SQL tutorial gives unique learning on Structured Query Language and it helps to make practice on SQL commands which

provides immediate results. SQL

is a language of database, it includes database creation, deletion, fetching rows and modifying rows etc.
SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard but there are many different versions of the SQL language.
What is SQL?
SQL is structured Query Language which is a computer language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data stored in relational database.
SQL is the standard language for Relation Database System. All relational database management systems like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase,
Informix, postgres and SQL Server uses SQL as standard database language.
Also they are using different dialects, Such as:
• MS SQL Server using T-SQL,
• Oracle using PL/SQL,
• MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL (native format )etc
Why SQL?
• Allow users to access data in relational database management systems.
• Allow users to describe the data.
• Allow users to define the data in database and manipulate that data.
• Allow to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-compilers.
• Allow users to create and drop databases and tables.
• Allow users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
• Allow users to set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
SQL Process:
When you are executing an SQL command for any RDBMS, the system determines the best way to carry out your request and SQL engine figures out how to
interpret the task.
There are various components included in the process. These components are Query Dispatcher, Optimization engines, Classic Query Engine and SQL
query engine etc. Classic query engine handles all non-SQL queries but SQL query engine won't handle logical files. Following is a simple digram showing
SQL Architecture:

SQL Commands:
The standard SQL commands to interact with relational databases are CREATE, SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, and DROP. These commands can
be classified into groups based on their nature:
DDL - Data Definition Language:
Command Description

CREATE Creates a new table, a view of a table, or other object in database

ALTER Modifies an existing database object, such as a table.

DROP Deletes an entire table, a view of a table or other object in the database.
DML - Data Manipulation Language:
Command Description

INSERT Creates a record

UPDATE Modifies records

DELETE Deletes records

DCL - Data Control Language:
Command Description

GRANT Gives a privilege to user

REVOKE Takes back privileges granted from user

DQL - Data Query Language:
Command Description

SELECT Retrieves certain records from one or more tables

What is RDBMS?
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM
DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
A Relational database management system (RDBMS) is a database management system (DBMS) that is based on the relational model as introduced by E.
F. Codd.
What is table ?
The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. The table is a collection of related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.
Remember, a table is the most common and simplest form of data storage in a relational database. Following is the example of a CUSTOMERS table:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
What is field?
Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the CUSTOMERS table consist of ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS and SALARY.
A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information about every record in the table.
What is record, or row?
A record, also called a row of data, is each individual entry that exists in a table. For example there are 7 records in the above CUSTOMERS table. Following
is a single row of data or record in the CUSTOMERS table:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
A record is a horizontal entity in a table.
What is column?
A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with a specific field in a table.
For example, a column in the CUSTOMERS table is ADDRESS which represents location description and would consist of the following:
+-----------+
| ADDRESS |
+-----------+
| Ahmedabad |
| Delhi |
| Kota |
| Mumbai |
| Bhopal |
| MP |
| Indore |
+----+------+
What is NULL value?
A NULL value in a table is a value in a field that appears to be blank which means A field with a NULL value is a field with no value.
It is very important to understand that a NULL value is different than a zero value or a field that contains spaces. A field with a NULL value is one that has
been left blank during record creation.
SQL Constraints:
Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on table. These are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and
reliability of the data in the database.
Contraints could be column level or table level. Column level constraints are applied only to one column where as table level constraints are applied to the
whole table.
Following are commonly used constraints available in SQL:
• NOT NULL Constraint: Ensures that a column cannot have NULL value.
• DEFAULT Constraint : Provides a default value for a column when none is specified.
• UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all values in a column are different.
• PRIMARY Key: Uniquely identified each rows/records in a database table.
• FOREIGN Key: Uniquely identified a rows/records in any another database table.
• CHECK Constraint: The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a column satisfy certain conditions.
• INDEX: Use to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.
Data Integrity:
The following categories of the data integrity exist with each RDBMS:
• Entity Integrity : There are no duplicate rows in a table.
• Domain Integrity : Enforces valid entries for a given column by restricting the type, the format, or the range of values.
 • Referential integrity : Rows cannot be deleted, which are used by other records.
• User-Defined Integrity : Enforces some specific business rules that do not fall into entity, domain, or referential integrity.
Database Normalization
Database normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a database. There are two reasons of the normalization process:
1. Eliminating redundant data, for example, storing the same data in more than one tables.
2. Ensuring data dependencies make sense.
Both of these are worthy goals as they reduce the amount of space a database consumes and ensure that data is logically stored. Normalization consists of a
series of guidelines that help guide you in creating a good database structure.
Normalization guidelines are divided into normal forms; think of form as the format or the way a database structure is laid out. The aim of normal forms is to
organize the database structure so that it complies with the rules of first normal form, then second normal form, and finally third normal form.
It's your choice to take it further and go to fourth normal form, fifth normal form, and so on, but generally speaking, third normal form is enough.
1. First Normal Form (1NF)
2. Second Normal Form (2NF)
3. Third Normal Form (3NF)
here are many popular RDBMS available to work with. This tutorial gives a brief overview of few most popular RDBMS. This would help you to compare their
basic features:
MySQL
MySQL is open source SQL database, which is developed by Swedish company MySQL AB. MySQL is pronounced "my ess-que-ell," in contrast with SQL,
pronounced "sequel."
MySQL is supporting many different platforms including Microsoft Windows, the major Linux distributions, UNIX, and Mac OS X.
MySQL has free and paid versions, depending on its usage (non-commercial/commercial) and features. MySQL comes with a very fast, multi-threaded, multi-
user, and robust SQL database server.
History:
• Development of MySQL by Michael Widenius & David Axmark beginning in 1994.
• First internal release on 23 May 1995.
• Windows version was released on 8 January 1998 for Windows 95 and NT.
• Version 3.23: beta from June 2000, production release January 2001.
• Version 4.0: beta from August 2002, production release March 2003 (unions).
• Version 4.01: beta from August 2003, Jyoti adopts MySQL for database tracking.
• Version 4.1: beta from June 2004, production release October 2004.
• Version 5.0: beta from March 2005, production release October 2005.
• Sun Microsystems acquired MySQL AB on 26 February 2008.
• Version 5.1: production release 27 November 2008.
Features:
• High Performance.
• High Availability.
• Scalability and Flexibility Run anything.
• Robust Transactional Support.
• Web and Data Warehouse Strengths.
• Strong Data Protection.
• Comprehensive Application Development.
• Management Ease.
• Open Source Freedom and 24 x 7 Support.
• Lowest Total Cost of Ownership.
MS SQL Server
MS SQL Server is a Relational Database Management System developed by Microsoft Inc. Its primary query languages are:
• T-SQL.
• ANSI SQL.
History:
• 1987 - Sybase releases SQL Server for UNIX.
• 1988 - Microsoft, Sybase, and Aston-Tate port SQL Server to OS/2.
• 1989 - Microsoft, Sybase, and Aston-Tate release SQL Server 1.0 for OS/2.
• 1990 - SQL Server 1.1 is released with support for Windows 3.0 clients.
• Aston-Tate drops out of SQL Server development.
• 2000 - Microsoft releases SQL Server 2000.
• 2001 - Microsoft releases XML for SQL Server Web Release 1 (download).
• 2002 - Microsoft releases SQLXML 2.0 (renamed from XML for SQL Server).
• 2002 - Microsoft releases SQLXML 3.0.
• 2005 - Microsoft releases SQL Server 2005 on November 7th, 2005.
Features:
• High Performance.
• High Availability.
• Database mirroring.
• Database snapshots.
• CLR integration.
• Service Broker.
• DDL triggers.
• Ranking functions.
• Row version-based isolation levels.
 • XML integration.
• TRY...CATCH.
• Database Mail.
ORACLE
It is very large and multi-user database management system. Oracle is a relational database management system developed by 'Oracle Corporation'.
Oracle works to efficiently manage its resource, a database of information, among the multiple clients requesting and sending data in the network.
It is an excellent database server choice for client/server computing. Oracle supports all major operating systems for both clients and servers, including
MSDOS, NetWare, UnixWare, OS/2 and most UNIX flavors.
History:
Oracle began in 1977 and celebrating its 32 wonderful years in the industry (from 1977 to 2009).
• 1977 - Larry Ellison, Bob Miner and Ed Oates founded Software Development Laboratories to undertake development work.
• 1979 - Version 2.0 of Oracle was released and it became first commercial relational database and first SQL database. The company changed its
name to Relational Software Inc. (RSI).
• 1981 - RSI started developing tools for Oracle.
• 1982 - RSI was renamed to Oracle Corporation.
• 1983 - Oracle released version 3.0, rewritten in C language and ran on multiple platforms.
• 1984 - Oracle version 4.0 was released. It contained features like concurrency control - multi-version read consistency etc.
• 1985 - Oracle version 4.0 was released. It contained features like concurrency control - multi-version read consistency etc.
• 2007 - Oracle has released Oracle11g. The new version focused on better partitioning, easy migration etc.
Features:
• Concurrency
• Concurrency
• Read Consistency
• Locking Mechanisms
• Quiesce Database
• Portability
• Self managing database
• SQL*Plus
• ASM
• Scheduler
• Resource Manager
• Data Warehousing
• Materialized views
• Bitmap indexes
• Table compression
• Parallel Execution
• Analytic SQL
• Data mining
• Partitioning
MS- ACCESS
This is one of the most popular Microsoft products. Microsoft Access is entry-level database management software. MS Access database is not only an
inexpensive but also powerful database for small-scale projects.
MS Access uses the Jet database engine which utilizes a specific SQL language dialect (sometimes referred to as Jet SQL).
MS Access comes with the professional edition of MS Office package. MS Access has easy to use intuitive graphical interface.
History:
• 1992 - Access version 1.0 was released.
• 1993 - Access 1.1 release to improve compatibility with include the Access Basic programming language.
• The most significant transition was from the Access 97 to the Access 2000
• 2007 - Access 2007, a new database format was introduced ACCDB which supports complex data types such as multi valued and attachment
fields.
Features:
• Users can create tables, queries, forms and reports, and connect them together with macros.
• The import and export of data to many formats including Excel, Outlook, ASCII, dBase, Paradox, FoxPro, SQL Server, Oracle, ODBC, etc.
• There is also the Jet Database format (MDB or ACCDB in Access 2007) which can contain the application and data in one file. This makes it very
convenient to distribute the entire application to another user, who can run it in disconnected environments.
• Microsoft Access offers parameterized queries. These queries and Access tables can be referenced from other programs like VB6 and .NET
through DAO or ADO.
• The desktop editions of Microsoft SQL Server can be used with Access as an alternative to the Jet Database Engine.
• Microsoft Access is a file server-based database. Unlike client-server relational database management systems (RDBMS), Microsoft Access does
not implement database triggers, stored procedures, or transaction logging.
SQL is followed by unique set of rules and guidelines called Syntax. This tutorial gives you a quick start with SQL by listing all the basic SQL Syntax:
All the SQL statements start with any of the keywords like SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, ALTER, DROP, CREATE, USE, SHOW and all the
statements end with a semicolon (;).
Important point to be noted is that SQL is case insensitive which means SELECT and select have same meaning in SQL statements but MySQL make
difference in table names. So if you are working with MySQL then you need to give table names as they exist in the database.
SQL SELECT Statement:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name;
SQL DISTINCT Clause:
SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name;
SQL WHERE Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;
SQL AND/OR Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION-1 {AND|OR} CONDITION-2;
SQL IN Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (val-1, val-2,...val-N);
SQL BETWEEN Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN val-1 AND val-2;
SQL Like Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE { PATTERN };
SQL ORDER BY Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
ORDER BY column_name {ASC|DESC};
SQL GROUP BY Clause:
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name;
SQL COUNT Clause:
SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;
SQL HAVING Clause:
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING (arithematic function condition);
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement:
CREATE TABLE table_name(
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);
SQL DROP TABLE Statement:
DROP TABLE table_name;
SQL CREATE INDEX Statement :
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
ON table_name ( column1, column2,...columnN);
SQL DROP INDEX Statement :
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP INDEX index_name;
SQL DESC Statement :
DESC table_name;
SQL TRUNCATE TABLE Statement:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement:
ALTER TABLE table_name {ADD|DROP|MODIFY} column_name {data_ype};
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement (Rename) :
ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME TO new_table_name;
SQL INSERT INTO Statement:
INSERT INTO table_name( column1, column2....columnN)
VALUES ( value1, value2....valueN);
SQL UPDATE Statement:
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2....columnN=valueN
[ WHERE CONDITION ];
SQL DELETE Statement:
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE {CONDITION};
SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement:
CREATE DATABASE database_name;
SQL DROP DATABASE Statement:
DROP DATABASE database_name;
SQL USE Statement:
USE DATABASE database_name;
SQL COMMIT Statement:
COMMIT;
SQL ROLLBACK Statement:
ROLLBACK;
SQL data type is an attribute that specifies type of data of any object. Each column, variable and expression has related data type in SQL.
You would use these data types while creating your tables. You would choose a particular data type for a table column based on your requirement.
SQL Server offers six categories of data types for your use:
Exact Numeric Data Types:
DATA TYPE FROM TO

bigint -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 9,223,372,036,854,775,807

int -2,147,483,648 2,147,483,647

smallint -32,768 32,767

tinyint 0 255

bit 0 1

decimal -10^38 +1 10^38 .1

numeric -10^38 +1 10^38 .1

money -922,337,203,685,477.5808 +922,337,203,685,477.5807

smallmoney -214,748.3648 +214,748.3647

Approximate Numeric Data Types:
DATA TYPE FROM TO

float -1.79E + 308 1.79E + 308

real -3.40E + 38 3.40E + 38

Date and Time Data Types:
DATA TYPE FROM TO

datetime Jan 1, 1753 Dec 31, 9999

smalldatetime Jan 1, 1900 Jun 6, 2079

date Stores a date like June 30, 1991

time Stores a time of day like 12:30 P.M.

Note: Here datetime has 3.33 milliseconds accuracy where as smalldatetime has 1 minute accuracy.
Character Strings Data Types:
DATA TYPE FROM TO

char char Maximum length of 8,000 characters.( Fixed length non-

Unicode characters)

varchar varchar Maximum of 8,000 characters.(Variable-length non-Unicode

data).
varchar(max) varchar(max) Maximum length of 231characters, Variable-length non-
Unicode data (SQL Server 2005 only).

text text Variable-length non-Unicode data with a maximum length of

2,147,483,647 characters.
Unicode Character Strings Data Types:
DATA TYPE Description

nchar Maximum length of 4,000 characters.( Fixed length Unicode)

nvarchar Maximum length of 4,000 characters.(Variable length Unicode)

nvarchar(max) Maximum length of 231characters (SQL Server 2005 only).( Variable length Unicode)

ntext Maximum length of 1,073,741,823 characters. ( Variable length Unicode )

Binary Data Types:
DATA TYPE Description

binary Maximum length of 8,000 bytes(Fixed-length binary data )

varbinary Maximum length of 8,000 bytes.(Variable length binary data)

varbinary(max) Maximum length of 231 bytes (SQL Server 2005 only). ( Variable length Binary data)

image Maximum length of 2,147,483,647 bytes. ( Variable length Binary Data)

Misc Data Types:
DATA TYPE Description

sql_variant Stores values of various SQL Server-supported data types, except text, ntext, and timestamp.

timestamp Stores a database-wide unique number that gets updated every time a row gets updated

uniqueidentifier Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID)

xml Stores XML data. You can store xml instances in a column or a variable (SQL Server 2005 only).

cursor Reference to a cursor object

table Stores a result set for later processing

What is an Operator in SQL?
An operator is a reserved word or a character used primarily in an SQL statement's WHERE clause to perform operation(s), such as comparisons and
arithmetic operations.
Operators are used to specify conditions in an SQL statement and to serve as conjunctions for multiple conditions in a statement.
• Arithmetic operators
• Comparison operators
• Logical operators
• Operators used to negate conditions
SQL Arithmetic Operators:
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20 then:
Show Examples
Operator Description Example

+ Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator a + b will give 30

- Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand a - b will give -10

* Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator a * b will give 200

/ Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand b / a will give 2

% Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and b % a will give 0
returns remainder
SQL Comparison Operators:
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20 then:
Show Examples
Operator Description Example

= Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if yes then (a = b) is not true.
condition becomes true.

!= Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if values are not (a != b) is true.
equal then condition becomes true.

<> Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if values are not (a <> b) is true.
equal then condition becomes true.

> Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right (a > b) is not true.
 operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

< Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right (a < b) is true.
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

>= Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the (a >= b) is not true.
value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

<= Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of (a <= b) is true.
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

!< Checks if the value of left operand is not less than the value of right (a !< b) is false.
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

!> Checks if the value of left operand is not greater than the value of (a !> b) is true.
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
SQL Logical Operators:
Here is a list of all the logical operators available in SQL.
Show Examples
Operator Description

ALL The ALL operator is used to compare a value to all values in another value set.

AND The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE clause.

ANY The ANY operator is used to compare a value to any applicable value in the list according to the condition.

BETWEEN The BETWEEN operator is used to search for values that are within a set of values, given the minimum value and the
maximum value.

EXISTS The EXISTS operator is used to search for the presence of a row in a specified table that meets certain criteria.

IN The IN operator is used to compare a value to a list of literal values that have been specified.

LIKE The LIKE operator is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard operators.

NOT The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the logical operator with which it is used. Eg. NOT EXISTS, NOT BETWEEN,
NOT IN etc. This is negate operator.

OR The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE clause.

IS NULL The NULL operator is used to compare a value with a NULL value.

UNIQUE The UNIQUE operator searches every row of a specified table for uniqueness (no duplicates).
An expression is a combination of one or more values, operators, and SQL functions that evaluate to a value.
SQL EXPRESSIONs are like formulas and they are written in query language. You can also used to query the database for specific set of data.
Syntax:
Consider the basic syntax of the SELECT statement as follows:
SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [CONTION|EXPRESSION];
There are different types of SQL expression, which are mentioned below:
SQL - Boolean Expressions:
SQL Boolean Expressions fetch the data on the basis of matching single value. Following is the syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE SINGLE VALUE MATCHTING EXPRESSION;
Consider CUSTOMERS table has following records:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Here is simple examples showing usage of SQL Boolean Expressions:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY = 10000;
+----+-------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+-------+-----+---------+----------+
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+-------+-----+---------+----------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
SQL - Numeric Expression:
This expression is used to perform any mathematical operation in any query. Following is the syntax:
SELECT numerical_expression as OPERATION_NAME
[FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION] ;
Here numerical_expression is used for mathematical expression or any formula. Following is a simple examples showing usage of SQL Numeric
Expressions:
SQL> SELECT (15 + 6) AS ADDITION
+----------+
| ADDITION |
+----------+
| 21 |
+----------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
There are several built-in functions like avg(), sum(), count() etc.to perform what is known as aggregate data calculations against a table or a specific table
column.
SQL> SELECT COUNT(*) AS "RECORDS" FROM CUSTOMERS;
+---------+
| RECORDS |
+---------+
| 7|
+---------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
SQL - Date Expressions:
Date Expressions return current system date and time values:
SQL> SELECT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP;
+---------------------+
| Current_Timestamp |
+---------------------+
| 2009-11-12 06:40:23 |
+---------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Another date expression is as follows:
SQL> SELECT GETDATE();;
+-------------------------+
| GETDATE |
+-------------------------+
| 2009-10-22 12:07:18.140 |
+-------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
The SQL CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create new SQL database.
Syntax:
Basic syntax of CREATE DATABASE statement is as follows:
CREATE DATABASE DatabaseName;
Always database name should be unique within the RDBMS.
Example:
If you want to create new database <testDB>, then CREATE DATABASE statement would be as follows:
SQL> CREATE DATABASE testDB;
Make sure you has admin previledge before creating any database. Once a database is created, you can check it in the list of databases as follws:
SQL> SHOW DATABASES;
+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| information_schema |
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
| mysql |
| orig |
| test |
| testDB |
+--------------------+
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)
The SQL DROP DATABASE statement is used to drop any existing database in SQL schema.
Syntax:
Basic syntax of DROP DATABASE statement is as follows:
DROP DATABASE DatabaseName;
Always database name should be unique within the RDBMS.
Example:
If you want to delete an existing database <testDB>, then DROP DATABASE statement would be as follows:
SQL> DROP DATABASE testDB;
NOTE: Be careful before using this operation because by deleting an existing database would result in loss of complete information stored in the database.
Make sure you has admin previledge before dropping any database. Once a database is dropped, you can check it in the list of databases as follws:
SQL> SHOW DATABASES;
+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| information_schema |
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
| mysql |
| orig |
| test |
+--------------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)
hen you have multiple databases in your SQL Schema, then before starting your operation, you would need to select a database where all the operations
would be performed.
The SQL USE statement is used to select any existing database in SQL schema.
Syntax:
Basic syntax of USE statement is as follows:
USE DatabaseName;
Always database name should be unique within the RDBMS.
Example:
You can check available databases as follows:
SQL> SHOW DATABASES;
+--------------------+
| Database |
+--------------------+
| information_schema |
| AMROOD |
| TUTORIALSPOINT |
| mysql |
| orig |
| test |
+--------------------+
6 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Now if you want to work with AMROOD database then you can execute following SQL command and start working with AMROOD database:
SQL> USE AMROOD;
Creating a basic table involves naming the table and defining its columns and each column's data type.
The SQL CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table.
Syntax:
Basic syntax of CREATE TABLE statement is as follows:
CREATE TABLE table_name(
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);
CREATE TABLE is the keyword telling the database system what you want to do.in this case, you want to create a new table. The unique name or identifier
for the table follows the CREATE TABLE statement.
Then in brackets comes the list defining each column in the table and what sort of data type it is. The syntax becomes clearer with an example below.
A copy of an existing table can be created using a combination of the CREATE TABLE statement and the SELECT statement. You can check complete detail
atCreate Table Using another Tables
Example:
Following is an example which creates a CUSTOMERS table with ID as primary key and NOT NULL are the constraints showing that these fileds can not be
NULL while creating records in this table:
SQL> CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
You can verify if your table has been created successfully by looking at the message displayed by the SQL server otherwise you can use DESC command as
follows:
SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| ID | int(11) | NO | PRI | | |
| NAME | varchar(20) | NO | | | |
| AGE | int(11) | NO | | | |
| ADDRESS | char(25) | YES | | NULL | |
| SALARY | decimal(18,2) | YES | | NULL | |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)
Now you have CUSTOMERS table available in your database which you can use to store required information related to customers.
The SQL DROP TABLE statement is used to remove a table definition and all data, indexes, triggers, constraints, and permission specifications for that table.
NOTE: You have to be careful while using this command because once a table is deleted then all the information available in the table would also be lost
forever.
Syntax:
Basic syntax of DROP TABLE statement is as follows:
DROP TABLE table_name;
Example:
Let us first verify CUSTOMERS table, and then we would delete it from the database:
SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| Field | Type | Null | Key | Default | Extra |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
| ID | int(11) | NO | PRI | | |
| NAME | varchar(20) | NO | | | |
| AGE | int(11) | NO | | | |
| ADDRESS | char(25) | YES | | NULL | |
| SALARY | decimal(18,2) | YES | | NULL | |
+---------+---------------+------+-----+---------+-------+
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)
This means CUSTOMERS table is available in the database, so let us drop it as follows:
SQL> DROP TABLE CUSTOMERS;
Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.01 sec)
Now if you would try DESC command then you would get error as follows:
SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;
ERROR 1146 (42S02): Table 'TEST.CUSTOMERS' doesn't exist
Here TEST is database name which we are using for our examples.
The SQL INSERT INTO Statement is used to add new rows of data to a table in the database.
Syntax:
There are two basic syntax of INSERT INTO statement is as follows:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (column1, column2, column3,...columnN)]
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...valueN);
Here column1, column2,...columnN are the names of the columns in the table into which you want to insert data.
You may not need to specify the column(s) name in the SQL query if you are adding values for all the columns of the table. But make sure the order of the
values is in the same order as the columns in the table. The SQL INSERT INTO syntax would be as follows:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...valueN);
Example:
Following statements would create six records in CUSTOMERS table:
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)
VALUES (1, 'Ramesh', 32, 'Ahmedabad', 2000.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (2, 'Khilan', 25, 'Delhi', 1500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (3, 'kaushik', 23, 'Kota', 2000.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (4, 'Chaitali', 25, 'Mumbai', 6500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (5, 'Hardik', 27, 'Bhopal', 8500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (6, 'Komal', 22, 'MP', 4500.00 );
You can create a record in CUSTOMERS table using second syntax as follows:
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS
VALUES (7, 'Muffy', 24, 'Indore', 10000.00 );
All the above statement would product following records in CUSTOMERS table:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Populate one table using another table:
You can populate data into a table through select statement over another table provided another table has a set of fields which are required to populate first
table. Here is the syntax:
INSERT INTO first_table_name [(column1, column2, ... columnN)]
SELECT column1, column2, ...columnN
FROM second_table_name
[WHERE condition];
SQL SELECT Statement is used to fetch the data from a database table which returns data in the form of result table. These result tables are called result-
sets.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of SELECT statement is as follows:
SELECT column1, column2, columnN FROM table_name;
Here column1, column2...are the fields of a table whose values you want to fetch. If you want to fetch all the fields available in the field then you can use
following syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name;
Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example which would fetch ID, Name and Salary fields of the customers available in CUSTOMERS table:
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS;
This would produce following result:
+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+----------+
If you want to fetch all the fields of CUSTOMERS table then use the following query:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;
This would produce following result:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The SQL WHERE clause is used to specify a condition while fetching the data from single table or joining with multiple table.
If the given condition is satisfied then only it returns specific value from the table. You would use WHERE clause to filter the records and fetching only
necessary records.
The WHERE clause not only used in SELECT statement, but it is also used in UPDATE, DELETE statement etc. which we would examine in subsequent
chapters.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of SELECT statement with WHERE clause is as follows:
SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]
You can specify a condition using comparision or logical operators like >, <, =, LIKE, NOT etc. Below examples would make this concept clear.
Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example which would fetch ID, Name and Salary fields from the CUSTOMERS table where salary is greater than 2000:
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000;
This would produce following result:
+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+----------+
Following is an example which would fetch ID, Name and Salary fields from the CUSTOMERS table for a customer with name Hardik. Here it is important to
note that all the strings should be given inside single quotes ('') where as numeric values should be given without any quote as in above example:
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE NAME = 'Hardik';
This would produce following result:
+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
+----+----------+----------+
he SQL AND and OR operators are used to combile multiple conditions to narrow data in an SQL statement. These two operators are called conjunctive
operators.
These operators provide a means to make multiple comparisons with different operators in the same SQL statement.
The AND Operator:
The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE clause.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of AND operator with WHERE clause is as follows:
SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition1] AND [condition2]...AND [conditionN];
You can combine N number of conditions using AND operator. For an action to be taken by the SQL statement, whether it be a transaction or query, all
conditions separated by the AND must be TRUE.
Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example which would fetch ID, Name and Salary fields from the CUSTOMERS table where salary is greater than 2000 AND age is less tan 25
years:
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000 AND age < 25;
This would produce following result:
+----+-------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+-------+----------+
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+-------+----------+
The OR Operator:
The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE clause.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of OR operator with WHERE clause is as follows:
SELECT column1, column2, columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition1] OR [condition2]...OR [conditionN]
You can combine N number of conditions using OR operator. For an action to be taken by the SQL statement, whether it be a transaction or query, only any
ONE of the conditions separated by the OR must be TRUE.
Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example which would fetch ID, Name and Salary fields from the CUSTOMERS table where salary is greater than 2000 OR age is less tan 25
years:
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000 OR age < 25;
This would produce following result:
+----+----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+----+----------+----------+
| 3 | kaushik | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+----------+
The SQL UPDATE Query is used to modify the existing records in a table.
You can use WHERE clause with UPDATE query to update selected rows otherwise all the rows would be effected.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of UPDATE query with WHERE clause is as follows:
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2...., columnN = valueN
WHERE [condition];
You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators.
Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example which would update ADDRESS for a customer whose ID is 6:
SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS
SET ADDRESS = 'Pune'
WHERE ID = 6;
Now CUSTOMERS table would have following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | Pune | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
If you want to modify all ADDRESS and SALARY column values in CUSTOMERS table, you do not need to use WHERE clause and UPDATE query would
be as follows:
SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS
SET ADDRESS = 'Pune', SALARY = 1000.00;
Now CUSTOMERS table would have following records:
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Pune | 1000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+---------+
The SQL DELETE Query is used to delete the existing records from a table.
You can use WHERE clause with DELETE query to delete selected rows, otherwise all the records would be deleted.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of DELETE query with WHERE clause is as follows:
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE [condition];
You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators.
Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example which would DELETE a customer whose ID is 6:
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ID = 6;
Now CUSTOMERS table would have following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
If you want to DELETE all the records from CUSTOMERS table, you do not need to use WHERE clause and DELETE query would be as follows:
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS;
Now CUSTOMERS table would not have any record.
The SQL LIKE clause is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard operators. There are two wildcards used in conjunction with the LIKE
operator:
• The percent sign (%)
• The underscore (_)
The percent sign represents zero, one, or multiple characters. The underscore represents a single number or character. The symbols can be used in
combinations.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of % and _ is as follows:
SELECT FROM table_name
WHERE column LIKE 'XXXX%'

or
SELECT FROM table_name
WHERE column LIKE '%XXXX%'

or

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE 'XXXX_'

or

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE '_XXXX'

or

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE '_XXXX_'
You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators. Here XXXX could be any numberic or string value.
Example:
Here are number of examples showing WHERE part having different LIKE clause with '%' and '_' operators:
Statement Description

WHERE SALARY LIKE '200%' Finds any values that start with 200

WHERE SALARY LIKE '%200%' Finds any values that have 200 in any position

WHERE SALARY LIKE '_00%' Finds any values that have 00 in the second and third positions

WHERE SALARY LIKE '2_%_%' Finds any values that start with 2 and are at least 3 characters in length

WHERE SALARY LIKE '%2' Finds any values that end with 2

WHERE SALARY LIKE '_2%3' Finds any values that have a 2 in the second position and end with a 3

WHERE SALARY LIKE '2___3' Finds any values in a five-digit number that start with 2 and end with 3
Let us take a real example, consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example which would display all the records from CUSTOMERS table where SALARY starts with 200:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY LIKE '200%';
This would produce following result:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The SQL TOP clause is used to fetch a TOP N number or X percent records from a table.
Note: All the databases do not support TOP clause. For example MySQL supports LIMIT clause to fetch limited number of records and Oracle
usesROWNUM to fetch limited number of records.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of TOP clause with SELECT statement would be as follows:
SELECT TOP number|percent column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]
Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example on SQL server which would fetch top 3 records from CUSTOMERS table:
SQL> SELECT TOP 3 * FROM CUSTOMERS;
This would produce following result:
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
If you are using MySQL server then, here is equivalent example:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
LIMIT 3;
This would produce following result:
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
If you are using Oracle server then, here is equivalent example:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ROWNUM <= 3;
This would produce following result:
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+---------+
The SQL ORDER BY clause is used to sort the data in ascending or descending order, based on one or more columns. Some database sorts query results in
ascending order by default.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of ORDER BY clause is as follows:
SELECT column-list
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]
[ORDER BY column1, column2, .. columnN] [ASC | DESC];
You can use more than one column in the ORDER BY clause. Make sure whatever column you are using to sort, that column should be in column-list.
Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example which would sort the result in ascending order by NAME and SALARY:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
ORDER BY NAME, SALARY;
This would produce following result:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example which would sort the result in descending order by NAME:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
ORDER BY NAME DESC;
This would produce following result:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The SQL GROUP BY clause is used in collaboration with the SELECT statement to arrange identical data into groups.
The GROUP BY clause follows the WHERE clause in a SELECT statement and precedes the ORDER BY clause.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of GROUP BY clause is given below. The GROUP BY clause must follow the conditions in the WHERE clause and must precede the
ORDER BY clause if one is used.
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table_name
WHERE [ conditions ]
GROUP BY column1, column2
ORDER BY column1, column2
Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
If you want to know the total amount of salary on each customer, then GROUP BY query would be as follows:
SQL> SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM CUSTOMERS
GROUP BY NAME;
This would produce following result:
+----------+-------------+
| NAME | SUM(SALARY) |
+----------+-------------+
| Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| Hardik | 8500.00 |
| kaushik | 2000.00 |
| Khilan | 1500.00 |
| Komal | 4500.00 |
| Muffy | 10000.00 |
| Ramesh | 2000.00 |
+----------+-------------+
Using above example you would not have a good explaination. So now let us has following table where CUSTOMERS table has following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Now again, if you want to know the total amount of salary on each customer, then GROUP BY query would be as follows:
SQL> SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM CUSTOMERS
GROUP BY NAME;
This would produce following result:
+---------+-------------+
| NAME | SUM(SALARY) |
+---------+-------------+
| Hardik | 8500.00 |
| kaushik | 8500.00 |
| Komal | 4500.00 |
| Muffy | 10000.00 |
| Ramesh | 3500.00 |
+---------+-------------+
The SQL DISTINCT keyword is used in conjunction with SELECT statement to eliminate all the duplicate records and fetching only unique records.
There may be a situation when you have multiple duplicate records in a table. While fetching such records, it makes more sense to fetch only unique records
instead of fetching duplicate records.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of DISTINCT keyword to eliminate duplicate records is as follows:
SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2,.....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]
Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
First let us see how the following SELECT query returns duplicate salary records:
SQL> SELECT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS
ORDER BY SALARY;
This would produce following result where salary 2000 is coming twice which is a duplicate record from the original table.
+----------+
| SALARY |
+----------+
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
+----------+
Now let us use DISTINCT keyword with the above SELECT query and see the result:
SQL> SELECT DISTINCT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS
ORDER BY SALARY;
This would produce following result where we do not have any duplicate entry:
+----------+
| SALARY |
+----------+
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
+----------+
The SQL ORDER BY clause is used to sort the data in ascending or descending order, based on one or more columns. Some database sorts query results in
ascending order by default.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of ORDER BY clause which would be used to sort result in ascending or descending order is as follows:
SELECT column-list
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]
[ORDER BY column1, column2, .. columnN] [ASC | DESC];
You can use more than one column in the ORDER BY clause. Make sure whatever column you are using to sort, that column should be in column-list.
Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example which would sort the result in ascending order by NAME and SALARY:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
ORDER BY NAME, SALARY;
This would produce following result:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example which would sort the result in descending order by NAME:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
ORDER BY NAME DESC;
This would produce following result:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
To fetch the rows with own preferred order, the SELECT query would as follows:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
ORDER BY (CASE ADDRESS
WHEN 'DELHI' THEN 1
WHEN 'BHOPAL' THEN 2
WHEN 'KOTA' THEN 3
WHEN 'AHMADABAD' THEN 4
WHEN 'MP' THEN 5
ELSE 100 END) ASC, ADDRESS DESC;
This would produce following result:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
This will sort customers by ADDRESS in your ownoOrder of preference first and in a natural order for the remaining addresses. Also remaining Addresses will
be sorted in the reverse alpha order.
What is SQL?
SQL is structured Query Language which is a computer language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data stored in relational database.
SQL is the standard language for Relation Database System. All relational database management systems like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase,
Informix, postgres and SQL Server uses SQL as standard database language.
Also they are using different dialects, Such as:
• MS SQL Server using T-SQL,
• Oracle using PL/SQL,
• MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL (native format )etc
Why SQL?
• Allow users to access data in relational database management systems.
• Allow users to describe the data.
 • Allow users to define the data in database and manipulate that data.
• Allow to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-compilers.
• Allow users to create and drop databases and tables.
• Allow users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
• Allow users to set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
What is RDBMS?
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM
DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
A Relational database management system (RDBMS) is a database management system (DBMS) that is based on the relational model as introduced by E.
F. Codd.
What is table ?
The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. The table is a collection of related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.
Remember, a table is the most common and simplest form of data storage in a relational database.
What is field?
Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the CUSTOMERS table consist of ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS and SALARY.
A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information about every record in the table.
What is record, or row?
A record, also called a row of data, is each individual entry that exists in a table. For example there are 7 records in the above CUSTOMERS table.
A record is a horizontal entity in a table.
What is column?
A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with a specific field in a table.
What is NULL value?
A NULL value in a table is a value in a field that appears to be blank which means A field with a NULL value is a field with no value.
It is very important to understand that a NULL value is different than a zero value or a field that contains spaces. A field with a NULL value is one that has
been left blank during record creation.
SQL Constraints:
Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on table. These are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and
reliability of the data in the database.
Contraints could be column level or table level. Column level constraints are applied only to one column where as table level constraints are applied to the
whole table.
SQL Syntax:
SQL is followed by unique set of rules and guidelines called Syntax. This tutorial gives you a quick start with SQL by listing all the basic SQL Syntax:
All the SQL statements start with any of the keywords like SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, ALTER, DROP, CREATE, USE, SHOW and all the
statements end with a semicolon (;).
Important point to be noted is that SQL is case insensitive which means SELECT and select have same meaning in SQL statements but MySQL make
difference in table names. So if you are working with MySQL then you need to give table names as they exist in the database.
SQL SELECT Statement:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name;
SQL DISTINCT Clause:
SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name;
SQL WHERE Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;
SQL AND/OR Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION-1 {AND|OR} CONDITION-2;
SQL IN Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (val-1, val-2,...val-N);
SQL BETWEEN Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN val-1 AND val-2;
SQL Like Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE { PATTERN };
SQL ORDER BY Clause:
SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
ORDER BY column_name {ASC|DESC};
SQL GROUP BY Clause:
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name;
SQL COUNT Clause:
SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION;
SQL HAVING Clause:
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING (arithematic function condition);
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement:
CREATE TABLE table_name(
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);
SQL DROP TABLE Statement:
DROP TABLE table_name;
SQL CREATE INDEX Statement :
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
ON table_name ( column1, column2,...columnN);
SQL DROP INDEX Statement :
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP INDEX index_name;
SQL DESC Statement :
DESC table_name;
SQL TRUNCATE TABLE Statement:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement:
ALTER TABLE table_name {ADD|DROP|MODIFY} column_name {data_ype};
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement (Rename) :
ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME TO new_table_name;
SQL INSERT INTO Statement:
INSERT INTO table_name( column1, column2....columnN)
VALUES ( value1, value2....valueN);
SQL UPDATE Statement:
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2....columnN=valueN
[ WHERE CONDITION ];
SQL DELETE Statement:
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE {CONDITION};
SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement:
CREATE DATABASE database_name;
SQL DROP DATABASE Statement:
DROP DATABASE database_name;
SQL USE Statement:
USE DATABASE database_name;
SQL COMMIT Statement:
COMMIT;
SQL ROLLBACK Statement:
ROLLBACK;
SQL - Operators:
SQL Arithmetic Operators:
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20 then:
Show Examples
Operator Description Example
+ Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator a + b will give 30

- Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand a - b will give -10

* Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator a * b will give 200

/ Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand b / a will give 2

% Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and b % a will give 0
returns remainder
SQL Comparison Operators:
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20 then:
Show Examples
Operator Description Example

= Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if yes then (a = b) is not true.
condition becomes true.

!= Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if values are not (a != b) is true.
equal then condition becomes true.

<> Checks if the value of two operands are equal or not, if values are not (a <> b) is true.
equal then condition becomes true.

> Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right (a > b) is not true.
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

< Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right (a < b) is true.
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

>= Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the (a >= b) is not true.
value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

<= Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of (a <= b) is true.
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

!< Checks if the value of left operand is not less than the value of right (a !< b) is false.
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

!> Checks if the value of left operand is not greater than the value of (a !> b) is true.
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
SQL Logical Operators:
Here is a list of all the logical operators available in SQL.
Show Examples
Operator Description

ALL The ALL operator is used to compare a value to all values in another value set.

AND The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE clause.

ANY The ANY operator is used to compare a value to any applicable value in the list according to the condition.

BETWEEN The BETWEEN operator is used to search for values that are within a set of values, given the minimum value and the
maximum value.

EXISTS The EXISTS operator is used to search for the presence of a row in a specified table that meets certain criteria.

IN The IN operator is used to compare a value to a list of literal values that have been specified.

LIKE The LIKE operator is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard operators.

NOT The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the logical operator with which it is used. Eg. NOT EXISTS, NOT BETWEEN,
NOT IN etc. This is negate operator.

OR The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE clause.

IS NULL The NULL operator is used to compare a value with a NULL value.

UNIQUE The UNIQUE operator searches every row of a specified table for uniqueness (no duplicates).
SQL - Useful Functions:
SQL has many built-in functions for performing processing on string or numeric data. Following is the list of all useful SQL built-in functions:
• SQL COUNT Function - The SQL COUNT aggregate function is used to count the number of rows in a database table.
• SQL MAX Function - The SQL MAX aggregate function allows us to select the highest (maximum) value for a certain column.
• SQL MIN Function - The SQL MIN aggregate function allows us to select the lowest (minimum) value for a certain column.
• SQL AVG Function - The SQL AVG aggregate function selects the average value for certain table column.
• SQL SUM Function - The SQL SUM aggregate function allows selecting the total for a numeric column.
• SQL SQRT Functions - This is used to generate a square root of a given number.
• SQL RAND Function - This is used to generate a random number using SQL command.
• SQL CONCAT Function - This is used to concatenate any string inside any SQL command.
 • SQL Numeric Functions - Complete list of SQL functions required to manipulate numbers in SQL.
• SQL String Functions - Complete list of SQL functions required to manipulate strings in SQL.
he SQL Joins clause is used to combine records from two or more tables in a database. A JOIN is a means for combining fields from two tables by using
values common to each.
Consider following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
(b) Another table is ORDERS as follows:
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE | CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 | 3 | 1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 | 2 | 1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 | 4 | 2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as follows:
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, AMOUNT,
FROM CUSTOMERS, ORDERS
WHERE CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;
This would produce following result:
+----+---------+-----+--------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | AMOUNT |
+----+---------+-----+--------+
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | 3000 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | 1500 |
| 2 | Ramesh | 25 | 1560 |
| 4 | kaushik | 25 | 2060 |
+----+---------+-----+--------+
Here it is noteable that the join is performed in the WHERE clause. Several operators can be used to join tables, such as =, <, >, <>, <=, >=, !=, BETWEEN,
LIKE, and NOT; they can all be used to join tables. However, the most common operator is the equal symbol.
SQL Join Types:
There are different type of joins available in SQL:
• INNER JOIN: returns rows when there is a match in both tables.
• LEFT JOIN: returns all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the right table.
• RIGHT JOIN: returns all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the left table.
• FULL JOIN: returns rows when there is a match in one of the tables.
• SELF JOIN: is used to join a table to itself, as if the table were two tables, temporarily renaming at least one table in the SQL statement.
• CARTESIAN JOIN: returns the cartesian product of the sets of records from the two or more joined tables.
• The SQL ALTER TABLE command is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table.
• You would also use ALTER TABLE command to add and drop various constraints on a an existing table.
• Syntax:
• The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to add a new column in an existing table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;
• The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to DROP COLUMN in an existing table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;
• The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to change the DATA TYPE of a column in a table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype;

• The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to add a NOT NULL constraint to a column in a table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name datatype NOT NULL;

• The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to ADD UNIQUE CONSTRAINT to a table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint UNIQUE(column1, column2...);

• The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to ADD CHECK CONSTRAINT to a table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint CHECK (CONDITION);

• The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to ADD PRIMARY KEY constraint to a table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT MyPrimaryKey PRIMARY KEY (column1, column2...);

• The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to DROP CONSTRAINT from a table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint;

• If you're using MySQL, the code is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP INDEX MyUniqueConstraint;

• The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to DROP PRIMARY KEY constraint from a table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP CONSTRAINT MyPrimaryKey;

• If you're using MySQL, the code is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP PRIMARY KEY;
• Example:
• Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

• Following is the example to ADD a new column in an existing table:

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS ADD SEX char(1);

• Now CUSTOMERS table is changed and following would be output from SELECT statement:
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY | SEX |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 | NULL |
| 2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 | NULL |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 | NULL |
| 4 | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 | NULL |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 | NULL |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 | NULL |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+------+

• Following is the example to DROP sex column from existing table:

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS DROP SEX;

• Now CUSTOMERS table is changed and following would be output from SELECT statement:
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+
The SQL TRUNCATE TABLE command is used to delete complete data from an existing table.
You can also use DROP TABLE command to delete complete table but it would remove complete table structure form the database and you would need to
re-create this table once again if you wish you store some data.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of TRUNCATE TABLE is as follows:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
Example:
Consider CUSTOMERS table is having following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is the example to turncate:
SQL > TRUNCATE TABLE CUSTOMERS;
Now CUSTOMERS table is truncated and following would be output from SELECT statement:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;
Empty set (0.00 sec)
Following is the list of all important Date and Time related functions available through SQL. There are various other functions supported by your RDBMS.
Given list is based on MySQL RDBMS.
Name Description

ADDDATE() Add dates

ADDTIME() Add time

CONVERT_TZ() Convert from one timezone to another

CURDATE() Return the current date

CURRENT_DATE(), Synonyms for CURDATE()

CURRENT_DATE

CURRENT_TIME(), CURRENT_TIME Synonyms for CURTIME()

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP(), Synonyms for NOW()

CURRENT_TIMESTAMP

CURTIME() Return the current time

DATE_ADD() Add two dates

DATE_FORMAT() Format date as specified

DATE_SUB() Subtract two dates

DATE() Extract the date part of a date or datetime expression

DATEDIFF() Subtract two dates

DAY() Synonym for DAYOFMONTH()

DAYNAME() Return the name of the weekday

DAYOFMONTH() Return the day of the month (1-31)

DAYOFWEEK() Return the weekday index of the argument

DAYOFYEAR() Return the day of the year (1-366)

EXTRACT Extract part of a date

FROM_DAYS() Convert a day number to a date

FROM_UNIXTIME() Format date as a UNIX timestamp

HOUR() Extract the hour

LAST_DAY Return the last day of the month for the argument

LOCALTIME(), LOCALTIME Synonym for NOW()

LOCALTIMESTAMP, Synonym for NOW()

LOCALTIMESTAMP()

MAKEDATE() Create a date from the year and day of year

MAKETIME MAKETIME()

MICROSECOND() Return the microseconds from argument

MINUTE() Return the minute from the argument

MONTH() Return the month from the date passed

MONTHNAME() Return the name of the month

NOW() Return the current date and time

PERIOD_ADD() Add a period to a year-month

PERIOD_DIFF() Return the number of months between periods

QUARTER() Return the quarter from a date argument

SEC_TO_TIME() Converts seconds to 'HH:MM:SS' format

SECOND() Return the second (0-59)

STR_TO_DATE() Convert a string to a date

SUBDATE() When invoked with three arguments a synonym for

DATE_SUB()

SUBTIME() Subtract times

SYSDATE() Return the time at which the function executes

TIME_FORMAT() Format as time

TIME_TO_SEC() Return the argument converted to seconds

TIME() Extract the time portion of the expression passed

TIMEDIFF() Subtract time

TIMESTAMP() With a single argument, this function returns the date or

datetime expression. With two arguments, the sum of the
arguments

TIMESTAMPADD() Add an interval to a datetime expression

TIMESTAMPDIFF() Subtract an interval from a datetime expression

TO_DAYS() Return the date argument converted to days

UNIX_TIMESTAMP() Return a UNIX timestamp

UTC_DATE() Return the current UTC date

UTC_TIME() Return the current UTC time

UTC_TIMESTAMP() Return the current UTC date and time

WEEK() Return the week number

WEEKDAY() Return the weekday index

WEEKOFYEAR() Return the calendar week of the date (1-53)

YEAR() Return the year

YEARWEEK() Return the year and week

ADDDATE(date,INTERVAL expr unit), ADDDATE(expr,days)
When invoked with the INTERVAL form of the second argument, ADDDATE() is a synonym for DATE_ADD(). The related function SUBDATE() is a synonym
for DATE_SUB(). For information on the INTERVAL unit argument, see the discussion for DATE_ADD().
mysql> SELECT DATE_ADD('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-02-02 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT ADDDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| ADDDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-02-02 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
When invoked with the days form of the second argument, MySQL treats it as an integer number of days to be added to expr.
mysql> SELECT ADDDATE('1998-01-02', 31);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-02-02 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
ADDTIME(expr1,expr2)
ADDTIME() adds expr2 to expr1 and returns the result. expr1 is a time or datetime expression, and expr2 is a time expression.
mysql> SELECT ADDTIME('1997-12-31 23:59:59.999999','1 1:1:1.000002');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1997-12-31 23:59:59.999999','1 1:1:1.000002') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-01-02 01:01:01.000001 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
CONVERT_TZ(dt,from_tz,to_tz)
This converts a datetime value dt from the time zone given by from_tz to the time zone given by to_tz and returns the resulting value. This function returns
NULL if the arguments are invalid.
mysql> SELECT CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','GMT','MET');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','GMT','MET') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2004-01-01 13:00:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','+00:00','+10:00');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','+00:00','+10:00') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2004-01-01 22:00:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
CURDATE()
Returns the current date as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD' or YYYYMMDD format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT CURDATE();
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURDATE() |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-15 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT CURDATE() + 0;

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURDATE() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 19971215 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
CURRENT_DATE and CURRENT_DATE()
CURRENT_DATE and CURRENT_DATE() are synonyms for CURDATE()
CURTIME()
Returns the current time as a value in 'HH:MM:SS' or HHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context. The value is
expressed in the current time zone.
mysql> SELECT CURTIME();
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURTIME() |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 23:50:26 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT CURTIME() + 0;

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURTIME() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 235026 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
CURRENT_TIME and CURRENT_TIME()
CURRENT_TIME and CURRENT_TIME() are synonyms for CURTIME().
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and CURRENT_TIMESTAMP()
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and CURRENT_TIMESTAMP() are synonyms for NOW().
DATE(expr)
Extracts the date part of the date or datetime expression expr.
mysql> SELECT DATE('2003-12-31 01:02:03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE('2003-12-31 01:02:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-12-31 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
DATEDIFF(expr1,expr2)
DATEDIFF() returns expr1 . expr2 expressed as a value in days from one date to the other. expr1 and expr2 are date or date-and-time expressions. Only the
date parts of the values are used in the calculation.
mysql> SELECT DATEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59','1997-12-30');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59','1997-12-30') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|1 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
DATE_ADD(date,INTERVAL expr unit), DATE_SUB(date,INTERVAL expr unit)
These functions perform date arithmetic. date is a DATETIME or DATE value specifying the starting date. expr is an expression specifying the interval value
to be added or subtracted from the starting date. expr is a string; it may start with a .-. for negative intervals. unit is a keyword indicating the units in which the
expression should be interpreted.
The INTERVAL keyword and the unit specifier are not case sensitive.
The following table shows the expected form of the expr argument for each unit value;
unit Value ExpectedexprFormat

MICROSECOND MICROSECONDS

SECOND SECONDS

MINUTE MINUTES

HOUR HOURS

DAY DAYS

WEEK WEEKS

MONTH MONTHS

QUARTER QUARTERS

YEAR YEARS

SECOND_MICROSECOND 'SECONDS.MICROSECONDS'

MINUTE_MICROSECOND 'MINUTES.MICROSECONDS'

MINUTE_SECOND 'MINUTES:SECONDS'

HOUR_MICROSECOND 'HOURS.MICROSECONDS'

HOUR_SECOND 'HOURS:MINUTES:SECONDS'

HOUR_MINUTE 'HOURS:MINUTES'

DAY_MICROSECOND 'DAYS.MICROSECONDS'

DAY_SECOND 'DAYS HOURS:MINUTES:SECONDS'

DAY_MINUTE 'DAYS HOURS:MINUTES'

DAY_HOUR 'DAYS HOURS'

YEAR_MONTH 'YEARS-MONTHS'
The values QUARTER and WEEK are available beginning with MySQL 5.0.0.
mysql> SELECT DATE_ADD('1997-12-31 23:59:59',
-> INTERVAL '1:1' MINUTE_SECOND);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1997-12-31 23:59:59', INTERVAL... |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-01-01 00:01:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT DATE_ADD('1999-01-01', INTERVAL 1 HOUR);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1999-01-01', INTERVAL 1 HOUR) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1999-01-01 01:00:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
DATE_FORMAT(date,format)
Formats the date value according to the format string.
The following specifiers may be used in the format string. The .%. character is required before format specifier characters.
Specifier Description

%a Abbreviated weekday name (Sun..Sat)

%b Abbreviated month name (Jan..Dec)

%c Month, numeric (0..12)

%D Day of the month with English suffix (0th, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, .)

%d Day of the month, numeric (00..31)

%e Day of the month, numeric (0..31)

%f Microseconds (000000..999999)

%H Hour (00..23)

%h Hour (01..12)

%I Hour (01..12)

%i Minutes, numeric (00..59)

%j Day of year (001..366)

%k Hour (0..23)

%l Hour (1..12)

%M Month name (January..December)

%m Month, numeric (00..12)

%p AM or PM

%r Time, 12-hour (hh:mm:ss followed by AM or PM)

%S Seconds (00..59)

%s Seconds (00..59)

%T Time, 24-hour (hh:mm:ss)

%U Week (00..53), where Sunday is the first day of the week

%u Week (00..53), where Monday is the first day of the week

%V Week (01..53), where Sunday is the first day of the week; used with %X

%v Week (01..53), where Monday is the first day of the week; used with %x

%W Weekday name (Sunday..Saturday)

%w Day of the week (0=Sunday..6=Saturday)

%X Year for the week where Sunday is the first day of the week, numeric, four digits; used
with %V

%x Year for the week, where Monday is the first day of the week, numeric, four digits; used
with %v

%Y Year, numeric, four digits

%y Year, numeric (two digits)

%% A literal .%. character

%x x, for any.x. not listed above

mysql> SELECT DATE_FORMAT('1997-10-04 22:23:00', '%W %M %Y');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_FORMAT('1997-10-04 22:23:00', '%W %M %Y') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| Saturday October 1997 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT DATE_FORMAT('1997-10-04 22:23:00'

-> '%H %k %I %r %T %S %w');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_FORMAT('1997-10-04 22:23:00....... |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 22 22 10 10:23:00 PM 22:23:00 00 6 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
DATE_SUB(date,INTERVAL expr unit)
This is similar to DATE_ADD() function.
DAY(date)
DAY() is a synonym for DAYOFMONTH().
DAYNAME(date)
Returns the name of the weekday for date.
mysql> SELECT DAYNAME('1998-02-05');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DAYNAME('1998-02-05') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| Thursday |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
DAYOFMONTH(date)
Returns the day of the month for date, in the range 0 to 31.
mysql> SELECT DAYOFMONTH('1998-02-03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DAYOFMONTH('1998-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|3 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
DAYOFWEEK(date)
Returns the weekday index for date (1 = Sunday, 2 = Monday, ., 7 = Saturday). These index values correspond to the ODBC standard.
mysql> SELECT DAYOFWEEK('1998-02-03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|DAYOFWEEK('1998-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|3 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
DAYOFYEAR(date)
Returns the day of the year for date, in the range 1 to 366.
mysql> SELECT DAYOFYEAR('1998-02-03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DAYOFYEAR('1998-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 34 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
EXTRACT(unit FROM date)
The EXTRACT() function uses the same kinds of unit specifiers as DATE_ADD() or DATE_SUB(), but extracts parts from the date rather than performing
date arithmetic.
mysql> SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR FROM '1999-07-02');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| EXTRACT(YEAR FROM '1999-07-02') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1999 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR_MONTH FROM '1999-07-02 01:02:03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| EXTRACT(YEAR_MONTH FROM '1999-07-02 01:02:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 199907 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
FROM_DAYS(N)
Given a day number N, returns a DATE value.
mysql> SELECT FROM_DAYS(729669);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| FROM_DAYS(729669) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-10-07 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Use FROM_DAYS() with caution on old dates. It is not intended for use with values that precede the advent of the Gregorian calendar (1582).
FROM_UNIXTIME(unix_timestamp)
FROM_UNIXTIME(unix_timestamp,format)
Returns a representation of the unix_timestamp argument as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS' or YYYYMMDDHHMMSS format, depending on whether
the function is used in a string or numeric context. The value is expressed in the current time zone. unix_timestamp is an internal timestamp value such as is
produced by the UNIX_TIMESTAMP() function.
If format is given, the result is formatted according to the format string, which is used the same way as listed in the entry for the DATE_FORMAT() function.
mysql> SELECT FROM_UNIXTIME(875996580);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| FROM_UNIXTIME(875996580) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-10-04 22:23:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
HOUR(time)
Returns the hour for time. The range of the return value is 0 to 23 for time-of-day values. However, the range of TIME values actually is much larger, so
HOUR can return values greater than 23.
mysql> SELECT HOUR('10:05:03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| HOUR('10:05:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 10 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
LAST_DAY(date)
Takes a date or datetime value and returns the corresponding value for the last day of the month. Returns NULL if the argument is invalid.
mysql> SELECT LAST_DAY('2003-02-05');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| LAST_DAY('2003-02-05') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-02-28 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
LOCALTIME and LOCALTIME()
LOCALTIME and LOCALTIME() are synonyms for NOW().
LOCALTIMESTAMP and LOCALTIMESTAMP()
LOCALTIMESTAMP and LOCALTIMESTAMP() are synonyms for NOW().
MAKEDATE(year,dayofyear)
Returns a date, given year and day-of-year values. dayofyear must be greater than 0 or the result is NULL.
mysql> SELECT MAKEDATE(2001,31), MAKEDATE(2001,32);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MAKEDATE(2001,31), MAKEDATE(2001,32) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| '2001-01-31', '2001-02-01' |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
MAKETIME(hour,minute,second)
Returns a time value calculated from the hour, minute, and second arguments.
mysql> SELECT MAKETIME(12,15,30);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MAKETIME(12,15,30) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| '12:15:30' |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
MICROSECOND(expr)
Returns the microseconds from the time or datetime expression expr as a number in the range from 0 to 999999.
mysql> SELECT MICROSECOND('12:00:00.123456');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MICROSECOND('12:00:00.123456') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 123456 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
MINUTE(time)
Returns the minute for time, in the range 0 to 59.
mysql> SELECT MINUTE('98-02-03 10:05:03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MINUTE('98-02-03 10:05:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|5 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
MONTH(date)
Returns the month for date, in the range 0 to 12.
mysql> SELECT MONTH('1998-02-03')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MONTH('1998-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|2 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
MONTHNAME(date)
Returns the full name of the month for date.
mysql> SELECT MONTHNAME('1998-02-05');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MONTHNAME('1998-02-05') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| February |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
NOW()
Returns the current date and time as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS' or YYYYMMDDHHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a
string or numeric context. The value is expressed in the current time zone.
mysql> SELECT NOW();
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| NOW() |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-15 23:50:26 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
PERIOD_ADD(P,N)
Adds N months to period P (in the format YYMM or YYYYMM). Returns a value in the format YYYYMM. Note that the period argument P is not a date value.
mysql> SELECT PERIOD_ADD(9801,2);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| PERIOD_ADD(9801,2) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 199803 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
PERIOD_DIFF(P1,P2)
Returns the number of months between periods P1 and P2. P1 and P2 should be in the format YYMM or YYYYMM. Note that the period arguments P1 and
P2 are not date values.
mysql> SELECT PERIOD_DIFF(9802,199703);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| PERIOD_DIFF(9802,199703) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 11 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
QUARTER(date)
Returns the quarter of the year for date, in the range 1 to 4.
mysql> SELECT QUARTER('98-04-01');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| QUARTER('98-04-01') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|2 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
SECOND(time)
Returns the second for time, in the range 0 to 59.
mysql> SELECT SECOND('10:05:03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SECOND('10:05:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|3 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
SEC_TO_TIME(seconds)
Returns the seconds argument, converted to hours, minutes, and seconds, as a value in 'HH:MM:SS' or HHMMSS format, depending on whether the function
is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT SEC_TO_TIME(2378);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SEC_TO_TIME(2378) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 00:39:38 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
STR_TO_DATE(str,format)
This is the inverse of the DATE_FORMAT() function. It takes a string str and a format string format. STR_TO_DATE() returns a DATETIME value if the format
string contains both date and time parts, or a DATE or TIME value if the string contains only date or time parts.
mysql> SELECT STR_TO_DATE('04/31/2004', '%m/%d/%Y');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| STR_TO_DATE('04/31/2004', '%m/%d/%Y') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2004-04-31 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
SUBDATE(date,INTERVAL expr unit) and SUBDATE(expr,days)
When invoked with the INTERVAL form of the second argument, SUBDATE() is a synonym for DATE_SUB(). For information on the INTERVAL unit
argument, see the discussion for DATE_ADD().
mysql> SELECT DATE_SUB('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_SUB('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-02 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT SUBDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SUBDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-02 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
SUBTIME(expr1,expr2)
SUBTIME() returns expr1 . expr2 expressed as a value in the same format as expr1. expr1 is a time or datetime expression, and expr2 is a time.
mysql> SELECT SUBTIME('1997-12-31 23:59:59.999999',
-> '1 1:1:1.000002');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SUBTIME('1997-12-31 23:59:59.999999'... |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-30 22:58:58.999997 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
SYSDATE()
Returns the current date and time as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS' or YYYYMMDDHHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a
string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT SYSDATE();
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SYSDATE() |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2006-04-12 13:47:44 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
TIME(expr)
Extracts the time part of the time or datetime expression expr and returns it as a string.
mysql> SELECT TIME('2003-12-31 01:02:03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIME('2003-12-31 01:02:03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 01:02:03 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
TIMEDIFF(expr1,expr2)
TIMEDIFF() returns expr1 . expr2 expressed as a time value. expr1 and expr2 are time or date-and-time expressions, but both must be of the same type.
mysql> SELECT TIMEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59.000001',
-> '1997-12-30 01:01:01.000002');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59.000001'..... |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 46:58:57.999999 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
TIMESTAMP(expr), TIMESTAMP(expr1,expr2)
With a single argument, this function returns the date or datetime expression expr as a datetime value. With two arguments, it adds the time expression expr2
to the date or datetime expression expr1 and returns the result as a datetime value.
mysql> SELECT TIMESTAMP('2003-12-31');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMESTAMP('2003-12-31') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-12-31 00:00:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
TIMESTAMPADD(unit,interval,datetime_expr)
Adds the integer expression interval to the date or datetime expression datetime_expr. The unit for interval is given by the unit argument, which should be
one of the following values: FRAC_SECOND, SECOND, MINUTE, HOUR, DAY, WEEK, MONTH, QUARTER, or YEAR.
The unit value may be specified using one of keywords as shown, or with a prefix of SQL_TSI_. For example, DAY and SQL_TSI_DAY both are legal.
mysql> SELECT TIMESTAMPADD(MINUTE,1,'2003-01-02');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMESTAMPADD(MINUTE,1,'2003-01-02') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-01-02 00:01:00 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
TIMESTAMPDIFF(unit,datetime_expr1,datetime_expr2)
Returns the integer difference between the date or datetime expressions datetime_expr1 and datetime_expr2. The unit for the result is given by the unit
argument. The legal values for unit are the same as those listed in the description of the TIMESTAMPADD() function.
mysql> SELECT TIMESTAMPDIFF(MONTH,'2003-02-01','2003-05-01');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMESTAMPDIFF(MONTH,'2003-02-01','2003-05-01') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|3 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
TIME_FORMAT(time,format)
This is used like the DATE_FORMAT() function, but the format string may contain format specifiers only for hours, minutes, and seconds.
If the time value contains an hour part that is greater than 23, the %H and %k hour format specifiers produce a value larger than the usual range of 0..23. The
other hour format specifiers produce the hour value modulo 12.
mysql> SELECT TIME_FORMAT('100:00:00', '%H %k %h %I %l');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIME_FORMAT('100:00:00', '%H %k %h %I %l') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 100 100 04 04 4 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
TIME_TO_SEC(time)
Returns the time argument, converted to seconds.
mysql> SELECT TIME_TO_SEC('22:23:00');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIME_TO_SEC('22:23:00') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 80580 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
TO_DAYS(date)
Given a date date, returns a day number (the number of days since year 0).
mysql> SELECT TO_DAYS(950501);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TO_DAYS(950501) |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 728779 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
UNIX_TIMESTAMP(), UNIX_TIMESTAMP(date)
If called with no argument, returns a Unix timestamp (seconds since '1970-01-01 00:00:00' UTC) as an unsigned integer. If UNIX_TIMESTAMP() is called
with a date argument, it returns the value of the argument as seconds since '1970-01-01 00:00:00' UTC. date may be a DATE string, a DATETIME string, a
TIMESTAMP, or a number in the format YYMMDD or YYYYMMDD.
mysql> SELECT UNIX_TIMESTAMP();
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UNIX_TIMESTAMP() |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 882226357 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)

mysql> SELECT UNIX_TIMESTAMP('1997-10-04 22:23:00');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UNIX_TIMESTAMP('1997-10-04 22:23:00') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 875996580 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
UTC_DATE, UTC_DATE()
Returns the current UTC date as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD' or YYYYMMDD format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT UTC_DATE(), UTC_DATE() + 0;
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UTC_DATE(), UTC_DATE() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-08-14, 20030814 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
UTC_TIME, UTC_TIME()
Returns the current UTC time as a value in 'HH:MM:SS' or HHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT UTC_TIME(), UTC_TIME() + 0;
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UTC_TIME(), UTC_TIME() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 18:07:53, 180753 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
UTC_TIMESTAMP, UTC_TIMESTAMP()
Returns the current UTC date and time as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS' or YYYYMMDDHHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used
in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT UTC_TIMESTAMP(), UTC_TIMESTAMP() + 0;
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UTC_TIMESTAMP(), UTC_TIMESTAMP() + 0 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-08-14 18:08:04, 20030814180804 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
WEEK(date[,mode])
This function returns the week number for date. The two-argument form of WEEK() allows you to specify whether the week starts on Sunday or Monday and
whether the return value should be in the range from 0 to 53 or from 1 to 53. If the mode argument is omitted, the value of the default_week_format system
variable is used
Mode First Day of week Range Week 1 is the first week .

0 Sunday 0-53 with a Sunday in this year

1 Monday 0-53 with more than 3 days this year

2 Sunday 1-53 with a Sunday in this year

3 Monday 1-53 with more than 3 days this year

4 Sunday 0-53 with more than 3 days this year

5 Monday 0-53 with a Monday in this year

6 Sunday 1-53 with more than 3 days this year

7 Monday 1-53 with a Monday in this year

mysql> SELECT WEEK('1998-02-20');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| WEEK('1998-02-20') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|7 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
WEEKDAY(date)
Returns the weekday index for date (0 = Monday, 1 = Tuesday, . 6 = Sunday).
mysql> SELECT WEEKDAY('1998-02-03 22:23:00');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| WEEKDAY('1998-02-03 22:23:00') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|1 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
WEEKOFYEAR(date)
Returns the calendar week of the date as a number in the range from 1 to 53. WEEKOFYEAR() is a compatibility function that is equivalent to WEEK(date,3).
mysql> SELECT WEEKOFYEAR('1998-02-20');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| WEEKOFYEAR('1998-02-20') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|8 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
YEAR(date)
Returns the year for date, in the range 1000 to 9999, or 0 for the .zero. date.
mysql> SELECT YEAR('98-02-03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| YEAR('98-02-03') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
YEARWEEK(date), YEARWEEK(date,mode)
Returns year and week for a date. The mode argument works exactly like the mode argument to WEEK(). The year in the result may be different from the
year in the date argument for the first and the last week of the year.
mysql> SELECT YEARWEEK('1987-01-01');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| YEAR('98-02-03')YEARWEEK('1987-01-01') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 198653 |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
Note that the week number is different from what the WEEK() function would return (0) for optional arguments 0 or 1, as WEEK() then returns the week in the
context of the given year.
SQL has many built-in functions for performing processing on string or numeric data. Following is the list of all useful SQL built-in functions:
• SQL COUNT Function - The SQL COUNT aggregate function is used to count the number of rows in a database table.
• SQL MAX Function - The SQL MAX aggregate function allows us to select the highest (maximum) value for a certain column.
• SQL MIN Function - The SQL MIN aggregate function allows us to select the lowest (minimum) value for a certain column.
• SQL AVG Function - The SQL AVG aggregate function selects the average value for certain table column.
• SQL SUM Function - The SQL SUM aggregate function allows selecting the total for a numeric column.
• SQL SQRT Functions - This is used to generate a square root of a given number.
• SQL RAND Function - This is used to generate a random number using SQL command.
• SQL CONCAT Function - This is used to concatenate any string inside any SQL command.
• SQL Numeric Functions - Complete list of SQL functions required to manipulate numbers in SQL.
• SQL String Functions - Complete list of SQL functions required to manipulate strings in SQL.