Running head: HOW TEACHNG METHODS EFFECT INQUIRY LEARNING 1

How Teaching Methods Effect Inquiry Learning

Christina Connolly

University of Rhode Island

Abstract
This study investigates the relationship between actual inquiry-based methods practiced and

teachers’ perception of which methods are most effective. Critical thinking or the process of

ascertaining the authenticity, accuracy and worth of information is a basic skill in social studies,

with that in mind one should understand what methods students need in order to solve these

kinds of critical thinking tasks. Development of these skills is critical for students to learn in

order to become good citizens in a diverse society. These skills and the knowledge gained in

inquiry learning must be developed in order to make well-versed and logical decisions for the

“public good”. Critical thinking or the process of ascertaining the authenticity, accuracy and

worth of information is a basic skill in social studies, with that in mind one should understand

what methods students need in order to solve these kinds of critical thinking tasks. As apart of

addressing this issue I examined nine articles to further study the methods of inquiry instruction

practiced in the social studies classroom and teachers perception of the most effective strategies

for social studies instruction. The results of my study found a gap in what teachers perceive as

the most effective method and what they actually practice in their classrooms.

Keywords: Inquiry, inquiry teaching, learning cycle

INTRODUCTION

When I look back to my elementary and middle school education, the times in which I

learned the most was when I was involved in activities that included hands-on learning. When I

was stimulated to think beyond route memorization and was able to be involved with an activity

hands on I learned a great deal more than reciting isolated facts. When my teachers involved

inquiry learning into their lessons, I was pushed to think critically and look beyond what was in

front of me and “think outside the box”. I also recognized this in the third graders I observed

while I was in my field practicum course. When the students were engaged in inquiry learning,

the majority of them were attentive and enjoying their lesson. The more the teacher used small

groups, and discussion as teaching strategies, the more engaged the students became. These

situations were the inspiration for my journey to understand why teachers are not using inquiry

methods more in their instruction especially in social studies.

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between actual inquiry-based

methods practiced and teachers’ perception of which methods are most effective. Do teachers

practice active forms of instruction in science and social studies classroom? Active instruction

as defined by Bolinger and Warren includes cooperative learning, discussion, role-playing, and

classroom projects. . Upon conducting my research many questions arose while I was

researching evidence to support my questions. How does prior knowledge of inquiry-based

instruction effect teaching methods? What teaching strategies work best when developing

students’ ability to engage in inquiry? What role must teachers play when using inquiry-based

methods in the classroom? With those questions in mind I began reading all the information I

found on the subject.

My research on inquiry-based teaching began in the Wilson Web reference databases

under education using ‘social studies’ and ‘inquiry’ in the keyword search. Starting with 2824

results I limited my search under the subject heading with the word ‘teaching methods’ resulting

in 559 results. I then limited my search to peer reviewed articles and lowered my results to 94,

still too many for my research. So I narrowed my search by including ‘inquiry methods’ to

reduce my results, giving me 43 articles to work with. From there I began reading the

descriptions of the articles keeping my research questions in mind and using those questions to

limit my results to articles that support my theory.

Limitations to my research include but are not limited to the following. For the purpose of

this review I limited my research to grades K to 12. I did not include teachers’ beliefs since these can

vary greatly from one educator to the next. Skeptics on the subject of inquiry based teaching have

found that the lack of “problem-centered instruction in social studies classes point to the time

demands on students and teachers, the need for and frequent lack of relevant prior knowledge, and

the importance of expert guidance for students during the problem-solving process…” as some of the

underlying problems of this type of instruction (Memory, Yoder, Bolinger, & Warren, 2004).

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

Inquiry has had a place in the science classroom since the early 1900s, but before then

educators saw learning as something students were to gain through direct instruction. John Dewey

was the first to criticize this perspective in 1909 when he addressed the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, he “contended that science teaching gave too much emphasis to the

accumulation of information and not enough to science as a way of thinking and an attitude of mind”

(National Research Council, 1996, 2000, 2001). Robert Otto examines research conducted by Jean

Piaget linking social studies instruction and Piagetian theory finding, “elementary social studies

programs should focus on the cognitive stages of concrete operations, materials should be concrete

objects, that a discovery approach is best and that group discussions improve thinking” (1979).
HOW TEACHNG METHODS EFFECT INQUIRY LEARNING 5

Understanding the importance of Piagetian theory is vital when discussing inquiry-based teaching

methods and its application in the classroom.

Since works published by Dewey and Piaget, educators have been urged to engage students

by using thinking and inquiry tasks in the classrooms. Students need direct experience and consistent

practice in order to develop the ability to understand and engage in inquiry learning. Students cannot

develop this ability through memorization of vocabulary terms and isolated facts, they must directly

experience inquiry in order to attain a deeper understanding of its components. Experience alone is

not enough for students to gain the knowledge necessary for inquiry learning. “Experience and

understanding must go together. Teachers need to introduce students to the fundamental elements of

inquiry. They must assist students to reflect on the characteristics of the processes in which they are

engaged” (National Research Council, 1996).

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Studies have shown that teacher behaviors and instructional methods influence students’

development of higher level thinking skills, for example critical thinking and problem solving as

well as student achievement (Knight, Waxman, & Padron, 1989). Critical thinking or the

process of ascertaining the authenticity, accuracy and worth of information is a basic skill in

social studies, with that in mind one should understand what methods students need in order to

solve these kinds of critical thinking tasks. Development of these skills is critical for students to

learn in order to make “informed and reasonable decisions for the public good as citizens of a

culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world” (Bailey, Shaw, & Hollifield,

2006). The National Research Council defines inquiry as,

A multifaceted activity that involves making observations; posing questions; examining

books and other sources of information to see what is already known; planning

investigations; reviewing what is already known in light of experimental evidence; using

tools to gather, analyze, and interpret data; proposing answers, explanations, and predictions;

and communicating the results. Inquiry requires identification of assumptions, use of critical

and logical thinking, and consideration of alternative explanations. (1996, 2000, 2001)

In comparison to inquiry teaching of science which refers to, “teaching (pedagogy) that

reflects the investigative approach and techniques that scientists use to discover and construct

knowledge. Science as inquiry involves both the process and content; the doing of science is

emphasized as much as science knowledge” (National Research Council, 1996, 2000, 2001).

Table 1 below (National Research Council 2000, p.29) identifies attributes of classroom inquiry

and its variations, depending on the degree of learner self direction or instructor direction.

The table illustrates the amount of structure, guidance, and coaching the teacher must provide in
HOW TEACHNG METHODS EFFECT INQUIRY LEARNING 7

order for students to engage in inquiry expressed through the five essential features. The left hand

column describes the most effective form on inquiry-based teaching and learning. But most students

do not possess the ability to start there. Students must first learn to ask and evaluate questions that

can be investigated further. The ability to plan and implement successful inquiry-based learning in

the science and social science classroom is a task challenging both content knowledge, inquiry

pedagogy knowledge and in the context of each topic being taught. Robert Karplus’ (1977) ‘learning

cycle’ is a model in which teachers can design short fifteen minute instructional units to long units

that last the entire school year.

Karplus ‘learning cycle’ has three phases:

Exploration, which refers to self-directed, unstructured investigation; invention, which refers to

the introduction of a new integrating concept by the teacher or learner; and discovery, which

refers to applications of the same new concept in a variety of situations, partly self-directed,

partly guided (1977)

For inquiry based teaching to occur, teachers must not only know the content for which they are

teaching, but must also have the ability to interpret the content and methods into corresponding

instructional practices.

Bailey, Hollifield, & Shaw’s (2006) current evaluation study of social studies programs

in elementary schools is fundamental, pertinent, and conclusive. Using the evaluation research

method, the authors analyzed amount of time each of the 39 teachers spent on social studies in

addition to amount of time spent for each grade level comparing these results to the local school

districts requirement of 30 minutes a day for social studies instruction. In conjunction with this

analysis, the authors also analyzed the instructional strategies and the frequency and types of

technology used during social studies, leading to their results all of which follow the evaluation

research method properly. Data collected for the three aspects analyzed support their findings.
HOW TEACHNG METHODS EFFECT INQUIRY LEARNING 8

The author’s provide sufficient evidence to support their theory using a variety of

supporting texts as well as other research conducted on the topic. One example stated by

Zemelman, Daniel, & Hyde (1998) explained that when teachers allot time for social studies

instruction, the majority is reading the text and answering questions or memorizing isolated

facts. Effective pedagogy extends far beyond answering questions and memorizing facts, it

allows for students to develop their understanding of complex concepts, promotes critical

thinking, and research methodology.

Bolinger and Warren, who examine the best teaching methods in social studies

instruction practiced in public schools, also hold a similar belief. They conducted a study where

420 full time teachers, elementary through secondary, in a school district in Indiana surveying

both teaching strategies employed and preferred among the faculty of nineteen schools. The

questionnaire included questions regarding the percentage of their instruction was spent

employing various methods, rank order NCSS themes in order of perceived importance, a

description of the focus of their social studies instruction by identifying one or more disciplines,

and a list of instructional methods they felt was the most effective for teaching students (2007).

Bolinger and Warren argue that teacher responses upon answering what the most effective

teaching strategy were in social studies instruction, did not coincide with their reports of

strategies in use. The results of this study suggest that both the elementary and secondary

teachers choose passive rather than active methods of instruction. It also shows a discrepancy in

the actual methods practiced in elementary and secondary classrooms and the teachers’

perception of which methods are the most effective. “The lag between theory and practice

suggests an urgent need to help teachers see the value of active and authentic instructional

methods” (Bolinger and Warren, 2007). The teacher must be the “first person that is aware of
HOW TEACHNG METHODS EFFECT INQUIRY LEARNING 9

the range of cognitive strategies that students can use to solve problems and then must instruct

students on how to effectively use those strategies” (Knight, Waxman, & Padron, 1989).

Students’ ability to apply inquiry-based strategies as stated by Knight, Waxman, and Padron, is

directly related to how teachers show or tell them how to use the elements of inquiry instruction.

A teachers’ role need to be more intensely investigated in relation to student acquisition of

critical thinking ability. In particular, the repertoire of behaviors used by teachers during

strategy instruction needs to be considered as a set in relation to students’ critical thinking in

social studies. (1989)

CONCLUSION

Inquiry-based instruction is critical in the development of higher-level thinking and the

development of critical thought process. In order for students to attain such skills, teachers must

possess the prior knowledge and be able to instruct students on how to use inquiry-based

strategies most effectively. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between

actual inquiry-based methods practiced and teachers’ perception of which methods are most

effective. Teachers need to understand the importance of specific instructional strategies and

how their behaviors influence the development of higher level thinking skills. Findings in this

study show a significant gap between actual methods practiced in the social studies classroom

and teachers’ perception of the most effective strategy instruction. This relationship of strategy

use to student learning in social studies needs further examination in future studies.
HOW TEACHNG METHODS EFFECT INQUIRY LEARNING
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References

Bailey, G., Shaw, E. L., & Hollifield, D. (2006). The devaluation of social studies in the

elementary grades. Journal of Social Studies Research, 30(2), 18.

Bolinger, K., & Warren, W. J. (2007). Methods practiced in social studies instruction: A review

of public school teachers' strategies. International Journal of Social Education, 22(1), 68.

Donovan, M. S., & Pellegrino, J. W. (Eds.). (2004). Learning and instruction: A SERP research

agenda. Washington, D. C.: The National Academies Press.

Karplus, R. (1969). Three guidelines for elementary school science. Curriculum Theory

Network, 4(Winter), 4.

Knight, S., Waxman, H. C., & Padron, Y. (1989). Students' perception of relationships between

social studies instruction and cognitive strategies. Journal of Educational Research,

82(5), 270.

Memory, D. M., Yoder, C. Y., Bollinger, K. B., & Warren, W. J. (2004). Creating thinking and

inquiry tasks that reflect the concerns and interests of adolescents. The Social Studies,

95(4), 147.

National Research Council. (1996, 2000, 2001). Inquiry and the national science education

standards: A guide for teaching and learning. Washington, D. C.: National Academy

Press.

Otto, R. (1979). Implications of piaget's research for the inquiry process of learning. Annual

Convention of National Council for the Social Studies, Portland, OR.

Zemelman, S., Daniel, H. & Hyde, A. (1998). Best practice: New standards for teaching and

learning in America’s schools (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.