Ecological Modelling 178 (2004) 201–213

Energy quality, emergy, and transformity: H.T. Odum’s

contributions to quantifying and understanding systems
Mark T. Brown a,∗ , Sergio Ulgiati b
a Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
b Department of Chemistry, University of Siena, Italy

Abstract
We present in this article, a brief historical overview of the development of the concepts and theories of energy quality, and
net energy that were the precursors to emergy. The concepts evolved over decades, beginning in the 1950s with Odum’s work
on tracing energy flows in ecosystems. During the 1970s, Odum’s attention was drawn to larger scale systems that included the
economies of humans and the concept of net energy. In the 1980s, Odum quantified energy quality and defined it as a “donor-based”
evaluation technique. In the 1990s, energy quality was further refined and rigorous definitions for “emergy” and “transformity”
were given. The units of emergy were defined as solar emjoules (abbreviated seJ) and the units of transformity were seJ/J. In
addition, we provide some insights into the types of processes and systems that have been evaluated using emergy methods.
© 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Emergy; Energy quality; Transformity

1. Introduction Odum first touched on the concept of energy quality

formally when he stated. . .
Probably, the least understood and most criticized of
Beginning in the last century man began to develop
H.T. Odum’s body of work is his concepts and theories
an entirely new basis for power with the use of coal,
of energy quality that are embodied in the 35 year
oil, and other stored-energy sources to supplement
development of the emergy concept. The development
solar energy. Concentrated inputs of power whose
of emergy and its theoretical base cannot be separated
accumulation had been the work of billions of acres
from development of the concept of energy quality.
of solar energy, became available for manipulation
We do not really know when Odum first considered
by man. (Odum, 1971a)
that different forms of energy had different “qualities”.
We do know that in the 1950s and early 1960s, he was Concepts of energy quality evolved over the decades
tracing energy flows in ecosystems and was probably from the early 1970s, where it was primarily a qualita-
reflecting on the differences in the work potential of tive description of different energy forms to a quantita-
energy among sunlight, the currents of water erupting tive method of expressing different forms relative to a
from Silver Springs (Florida) and the currents bathing common basis for comparative purposes. Through the
the coral reefs of Eniwetok (Marshall Islands). It was decades, it became clearer and clearer to Odum that
in his book Environment Power and Society (1971) that all forms of energy do not have the same ability to do
work and that “quality corrections” were necessary if
∗ Corresponding author. one were to compare the different forms with respect
E-mail address: [email protected] (M.T. Brown). to their differential ability to do work. Reflecting on

0304-3800/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2004.03.002
202 M.T. Brown, S. Ulgiati / Ecological Modelling 178 (2004) 201–213

these differences, he was one of the first to point out ones lead to the concept of energy quality, and even-
the fallacies of energy technologies that promised un- tually to the measure of quality now called EMERGY.
limited energy for society from the sun or from vast Beginning in about 1966, Odum referred to “energy
quantities of oil trapped in the western shales, In the of one kind” as a common denominator with the name
first case, the source was too dilute and the energy “energy cost” (Odum, 1967b; Odum, 1971a). In a pre-
costs of concentration were too high for the source sentation to the President’s Science Advisory Com-
ever to have a net yield once the cost of the collectors mittee, Panel on World Food Supply titled Energetics
was subtracted. In the second case, the energy costs of food production, Odum referred to the giant energy
of “liberating” the oil shale, including many energy subsidies that were inherent in the green revolution
costs associated with getting water to the mountain-top that made possible “delusions regarding the capac-
site was so great that again there would be no net ity of science to develop means for feeding growing
yield. populations” (Odum, 1967b). In this same publication,
Odum’s major efforts during the 1970s were aimed Odum made that statement more explicit by beginning
at quantitatively defining energy quality and toward the process of quantifying the energy cost of energy
understanding the net yields of many energy sources, by quantifying the fossil fuel energy required to pro-
but it must be understood that it was not just defining duce food. He suggested that there was roughly one
energy sources and their net yields that drove Odum to calorie of fossil energy required per calorie of food
explore energy quality. It was his desire to understand delivered through modern agriculture. In a review of a
how the biosphere worked from the smallest scales to special issue of Scientific American in 1971 devoted
the largest, and the fact that his brand of science re- to “Energy and Power”, Odum suggested that “Sun-
quired that more than one level or scale of the biogeo- light is dilute energy, and the costs of concentrating
sphere be considered in order to understand any single it have already been optimized and yield maximized
level. In order to combine scales in the same analysis by the millions of years of natural selection for this
or to jump from one scale to another as the systems maximization” (Odum, 1972a).
of interest shifted, it was crystal clear to Odum that a The first definition of energy quality appears in an
very different approach to defining energy and ability article in AMBIO in 1973:
to do useful work was necessary. It was apparent that
Energy is measured by calories, btu’s, kilowatt
the ability to do work was dependent on not only the
hours, and other intraconvertable units, but energy
form of energy but also the system being considered.
has a scale of quality which is not indicated by
these measures. The ability to do work for man de-
pends on the energy quality and quantity and this
2. Energy quality: a historical perspective
is measurable by the amount of energy of a lower
quality grade required to develop the higher grade.
Odum recognized principles of energy quality as an
The scale of energy goes from dilute sunlight up to
outgrowth of his investigations into the works of the
plant matter, to coal, from coal to oil, to electricity
combined systems of humanity and nature. As a sys-
and up to the high quality efforts of computer and
tems ecologist, he observed energies of many differ-
human information processing. (Odum, 1973)
ent forms at many different scales. He reasoned that
a system organized to use concentrated energies like Certainly, Odum was thinking about “quality” dur-
fossil fuels cannot process a more dilute energy form ing the early 1970s, and it appears that the first quanti-
like sunlight, joule for joule. Since the processes of the tative evaluation of the concept was in 1975. While the
biosphere are infinitely varied and are more than just concepts of energy quality were, no doubt, still devel-
thermodynamic heat engines, the use of heat measures oping in 1975 when Odum received the Prize Institute
for energy that can recognize only one aspect of en- la Vie in Paris, his acceptance speech titled “Energy
ergy, its ability to raise the temperature of things, can- Quality and Carrying Capacity of the Earth” contained
not adequately quantify the work potential of energies a table of “Energy Quality Factors”, or the kilocalo-
used in more complex processes. The recognition that ries of sunlight energy required to make a kilocalorie
resource flows drive processes other than engine-like of a higher quality energy (Odum, 1976a). It was in
 M.T. Brown, S. Ulgiati / Ecological Modelling 178 (2004) 201–213 203

this same speech that Odum unveiled his energy hier- on Investment (EROI) emphasizing the fossil energy
archy principle and that “energy quality is measured invested although with an acknowledgement of the
by the energy used in the transformations” from one need to include environmental and labor energy inputs
type of energy to the next. as well for a comprehensive analysis.
The concept of net energy played an important role
in the development of energy quality and emergy.
Odum was used to the concept of “net production” 3. The emergence of emergy
in the ecosystems he had studied over the years, and
when applied to the human economy suggested that From 1975 on, Odum’s attention was increasingly
an energy source must be able to provide a net contri- focused on the development of his theory of energy
bution to the economy of the larger system in which quality and its quantitative definition. In the latter half
it is embedded, i.e. it must provide more energy than of the 1970s, Odum had several research projects in
it costs to extract and process it. Odum suggested that south Florida that were investigations of overall carry-
this principle applied to every system at all levels, from ing capacity of humans and the environmental changes
ATP-providing energy to the biochemical reactions in resulting from human uses. The ultimate purpose of
living systems, to photosynthesis, to the energy ex- the projects was to make suggestions for maximiz-
pended by animals as they grazed or chased prey. And ing economic and environmental vitality of the region
so it was logical that it applied also to the fossil fuels through better environmental management. It was dur-
driving economic sectors and human societies. ing these projects and the very creative atmosphere
In the 1970s, Odum’s work had turned toward larger that evolved around them that the concept of energy
scale investigations of the interactions of energy, ecol- quality matured into the precursors of emergy. Called
ogy, and economics. This in turn led to the application fossil fuel work equivalents (FFWE), the quality of
of net energy to energy sources for economies and his energy was measured based on a fossil fuel standard
suggestion that . . . “The true value of energy to soci- with rough equivalents of 1 kcal of fossil fuel equal
ety is the net energy, which is that after the costs of to 2000 kcal of sunlight. The ratios used to convert
getting and concentrating that energy are subtracted” all energy forms to FFWE were called “Energy qual-
(Odum, 1973). The concept of net energy as Odum ity ratios”. Later termed coal equivalent (CE) calories,
presented was almost revolutionary, and after a presen- eventually the system of evaluating quality was placed
tation to the US House of Representatives Subcommit- on a solar basis and termed solar equivalents (SE) in
tee on Energy and Power, and a meeting with Senator (Odum, 1977a).
Mark Hatfield of Oregon, a bill was introduced in the Odum began using the term embodied energy to re-
Senate in 1975 for a federal law that made net energy fer to energy quality differences in terms of their costs
analysis a requirement of proposed alternative energy of generation, and a ratio called a “quality factor” for
systems. (Odum, 1976b). This legal requirement was the calories (or joules) of one kind of energy required
enforced for a while but is now largely ignored. to make those of another in 1980 (Odum and Odum,
Odum’s concept of net energy was inextricably 1980). The term embodied energy was used by oth-
connected to energy quality, since the “true costs of ers for different ways of thinking and calculating; in
getting and concentrating energy” included not only essence not including all energies and not using the
high quality fossil fuel inputs but also human services concept to imply quality, so in 1982, Odum switched
and environmental inputs and these inputs required to “embodied solar calories” and the quality factors
“quality correction”. Odum presented his concepts of became transformation ratios. Odum abandoned “em-
energy quality linked to net energy at a meeting at bodied energy” altogether in favor of “emergy” a term
Stanford organized by the National Science Founda- suggested in 1983 by David Scienceman, which was
tion in response to the new law (Odum et al., 1976). a constriction of embodied energy. Scienceman was
Those present rejected the concept and settled on a visiting scholar from Australia, who suggested the
net energy strictly defined as the fossil fuel energy term, and emjoules or emcalories as the unit of mea-
required per unit of fossil energy delivered. Hall sure to distinguish emergy units from units of avail-
(1986) nearly a decade later defined Energy Return able energy. The term transformation ratio gave way
 204
Table 1
Chronology of development of emergy and transformity and conversions
Years Measures of quality Unit emergy values Units Reference

1967–1971 All energies of higher quality including Direct sunlight equivalent to organic Gram dry wt. O.M.; kcal, Odum (1971a 1967b)
wood, peat, coal, oil, living biomass, etc. matter was taken as 1000 solar conversion from OM to kcal
expressed in units of organic matter kcal/kcal of organic matter = 5 kcal/g dry wt.
Recognized energy basis for monetary 10,000 kcal of fossil fuels/$
payments
1973–1980 Energy quality of plants, wood, and fossil Direct sunlight equivalents of fossil fossil fuel equivalents (FFE) Odum et al. (1976)

M.T. Brown, S. Ulgiati / Ecological Modelling 178 (2004) 201–213

fuels were differentiated fuels = 2000 solar kcal/fossil fuel kcal and later coal equivalents (CE)
(first called energy quality factors,
later called solar cost equivalents and
then energy quality ratio)
An energy money ratio was further refined 25 000 fuel kcal/1973$, 19 000 Called energy dollar ratio
as ratio of total fossil fuel use (or coal CE/1975$, revised in 1980 to 11 000 (CE/$)
use) to GNP CE per 1980$
1980–1982 Energy quality of earths processes driven 6800 global solar cal/cal of available Called “embodied energy” Odum et al. (1983),Odum (1983)
by solar energy recognized, thus solar energy in coal units were global solar
energy embodied in winds, rains waves calories.
accounted for.
Energy money ratio 19 600 fuel kcal/$
1983–1886 Recognized that solar energy, deep heat, Embodied solar joules/joule of fossil Called embodied solar Odum and Odum (1983)
and tidal momentum were basis for global fuels = 40 000 seJ/J, called energy equivalents (seJ) and later
processes total global sources equal to transformation ratio (ETR) called “emergy” with
9.44 E24 solar joules nomenclature (seJ)
Embodied solar equivalents per dollar seJ/$ in USA economy = 2.2E12 seJ/$
calculated for different nations seJ/1984$
1987–2000 Further refinements of total energy driving Solar emergy/joule of coal energy seJ/J = transformity Odum (1996)
global processes, embodied solar energy ∼40 000 solar emjoules/joule (seJ/J)
renamed to EMERGY called “Transformity”
Emergy money ratio based on sum of Dollar equivalents of emergy are seJ/g = specific emergy
renewable and non-renewable emergy called “emdollars” emergy per dollar
driving economy divided by GNP in 2000 ∼1.0 E12 seJ/$
seJ/$ = emergy/unit money
2000–present Emergy driving the biosphere reevaluated Solar emergy per joule of coal energy seJ/J = transformity; seJ/g Odum et al. (2000)
as 15.83 E24 seJ/year raising all ∼6.7 E 4 seJ/J = specific emergy
previously calculated transformities by the
ratio of 15.83/9.44 = 1.68
Emergy per dollar calculation does not Emergy per dollar in USA in 2000 ∼ seJ/$ = emergy/unit money
change. Driving energies increased 1.67 1.67 E12 seJ/$
times
 M.T. Brown, S. Ulgiati / Ecological Modelling 178 (2004) 201–213 205

to ‘’transformity” about the same time. In an appendix 4. Emergy and transformity

to his book Environmental Accounting (Odum, 1996),
Odum provided a table listing a chronology of nomen- With his first attempts at defining emergy, and con-
clature and emergy conversions. The table provides tinuing until his death, Odum used the concept of
insight into the development of the emergy concept an energy hierarchy (Fig. 2) as a means of explain-
and is worth presenting here in slightly different for- ing the work of nature and society that results in
mat and with some additions (Table 1). energy transformations. When viewed in totality, the
Between 1983 and today, the emergy methodology systems of nature and society are interconnected in
has undergone continued transformations. It has con- webs of energy flow. His concept was that all en-
tinued to mature as each new research project pre- ergy transformations of the geo-biosphere could be
sented new “theoretical wrinkles” and as they were arranged in an ordered series to form an energy hier-
explored dissected, and discussed. Always concepts archy with many joules of sunlight required to make
and theories were explored out-load at our “Systems a joule of organic matter, many joules of organic mat-
Seminar” at the University of Florida that meets ev- ter to make a joule of fuel, several joules of fuel
ery Thursday and has for the past 30 some odd years. required to make a joule of electric power, and so
It was during these sessions where the entire body on.
of concepts and theories were first introduced, dis- The maturing of the emergy methodology resulted
cussed, amplified, recycled, and evolved. In many re- in rigorous definitions of terms and nomenclature as
spects, the development of emergy has been a dia- well as the refinement of the methodology of cal-
log between Odum and his colleagues and students culating transformities. Given next are definitions of
on Thursday afternoons. Thus, the emergy method most important terms used in the emergy methodol-
developed in a way similar to the information cycle ogy.
posited by Odum (Fig. 1), as necessary to maintain Emergy is the availability of energy (exergy) of one
existing, and generate new information through a pro- kind that is used up in transformations directly and
cess of natural selection. First, newly generated infor- indirectly to make a product or service. The unit of
mation is selected, tested, and extracted, then copied emergy is the emjoule, a unit referring to the available
and shared, and finally through use, completed the energy of one kind consumed in transformations. For
cycle where it acts through reinforcement to gener- example, sunlight, fuel, electricity, and human service
ate new information. This cycling of information is can be put on a common basis by expressing them
necessary to avoid its loss due to second-law depre- all in the emjoules of solar energy that is required
ciation as well as a requirement of new information to produce each. In this case, the value is a unit of
generation. solar emergy expressed in solar emjoules (abbreviated

Fig. 1. Diagram illustrating the cycle of generation, selection, sharing, and loop reinforcement through use necessary to maintain and
generate new information. (after Odum, 1996).
206 M.T. Brown, S. Ulgiati / Ecological Modelling 178 (2004) 201–213

Fig. 2. Concepts of energy transformation hierarchy. (a) All units view together; (b) units separated by scale; (c) the units as a web
of energy flows; (d) units shown as a transformation series with values of energy flow on pathways; (e) useful power flowing between
transformations; and (f) transformities.

seJ). Although other units have been used, such as Transformity, defined as the emergy input per unit
coal emjoules or electrical emjoules, in most cases all of available energy (exergy) output. For example,
emergy data are given in solar emjoules. if 4000 solar emjoules are required to generate
Unit emergy values (emergy intensities) are calcu- a joule of wood, then the solar transformity of
lated based on the emergy required to generate one that wood is 4000 solar emjoules per joule (ab-
unit of output. There are several important types of breviated seJ/J). Solar energy is the largest but
emergy intensities, as follows: most dispersed energy input to the earth. The
 M.T. Brown, S. Ulgiati / Ecological Modelling 178 (2004) 201–213 207

solar transformity of the sunlight absorbed by Empower is a flow of emergy (i.e., emergy/unit
the earth is 1.0 by definition. time). Emergy flows are usually expressed in units of
Specific emergy, defined as the emergy per unit solar empower (solar emjoules/time: seJ/s, seJ/year).
mass output, and usually expressed as solar
emergy per gram (seJ/g). Solids may be eval-
uated best with data on emergy per unit mass 5. Disciplines and case studies
for its concentration. Because energy is re-
quired to concentrate materials, the unit emergy The emergy concept and the maximum empower
value of any substance increases with concen- principle (see Hall and Cia, Olsen and Campbell, this
tration. Elements and compounds not abundant volume) constitute powerful concepts, definitions, and
in nature therefore have higher emergy/mass tools for investigation of systems at all scales, fram-
ratios when found in concentrated form, since ing a system’s behavior and sustainability within the
more environmental work was required to biosphere’s driving forces and evolutionary pattern.
concentrate them, both spatially and chemi- More than an evaluation procedure aimed at just as-
cally. signing numerical values to processes, flows, and prod-
Emergy per unit money, defined as the emergy ucts, the emergy method is a conceptual framework,
supporting the generation of one unit of eco- a window through which systems are investigated un-
nomic product (expressed as currency). It is used der a donor-side perspective (i.e. the perspective of
to convert money payments into emergy units. the environmental work required to support a system’s
Since money is paid to people for their services dynamics). Based on the recognition that “value” has
and not to the environment, the contribution to different meanings depending on the scale and per-
a process represented by monetary payments spective of the evaluation, the emergy method assigns
is the emergy that people purchase with the values according to what it takes to drive a process
money. The amount of resources that money and make products, under the constraints of maximum
buys depends on the amount of emergy sup- power selection. In Table 2, we list examples of fields
porting the economy and the amount of money of study and processes where Odum’s emergy theories
circulating. An average emergy/money ratio in have been applied, in order to show the capability of
solar emjoules/$ can be calculated by dividing the approach and its potential for further development.
the total emergy use of a state or nation by its The Books of Proceedings of the first three Emergy
gross economic product. It varies by country and Conferences (Brown et al., 2001, 2003, 2004) provide
has been shown to decrease each year, which is a significant set of theoretical and applied papers, for
one index of inflation. This emergy/money ra- further reading.
tio is useful for evaluating service inputs given
in money units where an average wage rate is
appropriate. 6. Emergy and other evaluation procedures
Emergy per unit labor, defined as the amount of
emergy supporting one unit of labor directly Although Odum’s investigations on energy issues
supplied to a process. Laborers apply their work started early in the Fifties, it was his seminal book “En-
to the process, and in doing so, they indirectly vironment, Power and Society” (Odum, 1971a) that
invest in it the whole emergy that made their actually originated the discipline of energy analysis
labor possible (food, training, transport, etc). and its uncountable applications to numerous disci-
This emergy intensity is generally expressed as plines, from environmental sciences to technological
emergy per time (seJ/year, seJ/h), but emergy and economic fields of inquiry.
per money earned (seJ/$) is also used. Indirect The recognition of the relevance of energy to the
labor required to make and supply the inputs to growth and dynamics of all complex systems with and
a process is generally measured as dollar cost of without humans gave rise to a blooming of diverse
services, so that its emergy intensity is calculated analysis methods, based on accounting and interpret-
as seJ/$. ing matter and energy flows, at all scales. In the first
208 M.T. Brown, S. Ulgiati / Ecological Modelling 178 (2004) 201–213

Table 2 Table 2 (Continued )

Fields of study, emergy projects and references
Emergy and thermodynamics
Emergy and ecosystems (Odum et al., 1999) Efficiency and Power (Odum and Pinkerton, 1955;
Self-organization (Odum, 1970, 1986, 1988) Odum et al., 1995b)
Aquatic ecosystems (Odum, 1967a; Odum, 1977b; Maximum Empower Principle (Odum, 1975, 1983;
Odum and Arding, 1991) Hall, 1995)
Food webs and hierarchies (Brown and Bardi, 2001) Pulsing paradigm (Odum, 1982, 1995)
Ecosystem health (Brown and Ulgiati, 2004) Thermodynamic principles (Giannantoni, 2002, 2003)
Forest ecosystems (Odum et al., 1995c;
Systems modeling
Doherty et al., 1995)
Energy systems language and modeling (Odum,
Complexity (Odum, 1987a; Odum, 1994)
1971a,b, 1972b)
Emergy and Information
Diversity and information (Keitt, 1991; Odum, 1996)
Culture, Education, University (Odum and Odum,
two decades, since energy analysis has come to the at-
1980; Odum et al., 1995b)
tention of many scientists (1970s and 1980s), studies
Emergy, Agriculture, agricultural products were devoted primarily to assessing and demonstrating
Food production, agriculture (Odum, 1967b, 1984b;
Ulgiati et al., 1993)
the superiority of a given approach compared to oth-
ers (see, for example, IFIAS, 1974 and Slesser, 1998).
Emergy and energy sources and carriers
As the field matured and new scientific conceptual-
Fossil fuels (Brown et al., 1993; Odum, 1996)
Renewable and non-renewable electricity (Odum, izations developed, (e.g. system thinking, hierarchical
1983; Brown and Ulgiati, 2002) theory, non-linear dynamics, fractal geometry, com-
Hydrologic dams (Brown and McLanahan, 1992) plex systems analysis), it became increasingly clear
Biofuels (Odum, 1980a; Odum and Odum, 1984) that different approaches were very often required by
Hydrogen (Barbir, 1992)
the very nature of the problems being dealt with, in or-
Emergy and the Economy der to build a set of complementary descriptions, able
National and international analyses (Odum and to provide different assessments, narratives, or views
Odum, 1983; Odum, 1987b; Brown, 2003;
Cialani et al., 2004)
on different space-time scales. This is why, depend-
Trade (Odum, 1984a) ing on the goal of the investigation, a large number
Environmental accounting (Odum, 1996) of analysts developed tools such as Embodied Energy
Development policies (Odum, 1980b) Analysis, Exergy Analysis, Material Flow Account-
Sustainability (Odum, 1973; Odum et al., 1976; ing, Life Cycle Assessment, Ecological Footprint, and
Brown and Ulgiati, 1999)
The prosperous way down (Odum and Odum, 2001)
Societal Metabolism, among others, each method be-
ing able to answer specific questions about a system’s
Emergy and cities
performance.
Research on cities (Odum et al., 1995b)
Taiwan spatial organization (Huang, 1998) Common features can be explicitly or implicitly
Transportation modes (Bayley et al., 1977) found in the different methods for evaluation, includ-
Emergy and landscape development
ing Odum’s emergy. The latter, however, was intended
Empower density (Odum, 1996) to account for aspects, which are usually not ac-
Land development indicators (Brown and Vivas, 2004) counted for by other evaluation methods. Non-emergy
Emergy in landforms (Kangas, 2002) approaches most often evaluate only non-renewable
Emergy and ecological engineering resources, depending on what human technologies
Restoration models (Prado-Jatar and Brown, 1997) are able to extract from them (user-side quality). Fur-
Reclamation projects (Odum et al., 1981) thermore, non-emergy approaches do not account for
Artificial ecosystems: wetlands, ponds. . . (Odum,
the free services that a system receives from the en-
1977b; Odum, 1985)
vironment (e.g., the photosynthetic activity driven by
Emergy, material flows, and recycling the solar radiation, the dilution of pollutants by the
Mining and mineral processing (Odum, 1996)
Recycling pattern in human-dominated ecosystems
wind, etc.), which are just as much a requirement for
(Brown and Buranakarn, 2003) the productive process as are, e.g., fossil fuels nor do
they have an accounting procedure for human labor,
 M.T. Brown, S. Ulgiati / Ecological Modelling 178 (2004) 201–213 209

societal services, and information (i.e. for those flows, and comprehensive tool for the investigation of sys-
which carry negligible energy but are supported by a tems on the larger scales of the biosphere, and finally,
huge indirect flow of resources). Emergy includes all help understanding the dynamic interaction between
of this, perhaps not perfectly, but in a way to help us human-dominated processes and resources and ser-
understand that there is a huge network of support- vices provided for free by nature.
ing energies necessary to support, e.g., any particular
economic activity in our culture.
More specifically, by expanding the scope of energy 7. The emergy conferences
studies to the biosphere’s space and time scales, the
emergy method is able to: The emergy method cannot escape undergoing the
information cycle pointed out by H.T. Odum (Fig. 1).
(i) Investigate systems that are outside of human
Since information is something that needs to be
activities (ecosystems, global biosphere pro-
copied, shared, tested, and selected to avoid its loss
cesses).
due to second-law depreciation as well as to allow for
(ii) Focus on the role of the environment in support
new information to be generated, it is of fundamental
of human-dominated processes, both on the re-
importance that definitions and concepts, methods,
source supply side and on the sink side (dilution
and case studies using the emergy methodology are
or uptake of pollutants).
also disseminated, tested, and selected by emergy
(iii) Perform a donor-side quality assessment as a
specialists and by all kinds of interested people, act-
complement of generally used user-side assess-
ing in the role of science’s information-processing
ments. This provides a measure of how much
specialists. In doing so, errors are found and in time
the system relies on the biosphere support.
drop out, and those concepts and methods that work
(iv) Evaluate processes that are directly based on
are reinforced through sharing and selecting.
small flows of physical carriers, but are sup-
For this reason, a series of biennial Emergy Synthe-
ported by huge indirect flows of resources, such
sis Research Conferences was started in 1999, in order
as the creation and processing of information.
to gather emergy specialists together and provide the
(v) Expand the time scale of the evaluation, to in-
critical mass for shared information and theoretical
clude the memory of resource flows converging
evolution. The response to the calls of the organizing
to the system.
committee was stronger and more diverse than ex-
(vi) Assess the renewability of resources on the ba-
pected, indicating that the approach is by itself spread-
sis of both space and time convergence required
ing and reaching research groups and disciplinary
to make them. The transformity quantifies this
areas far from the original fields of application. In a
renewability in a continuous form, with higher
way, this was a consequence of Odum’s broad inter-
values corresponding to higher convergence
ests and scientific productivity, which allowed him to
of environmental work and therefore lower
explore links and relations with areas outside systems
renewability.
ecology and thermodynamics; to embrace and synthe-
(vii) Evaluate in a quantitative way the (donor) qual-
size economy, philosophy, social sciences, and policy.
ity of those resource flows and storages that
Held every two years in Gainesville on the Univer-
have no market (such as fresh water, biodiver-
sity of Florida campus, the Emergy Synthesis Confer-
sity, fertile topsoil) and cannot be evaluated in
ence has grown steadily from about 35 participants in
monetary terms.
1999 to over 90 participants in the January 2004 con-
(viii) Assess the environmental impact of processes
ference. The proceeding of the conference, published
based on matching of high quality and low qual-
by the Center for Environmental Policy at the Univer-
ity resources.
sity of Florida (see Brown et al., 2001, 2003, 2004)
(ix) Include in the evaluation the emergy supporting
has increased in size from a book of 26 papers result-
human labor and services.
ing from the 1999 conference to 45 papers published
All of these properties largely expand upon those in the 2004 proceedings. The conference is truly in-
of any other evaluation method, provide a powerful ternational bringing together scientists representing 18
210 M.T. Brown, S. Ulgiati / Ecological Modelling 178 (2004) 201–213

countries from the continents of Asia, Australia, Eu- non-emergy specialists are very likely to find in the
rope, and North and South America. emergy approach the conceptual framework that is
absolutely needed for a reliable investigation of the
interplay of natural ecosystems and human-dominated
8. Summary comments systems and processes. The common thread is the
ability to evaluate all forms of energy, materials, and
The concept of energy quality has been most con- human services on a common basis by converting
troversial. While quality has been recognized, some- them into equivalents of one form of energy, solar
what, in the energy literature (Cleveland, 1992) where emergy, a measure of the past and present envi-
different forms of fossil energy are expressed in coal ronmental support to any process occurring in the
or oil equivalents, and some researchers have even ex- biosphere.
pressed electricity in oil equivalents by using first law
efficiencies, there has been wide-spread rejection of
quality corrections of other forms of energy. The idea References
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