s an effective device for representing economic power and
the development which the Islamic state has reached in this
period.
But imaginary gardens and their real life evocations can be
found in all periods and palaces in Islamic history. As well as
Samarra gardens this became the stuff of legend.
References:
79
, Adlard ,M.,C., The Garden as a Metaphor for Paradise. Thesis, for
Master Degree of fine arts , Rhodes University, January 2001.
80
samarra
Page 117 of 223

1-3 -2 Garden in the Traditional Islamic landscape
in Syria, patterns and forms:
1-3-2 -1The courtyard: The house, Palace and

Mosque court yard:
The courtyard is one of the important features of traditional

architecture and historic urban fabric in the Islamic cities of
Middle East as Aleppo, Damascus, and Fes; it is transcending
regional, historical and cultural boundaries.
It can be traced back to the beginning of the third millennium
B.C, where it appeared in the ancient settlements of Al-sham,
and those between the two rivers; the Tigris and Euphrates
(Edward, page 31), where people used to build their houses
around enclosure, or courtyard with water in the centre, and
later on the form has been adopted and developed by different
civilizations that raised and coexisted in the ancient near east.
When Moslems conquered the Middle East in the seventh
century, they carried the courtyard concept throughout the
Mediterranean region. Then this architectural style reached
Spain and after centuries later, this idea passed to Mexico.
The physical form of courtyard served many different
functions.
Figure59: Réception d’une ambassade vénitienne à Damas sous les

Mamelouks, Venise, vers 1511, musée du Louvre RMN-Grand Palais
(musée du Louvre) / Thierry Le Mage
Source:https://www.imarabe.org/fr/decouvrir-le-monde-arabe/histoire
U U
Page 118 of 223

First, it allowed high density in ancient cities which needed to
be surrounded by walls to protect against the attacks of the
enemy as Bagdad, Damascus, and Aleppo. In those cramped
cities, the courtyard also offered privacy and security.
In the desert climates of the Middle East, the design provided

solar protection by having everything open toward this
shaded courtyard. 81
Figure 60: Palace plan of Mari city on Euphrates river 2500 B.C. one of
the earlier examples of the physical space of the courtyard in the palaces
architecture in Syria.
Source: https://www.facebook.com/BasharKhleif/?pnref=story
References:
81
, Edwards, B, Courtyard Housing: Past, Present and Future, taylor
and francis, 2006, usa and Canada.
Page 119 of 223

For the Islamic culture, the courtyard had another benefit
which is a sheltered place for plants and fountains, fulfilling a
religious purpose as a sign of paradise in the midst of arid
country. (Y. Mahgoub, 2012) 82
Emma Clark explains the enclosed form in the courtyard
houses; the courtyard became a miniature garden. It is
inwards and upwards symbolically towards the heart and
towards the God. The image of earthly paradise reflected by
the symbolic courtyards plan and its celestial properties with
the private interior open sky83.
The physical form of the courtyard reflects the separation
between the public and the private which dominates in
traditional Islamic society .This distinction between public
and private domains was to become one of the principles of
traditional Islamic architecture, with its ‘interior" courtyard
garden.
Figure 61: courtyard house in Damascus.

Source: http://muslimheritage.com/article/courtyard-houses-syria
References:
82
, Mahgoub, Y,The Reemergence of the Courtyard in Kuwaiti Housing
Design,20013, http://ymahgoub.blogspot.de/2012/06/reemergence-of-
courtyard-in-kuwaiti.html.
83
, Clark, E ,The Symbolism of the Islamic Garden, October 2, 2 01 1 .
https://www.amazon.com/Art-Islamic-Garden-Emma-
Clark/dp/1847972047
Page 120 of 223

In the traditional house and palaces in Syria the Landscaping
plays an important role in the courtyard. It consists of two
categories, decorative planting such as climbing jasmine, and
rose bushes which add color and scent to the courtyard
atmosphere and citrus trees such as orange and lemon. The
façade of the courtyard are highly decorated in the house and
inward looking but the external façade windows are
small46.Therefore, it offered limited views, and maximum
centralized on the courtyard that became the only landscape
the physical form offered.
As a climatic factor, the courtyard organization is appropriate

to hot dry climates because the most of it is shaded and
allows the creating of a pleasant microclimate, the availability
of plants and water features within the courtyard helps to cool
and humidify the internal atmosphere84.
Nowadays, By contrast, the modern house type represents the

opposite, the exterior or worldly attitude which draws new
relation with the city and the opened and extends landscape
around.
The relation with the landscape or the form of garden and
dwelling has developed differently through the history by
different civilizations that coexisted in the same place and
influenced each other’s, the Arabs and the Turks as example
have presented opposite relationships between dwelling and
garden. The first based on the introverted patio-house with
the garden in the center. The second based on the hall
between the two gardens which is open toward them on both
sides85.
References:
84
, Zein Alabidin, M.,The Courtyard Houses of Syria,
http://muslimheritage.com/article/courtyard-houses-syria.
85
, Petruccioli , A.,Rethinking the Islamic Garden ,Islamic Environmental
Page 121 of 223

In Syria there are many examples of the courtyard houses and
palaces, where they formed important part of the old cities
urban fabric as Damascus and Aleppo.
Figure 62: The fountain in Achik Bash House in Aleppo.

Source: http://muslimheritage.com/article/courtyard-houses-syria
Figure 63: The Maktab Anbar in Damascus. Maktab anbar is an old

house in the center of Old Damascus near the Umayyad Mosque and a
short distance from the Street Called Straight. The house was built as a
private residence in the mid 19th century and was later confiscated by the
Ottoman government; the house is built around three courtyards.
Source://muslimheritage.com/article/courtyard-houses-syria
Page 122 of 223

During the Ottoman period many palaces have been
constructed with court yards by the rich elite with grand area
and multi courtyards with the same features of the houses
.But they display richness and luxury. The courtyard gardens
is used for social activities as well as for daily life uses for the
families with the privacy and separation between men and
women in the social life, as the palace al-Azem in Damascus
Which has simple and unadorned façade like most of the
Damascene houses and palaces contrasts with its elaborated
interior.
Its layout covers a wide area surrounded by a bare wall with
generally no windows and has one or two doors. Its interior
consists of two or three courtyards.
The location is in the heart of the Old City just south of the
Umayyad Mosque’s qibla wall near the Suq al-Buzuriyya, It
was built in 1163/1749 by Assad al-Azem Pasha (one of the
last great Ottoman governors of Syria). With (5.500 square
m). It has the appearance like elite houses of the period.
Figure 64(A):Azem Palace61 (1749, later Ottoman Palace)

Source:http://web.mit.edu/akpia/www/AKPsite/4.239/Azem/Azam%20Palace.
html
Page 123 of 223

It is divided between the public reception area(Saramlik) and
the large and open paved courtyard that comprises its
domestic heart (Haramlik), with baths in the northeast corner
of the latter. The domestic courtyard (25 by 25 m) has a large
rectangular pool at the north end which is connected by a
channel to a raised fountain at the other; there are beds for
flowers and trees oranges are planted there today-reserved in
its handsome paved marble floors.
Surrounding the courtyard are Iwans and recessed chambers
that provide shade and cushioned seating so that the residents
could enjoy the brilliant colors, pleasing sounds, and fragrant
scents of the garden without subjecting themselves to the
sun's heat. 86
Figure 64(A,B): The fountain in Al-Azem Palace in Damascus.
Also the Ass`d Pasha Al`zem Palace in Hama:

It Located in old Hama city, built by alderman of Hama city
Ass`d Pasha Al`zem in (1740 AC). In (1956) the Palace was
converted to a traditional Museum of Hama city.
The palace contains two parts; the old part which is built
by Ass`d Pasha and contains the main gate, corridor, and the
References:
86
, D.Ruggles, F., Islamic Gardens and Landscapes,university of
pynnsylvania,2008.Page 178.
Page 124 of 223

First Courtyard which is surrounded by five rooms and Iwan.
The up floor contains the most important hall in the palace the
(Gold Hall): it was the private wing for the family and
A bode for women.
The Second part was built in 1780. In 30 years after the first
part had been built, and Nasouh Pasha was the new owner
who added it.
The Second part next to the private one for men and the
whole last part have been kept for family and women.
Figure65(A): Ass`d Pasha Al`zem Palace in Hama ,Gold hall

courtyard
Source:https://www.academia.edu/8706891/SYRIAN_PALACES_IN_O
TTOMAN_STYLE
Page 125 of 223

Figure 65(A,B):The Ass`d Pasha Al`zem Palace in Hama
Jinblat Palace- Aleppo:

Jinblat palace is located near Victory gate of Aleppo inside
the fences. It was built by the prince Jinblat during 16
century; it is the biggest house in old Aleppo city.
It has an area about 2310m after it had been about 5000m
Before some parts of it were destroyed .The palace contains
15 rooms, large courtyard with large rectangle fountain, great
Iwan and cellar. Now Most of the rooms are located around
Iwan and courtyard. Thereby, ground floor is specified for
men, whereas the area is allocated for women .The height of
Iwan is 15m and the width is 10.50m, it is open to the
courtyard. And it takes the north direction. This Iwan is
unique in Syria architecture heritage. In addition, it is very
rich by plant, geometric and calligraphy marble motifs. 87
References:
87
, D. Alafandi, R., Syrian palaces in Ottoman style, International
Conference of Architecture and Built Environment, 2013.
Page 126 of 223

In the mosques architecture, the rectangular walled court-
yards with arcades has used with a surrounded walls and
fountains for ritual ablutions and a pavilion like both Umay-
yad mosques in Damascus and in Aleppo ,but there are no
planted trees found or vegetation in the city`s mosques of
Umayyad period in Syria .And the earliest mosque where
planting is the great mosque of Cordoba, where trees were
planted in the courtyard at least at early as the first decade of
the ninth century. By an Umayyad prince Abed Al Rahman I
in 785-87. It is provided with a planted court yard with a
variety of trees and the mosque had a fountain for ritual
ablutions .The water came from the rainwater stocked in an
underground tank .the water was raised to ground level by an
animal powered wheel and distributed via shallow channels
dug in the soil to irrigate the trees planted in the courtyard.
The irrigation system has developed by time periods to
achieve in 991-92 larger, deeper; cisterns were dug in the
courtyard floor. The trees were planted in the courtyard with
fruit –bearing 88.
Cordoba was not the only Andalusia or Mediterranean
mosque with a cultivated courtyard. Cairo mosque in the
eleventh century had palm trees in its courtyard. The conger-
gational mosque of Malaga and Seville in 1172-82 mosques
has also courtyard with a large central fountain and it was
planted with orange trees and fruit-bearing palm trees.
In regard to the vegetations and trees symbolic meaning in the

court yards in Islamic period.
The planting trees in religious setting has a very long history
in the eastern Mediterranean beside Quran the Bible in psalm
92 says that ‘’righteous shall flourish like tree in a courtyard
of the Temple’’.
References:
88
,D.Ruggles.F., Islamic Gardens and Landscapes, university of
Page 127 of 223

But not all the planting presents religious reference. In
Cordoba, despite to its earlier use to the planted court yard
but the Islam legal authorities didn’t interpret the trees as
parasitic symbols or indication of piety. So the interpreters of
religious laws in Cordoba didn’t interpret mosque garden as
paradise.
The sign of paradise has represented in Umayyad mosque in
Damascus. The Mosque had an extensive mosaic program
depicting trees and landscape, covering the walls of its
courtyard. Its free standing treasury chamber and the façade
of the transept leading to the Qibla wall and Mihrab. This was
in the same period of the construction of prophet’s mosque in
medina between 705-715. 89
Figure 66(A):Umayyad Mosque

Source:http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_svAyYhspKJw/S6nJkZDhEfI/AAAA
AAAAErw/D24GV9vx9J8/s1600/74105075.jpg
References:
89
,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque
Page 128 of 223

Figure 66(A,B,C):Umayyad Mosque
Source:http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_svAyYhspKJw/S6nJkZDhEfI/AAAA
AAAAErw/D24GV9vx9J8/s1600/74105075.jpg
The Umayyad Mosque retained his place as the center of

religious life in the city in different historic periods.
Its structure returned to the Iron Age where Damascus was
capital of Aramian. First, it was built as a temple for Hadad-
Ramman, the god of thunderstorms and rain. The location
was at the site of the present-day Umayyad Mosque. It is not
known exactly how the temple looked, but it is believed to
have followed the traditional Semitic-Canaanite architectural
form and it resembles the Temple of Jerusalem. The site
likely consisted of a walled courtyard, a small chamber for
worship, and a tower-like structure typically symbolizing the
"high place" of storm gods.
In 64 BCE the temple has executed under the Romans

authority by the Damascus-born architect Apollodorus, for
the God of thunder and Jupiter. Most of its original Semitic
design was preserved; the walled courtyard was largely left
Page 129 of 223

intact. In the center of the courtyard stood the cella, an image
of the god which followers would honor. There was one
tower at each of courtyard's four corners. The towers were
used for rituals in line with ancient Semitic religious
traditions where sacrifices were made on high places. 90
And the mosque was built near an earlier Byzantine palace
from which it was separated by a garden or open ground.
And Umayyad mosque of Aleppo 715, was constructed in the
gardens that formerly belonged to the Byzantine cathedral,
Ruggles refers to the influence of the Byzantine churches on
the landscaped sitting of early mosque, where at ninth century
Byzantine church was surrounded by enclosed and irrigated
gardens with fountains 91.
In Ottoman Istanbul, it was common for the mosque to have
adjacent gardens that served as cemeteries.
Imperial Ottoman mosques began to expand to include
additional services like, hospital, soup kitchen, Madrasas, and
libraries an outer enclosure court planted with trees.
Figure 67: Great Mosque courtyard, with Şadirvan pavilions and

minaret, Aleppo, Syria.
References:
90
,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Mosque
91
, D.Ruggles, F., Islamic Gardens and Landscapes,university of
Page 130 of 223

In Syria during the Ottoman period , The Sultan of the
Ottoman Empire, Selim II had built in Damascus
a mosque complex located on the banks of the Barada River
The complex is composed of a large mosque on the southwest
side of a courtyard, flanked by a single line of arcaded cells,
and a soup kitchen across the courtyard to the northwest,
flanked by hospice buildings, The mosque has two minarets
and walls with alternating light and dark stripes.
The complex was designed by the architect Sinan.92
Figure68: The mosque complex in Damascus, Syria, located on the

banks of the Barada River.
Source: http://new.beautifulmosque.com/PostImages/tekkiye-mosque-in-
damascus-syria.jpg
References:
92
, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekkiye_Mosque
Page 131 of 223

1-4 Characteristics of the Islamic garden and its
architectural functional Elements:
1-4-1 Sense of unity and Privacy.
The Islamic world extends on a large geography with wide

variety of cultures, and diverse social tradition and historical
identities of peoples including Arabs ,Berbers, Byzantine,
Christians, Persians from Iran, and Turkic peoples that come
from steppes of central Asia.
And the Islamic landscape is also varied with different
geographic characteristics between mountains and Sahara.
And contains varies climates considerably in many areas of
Islamic world from North Africa to the western periphery of
the Pacific Ocean and from Central Asia to sub-Saharan
Africa.
But in spite all this differences the Middle East is underlain

by a subtle homogeneity.
The landscape architecture historian Norman Newton (1971)
discussed the similarity in ambiance between the gardens of
the Alhambra, built in thirteenth-century Spain, and the Taj
Mahal which is built in the sixteenth-century India;
The similarity between the two great Islamic monuments is
not a matter of detailed form; it is not even an apparent
physical sameness.
It is a unity of spirit that Islam has emphasized on it, by the

lifestyles of Muslims, that depends on Islamic instructions
stemmed from Quran and teaching of Prophet Mohammad.
The idea of Al Umma as a term refers to the Muslims people
with a common ideology and culture according to a divine
message transmitted by the prophet to the community of
Islam.
With the expansion of Islam , more Islamic communities

learned Arabic from mosque and Islamic governments.
as a result and in the light of such diversity, Islam raises up as
a coherent culture label, a main relevant factors helped as the
trade and pilgrimage Routs that passed in the Middle East
from ancient times and continue under the Islamic ideology
that united the different tribes under its flag and brought
Page 132 of 223

societies together to enable people to exchange objects and
ideas. 93
One of the factors that support the homogeneity and unity in
the reform of the landscape and coded it under one coherent
Islamic label is the interactive process with the previous
developed civilization that exists in the Middle East. For
thousands of years, the Middle East was the stage of various
ancient civilizations, Mesopotamia, Babylon, Egypt, Ancient
Greece, the Roman Empire, Persia, and others. When Islam
rose as a political and economic power and religion, it has
adopted many accomplishments of contemporary cultures.
This evolutionary development succeeded in blending the
agricultural experiences and skills of Mesopotamia, and later
on Egyptians, and the experience in irrigation systems in
Persia, byzantine, and Roman Empire. They translated the
scientific discoveries from the other civilizations.
One of the influential sources of design ideas was also the

desert environment itself, which affects every aspect of life.
The climate of the region is characterized by high average
temperature, high solar impact, strong wind, and fierce
sandstorms. Ultimately, the lack of sufficient water is the
limiting factor in design94. All these factors helped in
producing a unity of form.
References:
93
pynnsylvania,2008.
94
, Hamed, S., E., Paradise on earth: Historical gardens of the arid
Middle East http://ag.arizona.edu/oals/ALN/aln36/Hamed.html.
Page 133 of 223

Privacy is the most intangible aspect which is presented
clearly by the physical form of the Islamic garden with its
walls, and the closed elevation that was oriented toward the
courtyard which is the available domesticated landscape.
The enclosed form is required in case of presenting the idea

of paradise and its contemplative aspect, beside that it’s also a
kind of responding to the environmental requirements of the
place. Which is explained by Creswell (1968) that clustering
of walls, buildings and tall trees as a prerequisite for the
privacy needed to develop the hidden qualities of the spirit. 94
Lesiuk (1980) also noted that enclosing the earthly garden

with walls and buildings is a metaphoric gesture recalling its
heavenly archetype. 94
Privacy according to Islam is required, from the religious

point of view, because the idea of the earthly paradise which
is a private place, hidden away from the world and from
people. It is a place for prayer and contemplation.
And the courtyard house corresponds to the private interior

world of the family. In Persia, as well as in the Arab countries
and in India, gardens and courtyards were clearly defined
spaces within the layout of the architecture.
But Turkey has developed this form of houses to exploit the

surrounding natural and beautiful views that nature offers. In
Spain the courtyard with its sloped location where views
clearly appears from a distance, there were windows opened
in the walls to view the extending natural landscape.94
References:
94
,Hamed,S.,E.,Paradise on earth: Historical gardens of the arid Middle
East ,http://ag.arizona.edu/oals/ALN/aln36/Hamed.html
Page 134 of 223

But Arab adopted this form and maintained this characteristic
because the enclosed form with its privacy provide protection
from the hostile environment in the desert, also helped to
protect and control the domesticated landscape in the
courtyards and its quality from the vast aridity outside, and
their envision paradise. The relation with landscape became
closed by wall and limited view.
A.Petruccioli explains that the form reflects the culture that

evolved from the influence of the environment of the desert,
and from necessity based on protecting living space. So this
privacy came as a reaction toward the circumstances that
faced the earlier settlements in the desert. 95
References:
95
Page 135 of 223

‘’I wonder whether I shall ever spend a night,
With flower gardens and water pools around me,
Where green olive groves, far-famed are planted,
Where the doves sing, the warbling of birds resounds,
In the Zahir on the hights, refreshed by soft rain,
The Thurayya pointing at us, we pointing at it,
The Zahi looking at us with its round Sa`d as-suùd,
Jealous of each other, like a beloved and a lover!
All this is now hard, not easy to attain:
Yet, whatever God wishes to pass, is easy to bear!’’
The Andalusia king al-mutamid-1095- recalled with sad

longing his former palaces Sahir and Thurayya halls, names
for constellations , planets and its gardens.(Ruggles, Page 58)
References:
U
D. Ruggles, F., Garden, landscape, and vision in the palaces of Islamic

Page 136 of 223

1-5 The main architectural elements of the
garden:
An Islamic garden is a landscape designed according to
certain ideological principles that employs certain physical
elements, and focused on certain intentions. The articulation
of these elements and intentions is deeply rooted in the
teachings of the Islamic faith and in the culture of the Muslim
people. 94
The essential physical elements that define the Islamic garden
are:
1-5-1 the walls (enclosure wall):

The geographical characteristics affected the primary form of
the traditional Islamic garden, its formal components and
physical features.
The most of the desert civilization made reference to the
archetype of the fence, and many Traditional gardens were
surrounded by walls. It had inward-looking composition
which is interpreted as an attempt to isolate human-made
order from the perceived chaos of the surrounding harsh
desert, and to protect the domesticate and cultivate area.
A. Petruccioli has referred that the Islamic garden portrays an
attitude toward the environment, the taming and glorification
of nature enclosed within four walls juxtaposed with the
hostile areas of outside world 95.
References:
94
,Hamed,S.,E.,Paradise on earth: Historical gardens of the arid Middle
East, http://ag.arizona.edu/oals/ALN/aln36/Hamed.html
95
Page 137 of 223

He referred to the concept of space in a culture evolved from
the desert and the necessity of protecting living space and
transforming the enclosure into an archetypal sign of
distinction, not only separation between the nomadic and the
sedentary, between oasis and desert, irrigated and arid land
but because there is no dialog between the two. The enclosure
becomes a fortress under constant attack from the desert
symbolism-thirst, death, and evil spirits; therefore it was
sheltered by high walls95.
All these aspects gathered to produce this protection to the

organized and domesticated landscape.
But in the case of another environment like Turkey, which
has different geographical features. And this lead to another
relation with the nature and another conception of the Islamic
garden, even to another development to the landscape which
became more open to outside space, interact with the nature
features like rivers, mountains, and try to exploit this aspect
and take advantage of the views in designing the gardens and
the landscape.
The traditional walled gardens that inherited as in the context
of the city or the relation with the rest landscape produces a
fragmentation in the urban pattern that transferred the city to
closed entities, isolated and separated parts, it’s the treatment
in the desert or Sahara regions, but the development of cities
which were surrounded by natural views should consider
another planning system to employ the natural features and
invest them in the urban plan development.
Reference:
95
Page 138 of 223

1-5-2 The gradation and successive levels:
It’s a part of constructions of views in the Islamic gardens.

It helped to view panoramically the garden and the
surrounding landscape. It was used in the gardens of the
Achaemenids kings which is a pre-Islamic period on a
sloped site .And it was a strategically planned to control
the views of the garden and the vast cultivated surrounded
landscape .It’s also considered as a part of the hierarchy in
the palaces complex that put the king as the representative
of god on earth. This was influenced by the religion of
Mesopotamia, which has been adopted by many
civilizations that coexisted in the Middle East.
Later on after Islam, the same character has adopted and
continued to be used in the palaces and palatine gardens of
Islamic period. Umayyad, Abbasid and in Andalucía, the
sloped site helped it as in Al Rummanyan`s, madinat Al-
zahra places gardens where was built on a slope of a
mountain west of Cordoba in order to exploit the views.96
Granada gardens were set on the hillsides and they give

lovely aspect, unlike the Mughol gardens in Kashmir,the
hillside garden in this area was slightly irregular, and also
it also differs from Seville and Cordoba. They are on a flat
site; the hillside location clearly gave more scope for
variation and more details. It provides a view of the nearby
town or city could be seen through a pierced wall or from
an open terrace brick or tile staircases would connect
various levels, in contrast to Islamic gardens elsewhere.
There is necessity for the use of a means to achieve visual
drama. The flights of steps were often sheltered by
pergolas and lined with potted plants. They were
sometimes covered by bright tiles in a geometrical pattern
and formed an effective contrast with the surrounding
white stucco walls.
Reference:
96
, D. Ruggles, F., Garden, landscape, and vision in the palaces of
Islamic Spain, The Pennsylvania state university press, U.S, A, 2000
Page 139 of 223

Beside this the terraces or falling terrain also provided a
great scope for the arrangement of water and its
97
distribution.
Ruggles also interprets this design in the palaces gardens as
a social hierarchy design, and explains that this design of
view from a high and vast expanse of land was an act from
the ruler to signify his colossal power over the land and its
inhabitants.
It served state ideology and became a part of the palace
typology that presented the Sovereignty and the power of
the king.
This design became one of the architectural characters of
Islamic gardens. 98
1-5-3 Pavilions;
The Pavilion was used in the garden layout for relaxation,

gazing and contemplation. It provides a shaded vantage
point in which everyone could sit and view the magnificent
garden and surrounding landscape and contemplate inner
thoughts. It also provides a shelter from the heat of the
desert.
Typically had a "rectangular platform with open porches,
probably columned, added to each of its shorter sides.
In the religious context, it is mentioned in the description

of paradise in Quran and also in Hadith of the prophet
Muhammad. 99
References:
97
,Lehrman ,J. B., Earthly Paradise: Garden and Courtyard in
Islam,University of California press,Berkeley and Los Angeles,
1980.Page 89.
98
, D. Ruggles, F.,Garden, landscape,and vision in the palaces of
islamic spain,The Pennsylvania state university press,U.S,A,2000
99
, Halim Ibn Muhammad Nassae As-Salafi , A., Description of
Paradise In The Glorious Quran, Darussalam Publisher.
https://books.google.de/books?id=eXXDAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT116&lpg=PT116&dq=pavillon+in+q
uran+verses&source=bl&ots=LQeb55Ulta&sig=vPyF50dBYQa2aJmshe22lAE-
O3I&hl=de&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi0t5bH-
rfPAhVC1hQKHToZCxYQ6AEIXTAO#v=onepage&q=pavillon%20in%20quran%20verses&f=false
Page 140 of 223

But historically, the pavilion is used in Persian gardens for
the first time in the Achaemenids empire period in the
king’s palaces garden before Islam, and it was used as an
important centered element in the design of palaces
gardens in Syria Al-Rusafa (Byzantine site) and then it
belonged to the Umayyad caliphs. The pavilion was
elevated and surrounded by an arcade and had an opening
on each side from which three steps ran down to the
garden100.
The pavilion form changed from gardens layout to another.

Emma Clark refers to Mughol gardens pavilion form and
its symbolism.’’ The pavilions at the four corners of many
Mughol mausoleums including the Taj Mahal, are
octagonal and the throne of God is supported by eight
angels, signifying the renewed man after he has travelled
through the seven heavens and regained paradise.’’ 101
But in Spanish gardens layout, it presented a distinctive

feature of small bower (Glorieta). It symbolized the pearl
pavilion of the Quranic paradise. It was located at the
junction path. It was often formed of Cypress trees the top
of which would bend or clipped to form arches.
Alternatively, a light arch might be built and covered with
vine 102.
References:
100
, D.F.Ruggles,Garden, landscape,and vision in the palaces of
islamic spain,The Pennsylvania state university
press,U.S,A,2000,Page 178.
101
- Clark, E., sympolism of islamic garden.
http://islamic-arts.org/2011/the-symbolism-of-the-islamic-garden/
102
Lehrman ,J. B., Earthly Paradise: Garden and Courtyard in
Islam,University of California press,Berkeley and Los Angeles,
1980.Page89.
Page 141 of 223

1-5-4 Shadows
Shadows serve the purpose of Islamic garden as a cool
place of rest and reflection and a reminder of paradise.
It is a stark contrast between the harsh and arid landscape

in most parts of the Islamic World and the gentle cool
given by trees and the foliage of a garden and with a green
canopy of shade.
Shadows beside the water are considered the most impor-
tant aspect in the garden in Quranic text; Emma Clark
explains the effect of the environment of desert on the
sacredness of the Islamic elements:
Two indispensable elements of the Islamic Gardens of

Paradise are already evident here – water and shade. It is
important to remember just how much more a garden
means to those brought up in a hot desert climate than to
those brought up in countries where rain is frequent and
where the popular idea of paradise is a desert island with a
palm tree 103.
This aspect is highly considerable in gardens features and

presents a high-value environmental role in moderating
climate and reducing the heat which are important factors
for the environmental improvements in the landscaping
study and design.
Reference:
U
103
, Clark, E., The art of Islamic garden, Times offset, Malaysia,
2010.
Page 142 of 223

1-5-5 Water features
‘’water is the secret of the soul in many sacred traditions,

its fluidity and constantly purifying aspect is the reflection
of the soul`s ability to renew itself ‘’ 103
Water has crucial importance in every living aspect, “and

we made everything alive from water” it’s a keynote in
Quran refers to the role of life giving water in all of Islamic
culture.
Water role was significant in the ancient Middle East, and
Ancient civilizations where it’s considered a sacred
element in regard to its importance and influence on the
human life existence.
Figure 69:Water features in Spain.

Source :http://archleague.org/2013/03/re-reading-ornament-textures-
U
in-islamic-spain-by-fiyel-levent/ U
It has made civilization possible, most of the ancient

civilization settled near the water sources like rivers, and
its economy depended on the water ability for irrigation
and agriculture and trade, like Mari kingdom on Euphrates
River in Syria or Mesopotamia and Nile River in Egypt.
Therefore, water was considered a sacred element in many
ancient civilizations and it is even mentioned in their
myths.
Reference:
U
103
2010.page28.
Page 143 of 223

Emma klark explains that ‘’Water – cooling, cleansing and
purifying – is at the centre of the garden, the courtyard and
the mosque. In a traditional society there is no separation
between the sacred and the profane and water is the
supreme example of this.’’ 103
In the hot arid climate where the desert water is essential to
life and to survive so far it is associated with wealth
and fertility. Emma Clark points out In the Epic of
Gilgamesh that water has much more value to people who
live in arid countries and that desert dwellers traditionally
viewed water as a symbol of God's mercy. This idea is
evident in numerous verses of the Quran, where water and
mercy are inseparable 103.
In the garden the water is located in the center of the
courtyards where there is a fountain from which radiate
four paths. It’s placed at the heart of the garden, and
playing many roles within the garden design; it is
emphasizing architectural elements, masking outdoor
noise, producing pleasing sounds, refreshes the eyes,
cooling the body in the high temperatures and providing a
space for spiritual contemplation. Irrigating plants, and
soothing the dusty wind 104.
Water moves through the Islamic garden in many ways, it
changes level over chutes and waterfalls, and spurts into
the air from fountains. It sends out plums or bubbling out
in sprays and swirls, filling the air with sound.
In Spain courtyard water has played a significant role in
gardens as well as in other architectural spaces. Water
features viewed as part of the spiritual conception of
landscape , while in other spaces the absolute stillness of a
large pool would created almost perfect reflections of the
surrounding architecture , even more it’s played a role as
divider of spaces like the courtyard of the Alhambra and
The Generalife in the Patio de la Acequia.
Reference:
103
2010.
104
, Hamed,S.,E.,Paradise on earth: Historical gardens of the arid
Middle ,East http://ag.arizona.edu/oals/ALN/aln36/Hamed.html.
Page 144 of 223

It has reflected and presented a high level of water
irrigations developments through the recognizable water
features and construction.
Figure70: Alhambra palace,court of lion.

Source:http://islamic-arts.org/2011/the-symbolism-of-the-islamic-
garden/
Figure71: Alhambra palace, is filled with the sounds of trickling

water.
Source:http://www.exploringcastles.com/alhambra_granada_spain.ht
ml
Page 145 of 223

1-5-6 Plants and trees
In the dry, desert climate of Arabia, where Islam originated, a

lush, green, and shady garden with water presented the
paradise on Earth. From this environmental background of
view, plants and trees in the Islamic world have acquired
sacred and symbolic meanings, but trees in the three holy
books of Judaism, Christianity and Islam are prominent and
beyond their utilities. They are important for the holy books
as a symbol and metaphor. In the Koran, trees are most
frequently cited as gifts of a beneficent Creator, shady and
fruitful trees are highly valued and many trees have
mentioned in the Quran as olive, fig, and pomegranate. Etc.
we can find them in all and most of the Islamic garden and in
different period, in the palaces of Umayyad princes or as well
as court house in Damascus and Aleppo, the power of the
ruler stemmed from the productivity and fertility of the
landscape that bring prosperity and richness.
Agricultural economic played a crucial role in the prosperity

of the Islamic civilization like Persian and Roman empires
before. Beside this aspect ,as Emma Clark refers to the
vegetation in Islamic gardens, that greenery is soften the
ordered and geometric nature of the garden, as does the
vegetation ,it contains the generous planting of chinar trees
(the plane tree, Platanus orientalis) with their large, shade-
giving leaves, and the cypress, the palm-tree and the olive as
well as the different kinds of fruit trees: fig, cherry , peach,
citrus, pomegranate, and almond, with their abundant
blossom and fruit Flower-beds were most likely to be filled
with fragrant varieties such as jasmine, roses, narcissus,
violets and lilies 105.
Reference:
105
, Clark, E., The art of Islamic garden ,Times offset, Malaysia ,2010
Page 146 of 223

1-5-7 Birds and animals
Various kind of birds and animals, were introduced in the

Islamic gardens to give animation to the garden and that
included swans, pheasants, pigeons, ducks and singing
birds106.
The elite people in the palaces gardens enjoy them. In the
palaces gardens From Samaria to Bagdad, during Abbasid
period they were used in the palaces parks, every
individual palace had its own separate encircling wall with
special houses attached to the palaces gardens. Various
wild beasts were kept there like elephants, lions, giraffes,
and leopards. These were sufficiently tamed to eat out of a
visitor’s hand. 107
Enormous pleasure gardens in palaces of Spain were also
found birds and animals. Nowadays, in many countries
around the world as well as Europe, many parks contain
various types of animals, and they play an important role in
the wildlife preservation where landscape has been
designed to accommodate and nourish wildlife population
which enhances species richness. It is very important on
the environmental scale and for the sustainable urban
development. 108
References:
106
, Hamed,S.,E.,Paradise on earth: Historical gardens of the arid
Middle East, http://ag.arizona.edu/oals/ALN/aln36/Hamed.html.
107
http://www.gardenvisit.com/history_theory/library_online_ebooks/ml
_gothein_history_garden_art_design/islamic_garden_design
108
, Lyle, J., T., Design for Human Ecosystems: Landscape, Land
Use, and Natural Resources, landscape, land use and natural
resources, Island press, California, 1999.
Page 147 of 223

1-5-8 Arabesque and ornaments
Islamic art encompasses many visual arts produced from
the 7th century. But not all of these arts restricted to
religious matters, but includes all the art of the rich and
varied cultures of Islamic societies as well. 109
Ornamentation is a central feature in many of the Islamic
architectural types. Islamic gardens with its enclosed form
and surrounded walls has over many Islamic periods
presented a kind of ornamentations and calligraphy arts. It
has added an aesthetic value to the space. Geometric
patterns make up one of the three non figural types of
decoration in Islamic art which also include calligraphy
and vegetal patterns. Whether isolated or used in
combination with no figural ornamentation or figural
representation, geometric patterns are popularly associated
with Islamic art largely due to their anionic quality. These
abstract designs not only adorn the surfaces of monumental
Islamic architecture but also function as the major
decorative element on a vast Array of objects of all types.
Figure72: Interior detailing of the connecting pathway between the

Mexuar and the Comares Palace. Alhambra palace.
Source:http://www.exploringcastles.com/alhambra_granada_spain.ht
ml
References:
U
109
,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_art
U U
Page 148 of 223

Figure73: Detail of arabesque decoration at the Alhambra in Spain
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_art
While geometric ornamentation may have reached a

pinnacle in the Islamic world. Islamic art developed from
many sources like Greeks, Romans, Early Christian art,
Byzantine styles, and Sasanians art of pre-Islamic Persia.
Islamic artists appropriated key elements from the classical
tradition, then complicated and elaborated upon them in
order to invent a new form of decoration that stressed the
importance of unity and order. The significant intellectual
contributions of Islamic mathematicians, astronomers, and
scientists were essential to the creation of this unique new
style. 110
In the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs there are
repeated elements, and it is known as the arabesque. The
arabesque in Islamic art is often used to symbolize the
transcendent indivisible and infinite nature of God.
Mistakes in repetitions may be intentionally introduced as a
show of humility by artists who believe only God can
produce perfection, although this theory is disputed.
References:
110
,http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/geom/hd_geom.htm
Page 149 of 223

figure 74 Stone relief with arabesques of tendrils, palmettes
and half-palmettes Damascus Umayyad mosque.
Figure75 photo on the left side isMosaic in the court yard facad
of Umayyad mosque Damascus.-the photo in right side is ornament
in Alhambra.
Sources:
https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/chapter-7-the-islamic-
world/deck/4319091
http://foter.com/f/photo/5220660302/65c08e665d/
Page 150 of 223

Typically, though not entirely, Islamic art has focused on
The depiction of patterns whether purely geometric or
floral and Arabic calligraphy rather than on figures. Human
representation for the purpose of worship is considered
idolatry and is duly forbidden in Islamic law, and it is
known as ‘Sharia law’. There are also many Small décor-
ative figures of animals and humans, especially if they are
hunting the animals, are found on secular pieces in many
media from many periods, but portraits were slow to
develop. 110
Andalusia as an example has developed its ornaments with

its own unique characteristics. Oleg Grabar discusses the
nature of geometric arts and comments: “The areas and
times that most consistently exhibit geometric ornament
are at the periphery of major cultural centers or at the edges
of dominating social classes.” However, he goes on to say,
“…quite the opposite occurred in the Muslim world.” 111
References;
110
, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_art
111
,https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-islam/islamic-
art-medieval/a/the-alhambra
Page 151 of 223

Figure76: Poèmes d’Ibn Zamrak sur les murs du palais de
l’Alhambra,Grenade, XIVe siècle.
Source: https://www.imarabe.org/fr/decouvrir-le-monde-arabe/art-
culture
Figure 77: Kufic calligraphy combined with floral and

geometrical decoration with intersecting horseshoe arches.
Plate on Cordoba Mosque façade.
Source:http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/introduction-islamic-
art
Page 152 of 223

1-5-9 Calligraphy on walls.
One of the decorative forms of art developed in Islamic

culture is calligraphy, which consists of the use of artistic
lettering. That is combined with geometrical and natural
forms. As in other forms of Islamic art, Calligraphic design is
omnipresent in Islamic art, where as in Europe in the Middle
Ages religious exhortations including Quranic verses. It may
be included in secular objects, especially coins, tiles and
metalwork, and most painted miniatures include some scripts,
as many buildings. Other inscriptions include verses of poetry
and inscriptions that record ownership or donation. Two of
the main scripts involved the symbolic kufic and naskh scripts
which can be found adorning and enhancing the visual appeal
of the walls and domes of buildings, the sides of minbars, and
metalwork. Islamic calligraphy in the form of painting or
sculptures is sometimes referred to as Quranic art. 112
Figure 78: Calligraphy in Andalucia palaces.

Source: http://www.123rf.com/stock-
photo/nazaries_palaces.html?mediapopup=42618775
References:
,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_art
112
Page 153 of 223

1-6 Conclusion:
According to the Historical and archaeological records in

additional to mythology studies on the Islamic garden theme.
I found that the formal design for the garden that used during
the Islamic period, the ‘’four-parts’’ garden form with its
philosophy that presented the paradise concept existed before
the Islamic period. The form and its philosophy the paradise
concept has developed through ages by many ancient
civilizations in the Middle East, which adopted the form and
used it with different interpretations and beliefs. All of these
civilizations shared the same geographical area.
(Figure, the map) and all of it was a result of the agricultural

Economic development and according to D.Ruggles and
Alsawah, it was the reason of emergence and rising of the
civilizations through the classical period in the ancient Levant
(Bilad Alsham). This economical shift led to the emergence
of the first cities in the human history in Mesopotamia, with
all its advanced political and religious organization. This shift
was called the Urban Revolution.
Figure 79: map of the ancient civilization in Middle East

Source: http://www.bible.ca/maps/maps-near-east-500BC.jpg
Page 154 of 223

That what also was explained by Angles, when he referred to
the role of the first agricultural economy and classes that
caused the emergence of religion as an organization.
The agro-economic is the outcome of the Neolithic revolution

at 9000 BC .It emerged at the first time and according to
many factors in the Fertile Crescent and particularly in Syria.
Human there settled in the land after being nomads. They
knew the agriculture for the first time and the domestication
of the nature. They produced the food, and tame the animals
as well.
Then this revolution spread radially to the north, where in

Anatolian was the first spread of it. After it spread in the east
of Turkey and then to other lands as Cauvin referred.
This revolution occurs as a result to the shift in beliefs of the

Paleolithic man. According to Cauvin which he declares that
the emergence of agriculture was associated clearly with the
emergence of the first divinities of the human societies and
that was in many sites in Syria.
And this change happened in 10000 BC, was the period that
the human of Paleolithic period expressed his thoughts and
beliefs by symbols and figures of a woman and a bull which
will develop in the Neolithic area to become the belief of the
societies.
Both revolutions bring to the Neolithic societies the first

belief and economic power which caused as explained the
urban revolution in Mesopotamia.
Agricultural economic surplus causes prosperity by

supporting the trade network that was passed from ancient
Neolithic time through the ancient Levant, passed many
continents, and in turn this economic development leads to
the emergence of the empires in the Levant.
Page 155 of 223

The first formal garden four parts plan was a result to the
important changes and agricultural revolution and was used in
the empires period around 559-553 BC in Achaemenids
palaces for the first time according to Ruggles. The drawing
was common in the Neolithic sites as the mythological studies
referred; they developed the form with sophisticated irrigation
technique which employed it to distribute the agricultural
resources.
The garden during this period was used by the kings and elite
classes’ palaces that dominated the agricultural economic and
political power in the societies. It expressed both powers all
over this period, from the Achaemenids period to the Islamic
period and all over the different countries that Islam extended
over, and was associated with the palaces architecture with its
ideology of paradise and technique that was employed in the
agricultural landscape.
It reflects the power and Sovereignty that stemmed from the

first societies organization that was built by classes through
the economic development process of the societies toward
civilization. Gardens in palaces were used as pleasure gardens
and agricultural areas where presented the outcome of the
human experiences with the nature which he has dominated
and domesticated. So it presented the production of
domesticated nature and the success of human being over the
difficulties that faced him as a human species, and the
conditions that created him. The garden so display the
agricultural economic achievements from a different kind of
fruitful trees, plants, flowers and even it displays the taming
animal achievement. So it was used as a sample of the human
being achievements over the wild nature. It reflected for him
the plot or part of the wild nature that human or his species
could domesticate and organized according to his needs
beliefs and thoughts. And this image will be a part of the
human myths and legends later on and will lead to construct
his first paradise; the domesticated plot that has all what he
Page 156 of 223

needs from the fertilized nature to be happy and satisfied in
his life on the earth.
When Islam at the 7th century emerged as a political and

economical power in the middle east, it adapted the legacy of
the previous civilization ,and united the different tribes under
one religion and ideology , it is depended on the agriculture
economic that feeds the trade and brings prosperities to the
civilizations and stability, and the ancient theme of the
paradise that was presented previously in the myths of the
Neolithic period ,was easily justified for the desert
inhabitants ,where the paradise is the fertile land , and also
because this idea was known while the ancient trade network
existed since the first Neolithic societies settled in the Levant
The archeological studies referred to that since the agriculture
revolution , the trade developed between many Neolithic sites
in the Levant and that was around 10000-9000 BC, also
because of the pagan Pilgrimage role that helped by
transporting many ideas through the lands which have
crossed .
The garden form in the Middle East influenced not just by

symbols and beliefs of the ancient societies or by religion, but
also by the geographical factors that played a crucial role in
the Middle East where the desert occupied large areas in it.
Therefore, the garden form was a response to the geogr-

aphical conditions that the desert societies have employed and
developed as an agricultural landscape in the desert land.
With its privacy and enclosed space and form that dominated
the landscape during the Islamic period.
Nowadays, when we need to argue the use of this physical

form in the current landscape in Syria, we should consider the
whole factors that produced this form through the history of
the region, putting in our consideration the problems that the
landscape in Syria and the urban plan of its cities faced
Page 157 of 223

nowadays trying to take the advantage of what is appropriate
to now a day’s situation.
And while the historical garden as an enclosed form was part

of the palaces of kings and elite classes during the Islamic
period, this form was used as a part of the landscape design
and employed this form for distribution of the agricultural
resources in the arid land where protection from the
surrounding desert was required.
In Syria and particularly in Latakia city which is surrounded

by agricultural lands and has moderate climate, located on the
Mediterranean Sea, and has diverse natural features like
rivers, lakes and forests. The differences between the
geographical patterns should be reflected on the form of the
landscape design and plan.
Walled gardens and privacy couldn’t be achieved in the urban

green areas where these places should play a role of
integration between the different components of the society.
Hence the urban green areas beside its environmental role
they have social and cultural role which is important for any
sustainable developments.
Page 158 of 223

Chapter II
A Brief History of Syria and Its urban
development:
This chapter presents a brief overview of Syria’s history, its
urban settlement, the main historical events and its territorial
limitation in target to explain better the rules and factors that
affected the city’s urban plan and its landscape over the
history of the country.
The chapter focuses on studying the gardens and public green
areas as a part of the Syria natural landscape in the Islamic
period. In addition, the special case of Damascus is analyzed
for the importance of the city as it was a center of the Islamic
Umayyad caliphate and the changes that have conducted to its
urban landscape.
2-1 Syria
The modern Syrian state is officially known as the Syrian
Arab Republic.
Figure 80. Syria Map.

The source : http://www.wacbelgium.be/en/node/2392
Geënsceneerde provocaties voor NATO-Syrië oorlog?
Submitted by Luc DM on Fri, 08/22/2014 - 18:47
Page 159 of 223

It is a country located in the central southwest region of the
continent of Asia called the Middle East. Syria occupies a
sensitive geopolitical region that has traditionally been a
crossroads between the three continents Asia, Africa, and
Europe.
It is bordering the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Turkey to
the north, Iraq to the east and the southeast, Jordan and
Palestine to the south and Lebanon to the southwest. This
region is home to diverse ancient ethnic, religious, and
cultural groups, which are considered the place of coexis-
tence of differences that still characterizes Syria as a multi -
cultural country during its history.
Figure 81. Fertile Crescent Map

Source:http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/205250/Fertile-
Crescent
Written by: The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica Last Updated 10-29-
2014
Page 160 of 223

According to the excavations discoveries, archaeologists have
demonstrated that Syria is located in one of the most ancient
regions of human civilization. It was a part of the “fertile
crescent “the name derived from its agricultural development
and irrigation culture and the area’s shape.
And since approximately 10,000 BC it was one of the centers
of Neolithic culture (PPNA) where agriculture and cattle
breeding appeared for the first time 113.
This period of ancient Near East was encompassed the sites

of several indigenous civilization , empires, and ancient
kingdoms as Kingdom of Ebla (3500 BC), Kingdom of Mary,
Ugarit(circa 1800 BC), Ramita and Dura-Europos, and other
dozens of cities ,Which grew up beside the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers , or on the Mediterranean sea as Ramita .
Because of the importance of its location between the East
and the West Syria became a transit country for many
different and great civilizations and cultures which developed
from or invaded the area, Sumerian, Akkadian, Chaldeans,
the Canaanites, The Aramaeans were followed by the
Assyrians, the Neo-Babylonians, Persians, and finally, Greek
Roman rulers, and Byzantines. In the 7th Century of the
Christian era, Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad
caliphate, the capital of the Arabs and Islam.
References:
The Fertile Crescent:

The cultivated region of the country extends in an arc from the Jazira
plain and the Euphrates River basin through northern Syria and south
along the coastal plains. This area is part of the Fertile Crescent.
Stretching from Mesopotamia in Iraq to the Nile Valley in Egypt, the
Fertile Crescent is a swath of productive, hospitable land bordered by
inhospitable desert. Endowed with precious water resources. The region
has given rise to some of the world’s earliest civilizations. Today, Syria’s
population remains heavily centered in pockets within the Fertile
Crescent, namely the coastal plain, the historic cities of Aleppo,
Damascus, and the Jazira.
113
,https://famdliflc.lingnet.org/products/cip/Syria/syria.pdf
114
,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria
Page 161 of 223

Under the rule of the Umayyad dynasty, Syria blossomed as
an economic, political, and Islamic center. Along the incense
route from South Arabia, trade run along the Silk Road from
the Far Eastern China to Syrian markets. 115
Arab-Islamic rule under various dynasties reached from India
to the Pyrenees, at the end of the 11th Century Frankish
Crusaders began their campaign in the region. Only 200 years
later, this invasion came to an end.
And finally was under the control of The Ottomans and it
does have undergone the assignment of the French between
1920 and 1946.
References:
115
, http://www.globalresearch.ca/syria-a-historical-perspective-on-the-
current-crisis/24568
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Syria
Page 162 of 223

2-2 Syria’s Urban Settlement
The national capital of Syria is Damascus Located in the
southwestern corner of the country, which is considered to be
one of the oldest cities in the Middle East and among
the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world 116. It is a
major cultural and religious center of the Levant 117. These
aspects are promoted by its geographical location in the fertile
plain narrated by the Barada River and many of its branches.
From ancient times canals dug by the inhabitants of
Damascus irrigated land on either side of the Barada which
forms the Ghouta of Damascus that extends to became a
green agricultural belt surrounding the city of Damascus in
the south and east. Separating it from the dry grasslands
bordering the Syrian Desert. It has provided its inhabitants
with a variety of cereals, vegetables, and fruits for thousands
of years. This in turn enabled the city since ancient times to
be known as a commercial city, and played an important role
as an oasis which was located on Trans desert routes and
caravan, that enhanced the economical stability and made it
an important cultural and commercial centre.
During the second half of the 20th century, Damascus
experienced tremendous growth owing mainly to steady
migration from rural areas and other cities.
In the 1980's, the urban growth and uncontrolled urbanization
and industrial development, have increased the pressure on
the agricultural lands, and as a result. It started to replace
agricultural use with the housing and industry. 118
References:
116
, Ancient City of Damascus, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/20
117
, Levant:It is historical geographical term referring to the Eastern
U U
Mediterranean, it is consisting of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine,

Cyprus and part of southern Turkey.
118
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghouta
Page 163 of 223

Aleppo is Syria’s largest city, Located on the plateau in
northwestern Syria. It is an important regional hub for
commerce and industry, and it’s like Damascus thought to be
one of the oldest continuously populated cities in the world. 119
The Mediterranean port of Latakia is surrounded by rich
agricultural regions. Yet, it is possible to find some industry
there as well. Because of its seaside location as well as many
important archeological sites, the city became a major center
for tourism.
Different historical periods left its traces on the urban
formation of the Syrian cities.
In the period of the Classical antiquity in Syria, Greek and
Roman rule lasted Ten centuries their urban mark still visible
in the towns of Latakia, Palmira, and Busrā al-Shām. On the
other hand, After over one thousand years as the centre of
Islamic empires 119 , Syria’s main cities have developed along
an almost straight line, north to south, following the
traditional pilgrimage route to Mecca, Damascus and Aleppo,
the two major centers both having been developed as chief
trading stops.
The traditional urban fabric of Islam still appears clearly in
the both cities, Damascus and Aleppo, the continuation of old
commercial and religious interests enabled the mentioned
cities to maintain their economic and cultural supremacy
under the four centuries of Ottoman rule 120 ,
Then during the French Mandate these main cities expanded
and became modernized.
Afterward the independence and the period of rapid
urbanization in the 1950s and ‟60s, Since the mid-twentieth
century, industrialization and population growth have led to
rapid urbanization that strongly affects socioeconomic
structures in the rural areas.
References:
U
119
, Encyclopedia Britannica Online, “Aleppo,” 2008,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/13837/Aleppo#
120
, Etheredge, L. , Middle east region in transition, Syria, Lebanon, and
Jordan, Britannica Educational Publishing, 2011 (page13)
Page 164 of 223

2-3 The urban structure of the Islamic city:
The cities of Middle East have a long urban tradition. A
dramatic urban change took place in Middle Eastern cities
several cities underwent a period of what was later entitled as
modernization of the late Ottoman rule. It took place in the
19th and 20th century. Some cities were changed under
colonial and mandate rule and others as a result of nationalist
projects later.
There was strong control of the relation between the public
and private realm in Islamic cities in the Middle East during
the Ottoman rule. The town of Medina, for instance presents
itself as a closed web of buildings, streets, lanes and active
People (Bianca, 1991). The mosque was the center of the
social life, Markets and commercial activities were located
near the mosque and social life flourished in the area as
well.122
References:
121
,Bianca, S., Hofhaus und Paradiesgarten. Architektur und
Lebensformen in der islamischen Welt. Munchen: c. H. Beck Verlag.
1991.
122
,Issa,Y. ,Change of morphology and function of public spaces, case
study Latakia city,University degli studi in Catania and Charles
university in Prague, faculty of arts, Master thesis, 2010.
Page 165 of 223

Chapter III Latakia: Case Study
Latakia is a major Syrian port situated on the Mediterranean

Sea, as well as the capital of the Latakia Governorate. In
addition to serving as a port, the city is a manufacturing
center for surrounding agricultural towns and villages123.
3-1 The historical urban development of Latakia

city through ages:
3-1-1 Early History of Latakia:

The location of Latakia, the Ras Ziyarah has a long history of
occupation. The Phoenician city of Ramitha was located on
this site. Ramitha was the first name of the latakia city, and it
started as a small village built on a rocky hill. Its cadastral
survey was about one and a half hectares. It was standing in
the southern basin of the old port which is thought to be one
of the oldest ports in the world. Archeological artefacts
indicate that the port in concern was inhabited in the Stone
Age period, who inhabited Ramitha and built the ancient
Canaanite city-state of Ugarit, Ramitha dates at least to the
second millennium BC and was a part of the kingdom
of Ugarit, Which was Syro-Phoenician kingdom a short
distance north Latakia (the current name), (Ramitha name
was used at Ugarit time) at what is now called Ras Shamra. 124
References:
U
123
, Ring, T., Watson N., Schellinger, P.,Middle East and Africa:
International Dictionary of Historic Places, Routledge , 1996.
124
, Saada,G.,the governor of Latakia, the Ministry of Culture in
Damascus, the series of Belanuda .1961.
Page 166 of 223

Figure 82, Ramita location on the southern basin of old port. And on the
Ras Ziyarah
Source, Google map.
It was an important ancient sea port; it had been inhabited

almost since the Neolithic period (c. 6500 BCE). And was a
key economic center in the Ancient Near East, serving as a
major trade center between Egypt and the major powers
of Bronze Age Asia Minor and Mesopotamia.
It is a place where the first alphabet in the world came into
being. The city had a fortification and a main gate in its
western part. Its streets lined with two-story houses
dominated on the northeastern side of the Tell by an acropolis
with two temples dedicated to the gods Baal and Dagan. A
large palace, built from finely dressed stones and consisting
of numerous courtyards, pillared halls, and a columned
entrance gate, occupied the western edge of the city. The
Royal Palace was separated from the rest of the city.
Page 167 of 223

Figure 83(A) location of Ugarit in latakia governorate,
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Ugarit
Figure 83(B), a map of ancient Phoenicia with important cities.

Source: http://www.ancient.eu/image/122/.
Page 168 of 223

Figure Ugarit 83(C), Restitution for the garden of the royal palace of
Ugarit, drawn by O.Callo, Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,
Ugarit.
As Ugarit declined at the end of the second millennium BC,

the better natural harbor facilities at Ramitha increased its
importance. In the fourth century BC, in the Greek time, the
port of Latakia was home to a huge naval fleet belonging to
the Ancient Greek state.
When Greek power declined, the settlement became part of

the Assyrian Empire, later falling to Persians, later to be taken
by Alexander the Great in 333 BC following his victory in the
Battle of Issus over the Persians.
Figure 83 (A,B,C, D) Ugarit location, Source: Wikipedia, the free

encyclopedia.
Source: Ugarit-http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/latakia
Page 169 of 223

That marked the beginning of the era of Hellenism in Syria.
In 323 BC, after the death of Alexander, northern Syria fell
under the control of Seleucus I Nicator who founded during
300 BC the city of Laodicea, future Latakia, which became
one of the main centers of Geek culture. The Hellenistic
Period lasted long in Syria nearly for two centuries and a half,
and Laodicea occupied the whole head, extending into the
sea, which covers an area of about 400 hectares, which
constitutes a suitable terrace for building, and it is bordered
by two hills from the east.
At this time, the chess design of the city was drawn and it
was prevailed in the country of the Greeks and the design is
saved up till now125. It shows that Laodicea was from the
beginning one of the important and flourishing Seleucusian
cities and became a main center of Greek culture.
The city was described in Strabo'sGeographica:
‘’Ìt is a city most beautifully built, has a good harbor, and

has territory which, besides its other good crops, abounds in
wine. Now this city furnishes the most of the wine to the
Alexandrians, since the whole of the mountain that lies above
the city and is possessed by it is covered with vines almost as
far as the summits. And while the summits are at a
considerable distance from Laodicea, sloping up gently and
gradually from it, they tower above Apameia, extending up to
a perpendicular height.’’
In 64 BC, Syria has become one of the states of the Roman

Empire and remained so for more than four centuries.
During this period the city flourished again as an entrepôt for

East-West trade on the Mediterranean coast line.
Page 170 of 223

At the end of the second century AD, the city had new
four colonnaded streets that divided the city into a series of
rectangles by Emperor Septimius who also built baths, a
theatre, a hippodrome, numerous sanctuaries and other public
buildings in the city. Rome regarded Laodicea as a key
strategic seaport in the prized province of Syria125
Cardo
Decumanus
The port
Figure 84, plan of Latakia in the antiquity with the Ugarit Square
In the crossing point of the two main streets (Cardo –Decumanus)
In the Roman times.
Source: Gabriel Saada, conspectus in the history of Latakia.
References:
125
, Saada,G.,the governor of Latakia, the Ministry of Culture in
Damascus, the series of Belanuda ,1961.
Page 171 of 223

3-1-2 History of latakia during the expansion of
Islam powers,
Laodicea fell to Islam in 638 under General Abu Ubaida
during the Caliph Omar Ibn al -Khattab rule. Laodicea was
known to the Muslims as al Ladhiqiyah, or Latakia. Many of
Latakia’s great public buildings were already in ruins by then.
Afterwards, in 1097, first Crusades reached Syria. On 19
August 1097, twenty-eight ships from Cyprus occupied the
city. Latakia became known as “La Liche,” covering an area
of 220 hectares (0.85 sq miles) and consisting of three
separate parts. The port, originally an open bay with marble
quay stones, which is laid by the Romans, remained an
important commercial center. The town prospered, and the
previous continuous line of fortifications vanished. Twin
castles, which dominated the town, stood on two hills. In the
Crusades times, a sizable Muslim population the same as
some Franks and a large Greek Orthodox community lived
together. Two Greek Orthodox churches remained intact: the
Church of the Virgin Lady and the Church of St Nicholas.
Later, the town was devastated by earthquakes of 1157 and
1170. Although the city in the time of the Crusade was
unstable and was always a battle field. In 1188, Saladin
arrived before the walls of Latakia and forced the Crusaders
to capitulate two days later. 126
References:
126
, Ring, T., Watson, N., Schellinger, P., Middle East and Africa:
International Dictionary of Historic Places, Routledge , 1996
Page 172 of 223

3-1-3 Latakia during the Ottoman Rule
Latakia came under Ottoman control after 1516. It was part of

so-called Ottoman Syria. It lost its prominence as an
important city. The city continued to decline in the sixteenth
century when it gradually became a small dependent village.
The general type of houses was built with stone. They had
two floors with an exterior staircase and courtyard.
Everything was destroyed because of the earthquakes with the
exception of some mosques, churches, several khans and
covered markets.
In the early eighteenth century Latakia was subjected to the
Sanjak of Tripoli. This period marked the city by several
endowments; only few of these survived until this day like the
Al Jadid Mosque. It was erected by the Ottoman Governor of
Damascus between 1733 and 1743. The earthquake of 1823
caused serious damage to the city of Damascus as well as in
the other coastal areas of Syria. The Ottomans did not pay
much attention to the quality of residential housing, only to
mosques, Hamams (public bath) and khans (caravanserai);
this explains why so little preserved from the Ottoman period.
(Ring, 1994:454).
One of the significant buildings that were built in the

Ottoman period survived and was later transformed into the
National Museum of Latakia which was built in 1886 near the
seafront of the city. It formerly housed the residence of the
Governor of the Alawite State. It was originally a 16th-
century Ottoman khan, known as Khan Al-Dukhan, meaning
“The Khan of Smoke,” as it served the trade with tobacco.
Although Latakia was not important for Ottomans, and they
let the city decline, the port itself remained extremely active
and economically valuable. After Beirut State was established
in 1888, Latakia became part of it as its northern town. This
new position did not increase the importance of Latakia.
When it comes to urban history of the period, Latakia is
largely omitted. Authors tend to focus on important cities,
like Aleppo and Damascus. By doing so, they confirm its
secondary position in the Ottoman province.
Page 173 of 223

Figure 85. The National Museum of Latakia
source;http://www.lattakiaonline.com/arabic/in%20lattakia/museum.htm
Figure 86, Port of Latakia-Luigi Mayer (1755–1803).

Source: Website: ‫ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺭﻳﻮﻥ‬Syrian researchers.com
Dating back to the year 1795AD,an Italian artist Luigi Mayer (1755–
1803) had drawn the port of Latakia in time the castle was still erect, but
after that, it was destroyed by the devastating earthquake that hit the
Syrian coast.
References:
U
127
,Issa,Y ,Change of morphology and function of public spaces, case
study Latakia city,University degli studi in Catania and Charles
university in Prague, faculty of arts, Master thesis, 2010.
Page 174 of 223

3-1-4 The French Mandate period (1920-1947)
At the beginning of the twentieth century, Latakia was a small

town with a population of 7,000. It was ruled from Beirut.
After the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I,
under the French mandate in 1920. Latakia became the capital
of the autonomous territory of the Alawite, with a
government under the authority of the mandatory French
administration. In 1922, this territory, composed of Latakia
and the city of Tartus, became the State of Alawites and was
integrated into the Federations of states. (Ring, 1994:455)
Figure 87, Latakia, 1924-1928, Source: website Latakia and history.
In December 1924, the French General announced the

secession of the State of Alawite, which was proclaimed
independent in the following year. In 1930, a fundamental
law created the government of Latakia. After that the city
began to grow. By 1931, its population reached 20,000
inhabitants. In addition, in 1932, a plan for a new deep-water
harbor was proposed. (Ring, 1994:455)
The urban transformation in Latakia was achieved during the
French Mandate period, by major regional roads that conne-
cted Latakia with other centers like Beirut or Alexandretta
were constructed.
Figure88: Latakia 1953, Source:website Latakia and history.
Page 175 of 223

And they dried up the marshy area in the vicinity of the town
and focused on the modernization of the layout of the whole
city. The city was embellished with a major thoroughfare, a
public garden, a tourist hotel, well-conceived houses and
streets with planted trees (Acikgoz, 2008:86). In 1939,
Latakia again became the capital of the autonomous territory
of the Alawites, only for several years. And it was integrated
again in June 1944 following the Proclamation of Syrian
Unity, which was confirmed in 1947 by the Proclamation of
Independence.
Figure 89; City`s plan of latakia -The French Mandate period.

Source: P. Doukellēs, L. G. Mendōnē, Structures Rurales Et Sociétés
Antiques: Actes Du Colloque de Corfou, page, 433
Page 176 of 223

Figure 90Latakia view 1930s, Latakia, French Mandate (1930 – 1936)
Source: http://www.dcstamps.com/?p=5562
Figure 91 :Latakia 1932.

Source: web page:Musée Photographique de la Syrie .
Page 177 of 223

Figure92. Saint Batarni Public Garden
Source: https://www.facebook.com/Latakia.and.History?fref=ts
Figure 93. Hotel Casino and Al Batarni Garden ,1935

Source:https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=101548859513807
57&set=gm.1135710886520230&type=3&theatre
Page 178 of 223

Figure 94, Latakia view1, Source:website Latakia and history
Figure 95, Neighborhood of Sheikh Dahir (center of the city) appear on

the left of the picture Gul Jammal School. Figure: Latakia view 1930s,
Latakia, French Mandate (1930 – 1936)
Source: http://www.dcstamps.com/?p=5562
Page 179 of 223

Figure96. Latakia map in the French mandatory period-1927
The total population was 25000 inhabitants
Source:https://www.facebook.com/Latakia.and.History?fref=ts
The photo is showing the centralization of the urban area on the eastern
part of the head, and far from the sea, the area occupied by orchards.
Figure 97, Latakia plan 1944

The estimated area of the city in 1944 with 120 hectares.
Source: the report of the general organizational plan.
prepared by Arabic group Engineering Consultants
Page 180 of 223

Figure98. Latakia map during the French Mandate
Source: Nantes Archive: Government de Lattaquié : Fascicule sur le
Nivellement de la région côtière de : Lattaquié-Djeblé-Banias : Régie des
Travaux du Cadastre et d ’ amélioration foncière des Etats De Syrie , ou
De Liban et Ces Alaouites, carton 1AE/118/
Figure 99. Map of the West Coast of Latakia and AlBatarni Garden
during the French Mandate period.
Source: Nantes Archive carton 1AE/118
Page 181 of 223

3-1-5 The Early Independence Period (1947-1970)
When the independent state was established, most of the
urbanization work in Latakia was carried out in the field of
transportation and trade. Accordingly, an extensive port
project was proposed in 1948, and the port handled an
increasing amount of Syria's overseas trade. Moreover, a new
highway was built to link Latakia and Aleppo and the
Euphrates valley in 1968. Furthermore, it was supplemented
by the great railway line to Homs.
Figure 100, Latakia city at the middle of the last century: 1952, An
aerial view of the old port and the city.
Source: National geographic latakia website
Figure 101(A), new extension project of Latakia city port-latakia

commercial port. Source Google map.com
Page 182 of 223

Figure 101(B), new port of Latakia, Source:website Latakia and history
The ancient
neighborhoods of
the city
Grand northern river

Mediterranea
Figure 102, Extension sides of Latakia 1968, Source: the geographical

dictionary , prepared by Military Studies Center, Damascus, 1993
Page 183 of 223

3-1-6 Latakia during the Period of Big Urban
Changes (1970-2010)
The period of 1970-2010 was a time of political stability. In
those years Latakia witnessed a remarkable urban transform-
ation. The whole image of the city changed and became more
promising. The port gained even bigger importance after 1975
because of the troubled situation in Lebanon and the decline
of both Beirut and Tripoli ports.
This big urban change turned Latakia from a port city to a
more cultural and touristic city. Moreover, it affected the
city`s growth, people`s social life and the nature of Public
spaces. In the early seventies of the last century, real steps
began to encourage tourism activities in Syria by establishing
tourist’s facilities. Several resorts constructed on the beach in
Latakia in 1981 such as: Le Meridian, Côte d'Azur resort.
Figure 103, photo of sport city

Source;http://www.esyria.sy/elatakia/index.php?p=stories&category=pla
ces&filename=200808031135013
In 1987, Latakia was chosen to host the Mediterranean

Games and for this reason great sport facilities were built in
the north of the city called Latakia Sports City complex.
The sport city includes an Olympic-size stadium beside others
different sport constructions. It also includes many outdoor
grassy areas with some trees.
As a result of the population growth and the rising interest in
education, the University of Latakia was founded in 1971.
Page 184 of 223
University cultural life was one source of the transformational
power. It helped transform people through experience and
knowledge and it had a deep impact on society in general. It
helped bring a new dimension to the social life by offering
new functions and activities, and by creating more public
places.
From the beginning of the twenty first century more urban
transformation of Latakia was caused by infrastructure and
transportation beside the urban sprawling which has played a
dominant role in the city`s morphological change. There was
a shift from the closed urban fabric to the fragmented urban
fabric which diminished the production of public spaces and
open green areas in the city. Starting in 2002, there was a big
change in the general view in Latakia. This change reflected
on the infrastructure as the transportation and road system as
building a new tunnel and bridges and an urban sprawling
inside the city and its extension sides and because the unwise
urban planning The city plan became more fragmented. It
needs to reconsider new strategic methods for developing the
urban plan of the city with taking into consideration the major
role of the urban open green areas and integrate the nature
into the context of the city.
Figure 104. The View of the city, harbor and coastal strip
Source :( National geographic of latakia city web site)
Page 185 of 223

Figure 105. The main parts of Latakia city.
Page 186 of 223

3-2 Analytical study of actual evolution of the gardens
and green areas in latakia city nowadays.
Since Latakia city has expanded out of its fortified walls. The
construction of new buildings and a new urban pattern has
took place in the layout of the city due to the growth of the
population .The city was surrounded by orchards and
agricultural lands ,even from the seaside , where during
various period of the city history the people used to flee into
when the earthquake has struck. But the urbanism process in
different periods increased of the consuming of the green
areas and agricultural lands such as the orchards area between
the seashore and the city , which have consumed during the
urban development in Ottoman period .The courtyard houses
pattern notably have presented in the ancient layout of the
city which were prevailed as a form of traditional houses ,
but in the end of nineteenth century(Ring,451) a modern
pattern of houses started to take place in the city , that
replaced the previous style with its attached garden. It is
called a private enclosed garden or walled landscape. It has
vanished by the time. The modern life that changed the
houses form also affected the whole urban system of the city,
presented a network of streets with blocks of buildings and
with limited green areas, which presented more fragmentation
and discontinuity in the city urban plan. And During this
period, there was no presence of an organizational chart to
analyze the absence of the green areas and its sequences in
the future, and no present for urban landscape studies and
plans that connect the city with the natural aspects as forest,
sea, rivers that surrounded the city.
The earliest recorded development out of the city walls was

the Al Sheikh Daher center, which nowadays considered the
main center of the city. And the central neighborhood of
ancient city is focused on Sheikh Daher main plaza. Its
extending in all directions for a number of blocks and streets,
borders Al Maghreb al Arabi street from the north , from the
Page 187 of 223

east Abu firas al Hamadani, Al Quwatli street, Gamal abed al
Nasser street from the west, and Al Quds street from the
south. The center witnessed many political and cultural events
that promoted it to play a public role in the city life. It served
as a cemetery which was the first development out of the
boundary of the ancient city during Ottoman period, and then
was planned to be a park at the French mandate period132, but
it lost this function and transferred to the monumental
construction in the period of hosting the Mediterranean
Games in 1987. And then this event gave the square its
current form.
Al Sheikh Daher center now presents a monument construct-

ion of concrete with water fountains on the two sides. The
whole center level rose by few stairs which enable the
maintained services to run under the construction, the design
lacks the agricultural green areas that were before, and lost its
function as an open green area.
Figure 106(A), Sheikhdaher square 1950

Source: National geographic latakia website
References:
127
,Issa,Y. ,Change of morphology and function of public spaces,
case study Latakia city, University degli studi in Catania and
Charles university in Prague, faculty of arts,2010,Master thesis.
Page 188 of 223

Figure 106(B): 1958 ,Al Sheikh Daher Square
Figure 106(C), Alsheikh Daher Square1950, in the center is

the Jouljamal school, the square was planted, and to the left
the old neighborhoods. We can see the orchards surrounded
the city, even extended till the sea side
Figure 106(D), Square of Sheikh Daher nowadays. And scarceness

of green areas in the center of the city. Source: Google map 2013.
Page 189 of 223

Figure 106(E), map shows sheikh Daher location, Google.com map
Figure106(F)sheikh-Daher
Source:https://www.facebook.com/LatakiaHistory/photos/a.5146844986
18523.1073741849.512822625471377/1063002483786719/?type=3&the
ater
The city center area is considered a crowded and a high

density area. Therefore, we do not find green public spaces
such as gardens, but one of the nearest available garden is
MarTaqla garden. It is located since early twentieth-century
in a residential area next to the city center with an access to
the sea in the west. It is surrounded with residential buildings.
The current Municipality building is close to the west. It has
a big area with Saint Taqla holy shrine in the middle which
gave the garden and the neighborhood its name. 127
Page 190 of 223

Figure107: The photo of Mar Taqla garden and the municipality garden.
Source: Google map,2016
References:
127
,Issa,Y.,Change of morphology and function of public spaces, case
study Latakia city, University degli studi in Catania and Charles
university in Prague, faculty of arts,2010,Master thesis.
Page 191 of 223

The site is surrounded by traffic from all sides. This causes a
lot of noise and limits its accessibility for pedestrians, and the
attached garden which should be maintain and renovate to
enhance the quality of the place, it has been neglected during
the time and it lost its function as an urban open green area. It
lacks the basic study and design of garden with its basic
elements except some old trees.
The general plan of the garden needs a regeneration process

take into consideration the relation between the infrastructure
and the architectural constructions.
The new plan should solve many issues linked to the site of
the garden and the church location like the parking and traffic
problems. And the fundamental matter is the relation with
nature and environment which should be sustained and
enhanced, in regard to the ecological importance of the city.
Figure108, Martaqla garden

18523.1073741849.512822625471377/1121480701272230/?type=3&the
ater
Page 192 of 223

This could involve a study which considered multi layers or
levels of constructions because of the limited area. And multi-
functional ecological armatures, the natural aspect of land-
scape as soil and vegetation cover, play an important role as
resources in the sustainable development of the city. 128
In Rome, Italy the green areas and gardens for some areas
cover the metro station and the car parking.
Figure109(A): garden in Rome, green areas different kind of trees ,

shadows,and many areas for activities.
Source:personal camera
Reference:
128
,De Cesaris, A. ,‘’Il progetto del suolo-sottosuolo’’,
Gangemi,Roma,2012
Page 193 of 223

Figure109 (B): garden in Rome, shadows, trees and plants, water
features, birds with seats and relaxing area.
Source: personal camera
There is also green area opposite the Taqla garden and it is

near the seaside. The garden is near the Municipality building
and it has some old trees and some games, beside some seats,
but it lacks the convenient landscape study that contains
vegetation cover , flowers ,plants, and water courses. It has
lost its function as a garden for relaxing, contemplating, and
social activities since it is neglected and it wasn't maintained
for a long time.
Along the Jamal Abed Alnaser Street, which is on the western

seaside, we find Saint Batarny Public Garden. This garden
was constructed in the French mandate period. The garden
has tomb of Mamluk soldier and a Mosque. It is planted with
trees and design to be used with seats and some paved roads,
but it lacks many of the origin aspects of flowers plants, water
courses, and birds.it is used usually to host the local flowers
festival in the city. It is actually the nearest public garden to
the current museum building.
Page 194 of 223

Figure110(A): The mid of the last century,albatarny gardens with the
tomb of the Batarnywhich still reserved in the garden area till today.
18523.1073741849.512822625471377/1121480701272230/?type=3&the
ater.
Figure110 (B): The plan shows Batarny garden location to the western
side with Alsheikh daher center to the right.
Source: Google map
Page 195 of 223

Figure110(C) Batarny garden,
Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=%D8%AD%D8
The northern part of Latakia city is considered an

important direction of the expansion trend that took place
in the city.
Figure 111(A), Latakia city map
Page 196 of 223

Figure 111(B), Latakia city map
The direction of the north region (tourist center & archaeological areas)
And the picture shows the urban sprawl, and the shrinking green area.
Source: (Google map).
Figure 112, Burj Islam. Latakia

Latakia, burj slam, on the northern part of Latakia city,
Source website (National geographic Latakia).
Page 197 of 223

It has a major touristic center and rich archaeological areas
which are located on this part and played a crucial economic
and cultural role in the development process of the city.
Figure 113(A-B-C) .The northern part of Latakia city.

Source: personal camera, 2013
In regard to the main land uses in this area, the urban expan-
sion started to have obvious impact on the agricultural lands
and the amount of natural soil that occupied the major part of
this area. This process of informal settlements caused of
consuming the fertile lands without the appropriate compen-
Page 198 of 223

sation, there is a lack of organization and effective mechanism
to adjust the irregularities and monitor the implementation of
organizational charts. The importance of reconstructing the
general plan of this region meets the functional requirements
that corresponded to the growth of the residential and tourist
areas, within a concept of sustainable architecture that takes
into account the economic, social, cultural and environmental
factors.
The urban plan design should Integrate nature into the general
framework of the city and green public spaces as parks and
gardens which play an important role in reducing
uncontrolled expansion that affects the city of Latakia, enhan-
cing its identity , protecting the city against pollution caused
by carbon dioxide, and conserves the agricultural resources
(such as soil) 128.
Nowadays, many countries in all over the world confront the

problem of urban expansion, but there are many procedures
that have taken to maintain the natural resources. As example
Heiligenhafen is a town situated on the Baltic Sea coast in
Germany, a new regenerating to the seaside project has been
done which employ the green areas with many functions that
were considered a part of the green urban public area.
The project plays role in enhancing the city's urban plan and
its touristic function on the Baltic Sea.
Reference:
128
,De Cesaris, A. ,‘’Il progetto del suolo-sottosuolo’’,
Gangemi,Roma,2012
Page 199 of 223

A) Playing areas for children
B)Park along the sea side, passage of wooden construction
C) Wooden deck for sitting and contemplation, sea view and forest.
Page 200 of 223

D) Park along the sea side.
E) Status for the king of the sea, art piece from the metal, it belongs to
the tradition of the country and its ancient stories which evoke the
memories and enhance the identity of the place.
Figure114; Photos for thePark along the sea side of Heiligenhafen city,
Germany.
Source: personal camera,2016.
Page 201 of 223

The northern direction and the southern side of Latakia city
have been affected by the urban expansion which caused
many environmental problems with the informal urban
expanding.
It is clear there is lack to the suitable design landscape that
takes advantage of the natural resources and views to involve
it in the urban plan development, beside the absence of the
organizational chart that Controls this process of urban
expansion.
Figure 115, Grand North River

Source: http://tishreen.news.sy/tishreen/public/read/116241
The north Grand River is the longest coastal river. Its length
is (80 km), (56 km) of them are within Syria. It receives many
tributaries. The abundant one is AL Kesh River. Large amo-
unts of its water have been gone to the sea.
Page 202 of 223

Figure116: plan of the North grand river-Latakia city
Sources: Google map
The river is surrounded by agricultural lands, but it is also

threat by the current urban expansion. It can play an impor-
tant role in the regeneration process of the urban landscape, as
an element of nature, as example the Manz-anares River Park,
in Madrid City, in Spain. It aimed to work as a corridor
connects the new river and the city, transforming the historic
perception of the river and its neighboring areas as barrier
into an experience of the river and its neighboring areas as
conduit or connective tissue that links together disjointed
parts of the city.
Figure 117(A), Project of Manzanares River Park Development.

Source:http://www10.aeccafe.com/blogs/archshowcase/files/2011/12/M
AD_Arganzuela_2008_DPA_01.jpg
Page 203 of 223

The project proposed relocating one of the most important
roads into the centre of Madrid underground and providing
underground parking for 1,000 vehicles.
Figure 117(B), Project of Development, Underground parking.
It was possible to convert the space into a garden to benefit

local residents. It was embellished with Cherry trees and
cherry motif, the result is the creation of an extremely popular
public space.
Figure 117(C), Project of Manzanares River Park Development
Nowadays, the most of the livable cities are known for their
open spaces and green areas as they are for their culture.
Green open spaces in urban environments provide many
advantages, formal and informal sport and preservation of
natural environments. These areas could involve many
ecological aspects of the city natural elements, like rivers, sea
panoramic views and forest. They implement them in an
urban landscape plan serve for resolving many problems that
faces now the city with the continued expanding, and in the
same time save the natural resources as a soil and vegetation
cover which are considered an essential factor in the sustain-
nable development of the city.
Page 204 of 223

As example In Siegen city, in Germany, we find the urban
transformation for the private garden belongs to the historical
palace in the city. The garden opened to the public use with
great planted areas of different kind of trees, flowers, art
features as statues and artistic construction belong to German
artists. The place provides quite beautiful and comfortable
area for relaxing and contemplation.
Figure118 (A) Siegen city, Germany, palace gardens. Flowers area
Figure118(B); Palace garden- Siegen

Source:https://www.robertharding.com/preview/832-214480/lily-pond-
park-ancillary-buildings-palace-museum-bad/
Page 205 of 223

Figure118(C); Palace garden- Siegen, different kind of plants and
flowers
Figure118 (D): vegetation area, trees, shadows,flowers and plants.
Figure118 (E); Palace garden German artist. Art construction

- Siegen,Source: personal photo
Page 206 of 223

Discussion of the problems:
Gardens as a public area in Latakia city occupy fewer areas

than before .There are many factors caused these problems.
They are considered high important aspects for the environ-
mental development of the city.
In fact, many climatic problems as the high temperatures are

taking place in the provinces and this refer to the role of the
organizational charts which ignored the green spaces.
Especially in certain neighborhoods and areas where the
population growth is increasingly notable. We can see this
problem has included many cities in Syria as Damascus
Latakia and the countryside city. Perhaps the absence of the
principle of parity between existing parks , green spaces, and
the actual need of the population of city and its countryside is
due, to many experts in this field to the wrong technical
policies accumulated over time, most notably the adoption of
urbanization system horizontally rather than vertically
expansion, in addition to the fact that the city councils and
municipalities have neglected codes and standers of the
international planning system that are universally applicable .
It also ignored the other facts, which were the lack of

adoption of organizational charts for decades, it encouraged
the constructions and contractors to encroach on agricultural
land and on state property, and convert them to irregular
residential areas as a random area which are difficult to be
settled after that turned into concrete neighborhoods based on
land inhabited by thousands of families.
So far, large areas in the city of Latakia for example are

supposed to turn into green spaces as parks and public
gardens. As an example of that are the northern part and the
southern part of the city. These strategies will create good
opportunity for reviving the city and overcoming many
climatic and environmental problems.
Page 207 of 223

Figure 119,Two photos of the same street present tow different periods
of the city , the left one present the city before the urbanization process
that took over , and consuming the most of the green areas, Second one
present the same street nowadays with the problem of traffic and high
density of urbanization.
Figure 120, the location of the street, Bagdad Street,

Source:https://www.facebook.com/LatakiaHistory?fref=ts
Page 208 of 223

Figure 121. The Latakia city Harbor`s facade, it shows the Latin Church
and the urban changes over the time.
Source; https://www.facebook.com/LatakiaHistory?fref=ts
In the "national report forward-looking 2025 Syria Project", a

study has the support of the United Nations Office of Develo-
pment to conceptualize the actual state of the environmental,
economic and demographic conditions in Syria for year 2025
the framework of the topic that summarize the transform-
ations of the vegetative cover, it was referred that Damascus
and the around populated areas are expanding in urban-scale
first consuming the agricultural area, and in the wider second
scale , consuming and expanding over the forest ,fallow land
plateau and mountainous areas, and the outcome of both
expansions caused negative effects agriculturally and
environmentally,
because the quality of green areas and forests that are lost in
this process of urbanization, and if we add to this the
sustainability factors that gain of the main agricultural
component for the which is irrigated crops and vegetables
from groundwater sources, we come to the conclusion that the
description "negative outcome" is not enough to portray the
situation, and that the alarm environmental hazard beats in
Page 209 of 223
Syria and its provinces, and if we take in our consideration
the current expansion of the city latakia during the next two
decades, the character of urbanization as, buildings, factories
and facilities without trees or greenery, the image Prospective
take a picture toward more warming, desertification, and

environmental suffocation actually integration Sahara, in the
report of the Damascus city per capita came to less than 0.60
cm of green cover area. In recent years, there were many
attempts to overcome this problem of lacking green areas, by
the acts a forestation. As example the province of Damascus
began establishing festivals popular to encourage replanting
some of the plants that has been associated with its name in
Damascus such as jasmine and roses Shami and some trees
Kalnaranj, olives, etc., and in the bisectors of streets and
slopes of Mount Qassioun. But it is not enough compared
with the population growth and massive expansion great
urban. Existing trees is not vegetative cover.
Page 210 of 223

Chapter IV, Conclusion and Final
Recommendations:
The importance of the green public areas based on their

social, cultural, environmental and economic values. Green
spaces must offer diversity, and meets the needs of the local
community. Basic elements are; built structures (such as
paths, water features, buildings and arts features), in addition
to vegetation cover, different kind of trees, flowers and
plants.
In Syria, the recent decades have witnessed high urban

expanding that caused the consuming of these areas, and
inside the city many gardens and green areas are neglected,
exposed to be abandoned without care and maintain.
Therefore, the current gardens need to be reorganized and to
be renewed in addition to the use of the vegetation cover,
different types of trees, and water features, beside the art
workings and constructions which enhance the identity of the
place and the culture of the societies.
In the expansion areas, the organization chart for the city
should consider the green areas as a part of the neighborhoods
design and enhance the relation between the nature and the
city by constructing parks and public gardens.
It could also involve the natural resources as forest, water

sources, rivers, and sea in the landscape development process,
which employ the nature aspect and elements in the design,
and take advantage of the views and surrounding natural
elements.
Gardens and parks could have a strategic role in employ the

renewable energy that helps in the sustainable development of
the city on many scales.
Page 211 of 223

Bibliographies:
1-The book: Dar al Islam architetture Del

territorio nei paesi Islamic.
By Attilio Petruccioli:
The book represented different components of themes and

important analytical historical studies about the Islamic
countries, and their urban heritage to understand the tools, the
perception of Muslims and their interactive process with
geographical and physical environment. It analyzed the
concept of nature in Islam and Quran, and the impact of the
desert on the nomadic life of Muslim from the beginning of
Islam with Hejaz. Its psychological and physical interp-
retation is based on the geographical determinism, Ibn
Khaldoun philosophy and theory. The study also traced the
evolution of this relation between Muslim and his\her
landscape in different Islamic civilizations, Iran, North
Africa, India and Spain. It presented the development of the
agriculture, the spontaneous architecture and the techniques
which are used, and they developed irrigation systems in the
arid climate. In the last part, it presented a study about the
Islamic garden and its evolution from the original pattern into
other Islamic countries and cities, and it discussed the
components and the properties of the garden form in each
geography.
2-The book: "Gardens,Landscape and vision in the

palaces of Islamic Spain .
By D.Fairachild Ruggles
The book presents a detailed study on the palaces gardens and
landscape and the developments of the gardens elements
during the Islamic period in Spain, the study merges archite-
ctural with environmental history which presented the garden
with its whole architectural context. It explains the garden
form and meaning and the historical development of the
Page 212 of 223

landscape in Spain between the Roman legacy and the Islamic
affection or influence.
The book also explores the textual records of the agriculture
practiced in the landscape which was the context for palace
gardens. The book contains many palaces descriptions.
Besides that, the book discussed the theme of paradise.
3-The book: The first adventure of the mind

(translated from the Arabic) by Firas Al Sawah:
The book presents a study for the ancient mythologies of
Syria and Mesopotamia civilization, gives a detailed explan-
ation of the Sumerian and Babylonian myths, considering
them as an intellectual, psychological and historical
production that had contributed to the establishment of the
religion, and culture of the societies in the entire world. In
addition to the ancient texts of creation legends of the Cana-
anite, the flood, Sumer and Babylon. It provides a study of
the legends as the Epic of Gilgamesh, a Sumerian paradise,
and Babylonian,depending on the historical and archeological
records and other specialist studies in mythologies.
4-’Naissance des Divinite`s Naissance de

làgriculture , La re`volution des symbols au
Neolithique’’.
Author, archaeological researcher” Mr. Jacques Kauvin.
The book is translated to Arabic language by the Ministry of

Culture in Damascus; Moses Depp Khouri, and reviewed by
the Sultan Muheisen, 1999.
The book raises the serious and complex issue that became
known as the "agricultural revolution". Researchers have
agreed that this revolution took place in the area between the
basin Euphrates north, through Damascus Ghouta and even
the Jordan Valley to the south and since about the tenth
millennium BC and before anywhere else in The world.
However, the correspondence is still far about the reasons and

motives that led to this shift. There are some inquiries that
Page 213 of 223
talked about climatic, environmental and Geographical
motives, while others bring it back to the population demog-
raphic or compositional reasons, while other see the motives
of intellectual and social reasons.
Debate still rages without access to crucial answer on the

subject.
Jacques Cauvin presented the results of his theory depending

on his exploratory work especially in Almaribit site in the
Syrian Euphrates basin; He addresses the time, place, the
mechanism of occurrence and the sequence evidence, and
analyzes deeply its motives.
He submits his theory based on the vast amount of

archaeological discoveries that came from the ancient Orient
and Syria, in particular, such as Corning Ware pottery and
stone tools and weapons and the arts, and the environment,
including data directories of plants and animals and pointed to
the age of each of them.
Jacques Cauvin built his hypothesis on social, intellectual and

psychological reasons and factors, which in turn led to the
“agricultural revolution” and as a result caused important
Economical transformations. The book sheds light on the
Syrian discoveries in the emergence of agricultural
civilization and it’s Evolution.
5-Book of 'Islamic Gardens and Landscapes' by D.

Fairchild Ruggles:
The book presents various topics concerned with the theme of

garden and cultivated landscape in the Islamic region, and
extends from the pre-Islamic period to the seventh century
until twentieth century. It provides sites and geographical
regions of Islamic gardens for its historical importance.
It explained the concept of the place in the Islamic memory,

the factors that structured or authorized to this relation with
the place in Islamic world, and how the societies brought
Page 214 of 223

together in spite of the diverse regions territories and cultures.
It discussed in details the objects that create this association
to the place and allowed the Islamic landscape throughout the
centuries to live in presence and memory in one time.
Presents an important study on the prototypes that are brought

by Islam to the landscape, it also mentioned the traditional
irrigation technology and systems knowledge, techniques for
producing a bountiful crop that is used and maintained in the
Islamic regions.
In science of Gardening, the third chapter of the book

demonstrated the changes and transformation of the Islamic
landscape during eighth and ninth centuries and the role of
the government administration in land management of the
agronomic. The progress that was achieved led to brisk
economy, and presented references of botanical manuscripts
and its origins.
The book discussed the concept of the garden as paradise in

Islamic regions comparing this imaginary with the other
civilizations and religious thoughts that coexisted with Islam
in the same area.
A Garden in Landscape as the Taj Mahal focuses on this

single site examines its response to specific elements, and its
own landscape context and the way that it reflects previous
experience of garden design in very different landscapes
elsewhere in South Asia.
The book also looks at the adoption of Islamic Garden culture

by non-Muslims and asks the question of how to explain the
meaning, and context of gardens built by non-Muslims using
a clearly "Islamic" set of forms.
Page 215 of 223

6-The book of Engels and the Origins of Human
Society by Chris Harman:
The study has presented intensive thoughts about the
evolutionary emergence of distinctively human social orga-
nization,
An important topic intertwined with other science as evolu-

tionary biology, anthropology, and prehistory and Paleolithic
archaeology.
The theory had discussed various topics related to the

primitive communism, the first agriculture, the origins of
agriculture and the first class societies,
In the study they saw human beings as products of the

natural, biological world, and history as a part of natural
history. And they pointed out to the human’s ability to react
back on the circumstances that had created them, changing
both those circumstances and themselves in the process.
The book Indicates to the role of the production system which

differs from community to another in different Geographies.
In the part of the first agriculturalists, they refer to the

Neolithic revolution (new stone age), and the change that
began about 10,000 years ago and had lead to construct the
stable villages and communities which also brought new tools
and changes in the system of production which in turn had
led to the first class societies.
7-The book of Asian Gardens: History, Beliefs and

Design by Tom Turner :
The book consists of four parts demonstrate the theme of
gardens history across Asia from Turkey ,Syria, through Iran,
India, China, to Japan, from the very beginnings of garden
making to the present day.
The book explores the development of the Asian gardens and

the influence of belief systems of this region on the garden
Page 216 of 223

design. And the main factors that produce the gardens chara-
cteristic forms and functions.
It Traces the development of the Asia gardens and designed

landscape through fifty centuries.
And the study has provided many drawings and photographs

and detailed information about north, west, south and East
Asia gardens.
8-The book, ‘’Il progetto del suolo-sottosuolo’’

by :Prof. Alessandra De Cesaris .
The book contains fourteen thematic chapters. It presents an

investigation study on the possibilities and problems of a
project of soil-ground in the contemporary city and shed the
light on the urbanization process effects on the soil and
explains the important urban process that considers the role of
the soil ,not just as an abstract two-dimensional plan with
which many urban projects still till today confronted. But as a
three-dimensional aspect where in the course of the centuries,
has accumulated a series of traces, memories, and materials,
and has shaped by many traditional and experiments of
human work until it has taken shape over time. It is therefore
an essential element of urban form, economic and enviro-
nmental resource.
It serves as a platform for human activity and landscape as an

archive of heritage and plays an environmental role and
socioeconomic effect in the urban development.
Today can play an important role in defining and re-training

of the contemporary city landscapes.
The book demonstrates many urban projects that take advan-

tage of the soil project as an environmental aspect contributed
to the urban and infrastructure projects sustainable develop-
pments.
Page 217 of 223

9-The book, ‘infrastutture e paesaggio urbano2’’
by :Prof. Alessandra De Cesaris .
The book presented many topics that discussed the increasing

role of the infrastructure as a part of the urban landscape
project, and its role in the panorama of the contemporary
cities, in order to improve the lives of the community, impro-
ving the mobility and retraining at the same time drawing of
the metropolitan landscape.
10-The book, ‘Mystery of Feminine divinity and

the origin of the religion and the legend.’’
By: Firas Alsawah, (translated from the Arabic language):
The book presented a detailed study about the first religious

beliefs expressed in symbols and graphics. This stage was
considered a starting point of specific rites and beliefs In the
Paleolithic era. Beside that the book presented also the theory
of the centrality of the origin of belief and its developments in
the Neolithic periods in many countries and civilizations.
It’s the detailed study of the agricultural religion which was
centered on the goddess, who was a woman of nature in the
wild form and the new domesticated form, which the hand of
the farmer involved in making and rehabilitating it.
Page 218 of 223

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artuklu_Palace
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_art
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Syria
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekkiye_Mosque
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mari,_Syria
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghouta
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_art
History of Science and Technology in Islam,

http://www.history-science-
technology.com/articles/articles%2071.html
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SAPIENZA UNIVERSITA` DI ROMA

XXVII CICLO , CURRICULUM –A

Islamic Garden and Urban

((The role of the historical garden in the

PhD candidate: Nabila Dway

Dottorato di Ricerca in Architettura –

The thesis is divided into four chapters:

1-3 Historical development of the Islamic gardens in

1-5 The main architectural elements of the garden:

Chapter III Latakia city case study:

3-2 Analytical study of actual evolution of the

Chapter IV Conclusion and Final Recommendations..211

Figure 1: The International Trade Road.

Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my

Since the early Islamic settlements, the garden has played an

Nowadays many of Syria`s cities as Damascus and Latakia

These problems are related to the impact of the socio-political

The research aims to present a scientific analytic study about

It is a strategy to explore the cultural heritage, factors, causes

¹ Lehrman, J., B., Earthly Paradise: Garden and Courtyard in Islam,

The first chapter presents an overview study of the garden

It explains the identification of the garden according to the

The chapter also presented a study of the irrigation techniques

It gives a detailed explanation to its main Characteristics,

The second chapter gives a brief overview of Syria’s history

Thirdly, the thesis examines the historical urban development

The fourth chapter presents a study of the actual evolution of

The study focuses on the Islamic period in Syria as a part of

The research aims to verify the Islamic garden form and

The overall methodology leans on the archive researches ,

As well as, the chapter verifies the Islamic garden as a

1-1 The definition of garden.

The Arabic sources and dictionaries identify the garden as; an

And the English language (Oxford Advanced Dictionary 7th

And Merriam Webster dictionary defines garden as a plot of

Emma Clark, explains that a garden was conceived as a

But garden has a spiritual role; ‘the purest of human pleasures

According to Hunt, gardens are; “concentrated or perfected

The oasis is considered as an early development of agriculture

² , D. Ruggles,F., Islamic Gardens and Landscapes, University of

The human being is a result of the environment which

Oasis of al Igiaz 6 was the origin of the Islam , where it was

The oasis has formed urban settlements and communities

5,Petruccioli,A, Dar al Islam architetture del territorio nei paesi

Figure 2: In 1877 the term "Seidenstraße" (Die Seidenstrassen, literally

through oasis was also passed the Silk Road which is a

The trade road networks in the Arabic countries were the

And this trade network was full of movement and continuity.

Each of the caravan carries its country goods as products,

Figure 3,Irrigation channel in the Palmyra oasis, By Simon Gascoin,

The photo (Figure, 3) shows the Main irrigation channel in

Figure 5, Palmyra, Syria

Figure 6. Water as the main element in Persian garden, Bagh-e-Shazdeh

In the context of the hostile vastness of the desert, the form of

Figure 7. Painted Vessel, 1000 BCE, Isfahan, Museum of Iranian

Figure8 ; Halafian ware

This quadripartite design was adopted as a feature of the plan

Huge armies of people were dedicated for this work to build,

Figure9; Diagram of a Qanat System.