11.

6 Conic Sections 657

14. Inside the circle r = 3a cos u and outside the cardioid 27. The curve r = cos3 su>3d, 0 … u … p>4
r = as1 + cos ud, a 7 0
28. The curve r = 21 + sin 2u, 0 … u … p22
15. Inside the circle r = - 2 cos u and outside the circle r = 1
29. The length of the curve r  ƒ(U), A … U … B Assuming
16. Inside the circle r = 6 above the line r = 3 csc u that the necessary derivatives are continuous, show how the sub-
17. Inside the circle r = 4 cos u and to the right of the vertical line stitutions
r = sec u x = ƒsud cos u, y = ƒsud sin u
18. Inside the circle r = 4 sin u and below the horizontal line
(Equations 2 in the text) transform
r = 3 csc u
b 2 dy 2
a
b + a b du
19. a. Find the area of the shaded region in the accompanying figure. dx
L =
y r  tan 
La B du du
–     into
2 2
b 2
r2 + a b du .
dr
L =
(1, 兾4) La B du

30. Circumferences of circles As usual, when faced with a new

r  (兹2兾2) csc 
formula, it is a good idea to try it on familiar objects to be sure it
x gives results consistent with past experience. Use the length for-
–1 0 1
mula in Equation (3) to calculate the circumferences of the fol-
b. It looks as if the graph of r = tan u, -p>2 6 u 6 p>2 , lowing circles sa 7 0d.
could be asymptotic to the lines x = 1 and x = - 1 . Is it?
a. r = a b. r = a cos u c. r = a sin u
Give reasons for your answer.
20. The area of the region that lies inside the cardioid curve Theory and Examples
r = cos u + 1 and outside the circle r = cos u is not 31. Average value If ƒ is continuous, the average value of the polar
2p coordinate r over the curve r = ƒsud, a … u … b , with respect
1
[scos u + 1d2 - cos2 u] du = p . to u is given by the formula
2 L0
b
Why not? What is the area? Give reasons for your answers. 1
rav = ƒsud du .
b - a La
Finding Lengths of Polar Curves
Find the lengths of the curves in Exercises 21–28. Use this formula to find the average value of r with respect to u
over the following curves sa 7 0d .
21. The spiral r = u2, 0 … u … 25
22. The spiral r = e u> 22,
a. The cardioid r = as1 - cos ud
0 … u … p
b. The circle r = a
23. The cardioid r = 1 + cos u
c. The circle r = a cos u, -p>2 … u … p>2
24. The curve r = a sin2 su>2d, 0 … u … p, a 7 0
32. r  ƒ(U) vs. r  2ƒ(U) Can anything be said about the relative
25. The parabolic segment r = 6>s1 + cos ud, 0 … u … p>2 lengths of the curves r = ƒsud, a … u … b , and r = 2ƒsud,
26. The parabolic segment r = 2>s1 - cos ud, p>2 … u … p a … u … b ? Give reasons for your answer.

Conic Sections
11.6
In this section we define and review parabolas, ellipses, and hyperbolas geometrically and
derive their standard Cartesian equations. These curves are called conic sections or conics be-
cause they are formed by cutting a double cone with a plane (Figure 11.36). This geometry
method was the only way they could be described by Greek mathematicians who did not have
our tools of Cartesian or polar coordinates. In the next section we express the conics in polar
coordinates.

Parabolas

DEFINITIONS A set that consists of all the points in a plane equidistant from
a given fixed point and a given fixed line in the plane is a parabola. The fixed
point is the focus of the parabola. The fixed line is the directrix.
658 Chapter 11: Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates

Circle: plane perpendicular Ellipse: plane oblique Parabola: plane parallel Hyperbola: plane cuts
to cone axis to cone axis to side of cone both halves of cone
(a)

Point: plane through Single line: plane Pair of intersecting lines

cone vertex only tangent to cone
(b)

FIGURE 11.36 The standard conic sections (a) are the curves in which a plane cuts a double cone. Hyperbolas come in two parts,
called branches. The point and lines obtained by passing the plane through the cone’s vertex (b) are degenerate conic sections.

If the focus F lies on the directrix L, the parabola is the line through F perpendicular to
y L. We consider this to be a degenerate case and assume henceforth that F does not lie on L.
A parabola has its simplest equation when its focus and directrix straddle one of the
coordinate axes. For example, suppose that the focus lies at the point F(0, p) on the positive
x 2  4py
y-axis and that the directrix is the line y = - p (Figure 11.37). In the notation of the figure,
F(0, p) a point P(x, y) lies on the parabola if and only if PF = PQ . From the distance formula,
Focus
p P(x, y)
The vertex lies
halfway between
x PF = 2sx - 0d2 + s y - pd2 = 2x 2 + s y - pd2
p
directrix and focus.
Directrix: y  –p Q(x, –p)
L PQ = 2sx - xd2 + ( y - s - pdd2 = 2s y + pd2 .

When we equate these expressions, square, and simplify, we get

FIGURE 11.37 The standard form of the
x2
parabola x 2 = 4py, p 7 0 . y = or x 2 = 4py. Standard form (1)
4p
These equations reveal the parabola’s symmetry about the y-axis. We call the y-axis the
axis of the parabola (short for “axis of symmetry”).
The point where a parabola crosses its axis is the vertex. The vertex of the parabola
x 2 = 4py lies at the origin (Figure 11.37). The positive number p is the parabola’s focal length.
 11.6 Conic Sections 659

If the parabola opens downward, with its focus at s0, -pd and its directrix the line
y = p, then Equations (1) become
x2
y = - and x 2 = - 4py.
4p
By interchanging the variables x and y, we obtain similar equations for parabolas opening
to the right or to the left (Figure 11.38).

y y
Directrix Directrix
x  –p y2  4px y2  –4px xp

Vertex Vertex
Focus Focus
x x
0 F( p, 0) F(–p, 0) 0

(a) (b)

FIGURE 11.38 (a) The parabola y 2 = 4px . (b) The parabola y 2 = - 4px .

EXAMPLE 1 Find the focus and directrix of the parabola y 2 = 10x .

Solution We find the value of p in the standard equation y 2 = 4px:

10 5
4p = 10, so p = = .
4 2

Then we find the focus and directrix for this value of p:

Vertex Focus Center Focus Vertex

s p, 0d = a , 0 b
5
Focus:
Focal axis 2
5
Directrix: x = -p or x = - .
2
FIGURE 11.39 Points on the focal axis of
an ellipse.
Ellipses
y

b DEFINITIONS An ellipse is the set of points in a plane whose distances

P(x, y) from two fixed points in the plane have a constant sum. The two fixed points
are the foci of the ellipse.
Focus Focus
a x The line through the foci of an ellipse is the ellipse’s focal axis. The point on
F1(–c, 0) 0 Center
F2(c, 0) the axis halfway between the foci is the center. The points where the focal axis
and ellipse cross are the ellipse’s vertices (Figure 11.39).

FIGURE 11.40 The ellipse defined by the If the foci are F1s - c, 0d and F2sc, 0d (Figure 11.40), and PF1 + PF2 is denoted by 2a,
equation PF1 + PF2 = 2a is the graph of then the coordinates of a point P on the ellipse satisfy the equation
the equation sx 2>a 2 d + s y 2>b 2 d = 1,
where b 2 = a 2 - c 2. 2sx + cd2 + y 2 + 2sx - cd2 + y 2 = 2a .
660 Chapter 11: Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates

To simplify this equation, we move the second radical to the right-hand side, square, iso-
late the remaining radical, and square again, obtaining
2
x2 y
2
+ 2 = 1. (2)
a a - c2
Since PF1 + PF2 is greater than the length F1 F2 (by the triangle inequality for triangle
PF1 F2), the number 2a is greater than 2c. Accordingly, a 7 c and the number a 2 - c 2 in
Equation (2) is positive.
The algebraic steps leading to Equation (2) can be reversed to show that every point P
whose coordinates satisfy an equation of this form with 0 6 c 6 a also satisfies the equa-
tion PF1 + PF2 = 2a . A point therefore lies on the ellipse if and only if its coordinates
satisfy Equation (2).
If
b = 2a 2 - c 2 , (3)

then a 2 - c 2 = b 2 and Equation (2) takes the form

x2 y2
+ = 1. (4)
a2 b2
Equation (4) reveals that this ellipse is symmetric with respect to the origin and both
coordinate axes. It lies inside the rectangle bounded by the lines x = ; a and y = ; b. It
crosses the axes at the points s ; a, 0d and s0, ; bd . The tangents at these points are perpen-
dicular to the axes because
dy b 2x Obtained from Eq. (4)
= - 2 by implicit differentiation
dx a y
is zero if x = 0 and infinite if y = 0 .
The major axis of the ellipse in Equation (4) is the line segment of length 2a joining
the points s ;a, 0d . The minor axis is the line segment of length 2b joining the points
s0, ; bd . The number a itself is the semimajor axis, the number b the semiminor axis.
The number c, found from Equation (3) as
c = 2a 2 - b 2 ,
is the center-to-focus distance of the ellipse. If a = b, the ellipse is a circle.
y
x2 y2 EXAMPLE 2 The ellipse
  1 (0, 3)
16 9
Vertex Vertex x2 y2
+ = 1 (5)
(–4, 0) (4, 0) 16 9
Focus Focus (Figure 11.41) has
x
0
(–兹7, 0) (兹7, 0) Semimajor axis: a = 216 = 4, Semiminor axis: b = 29 = 3
Center
Center-to-focus distance: c = 216 - 9 = 27
(0, –3) Foci: s ; c, 0d = A ; 27, 0 B
FIGURE 11.41 An ellipse with its major Vertices: s ; a, 0d = s ;4, 0d
axis horizontal (Example 2). Center: s0, 0d .
If we interchange x and y in Equation (5), we have the equation
x2 y2
+ = 1. (6)
9 16
The major axis of this ellipse is now vertical instead of horizontal, with the foci and ver-
tices on the y-axis. There is no confusion in analyzing Equations (5) and (6). If we find the
intercepts on the coordinate axes, we will know which way the major axis runs because it
is the longer of the two axes.
 11.6 Conic Sections 661

Standard-Form Equations for Ellipses Centered at the Origin

x2 y2
Foci on the x-axis: + = 1 sa 7 bd
a2 b2
Center-to-focus distance: c = 2a 2 - b 2
Foci: s ; c, 0d
Vertices: s ; a, 0d
x2 y2
Foci on the y-axis: + = 1 sa 7 bd
b2 a2
Center-to-focus distance: c = 2a 2 - b 2
Foci: s0, ; cd
Vertices: s0, ; ad
In each case, a is the semimajor axis and b is the semiminor axis.

Hyperbolas

DEFINITIONS A hyperbola is the set of points in a plane whose distances

from two fixed points in the plane have a constant difference. The two fixed
Vertices
points are the foci of the hyperbola.
Focus Focus
The line through the foci of a hyperbola is the focal axis. The point on the
Center
axis halfway between the foci is the hyperbola’s center. The points where the
Focal axis focal axis and hyperbola cross are the vertices (Figure 11.42).

FIGURE 11.42 Points on the focal axis of If the foci are F1s - c, 0d and F2sc, 0d (Figure 11.43) and the constant difference is 2a,
a hyperbola. then a point (x, y) lies on the hyperbola if and only if

2sx + cd2 + y 2 - 2sx - cd2 + y 2 = ; 2a . (7)

y
x  –a xa
To simplify this equation, we move the second radical to the right-hand side, square, iso-
late the remaining radical, and square again, obtaining
P(x, y) 2
x2 y
2
+ 2 = 1. (8)
a a - c2
x
F1(–c, 0) 0 F2(c, 0)
So far, this looks just like the equation for an ellipse. But now a 2 - c 2 is negative because
2a, being the difference of two sides of triangle PF1 F2 , is less than 2c, the third side.
The algebraic steps leading to Equation (8) can be reversed to show that every point
P whose coordinates satisfy an equation of this form with 0 6 a 6 c also satisfies
Equation (7). A point therefore lies on the hyperbola if and only if its coordinates satisfy
FIGURE 11.43 Hyperbolas have two Equation (8).
branches. For points on the right-hand If we let b denote the positive square root of c 2 - a 2 ,
branch of the hyperbola shown here,
PF1 - PF2 = 2a . For points on the left- b = 2c 2 - a 2 , (9)
hand branch, PF2 - PF1 = 2a . We then
let b = 2c 2 - a 2. then a 2 - c 2 = - b 2 and Equation (8) takes the more compact form

x2 y2
- = 1. (10)
a2 b2
662 Chapter 11: Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates

The differences between Equation (10) and the equation for an ellipse (Equation 4) are the
minus sign and the new relation
c2 = a2 + b2. From Eq. (9)

Like the ellipse, the hyperbola is symmetric with respect to the origin and coordinate
axes. It crosses the x-axis at the points s ;a, 0d . The tangents at these points are vertical
because
dy b 2x Obtained from Eq. (10)
= 2 by implicit differentiation
dx a y
is infinite when y = 0 . The hyperbola has no y-intercepts; in fact, no part of the curve lies
between the lines x = - a and x = a .
The lines
b
y = ;a x
are the two asymptotes of the hyperbola defined by Equation (10). The fastest way to find
the equations of the asymptotes is to replace the 1 in Equation (10) by 0 and solve the new
equation for y:

x2 y2 x2 y2 b
2
- 2
= 1 : 2
- 2
= 0 : y = ; a x.
a b
('')''* a b
('')''* (')'*
hyperbola 0 for 1 asymptotes

y EXAMPLE 3 The equation

y  – 兹5 x y  兹5 x
2 2 x2 y2
- = 1 (11)
4 5
x2 y2
 1
4 5 is Equation (10) with a 2 = 4 and b 2 = 5 (Figure 11.44). We have
F(–3, 0) F(3, 0)
–2 2
x Center-to-focus distance: c = 2a 2 + b 2 = 24 + 5 = 3
Foci: s ; c, 0d = s ;3, 0d, Vertices: s ; a, 0d = s ; 2, 0d
Center: s0, 0d
x2 y2 25
Asymptotes: - = 0 or y = ; x.
4 5 2
FIGURE 11.44 The hyperbola and its
If we interchange x and y in Equation (11), the foci and vertices of the resulting
asymptotes in Example 3.
hyperbola will lie along the y-axis. We still find the asymptotes in the same way as before,
but now their equations will be y = ; 2x> 25.

Standard-Form Equations for Hyperbolas Centered at the Origin

x2 y2 y2 x2
Foci on the x-axis: - 2 = 1 Foci on the y-axis: 2
- = 1
a 2
b a b2
Center-to-focus distance: c = 2a 2 + b 2 Center-to-focus distance: c = 2a 2 + b 2
Foci: s ;c, 0d Foci: s0, ; cd
Vertices: s ;a, 0d Vertices: s0, ; ad

x2 y2 b y2 x2 a
Asymptotes: - = 0 or y = ; a x Asymptotes: 2
- = 0 or y = ; x
a 2
b 2 a b2 b
Notice the difference in the asymptote equations (b> a in the first, a> b in the second).
 11.6 Conic Sections 663

We shift conics using the principles reviewed in Section 1.2, replacing x by x + h and
y by y + k .

EXAMPLE 4 Show that the equation x 2 - 4y 2 + 2x + 8y - 7 = 0 represents a hy-

perbola. Find its center, asymptotes, and foci.

Solution We reduce the equation to standard form by completing the square in x and y as
follows:

(x 2 + 2x) - 4( y 2 - 2y) = 7

(x 2 + 2x + 1) - 4( y 2 - 2y + 1) = 7 + 1 - 4

(x + 1) 2
- ( y - 1) 2 = 1.
4

This is the standard form Equation (10) of a hyperbola with x replaced by x + 1 and y
replaced by y - 1. The hyperbola is shifted one unit to the left and one unit upward, and it
has center x + 1 = 0 and y - 1 = 0, or x = - 1 and y = 1. Moreover,

a 2 = 4, b 2 = 1, c 2 = a 2 + b 2 = 5,

so the asymptotes are the two lines

x + 1 x + 1
- ( y - 1) = 0 and + ( y - 1) = 0.
2 2

The shifted foci have coordinates A -1 ; 25, 1 B .

Exercises 11.6
Identifying Graphs Match each conic section in Exercises 5–8 with one of these equations:
Match the parabolas in Exercises 1–4 with the following equations:
x2 y2 x2
2 2 2 2 + = 1, + y 2 = 1,
x = 2y, x = - 6y, y = 8x, y = - 4x . 4 9 2

Then find each parabola’s focus and directrix. y2 x2 y2

- x 2 = 1, - = 1.
1. y 2. y 4 4 9

x x Then find the conic section’s foci and vertices. If the conic section is a
hyperbola, find its asymptotes as well.
5. y 6. y

3. y 4. y

x x
x

x
664 Chapter 11: Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates

7. 8. Shifting Conic Sections

y y You may wish to review Section 1.2 before solving Exercises 39–56.
39. The parabola y 2 = 8x is shifted down 2 units and right 1 unit to
generate the parabola s y + 2d2 = 8sx - 1d .
x a. Find the new parabola’s vertex, focus, and directrix.
x
b. Plot the new vertex, focus, and directrix, and sketch in the
parabola.
40. The parabola x 2 = - 4y is shifted left 1 unit and up 3 units to
generate the parabola sx + 1d2 = - 4s y - 3d .
a. Find the new parabola’s vertex, focus, and directrix.
Parabolas
Exercises 9–16 give equations of parabolas. Find each parabola’s fo- b. Plot the new vertex, focus, and directrix, and sketch in the
cus and directrix. Then sketch the parabola. Include the focus and di- parabola.
rectrix in your sketch. 41. The ellipse sx 2>16d + s y 2>9d = 1 is shifted 4 units to the right
9. y 2 = 12x 10. x 2 = 6y 11. x 2 = - 8y and 3 units up to generate the ellipse

12. y 2 = - 2x 13. y = 4x 2 14. y = - 8x 2 sx - 4d2 s y - 3d2

+ = 1.
15. x = - 3y 2 16. x = 2y 2 16 9
a. Find the foci, vertices, and center of the new ellipse.
Ellipses b. Plot the new foci, vertices, and center, and sketch in the new
Exercises 17–24 give equations for ellipses. Put each equation in stan- ellipse.
42. The ellipse sx 2>9d + s y 2>25d = 1 is shifted 3 units to the left
dard form. Then sketch the ellipse. Include the foci in your sketch.
17. 16x 2 + 25y 2 = 400 18. 7x 2 + 16y 2 = 112 and 2 units down to generate the ellipse
19. 2x 2 + y 2 = 2 20. 2x 2 + y 2 = 4
sx + 3d2 s y + 2d2
2 2 2 2 + = 1.
21. 3x + 2y = 6 22. 9x + 10y = 90 9 25
2 2
23. 6x + 9y = 54 24. 169x 2 + 25y 2 = 4225 a. Find the foci, vertices, and center of the new ellipse.
b. Plot the new foci, vertices, and center, and sketch in the new
Exercises 25 and 26 give information about the foci and vertices of ellipse.
43. The hyperbola sx 2>16d - s y 2>9d = 1 is shifted 2 units to the
ellipses centered at the origin of the xy-plane. In each case, find the
ellipse’s standard-form equation from the given information.
25. Foci: A ; 22, 0 B
right to generate the hyperbola
Vertices: s ;2, 0d
sx - 2d2 y2
26. Foci: s0, ; 4d Vertices: s0, ;5d - = 1.
16 9
Hyperbolas a. Find the center, foci, vertices, and asymptotes of the new
Exercises 27–34 give equations for hyperbolas. Put each equation in hyperbola.
standard form and find the hyperbola’s asymptotes. Then sketch the b. Plot the new center, foci, vertices, and asymptotes, and sketch
hyperbola. Include the asymptotes and foci in your sketch. in the hyperbola.
27. x 2 - y 2 = 1 28. 9x 2 - 16y 2 = 144 44. The hyperbola s y 2>4d - sx 2>5d = 1 is shifted 2 units down to
generate the hyperbola
29. y 2 - x 2 = 8 30. y 2 - x 2 = 4
31. 8x 2 - 2y 2 = 16 32. y 2 - 3x 2 = 3 s y + 2d2 x2
- = 1.
4 5
33. 8y 2 - 2x 2 = 16 34. 64x 2 - 36y 2 = 2304
a. Find the center, foci, vertices, and asymptotes of the new
hyperbola.
Exercises 35–38 give information about the foci, vertices, and asymp-
totes of hyperbolas centered at the origin of the xy-plane. In each case, b. Plot the new center, foci, vertices, and asymptotes, and sketch
find the hyperbola’s standard-form equation from the information given. in the hyperbola.

35. Foci: A 0, ; 22 B 36. Foci: s ;2, 0d Exercises 45–48 give equations for parabolas and tell how many units
up or down and to the right or left each parabola is to be shifted. Find
1
Asymptotes: y = ;x Asymptotes: y = ; x an equation for the new parabola, and find the new vertex, focus, and
23 directrix.
37. Vertices: s ; 3, 0d 38. Vertices: s0, ;2d 45. y 2 = 4x, left 2 , down 3 46. y 2 = - 12x, right 4 , up 3
4 1 2 2
Asymptotes: y = ; x Asymptotes: y = ; x 47. x = 8y, right 1 , down 7 48. x = 6y, left 3 , down 2
3 2