CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Digital Mapping

Not long ago, people drew and colored their maps by hand. Analyzing data and creating the
resulting maps was slow and labor intensive. Digital maps, thanks to the ever-falling cost of
processing power and storage, have opened up a whole new range of possibilities. With the click
of a mouse or a few lines of code, your computer analyzes, draws, and color-themes your map
data. From the global positioning system (GPS) in your car to the web site displaying local bus
routes, digital mapping has gone mainstream.
Of course, learning to produce digital maps requires some effort. Map data can be used
incorrectly, resulting in maps with errors or misleading content. Digital mapping doesn't
guarantee quality or ethics, just like conventional mapping.

The Power of Digital Maps

When you contrast the methods of conventional and digital mapping, the power of digital
mapping becomes evident. The process of conventional mapping includes hand-drawn
observations of the real world, transposed onto paper. If a feature changes, moves, or is drawn
incorrectly, a new map needs to be created to reflect that change. Likewise if a map shows the
extent of a city and that city grows, the extent of the map will need to be changed and the map
will need to be completely recreated.
These problems are reduced with digital mapping. Because features are stored as distinct layers
in a computer file, you can modify a map without starting from scratch. Once a feature is
modified, the computer-based map instantly reflects the change the next time the feature is
viewed. Interactive n1aps allow the user to view the precise area they are interested in, rather
than be confined by the dimensions of a printed page. The user can also choose to view only
certain pieces of content. The mapmaker doesn't have to guess which information the viewer
wants to see but can make it possible for the reader to choose.
Instead of focusing on the details of a particular area of the world to map, the digital map maker
can focus on how to best present information. This is much like the difference between an author
and a web page designer. When you move into the digital realm, the focus is more on helping
others find information rather than presenting static representations of information, as on a
printed page. Today's mapmaker is often a web site developer, programmer, or some sort of
geographic information analyst. Her focus is on managing and presenting information to a
specific audience, be it in finance, forestry, or national defense, for instance.

The Difficulties of Making Maps

If you've worked with maps, digital or conventional, you'll know that despite my enthusiasm,
mapping isn't always easy. Why do we often find it so difficult to make maps of the world
around us? How well could you map out the way you normally drive to the supermarket?
Usually, it's easier to describe your trip than it is to draw a map. Perhaps we have a perception of
what a map must look like and therefore are afraid to draw our own, thinking it might look silly
in comparison. Yet some maps drawn by a friend on a napkin might be of more use than any
professional city map could ever be.

Personal Maps
The element of personal knowledge, rather than general knowledge, is what can make a
somewhat useful map into one that is very powerful. When words fail to describe the location of
something that isn't general knowledge, a map can round out the picture for you. Maps can be
used to supplement a verbal description, but because creating a map involves drawing a
perspective from your head, it can be very intimidating. That intimidation and lack of ownership
over maps has created an interesting dilemma. In our minds, maps are something that
professionals create, not the average person. Yet a map like the one shown in Figure 1-1 can
have much more meaning to someone than a professional map of the same area. So what are the
professional maps lacking? They show mostly common information and often lack personal
information that would make the map more useful or interesting to you.

Technology Barriers
Digital mapping isn't a new topic. Ever since computers could create graphic representations of
the earth, people have been creating maps with them. In early computing, people used to draw
with ASCn text-based maps. (l remember creating AScn maps for role-playing games on a
Tandy color computer.) However, designing graphics with ASCn symbols wasn't pretty.
Thankfully, more sophisticated graphic techniques on personal computers allow you to create
your own high-quality maps.
Figure 1-1. A personal map drawn by Ryan Mendenhall showing Chicago Heights, Illinois,
U.S.A.;this map is courtesy of Lori Napoleon's maps project web site:
http://www.subk.net/maps.html

You might already be creating your own maps but aren't satisfied with the tools. For some, the
cost of commercial tools can be prohibitive, especially if you just want to play around for a while
to get a feei for the craft. Open source software alleviates the need for immediate, monetary
payback on investment.

For others, cost may not be an issue but capabilities are. Just like proprietary software, open
source mapping products vary in their features. Improved features might include ease of use or
quality of output. One major area of difference is in how products communicate with other
products. This is called interoperability and refers to the ability of a program to share data or
functions with another program. These often adhere to open standards-protocols for
communication between applications. The basic idea is to define standards that aren't dependent
on one particular software package; they would depend instead on the communication process a
developer decided to implement. An example of these standards in action is the ability of your
program to request maps from another mapping program over the Internet. The real power of
open standards is evident when your program can communicate with a program developed by a
different group/vendor. This is a crucial issue for many large organizations, especially
government agencies, where sharing data across departments can make or break the efficiency in
that organization. Products that impleruent open standards will help to ensure the long-term
viability of applications you build. Be warned, however, that some products claim to be
interoperable yet stop short of implementing the full standards. Some companies modify the
standards for their product, defeating the purpose of those standards. Interoperability standards
are also relatively young and in a state of flux.

Costs and capabilities may not be the main barrier for you. Maybe you want to create your own
maps but don't know how. Maybe you don't know what tools are available. This book describes
some of the free tools available to you, to get you moving toward your end goal of map
production.

Another barrier might be that you lack the technical know-how required for digital mapping.
While conventional mapping techniques cut out most of the population, digital mapping
techniques also prohibit people who aren't very tech-savvy. This is because installing and
customizing software is beyond the scope of many computer users. The good news is that those
who are comfortable with the customization side of computerized mapping can create easy-to-
use tools for others. This provides great freedom for both parties. Those who have mastered the
computer skills involved gain by helping fill other's needs. New users gain by being able to view
mapping information with minimal effort through an existing mapping application.

Technological barriers exist, but for those who can use a computer and want to do mapping with
that computer, the possibilities are endless. The mapping tools described here aren't necessarily
easy w use: they require a degree of technical skill. Web mapping programs are more
complicated than traditional desktop software. There are often no simple, automated installation
procedures, and some custom configuration is required. But in general, once set up, the tools
require minimal intervention.

Different Kinds of Web Mapping

One very effective way to make map information available to a group of nontechnical end users
is to make it available through a web page. Web mapping sites are becoming increasingly
popular. There are two broad kinds of web mapping applications: static and interactive.

Static maps displayed as an image on a web page are quite common. If you already have a digital
map (e.g., from scanning a document), you can be up and running very quickly with a static map
on your web page. Basic web design skills are all you need for this because it is only a single
image on a page.

Interactive maps aren't as commonly seen because they require specialized skills to keep such
sites up and running (not to mention the potential costs of buying off-theshelf software). The
term interactive implies that the viewer can somehow interact with the map. This can mean
selecting different map data layers to view or zooming into a particular part of the map that you
are interested in. All this is done while interacting with the web page and a map image that is
repeatedly updated. For example, Map Quest is an interactive web mapping program for. finding
street addresses and driving directions.
You can see it in action at http://www.mapquest.com.

Interactive maps that are accessed through web pages are referred to as web-based maps or
simply web maps. These maps can be very powerful, but as mentioned, they can also be difficult
to set up due to the technical skills required for maintaining a web server, a mapping
server/program and management of the underlying map data. As you can see, these types of
maps are fundamentally different from static maps because they are really a type of web-based
program or application. Figure 1-2 shows a basic diagram of how an end user requests a map
through a web mapping site and what happens behind the scenes. A user requests a map from the
web server, and the server passes the request to the web mapping server, who then pulls together
all the data. The map is passed all the way back to the end user's web browser.

Figure 1-2. A diagram of how a mapping web site interacts with the end user and the back-end
programs running on the servers

Web Map Users

Generally speaking, there are two types of people who use web maps: service providers and end
users.

For instance, I am a service provider because l have put together a web site that has an
interactive mapping component you can see it at: http://spatialguru.comlmaps/apps/global. One
of the maps available to my end users shows the locations of several hurricanes. I'm safely
tucked away between the Rocky and Coastal mountain ranges in western Canada, so l wouldn't
consider myself a user of the hurricane portion of the site. It is simply a service for others who
are interested.
An end user might be someone who is curious about where the hurricanes are, or it may be a
critical part of a person's business to know. For example, they may just wonder how close a
hurricane is to a friend's house or they may need to get an idea of which clients were affected by
a particular hurricane. This is a good example of how interactive mapping can be broadly
applicable yet specifically useful. End-user needs can vary greatly. You might seek out a web
mapping site that provides driving directions to a particular address. Someone else might want to
see an aerial photo and topographic map for an upcoming hiking trip. Some end users have a web
mapping site created to meet their specific needs, while others just look on the Internet for a site
that has some capabilities they are interested in.
Service providers can have completely different purposes in mind for providing a web map. A
service provider might be interested in off-loading some of the repetitive tasks that come his way
at the office. Implementing a web mapping site can be an excellent way of taking previously
inaccessible data and making it more broadly available. If an organization isn't ready to introduce
staff to more traditional GIS software (which can have a steep learning curve), having one
technical expert maintain a web mapping site is a valuable service.

Another reason a service provider might make a web mapping site available is to more broadly
disseminate data without having to transfer the raw data to clients. A good example of this is my
provincial government, the Province of British Columbia, Canada. They currently have some
great aerial photography data and detailed base maps, but if you want the digital data, you have
to negotiate a data exchange agreement or purchase the data from them. The other option is to
use one of their web mapping sites. They have a site available that basically turns mapping into a
selfserve, customizable resource; check it out at: http://maps.gov.bc.ca.

Web Sites with a Web Mapping Component

There are many web mapping sites available for you to use and explore. Table 1-1 lists a few that
use software or apply similar principles to the software described in this book.

Table 1-1. A few MapServer-based web sites that have interactive mapping

Website Desciption
http://www.dmso/utions.ca/so/utions/tsunam Tsunami disaster mapping site
i.htm/
http://topozone.com/ Portal to U.S. topographie, imagery, and
street maps
Various recreational and natural resource
http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/maps/ mapping applications for
the state of Minnesota, U.S.A.
http://www.trai/scanada.com Portal for Canadian trails information and
maps
http://www.mapitout.com/restaurants Restaurant locating and viewing site for the
city of Winnipeg, Canada
http://www.gommap.org/ Portal to Gulf of Maine (U.S.A.) mapping
applieations and web services
http://www.mapsherpa.com/hawaii2/ Comprehensive atlas of Hawaii, U.s.A.
http://mesonet.tamu.edu/ Real-time U.S.A. weather maps
http://spatialguru.com/maps/apps/global View global imagery and place.

Figures 1-3, 1-4, and 1-5 show the web pages of three such sites. They show how diverse some
MapServer applications can be, from street-level mapping to statewide overviews.
Of course, not all maps out there are built with MapServer; Table 1-2 lists other mapping sites
that you may want to look to for inspiration.
Behind the web page
To some people, web mapping sites may appear quite simple, while to others, they look like
magic. The inner workings of a web mapping site can vary depending on the software used, but
there are some common general concepts:
 The web server takes care of web page requests and provides pages with images, etc.
included, back to the requestor.
 The web mapping server accepts requests relayed from the web server. The request asks
for a map with certain content and for a certain geographic area. It may also make requests
for analysis or query results in a tabular form. The web mapping server program then
creates the required map images (or tabular data) and sends them back to the web server
for relay back to the end user.
 The web mapping server needs to have access to the data sources required for the mapping
requests, as shown in Figure 1-2. This can include files located on the same server or
across an internal network. If web mapping standards are used, data can also come from
other web mapping servers through live requests.
More information on the process of web mapping services can be found in Chapters 4, 11, and
12: those chapters discuss MapServer in depth.

Making your own web mapping site

This book will teach about several of the components necessary to build your web mapping site,
as well as general map data management. To give you an overview of the kinds of technology
involved, here are some of the basic requirements of a web mapping site. Only the web mapping
server and mapping data components from this list are discussed in this book.

A computer
This should be a given, but it's worth noting that the more intensive the web mapping
application you intend to host, the more powerful the computer you will want to have.
Larger and more complex maps take longer to process; a faster processor completes
requests faster. Internet hosting options are often too simplistic to handle web mapping
sites, since you need more access to the underlying operating system and web server.
Hosting services specifically for web mapping may also be available. The computer's
operating system can be a barrier to running some applications. In general, Windows and
Linux operating systems are best supported, whereas Mac OS X and other Unix-based
systems are less so.

An Internet connection
It is conceivable that you would have a web mapping site running just for you or for an
internal (i.e., corporate) network, but if you want to share it with the public, you need a
publicly accessible network connection. Some personal Internet accounts limit your ability
to host these types of services, requiring additional business class accounts that carry a
heavier price tag. Performance of a web mapping site largely depends on the bandwidth of
the Internet connection. If, for example, you produce large images (that have larger file
sizes), though they run instantaneously on your computer, such images may take seconds
to relay to an end user.
A web server
A web server is needed to handle the high-level communications between the end user
(who is using a web browser to access your mapping site) and the underlying mapping
services on your computer. It presents a web page containing maps and map-related tools
to the end user. Two such servers are Apache HTTP Server (http://httpd.apache.orgl) and
Microsoft Internet Information Services (lIS)
(http://www.microsoft.com/WindowsServer2003/iis/default. mspx). If you use an Internet
service provider to host your web server, you may not be able to access the required
underlying configuration settings for the software.

A web mapping server

The web mapping server is the engine behind the maps you see on a web page. The
mapping server or web mapping program needs to be configured to communicate between
the web server and assemble data layers into an appropriate image. This book focuses on
MapServer, but there are many choices available.

Mapping data
A map isn't possible without some sort of mapping information for display. This can be
satellite imagery, database connections, GIS software files, text files with lists of map
coordinates, or other web mapping servers over the Internet. Mapping data is often referred
to as spatial or geospatial data and can be used in an array of desktop mapping programs or
web mapping servers.

Mapping metadata
This isn't a basic requirement, but I mentioned it here because it will emerge as a major
requirement in the future. Metadata is data about data. It often describes where the
mapping data came from, how it can be used, what it contains, and who to contact with
questions. As more and more mapping data becomes available over the Internet, the need
for cataloging the information is essential. Services already exist that search out and
catalog online data sources so others can find them easily.
Over the course of this book, you'll learn to assemble these components into your own
interactive mapping service.