Indian Institute of Welding – ANB

Refresher Course – Module 07

MMAW and SAW

Process and Practice
 Contents

 Manual Metal Arc Welding

 Submerged Arc Welding

Manual Metal Arc
Welding
Process and Practice
Advantages of MMAW

 Equipment used is simple,

inexpensive.
 Electrode provides and
regulates its own Flux.
 This process has excellent
suitability for outdoor use
lower sensitivity to wind
and even for use under
water.
 All position capability
Principles of MMAW

 An electric arc is maintained

between the end of a coated
metal electrode and work
piece.
 The flux covering melts
during welding and forms gas
and slag to shield the arc and
molten weld pool
 The flux also provides a
method of adding
scavengers, deoxidizers and
alloying elements to the weld
metal
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

SMAW electrodes consist of a metal

core wire and a flux covering
surrounding the core wire. As the electrode melts, the flux
covering disintegrates, giving
off vapours that protect the
weld area from oxygen and
other atmospheric gases. In
addition, the flux provides
molten slag which floats to the
surface and protects the weld
from contamination as it
solidifies.
The Arc and the weld are
shielded by gas and slag.

+
 Drooping characteristics power
source
 Designed to give stable operation where the electrode moves
up and down with the welders hand eg MMAW and GTAW
processes.
 Variation in arc voltage with movement of the welders hand
results in very little change in current
 Stable current gives consistent arc heat and weld pool

ISO line of the power

source is V= 20+ 0.04xI
 OCV
 Open circuit voltage ( ocv )is the voltage across
the output terminals of the power source when it
is under no load condition.
 In case of AC welding ocv plays an important
role in ensuring easy arc starting and good arc
stability. Higher is the ocv better is the arc
stability. However higher ocv poses danger of
electric shock and hence its value is restricted to
100 v max
 Commercially available transformers
generally have ocv values 60 v to 70 v.
 Commercially available rectifiers generally have
ocv values 65 v to 80 v
Equipment And Accessories
EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES

1. Power source
2. Welding and ground cables
3. Electrode holder
4. Ground clamp
5. Chipping hammer and steel wire brush
6. Hand-shield / welding helmet / head-shield
7. Welding electrode
8. Re-drying oven
 Coatings On SMAW Electrodes

 An Electrode consists of:

Core wire Electrode coatings can
consist of a number of
 Coating different compounds,
 Formulation : including rutile, calcium
fluoride, cellulose, and
 Choice of core wire iron powder.
 Formulation of coating
mixture.

+
MMAW Electrode

 Core Wire
 Electrode core wire: C 0.10 max; Mn 0.38-0.62; Si
0.03 max; S 0.03 max; P 0.03 max
 Important feature: low level of C, Si, S & P

 Coating
 Arc characteristics – Stability, Striking & Re-
striking, Force, Capability to work in positions, and
in AC & DC sets
 Slag characteristics – Good shielding, Capability
to bring impurities out of molten weld metal, Good
detachability, Flowability as well as quick freezing
nature
 Functions of the Flux coating

 Stabilises and maintains Arc

 To improve metal transfer and reduce spatter
 They also reduce operating voltage for the electrode .
 Shielding: (i) by gases produced by the flux and
(ii) slag covering during welding
 Weld Pool Control
 Slag fluidity determines the ease of positional welding
 Fast freezing slag is more suitable for welding in vertical
and overhead positions.
 Alloying Elements: May contain elements which can improve
mechanical properties of the joint

+
 Coating Constituents

 Arc stabilisers
 Slag formers
 Deoxidisers
 Gas forming materials
 Binders
 Alloying elements
 Deposition efficiency improvers
 Extruding/slipping agents
Coating types

 Rutile
 Basic
 Cellulosic
 Acid
 Acid-rutile
 Oxidising
 Types Of Electrodes

Based on application:
> Carbon-manganese steel electrodes AWS A5.1
> Stainless steel electrodes A5.4
> Low alloy steel electrodes A5.5
> Copper & Copper alloy electrodes A5.6
> Aluminium & Aluminium alloy electrodes A5.10
> Nickel & Nickel alloy covered electrodes A5.11
> Hardfacing electrodes

+
 Merits/Demerits of coating types

 Rutile: Merits
 Easy striking/restriking
 Good slag control
 Good slag detachability
 Good positional welding capabilities
 Usable in low OCV sets
 More welder friendly

 Demerits
 Limitation in mechanical properties
 Alloy transfer difficult
 High hydrogen level
 Basic Coated Low Hydrogen
Electrodes
 Baked at high temperatures
around 4500C during
Coating contains
manufacture.
Metal Carbonates &
 Re-drying is a must before
Calcium Fluoride. use.
Releases CO2 in arc
atmosphere.
Fluxing by Calcium Fluoride.
(Fluorspar) Adequate penetration.
Moisture bearing materials are Slag removal is good.
restricted in coating. Contains more iron powder.
Good mechanical Properties.

+
 Basic Coated Low Hydrogen
Electrodes
 Technologically very important
 Weld metal integrity very high High radiographic quality
High toughness at subzero temperatures
 Low amount of diffusible hydrogen content of weld metal (< 5
ml/100g deposited weld metal)

 Alloy transfer efficiency high compared to other class of

electrodes Iron powder /alloying additions

 Fluid slag
Slag volume low,
Thin friable slag
Slag removal is good
 Chemically slag is “basic”
+
Merits/Demerits of coating types

 Basic: Merits
 Good mechanical properties
 Low hydrogen level
 Alloy transfer effective
 Higher deposition efficiency

 Demerits
 Greater welder skill required
 AC welding difficult, especially in low OCV
 High temperature preheating before welding
necessary
 Slag detachability not as good as rutile type
 Merits/Demerits of coating types
Peculiarity: Cellulose
Electrodes need moisture in
 Cellulosic: Merits coating for effective functioning
Hence, Do Not re-dry Cellulose
 Fiery arc (Forceful & noisy arc)
electrode.
 High arc force  good penetration
 Thin coating  good manouverability in roots
 Vertical down
 Cross-country pipelines (for oil, gas)
 Less slag volume
 Good positional welding
 Alloy transfer possible

 Demerits
 DC based
 High hydrogen level
 Operator skill is important
+
Production Of Electrodes

 The powdered coating materials are dry mixed and then liquid
silicate is added to form a paste.
 The flux paste is extruded onto the core wire in an hydraulic
extruder. The two ends are brushed and linished for gripping
by the electrode holder and easy striking of arc.
 The electrodes are then dried at between 110 – 130 C in
continuous or batch type ovens before packing.
 Low hydrogen basic coated, stainless steel and other special
electrodes are further baked at 350 – 450 C to remove
moisture to very low levels.
 Cellulose coated electrodes are dried at 80 – 90 C so that the
cellulose is not damaged and there is some residual moisture
to augment the arc force.
Handling And Storage Of Electrodes

1. Bending of electrodes causes weakening of bonding of coating

– to be discouraged

2. Striking the electrode tip hard with base plate can cause peeling
of flux of electrode tip.

3. Use of higher current than recommended can

cause overheating of coating in end portion causing coating
decompose or disintegrate.

4. Contamination of electrodes by oil, grease, shop floor dirt to be

avoided.

5. Re-dry the electrode as per recommendation before use

Handling And Storage Of
Electrodes
SOURCE OF WATER IN COATING

1. Chemically combined water [ water of crystalisation of certain

ingredients of coating ] – to remove it very high temp. [ Say 900
deg. C or more ] is needed.

2. Hygroscopic water – partly retained by the silicates used as

binder and partly as free moisture originated from atmosphere
and settled into the pores of coating --

3 Can be removed by heating the electrode at 110 to 450 deg.C.

Hygroscopic water varies as the relative humidity of atmosphere
of storage area.
Regular consumer of electrodes are advised to maintain special
storage rooms which are dehumidified to 50% RH maximum
and are kept 5 to 10 deg. C above ambient temperature.
Handling And Storage Of Electrodes
Type of electrode Redrying temp & Remarks
time
Rutile E6012 / E6013 100 – 110 C for 1 hr

Cellulosic E6010 / 6011 Not recommended If wet 70 C for 30

min
Low hydrogen 10-15 ml H2 250 C for 1 - 2 hrs Transfer to holding
oven at 125 – 150 C
Low hydrogen 5 -10 ml H2 350 C for 1 - 2 hrs Transfer to holding
oven at 125 – 150 C
Low hydrogen below 5 ml H2 400 - 450 C for 1 - 2 Transfer to holding
hrs oven at 125 – 150 C
Stainless steel – Exxx-16/17 250 C for 1 hr

Stainless steel – Exxx-15 300 – 350 for 1 hr

Classification - AWS A5.1 - 1991
 Example : E 6013
 Letter E indicates covered electrode for MMAW
process manufactured by extrusion process.
 Digits 60 indicate minimum weld metal UTS of 60,000
psi
 Digit 1 indicates the position – all positions except V-
down
 Digit 13 indicates the type of coating, current
condition – High titania, Potassium & AC, DC±
Classification - IS 814 - 1991
 Example : EB5426H3JX
 Letter E indicates covered electrode for
MMAW process manufactured by extrusion
process.
 Letter B indicates Basic coating.
 Digit 5 indicates UTS 510-610N/mm2 & Y.S.
360 N/mm2 (min)
 Digit 4 indicates a min elongation as 20%
with impact strength as min 27J at –300c.
Classification - IS 814 - 1991
 Digit 2 indicates that electrode can be used in all
positions except vertical down.
 Digit 6 indicates that electrode is usable in DC
with electrode positive & on AC with min. 70 OCV
 Letter H3 indicates that max. H2 level will be 5 ml
per 100 gm weld metal.
 Letter J indicates that electrode efficiency is in
the range 110-129%.
 Letter X indicates that electrode deposits
radiography quality welds.
 Selection Of Covered Electrodes
For Applications
 MMAW PROCESS IS BEING SUCCESSFULLY
USED FOR WELDING OF
1. MILD AND CARBON – MANGANESE STEELS
2. LOW ALLOY STEEL
3. HIGH ALLOY STEELS AND STAINLESS
STEELS.
4. CAST IRONS
5. SURFACING APPLICATIONS
6. COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS
7. ALUMINIUM AND ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
8. NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS
Selection Of Covered Electrodes
For Applications
To ensure compatible property with base material

A. Strength / toughness related compatibility

B. Environment / specific environment related

compatibility – eg. Corrosion / high or low
temperature related applications

C. Welding procedure / position related

compatibility – eg. V-up / v-down / oh welding

D. Crack resistant weld during welding in

specific cases – SS / cast iron / dissimilar
welding
 Factors to be Considered for
selecting electrodes

 Chemical composition of base material

 Mechanical properties required

 Service requirements of the joint

 Position of Welding

 Deposition requirements
 Joint design / fit up

 Penetration requirements
 Selection of electrodes

 Use an all position Electrode when welding job

involves all position
 Use high deposition electrodes when the job is to be
done in down hand and large amount of deposition is
to be done. High deposition electrodes will have
limitations on welding position.
 Use deep penetration electrodes, cellulosic type
electrodes to achieve higher penetration (or) to make
one side welding respectively.
Selection of electrodes for C-Mn Steels

 Group contains
- Mild steels to IS : 2062
- Boiler quality steel to IS: 2002
- Micro-alloyed steels to IS : 8500
- Weathering steels to IS : 11587
 For mild steel non-critical, applications in static
loading upto 40 mm combined thickness – E6013
medium coated electrodes
 For mild / boiler quality steel for all applications above
40 mm combined thickness and sub-zero conditions
– E 7018 electrodes + pre-heat as required for higher
thicknesses
Selection of electrodes for Micro-
alloyed steels
 Range of medium and high tensile steel developed to give
improved strength and toughness without impairing
weldability. Covered by IS:8500 - 1991
 Small amounts of carbide forming elements eg. Nb, V, Ti etc
added Total amount 0.20% max as such called Micro-
alloyed steels
 Controlled rolling at low finish roll temperatures results in
very fine grain size ASTM 12 – 14.
 Properties : UTS 450 – 600 MPa
YS 400 – 500 MPa
Elongation 20 – 22 %
 Weld all sections with E7018 / E8018 G electrodes
depending on minimum yield requirements
Selection of electrodes for
Weathering steels
 These are medium tensile steels with Cu, Cr & small amount of
Phosphorous added to improve atmospheric corrosion
resistance. However P gives hot shortness and lower impacts
and latest grades have reduced P levels
 Example - Corten A, B & C and Sailcor –HR & CR steels used
for rolling stock in railways and other transportation sectors.
Corten B & C with lower P levels have better weldability
 For the lower strength Corten A & B type use E7018 – W1
electrodes
 For higher strength Corten C use E8018 – W2 electrodes.
 Note the electrode weld metal does not contain P
MMAW – Best practice

Selection of welding parameters

 Current
Current selected is dependent on
 Size & type of electrode
 Thickness of base material
 Welding position

 Voltage
Try to use highest voltage setting available,
specially for basic coated low hydrogen
electrodes.
 MMAW – Best practice contd.

Operator control
 Quality of welding
highly dependent on the
skill of operator
 A high level of manual
dexterity is required to
co-ordinate the
electrode to match the
burn off rate and to
maintain a constant
ARC length.
MMAW – Best practice contd.

Defects due to lack of operator control

 Porosity
 Undercut
 Insufficient / excess penetration
 Lack of fusion
 Slag inclusion
 Undercut
 Incorrect weld size
 Incorrect weld profile
MMAW – Best practice contd.

Operator control points

 Set correct current.
Too low current - lack of fusion, convex bead
Too high current – spatter, undercut in H-V fillets
overheating & damage to flux coating.
 Maintain shortest arc possible for basic electrodes
 Avoid excessive weaving – may lead to slag entrapment.
 Use work-back technique at start for Basic coated LH
electrodes
 Always fill crater at end of run
 Maintain correct welding speed to ensure optimum weld
size. Avoid over-welding.
Position of Electrode – Good Practices
Position of Electrode – Good Practices
 Cleaning Of Joints
 To avoid porosity and attain satisfactory
welding speed , remove excessive scale ,
oxide films, rust, moisture , paint , oil and
grease , dirt and other contaminations before
welding.
 The cleaning procedure may involve light to
heavy brushing/grinding and removal of the
metal by goughing electrode .
 In case of some non ferrous materials
chemical cleaning is recommended
 Process Limitations of MMAW

 Highly dependent on manual skill of welder

 Variability in implementation of qualified
welding procedure

• Low deposition rate. Productivity is less.

• Fixed length of electrode.
• Continuous & automatic welding is not possible.
• Slag removal required.
• Width of heat affected zone high.
+
Effect of Welding parameters

 A- Proper amperage, arc length, travel speed

 B- Amperage - too low
 C- Amperage - too high
 D- Arc Length - too short
 E- Arc Length - too long
 F- Travel Speed - too slow
 G- Travel speed - too fast
Submerged Arc
Welding
Process and Practice
SAW Process Principles
 Application of SAW process

Uses continuous wire

2.0 – 6.3 mm as
electrode.

Automatic process

Down-hand position
and H-V fillets only
Heavy section welding
of straight sections
Circumferential
welding
 SAW Features

•High Productivity, high

amperages may be used
•Easy de-slagging
•High Quality
•Deep penetration
•Excellent mechanical
properties
•Environment friendly
•Very little fume
•No radiation
•Easy operation
SAW Equipment
Equipment And Accessories
1. WIRE FEEDER
2. WELDING POWER SOURCE
3. FLUX HOLDER AND FEEDER
4. MEANS FOR TRAVERSING THE WELD
JOINT
5. REDRYING ARRANGEMENT FOR
FLUX
6. FLUX RECOVERY UNIT .
7. OTHER ACCESORIES
 Consumables
 Wire : solid / fluxcored

 Soilid wires for mild and low alloy steel applications are
normally copper coated.
Flux cored wires are often referred as composite
electrodes and comes under “EC” designation in wire –flux
classification.
Flux :

 A. Fused flux :
 Ingredients ( ground minerals ) are mixed and melted in a
pot / furnace at high temperature [ 1600 – 1800 deg.C ].
melt is rapidly solidified and fragmented by quenching in
water. These flux fragments are dried , crushed , sieved ,
sized and packed.
 Consumables contd.
 B. Agglomerated flux ;
finely powdered ingredients are mixed and mix is steadily
moistened with liquid alkaline silicates.The mixer blades
are designed to assist agglomeration.
 The green agglomerates are baked in rotary oven gradually
with final exposure at 600 to 800 deg.C.While baking the
water evaporates leaving the binder as bridges between
particles. The flux is then sieved , graded and packed.

C. Sintered flux :
 Produced by grinding the dry charge together, pressing
into small balls and heating to just below melting point [
1000 – 1100 deg. C ] in furnace. These semi fused masses
are crushed, sieved, sized and packed.
SAW Fluxes
 Fused  Agglomerated
 Heavier, higher bulk  Lighter, lower bulk
densities, hence less densities, hence volume
volume for same weight is more for same weight
 Thicker slag cover,
 Thinner slag cover, less
more consumption
consumption
 Higher manufacturing
temperature and so  Lower manufacturing
ferro-alloys, alloy temperature and hence
addition not possible. ferro-alloys, alloys
additions possible
 Neutral , Active And
Alloy Fluxes
 A change in arc voltage will change the quantity of
flux interacting with a given quantity of electrode
resulting change in composition of weld metal
Neutral fluxes :
 These fluxes do not produce any significant change in the weld
metal chemical composition due to a large change in arc
voltage or arc length / stick out.
Active fluxes :
 These contain manganese and / or silicon bearing ingredients
as de-oxidiser and changes the weld metal chemical
composition with change in arc voltage / stick out.
Alloy fluxes :
contain alloying ingredients in the flux and when used with non
–alloyed carbon steel electrode give alloy weld metal.
 Basicity Index ( B.I )
 B.I = BASIC OXIDES / ACIDIC OXIDES =

 [CaO+MgO+Na2O+CaF2+ ½ (MnO+FeO)]
 ---------------------------------------------------------------------
 [SiO2+ ½ (Al2O3+TiO2+ZrO2)]

 B.I < 0.9 , ACIDIC

B.I = 0.9 to 1.2 , NEUTRAL
B.I > 1.2 -2.0 , BASIC
B.I > 2.0 , HIGH BASIC
SAW Wire - Flux Classification
F 7A6 – EM 12K
 F – Indicates SAW flux
 7 – UTS minimum 70,000 psi
 A – As welded condition
( P – post weld heat-treated condition )
 6 – Impact minimum 20 ft-lbf at – 60 F
 E – Solid wire electrode
 M – Medium manganese level wire
 12K – specific composition wire
 Flux consumption in SAW

kg/m
0,4

0,3

0,2

0,1

0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Welding speed in m/h

Handling and Storage of Fluxes

 A. Wires : should be free from rust , oil , grease

etc. Before welding.

 B. Flux : to be redried depending on flux type in

line with manufacturer’s recommendation

Care should be taken while storing agglomerated

flux - if bags containing flux are stacked one
upon other – the bag at the bottom should
not experience heavy load .
Welding Parameters
 1. WELDING CURRENT
2. ARC VOLTAGE
3. SPEED OF ARC TRAVEL
4. SIZE OF ELECTRODE
5. ELECTRODE STICK OUT
6. HEAT INPUT RATE

 TO GET OPTIMUM RESULTS , EFFECTS OF

THESE PARAMETERS AND TO SELECT AND
CONTROL THOSE PROPERLY TO BE
UNDERSTOOD CAREFULLY.
Parameters for SAW welding

 Typical parameters for square-butt weld on

19 mm MS plate
Plate thickness 19 mm
Pass 1 2
Wire size 5 mm 5mm
Current ( amps ) 800 900
Voltage ( volts ) 36 37
Travel speed ( cm/min ) 56 56
 Arc Starting in SAW
Unlike MMAW arc start in SAW may be difficult due to flux cover

Few common methods are –

A. Use of steel wool / iron powder

B. Sharp wire start- wire tip made chisel like

for high current density

C. Scratch start – carriage starts just before current

flow starts

D. Molten flux start – arc starts inside molten flux – used

for multi wire technique

E. Wire retract start

F. High frequency start

Control points of SAW process

The plates have to be straight

The plates have to be clean, preferably ground or
shot blasted
The positioning of the wire is of utmost
importance
The flux should cover the arc completely (not
necessarily cover the wire completely)
The flux should be dry
SAW – Typical Defects
Porosity
- Inadequate flux depth, moisture or contaminants
in the flux or weld joint
- Excessive travel speed
- Slag residue from tack welds made with covered
electrodes

Slag Inclusion
- Contaminants of flux, Usage of cold flux.
- Improper joint geometry
- Viscosity of the slag
- Inadequate interpass cleaning
Influence of Amperage and Voltage

Higher amperage gives deeper penetration

Higher voltage gives wider penetration. The arc

length gets extended
Influence of polarity and wire diameter
Deepest penetration with positive electrode. Normally, the
welding machine is equipped with DC positive electrode.

At constant amperage, the penetration gets deeper with

smaller wire diameter, due to the higher current density.
 Influence of stick-out
Longer stick-out gives higher deposition rate, but
also more shallow penetration.

Above: Penetration at different stick-out

Right: Deposition rate at different stick-outs.

A: 25 mm
B: 57 mm
C: 83 mm
 Deposition rate
Recommended current range and deposition rate (kg/h)
for different wire diameters

2,7 kg/h 9,0 kg/h

 1,6
10,3 kg/h
3,8 kg/h  2,0
9,5 kg/h
3,5 kg/h  2,5
3,4 kg/h  3,2 11,4 kg/h
10,6 kg/h
4,6 kg/h  4,0
18,8 kg/h
5,7 kg/h  5,0
5,6 kg/h 21,8 kg/h
 6,0

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Ampere

 Deposition rate
As a function of wire diameter and amperage
Kg/
h
16 f
Wire
14 d e g
diameter
a = 1,6 mm 12
b = 2,0 mm 10 a c
c = 2,4 mm b
8
d = 3,2 mm
e = 4,0 mm 6
f = 5,0 mm 4
g = 6,0 mm
2

200 400 600 800 1000 Amp

SAW - Process Variations

 Tandem SAW

 Twin / Multiple wire SAW

 SAW with auxiliary hot wire feeding

 SAW with metal powder addition

 Narrow Gap SAW

SAW – Process Limitations

 Limited welding position

 Limited to higher thickness
 Limited to few materials
 Elaborate arrangement for equipments &
accessories - expensive
 Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of
the following faculty members for developing
this module

 Mr.R.Senguta
 Mr.R.Banerjee
 Mr.R.Ravi
 Mr.N.K.Mukherjee
THANK YOU