Current Transformers

Course No: E03-037

Credit: 3 PDH

Velimir Lackovic, Char. Eng.

Continuing Education and Development, Inc.

9 Greyridge Farm Court
Stony Point, NY 10980

P: (877) 322-5800
F: (877) 322-4774

[email protected]
 CURRENT TRANSFOMRERS

Introduction

The most important roles of instrument transformers are:

- To transform voltages or currents, from a high value to a value that can be easily
handled by protection relays and associated instruments

- To separate and insulate the metering circuit from the high voltage

- To provide options for standardization of instruments and protection relays with

rated currents and voltages

Instrument transformers are specific transformer types used for measurement of

voltages and currents. The common engineering laws are also valid for the
instrument transformers. For a short circuited transformer, it can be written:

𝐼1 𝑁
= 𝑁2 (1)
𝐼2 1

For a transformer at no load, it can be written:

𝐸1 𝑁
= 𝑁1 (2)
𝐸2 2

The first formula provides the current transformation in proportion to the primary and
secondary turns. Second formula provides the voltage transformation in relation to
the primary and secondary turns. The current transformer is based on expression
(1). Ideally, in the case of a short-circuited transformer the secondary terminal
voltage equals to zero and the magnetizing current can be neglected. The voltage
transformer is based on expression (2). Ideally, it is a transformer under no-load,
where the load current is zero and the voltage drop is caused by the magnetizing
current and is therefore negligible.

In reality, the ideal conditions are not met as the instrument transformers have a
burden in form of protection relays, instruments and cables. This creates a
measuring error in the current transformer due to the magnetizing current, and in the
voltage transformer due to the load current voltage drop. Single phase instrument
transformer vector diagram is presented in Figure 1. The turn ratio is 1:1 to ease the
representation. The primary terminal voltage “U1” is multiplied with the vector
subtraction of the voltage drop “I1Z1” from “U1”, which gives the electromagnetic force
“E”. “E” is the vector sum of the secondary terminal voltage “U1” and the secondary
voltage drop “I2Z2”. The secondary terminal voltage “U2” is presented as “I2Z”, where
“Z” is the burden impedance. The “E” is created by the flux Ø, which lags “E” by 90°.
The flux is created by the magnetizing current “Im”, which is in phase with Ø. “Im” is
the no load current “I0” reactive component which is in phase with “E”. The resistive
part is the power loss component “If”.

I1Z1
U1 I2Z2
E U2 I0 U1 N1 N2 U2
I2 I1
I1Z1 I2Z2

U1 I0 I2Z=U2
I0
ø
Im

Figure 1. Instrument transformer principle

Measurement Error

Typically, the current transformer is loaded by impedance. It consists of relays,

instruments and the cables. The induced electromagnetic force “E”, needed to
achieve the secondary current “I2”, through the complete burden “Z2+Z”, needs a
magnetizing current “I0”, which is obtained from the primary side current. The factor
“I0” is not part of the current transformation and is not used instead of the rated ratio
“Kn”.

𝐼
𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝐾𝑛 = 𝐼1 (3)
2

Real current ratio “Kd“ can be expressed as:

𝐼1 −𝐼0
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝐾𝑑 = (4)
𝐼2

where “I1”, is the rated current of the primary and “I2”, is the rated current of the
secondary.

The measuring error “ε” is expressed as:

𝐾𝑛 𝐼𝑠 −𝐼𝑝
𝜀= × 100 (5)
𝐼𝑝

where “Is”, is the secondary current and “Ip”, is current of the primary. The error in the
reproduction will appear, both in amplitude and phase. The amplitude error is known
as current, or ratio, error. Definition suggests that the current error is positive, if the
current of the secondary is higher than the rated current ratio.

The phase angle error is known as phase error or phase displacement. The phase
error is positive, if the secondary current is leading the primary. If the magnetizing
current “I0” is in phase with the secondary current “I2” (the maximum error), according
to equation 6, error ε can be expressed as:

𝐼1 −𝐼0 𝐼1
𝐾𝑑 −𝐾𝑛 − 𝐼
𝐼2 𝐼2
𝜀= × 100 = 𝐼1 × 100 = 𝐼0 × 100 (6)
𝐾𝑑 1
𝐼2

“I0” consists of two elements, a power-loss element “If”, that is in phase with the
secondary voltage and a magnetizing element “Im” that lags 90° and is in phase with
the electromagnetic force “E”.

The magnetizing current that causes the measuring error, is dependent on several
factors (as presented in Figure 2).
 U

N1

N2
I2

E2=2π/√2*N A B f

N1/N2=I2/I1

B[T]

IN/cm

Figure 2. The factors affecting the output of the current transformers and
magnetizing current

For the induced electromagnetic force “E”, the formula shown in Figure 2 can be
used. The induced electromagnetic force is capable to carry burdens the same size
as a transformer.

The burden is described in IEC 185 as the power in VA that can be connected to a
current transformer at rated current of the secondary and at a given power factor
(cos Ø=0,8 according to IEC 185). The rated current of the secondary is
standardized to 1 and 5 A. The current transformer output voltage presents the
transformer capability to carry burden. As presented in Figure 2, three factors will
affect the electromagnetic force “E”. It’s the number of secondary turns “N”, the core
area “A” and the induction in “B” [Wb/m2]. The induction depends of the core
material, which influences the size of the magnetizing current. Therefore, secondary
turns and the core section are selected for specific application to give the required
electromagnetic force output.
Output of the Current Transformer

The needed output of a current transformer depends on the application and the type
of the connected load.

Metering or instruments - Active power, reactive power and current meters work
under normal loading conditions. High accuracy for currents up to the rated current
(5-120%) is needed for metering cores. Accuracy classes for metering cores are 0.1
(laboratory), 0.2, 0.5 and 1.

Protection and disturbance recording - The information about a primary disturbance

must be transferred to the secondary side in the case of protection relays and
disturbance recorders. For these cores a lower precision is needed but also a high
capability to transform high fault currents and to allow protection relays to measure
and clear the fault. Protection classes are 5P and 10P according to IEC 185.
Additional cores for transient behavior are described in IEC 44-6.

A number of cores can be placed in each current transformer. Typically, from three
to six cores are available. In that case one or two are used for measuring purposes,
and two to four for protection purposes.

Metering Cores

Metering cores must be saturated 10-40 times the rated current depending of the
type of burden, to protect instruments and meters from high fault currents. Typically,
the energy meters have the lowest withstand capacity. Common values are 12-20
times the rated current. The instrument security factor “Fs”, shows the overcurrent as
a multiple of rated current at which the metering core will saturate. It is expressed as
a maximum value and is applicable only at rated burden. At lower burdens the
saturation value roughly increases to “n”.

𝑆 2
𝑅𝐶𝑇 +( )
𝐼𝑛
𝑛= 𝑆 2
× 𝐹𝑠 (7)
𝑅𝐶𝑇 +( 𝑛)
𝐼𝑛

where “Sn” is the rated burden in VA, “S” is the real burden in VA, “In” is the rated
current of the secondary in A and “Rct” is the internal resistance in Ω, at 75 °C.
According to standard IEC 185 the accuracy class is correct from 25 to 100% of the
rated burden. To meet the accuracy class and to secure saturation for a lower
current than instrument/meter thermal capability the core rated burden has to be well
matched to the connected burden.

Standards

Table 1 below presents the IEC 185 requirement for ratio and angle error for various
metering core classes.

Class Measurement error Angle error Purpose

ε(%) at In (min) at In
0.2 0.2 10 Metering
0.5 0.5 30 Metering
1 1 60 Instrument
5P 1.0 at In, 5 at ALF*In 60 Protection
10P 3 at In, 10 at ALF*In 180 Protection

Table 1. Current transformer accuracy classes - For metering classes there are
additional requirements for 5 and 20% of In

Protection Cores

The main features of protection CT cores are:

- Lower accuracy than for measuring transformers

- High saturation voltage

- Small or no turn correction

The factors that describe the cores are:

- The composite error with class 5P and 10 P. The error is then 5% and 10%
respectively, at the specified accuracy limit factor (ALF) and at rated burden.

- The Accuracy Limit Factor “ALF” shows the overcurrent as a multiple, times
the rated current, up to which the rated accuracy (5P or 10P) is fulfilled (with the
connected rated burden).

- The accuracy limit factor (ALF) is expressed as a minimum value

- The overcurrent factor is changed when the burden is different to the rated
burden. The equation for the achieved overcurrent factor “n” for a connected burden,
that is different than the rated burden, is similar to the formula for metering cores.

𝑆 2
𝑅𝐶𝑇 +( )
𝐼𝑛
𝑛= 𝑆 2
× 𝐴𝐿𝐹 (8)
𝑅𝐶𝑇 +( 𝑛)
𝐼𝑛

where “Sn” is the rated burden in VA, “S” is the actual burden in VA, “In” is the rated
secondary current in A and “Rct” is the internal resistance in Ω, at 75 °C. Typically,
the burdens are purely resistive and much lower than the previously used burdens.

Instrument Transformer Transient Processes

The short-circuit current can be defined as:

−𝑡
𝑖𝐾 = 𝐼𝑘 [cos ∅ × 𝑒 𝑇1 − cos(𝑤𝑡 + ∅)] (9)

where “iK” is the instantaneous value of the fault current, “Ik” is the instantaneous
amplitude value of the fault current and “Ø” is the phase angle, at the fault inception.
The variable “Ø1” is set to zero, for a pure resistive burden which is the normal
situation. That simplifies the calculation. The first part of the equation is the DC
component of the fault current and the second part is the pure AC element.

The “et/T1”, suggests that the DC component is a decaying exponential function, with
the time constant “T1”. The maximum amplitude is dependent on where on the
voltage sine wave the fault happened. Regarding the protection relays that are
supposed to function during the fault, it’s important to verify the core output under
transient conditions.

The fault must happen between two extreme conditions:

1. Ø=90°, for example a fault at voltage maximum. The fault current will be a pure
sinus wave. To transform the fault current without saturation, the ALF factor has to
be ALF≥“Ik/In”.

2. Ø=0°, for example a fault at voltage zero. The short circuit current will have
complete symmetry with a maximum DC part. These situations are rare as faults
typically happen close to voltage maximum rather than close to voltage zero.

The DC part will build up a DC flux in the core and an interposed AC flux. The flux
will increase and decrease according to the time constants. The rise depends on the
network time constant “T1” (L/R) and the decay is in line with the current transformers
secondary time constant “T2”. This is shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4.

B[T]

T1 40ms
T2 2200 ms

T1 40ms
T2 180 ms

t[sec]

Figure 3. AC and DC flux are time dependent, at faults with full DC component and
with different primary and secondary time constants
 i [A]

t[sec

T1
Figure 4. The primary fault current with a DC part

“T2” is the current transformer secondary time constant “L0/R0”, where “L0” is the
inductance of the secondary winding and “R0” is the resistance of the secondary
winding.

The quotient between the maximum value of the DC component and the maximum
value of the AC component is known as the transient factor “KT” and is expressed as:

∅(𝑎𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥)×(𝜔𝑇1 cos ∅2 −sin ∅2 )

𝐾𝑇 = (10)
∅(𝑎𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥)

which for a resistive burden (cosØ2=1.0) gives “KT = wT1”, which with a primary time
constant “T1”=“L/R”=100ms = 31.4, which in turn gives a DC flux “31.4” multiplied
with the AC flux.

To correctly transform the short circuit current, the protection core needs to have an
ALF factor “31.4” multiplied with the ALF factor for case 1.

The situation becomes even worse if a quick auto-reclosing is applied. At fault

current breaking the core will be left magnetized to “Ømax” as the breaking is
accomplished at current zero crossing, for example voltage is close to maximum and
the flux is also close to maximum.

The remanence flux “Ør” in the core will decay according to expression (11) and as
shown in Figure 5.
 𝑡
∅𝑟 𝑡 = ∅𝑚𝑎𝑥 × 𝑒 −𝑇2 (11)

øma

Ør
t[sec]

T2

Figure 5. The flux decay and the remanence flux

At a reclosing for a permanent fault after the time “t” (the same flux direction is
foreseen in the worst case), a part of the core is already used for the remanence
flux. To manage a correct transformation of the current during an auto reclosing
sequence the core needs to be additionally increased with a remanence factor “Kr”.
This factor is according to IEC:

𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐾𝑟 = 𝑓 (12)
𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑓𝑟

Therefore, the current transformer cores have to be increased with the transient and
the remanence factor “KT” and “Kr”, respectively. This is needed if saturation isn’t
allowed during the transient fault having a full DC offset and with an auto reclose
sequence.

Ideal transformation of short circuits using DC component and during auto reclose
will set high over dimensioning demands. All clearances of parameters will be
multiplied and can set unrealistic requirements on core size after multiplying with “KT”
and “Kr”.
 Saturated output

Figure 6. Secondary current at DC saturation, for some cycles the positive part of the
sine wave will be destroyed

CT Core Selection

Some typical guidelines for choosing current transformer cores, for metering and
protection purposes are described.

Select the rated current - The primary rated current is chosen to be 10-40% bigger
than the object rated current. This always provides a high resolution of the metering
equipment and instruments. For the protection cores it can be of interest to have the
biggest possible ratio as this gives the least requirements of core data. The modern
protection relays have wide measuring ranges. A primary or secondary tap to obtain
several ratios can be useful in metering cores. However, keep in mind that the output
is decreased when fewer turns are used.

The secondary current can be 1 or 5 A. Nowadays, 1A is the dominating as the

protection and metering equipment have so low burdens. The cable burden is “I2R”
which suggests that a 1A circuit has 25 times lower cable burden, measured in VA,
than a 5A circuit. This implies that cores can be made smaller which reduces costs.

Select burden - Do not use an over dimensioned burden more than absolutely
necessary. A too high rated burden in comparison to actual burden can mean that
the metering equipment is destroyed as the security factor “Fs” is valid at rated
burden. For protection relay cores an extra burden clearance can give unrealistic
core sizes after multiplication with factors “KT” and “Kr”.

Select “Fs” and ALF factors - Select the correct security factor “Fs” and Accuracy
Limit Factors “ALF” that depend on the type of connected equipment. Always refer to
the product description and verify the overcurrent capability for instruments and
meters and the requirement on core output for protection relays. Keep in mind
possible burden clearances which will affect the real overcurrent factor.

In reality, all current transformer cores need to be specially adapted for their
application in each station.

Chose accuracy - Do not specify bigger demands than necessary. For metering
cores particularly with A-turns less than about 400-500 a too high requirement can
involve extra expenses since a more expensive core material has to be used.

Rules of Thumb

The resistance of the secondary, RCT, is crucial for the CT output and has to be
limited, particularly for 1 A high ratio CT’s, to give an efficient use of the current
transformers. For example, the core voltage output needs to be used to support the
connected burden and not the internal resistance. Objective could be to always have
lower internal resistance than rated burden, if possible much lower. The following
rule of thumb can be used:

RCT ≤ 0,2 - 0,5 Ω per 100 turns

Cores are considered as big when the voltage output is of range 1 - 2 V per 100
turns and medium size cores have outputs 0,5 - 1 V per 100 turns. Typically, the
resistance values are smaller for 5 A circuits as the winding has greater area for 5 A
than for 1 A. Nevertheless, the problem that the resistance of the secondary is high
is happening mainly on 1 A as the number of turns are five times bigger for 1 A than
for 5 A. Therefore, it is important to keep core size and secondary resistance down
to obtain useful cores where the voltage output is mainly generating current to the
load and not giving internal voltage drop and power loss.

CT Requirements

Many protection relay types are used in a power system. Distance protection relays,
differential protection relays, overcurrent protection relays of different types etc. will
all have different demands on the current transformer cores depending on the design
of the specific protection relay. Instantaneous and delayed protection relays will also
have various demands. Frequently, a DC component of the fault current has to be
considered for the instantaneous types of protection relays. Modern solid-state
protection relays, of static or numerical types, give a much lower burden on the
current transformer cores and typically also have lower requirements on the core
output as they are typically made to work with saturated CT cores which was not the
case for the old types of electro-mechanical protection relays.

Brief description of requirements that modern solid state protection relays will set on
current transformer cores is provided below. For specific types user has to refer to
respective relay manuals and to tests of behavior at saturated current transformers
completed with the different products.

To describe the general expressions used, a normal current transformer circuit is

shown in Figure 7.

RP RC RL

Other
RR phases

RL
RN

Figure 7. The current transformer scheme with magnetizing reactance and

secondary resistance

For phase to phase short circuits the loop-resistance will include the cable resistance
“RL” plus the phase measuring relay resistance “RR+RCT”. For phase to ground fault
loops the resistance will include two times the cable resistance “RL+Rl” plus the
overall resistance of phase and neutral measuring relays “RR+RN+RCT”. Core voltage
output can either be the knee-point voltage or the secondary voltage output “E2”. It is
computed using 5P or 10P data, ALF and the resistance of the secondary according
to:

𝐸2 = 𝐴𝐿𝐹 × 𝐼𝑛 (𝑅𝐶𝑇 + 𝑅𝑛 ) (13)

where

“E2” is the secondary limiting electromagnetic force

“In” is the CT rated secondary current

“RCT” is the CT secondary resistance at 75°C and

“Rn” is the CT rated burden, computed as resistance.

Typically, modern relays give a pure resistive burden. Certainly, values provided in
ANSI or other standards, can be used in similar ways to determine the cores
secondary output and the achieved value can be used instead. The voltage output
difference, at selected core definition, is around 10-20% and is not of importance for
the calculation.

Overcurrent Protection Relays

Overcurrent protection relays are used both for short-circuit and ground-fault
protection. They can be instantaneous or delayed, definite or inverse time. Current
transformer cores have to provide adequate output to ensure correct operation.

The needed CT core output is presented below:

Instantaneous protection - Core should not saturate for an AC current, smaller than
“2xIset”. The DC component doesn’t have to be considered as overcurrent protection
relays are made with short impulse limit time to secure operation also when only a
very short current pulse is achieved due to heavy saturated current transformer
cores. Due to high setting of instantaneous elements the requirement will typically be
quite high.

Inverse Time Delayed Overcurrent Protection Relays

Core may not saturate for an AC current less than “20xI set”. The 20 times factor is
needed to make sure that the inverse time characteristic will be correct and no extra
delay will be introduced in some protection relay (due to saturation in a CT core).
Such a delay would mean a lack of selectivity. If needed, the factor 20 can be altered
to “the maximum fault current of interest for selectivity divided by the set current”.

Definite-Time Delayed Overcurrent Protection Relays

Core may not saturate for a current “I” less than “2xI set” to ensure operation. The
current output is determined as:

𝐸2
𝐼=𝑅 (14)
𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝

Both phase and ground-faults values need to be checked when ground fault currents
are high. Nevertheless, the short circuit protection will impose the highest
requirements. Overcurrent protection relays have moderate requirement on
accuracy. 5P or 10P class can be used without any issues. If a low accuracy class is
used this has to be considered when choosing the setting. Typically, the margin has
to be increased for ground faults when the summation of the three phases is done as
the measuring error is increased when few current transformer cores are involved.

Impedance and Distance Protection Relays

Distance protection is an instantaneous impedance measuring protection for medium

voltage and high voltage transmission lines. The typical demand on current
transformer cores which can be used for modern static and numerical distance
protection relays is that the core may not saturate within 50ms for a fault at the end
of zone 1. Saturation time differences between different relay types exist but 50ms is
generally suitable. For detailed data about the demands, user needs to refer to the
manual of each protection relay. Saturation is allowed for internal faults since the
protection relays are made to function with saturated CT core without any delay in
operation. Saturation due to the DC component has to be considered due to the
instantaneous protection operation.

The empiric formula for a CT free from saturation is:

𝑋
𝐸2 = 𝐼𝑠1 (𝑅 + 𝐼) (𝑅𝐶𝑇 + 𝑅𝐿 ) (15)

where

“Is1” is the current through the own line for a short circuit at set reach of zone 1. “Is1”
is determined as:

𝑈
𝐼𝑠1 = (16)
√3×𝑍𝑠
where

Zs is the complete impedance for a fault at zone 1 reach. X/R is the ratio of X/R up to
the zone 1 reach.

RCT+RL provide the current transformer core secondary resistance and the
connected burden to the current transformer terminal. To determine the needed
output voltage for a saturated free voltage the following expression can be used. The
secondary time constant is considered as high:

0.05
𝐸2 = 𝐼𝑠1 (𝑇1 × 𝑤 (1 − 𝑒 𝑇1 ) + 1) (𝑅𝑐𝑡 + 𝑅1 ) (17)
where

T1 is the primary time constant.

Differential Protection Relays

There are many types of differential protection relays that can be used for many
different applications. The most commonly used differential relays are described
below:
High Impedance Protection Relays

CT cores used together with high impedance protection need to all have identical
turn ratio. Turn correction is not allowed. Typically, separate cores have to be
provided for this kind of protection on all involved current transformers. Nevertheless,
high impedance relays used for restricted earth fault protection can be used on the
same core together with the transformer differential protection if interposing CTs or
insulated input transformers are provided.

All cores need to have a saturation voltage Usat>2Ur to allow operation for internal
faults. Relay operating voltage Ur is determined as:

𝑈𝑟 > 𝐼𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑅𝑐𝑡 + 𝑅𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 ) (18)

where

Ismax is the maximum secondary through fault current

RLoop is the max loop resistance seen from connection point

Transformer Differential Protection

Transformer differential protection relays are percentage restraint differential

protection relays. The operation level is increased at through faults to provide
stability even with the tap changer in an end position and with differences between
high and low voltage CT cores. Typically, the CT cores must not saturate for any
through fault but the percentage stabilization and an internal stabilization for current
transformer saturation means that the requirement can be limited. Following
expression needs to be used:

E2KTF x Ismax (Rct + RLoop) (19)

where

KTF is the transient overdimensioning factor

Ismax is the maximum secondary through fault current

RLoop is the maximum loop resistance seen from connection point.

KTF has to be selected based on the provided protection relay type and final
application.

For one and a half, ring busbar or two breaker bus arrangements separate stabilizing
inputs need to be used for CT's where through fault currents can happen.

The modern protection relays are made to work correctly for heavy internal faults
and with saturated CT's to ensure that stability is achieved for outer faults. It is
suggested to use as similar saturation level for installed current transformers.
Accuracy class 5P according to IEC185, or similar accuracy class in other standards,
should be used.

Pilot Wire Differential Relay

Pilot wire differential protection relay works with a circulating current in the pilot
wires. Current transformer cores have to be provided with the same ratio at the two
terminals but don’t need to be of the same type. The CT accuracy demands are
based on the most serious external fault under symmetrical current conditions.
Under these conditions and with the CT burden composed of the CT secondary and
lead resistances, plus an allowance of 5 VA for the biggest single phase burden of
the pilot wire differential summation CT, the CT shouldn’t exceed 10% accuracy.
This can be written as:

𝐸 −𝐸𝑧
𝐼𝑠 = 𝑅 +𝑅2 (20)
𝐼 𝑐𝑡 +𝑅𝑠𝑐𝑡

where “Is” is the maximum secondary fault current, “E2” is the CT’s secondary
voltage with 10P (or 5P) accuracy and “Ez” is the voltage across the regulating
diodes reflected to the primary side of summation CT.

“Rl” is the cable resistance (one way for line-line and two way for line-ground faults),
“Rct” is the CT’s secondary winding resistance and “Rsc” is the summation CT
resistance, reflected to the primary side of the summation current transformer.
If selected in that way, saturation due to DC component in asymmetrical fault
currents will not cause mal-operation. Also CTs that saturate during an internal fault,
due to AC or DC, will not prevent operation. General prudence recommends a
limitation of the maximum fault currents to 100 times nominal current or 250 A
secondary whichever is the smallest.

When current transformers of similar characteristic are given at both ends of the line
the through faults will saturate the current transformers at both ends. In that case
smaller cores can then be used.

The expression:

5
𝐸2 ≥ 20 × 𝐼𝑛 (𝑅𝐶𝑇 + 𝑅𝐼 + 𝑅2 + ) (21)
𝐼𝑛2

has to be fulfilled, where:

R2 is the load of other equipment connected to the same core

Rl is cable resistance (one way for line-line and two-way for line-ground faults. If
ground fault current is low only one way is sufficient).

Busbar Differential Protection

Pilot wire differential protection and busbar differential protection are moderate
impedance restraint protection relays. Their restraining characteristic depends on CT
saturation for both internal and external faults. To ensure operation at internal faults
the CT secondary limiting electromagnetic force “E2” or the CT knee-point voltage is
expressed as:

𝐸2 ≥ 2𝑈𝑟𝑠 = 𝐼𝑑1 (𝑅𝑑𝑡 + 28) + 𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑑3 (22)

where

Id1 is the operating current

Rdt is the complete differential circuit resistance

28 Ω - is the secondary winding resistance of the auxiliary CT in the differential
circuit, referred to the primary side

ndVd3=20V - is the forward voltage drop at the full wave rectifier in the auxiliary CT at
the differential circuit secondary side

Loop Resistance

The allowable loop resistance for secure through fault stability seen from the
protection relay can be expressed as:

𝑅𝑑𝑡 ×𝑆
𝑅𝐼𝑋 = (23)
(1−𝑆)
where

S is the setting of the slope

Rdt is the complete differential circuit resistance and is calculated as follows:

𝑅𝑑𝑡 = 𝑛𝑑2 × 𝑅𝑑3 + 𝑅𝑚𝑑 + (𝑅𝑎 × 𝑅𝑑11 ) (24)

where

nd is the turns ratio of the auxiliary CT in the differential circuit and equals 10

Rd3 is the resistance of the fixed resistor

Rmd is the short circuit impedance of the auxiliary CT in the differential circuit

Ra is the resistance of the alarm relay

Rd11 is the resistance of the variable resistor

The loop resistance detected from the protection relay can be expressed as:

𝑅𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝑅2 + 𝑅𝐼 ) × 𝑛𝑚𝑥 (25)

where
R2 is the main transformer secondary resistance

Rl is the cable loop resistance

Imx is the auxiliary transformer ratio

Fault Locator Type

Requirement on current transformer cores, used for fault locator, is that the core is
not allowed to saturate within 30ms from the fault inception for a fault at a location
where the maximum measuring accuracy is needed. The formula for saturation free
CT in 30ms can be written as:

𝐸2 = 𝐾𝑡𝑓 (𝑅𝑐𝑡 + 𝑅𝐼 ) (26)

The transient dimensioning factor Ktf=Ømax/Øssc

The flux at 30ms, Ø(0,03) is:

0.03 0.03
𝑤𝑇 𝑇
1 2
∅(0.03) = ∅𝑠𝑠𝑐 ( 𝑇 −𝑇 (𝑒 𝑇1 − 𝑒 𝑇2 ) + 1) (27)
1 2
where

T1 is the primary net time constant in seconds

T2 is the secondary time constant in seconds

Øssc is steady state flux corresponding to the sinusodial current

And “ω” is the angle speed, for example 2πf where “f” is the net frequency.

For conventional CT's with a high T2 compared to T1 this can be simplified:

0.03
𝐸2 = 𝐼𝑠1 (𝑇1 × 𝑤 (1 − 𝑒 𝑇1 ) + 1) (𝑅𝑐𝑡 + 𝑅1 ) (28)

where
Is1 is the maximum fault current for which the accuracy is needed

R1 is the loop resistance sensed from core terminals. CT ratio has to be chosen to
ensure that phase component of the fault current is bigger than 10% of rated current.
Accuracy class 5P according to IEC185 needs to be fulfilled.

Fault Locator in Distance Relay

The built-in fault locator option in the line protection terminals is made with the same
measuring algorithm as in fault locator type. However, the time window for
measurement is shorter and therefore a time to saturation of 20ms can be used for a
fault at location where maximum accuracy is needed. Similar formula as for fault
locator relay type, but with 20ms instead of 30ms, should be used. Typically, it’s
sufficient to use cores suitable for the distance protection without special verification.
Nevertheless, when lines are long and requirement on cores from distance
protection low, a high precision can be needed for faults much closer to the station.
Then the requirement set by the fault locator will often be dimensioning even though
the allowed time to saturation is much shorter.

Certain saturation can also be allowed without loss of measuring precision due to the
analogue and digital filtering of current signals. There is also a possibility to
recalculate the result given by the fault locator in above products using a different
measuring loop if a heavy DC saturation is discovered in some of the involved
phases. This can give a great improvement as the DC component will differ between
phases for multi-phase faults.

Breaker Failure Relay Type

The requirement on a core feeding a breaker failure relay can be expressed as:

𝐸2 ≥ 15 × 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑡 (𝑅𝐶𝑡 + 𝑅1 ) (29)

or:

𝐸2 ≥ 0.2 × 𝐼𝑛 × 𝑛(𝑅𝐶𝑡 + 𝑅1 ) (30)

Whichever is bigger.
Where:

Rct is CT secondary resistance

R1 is the complete loop resistance seen from CT terminals

Iset is the set current

In is the CT secondary rated current

n is maximum primary fault current/CT primary rated current.

This will allow the operation of the breaker failure protection relays even with CT
saturation. Breaker failure relay is made with an energy storing to provide a
continuous energizing of the output, even with heavy saturated current transformers,
and with short reset pulses.