Heat Transfer Module

User’s Guide
Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide
© 1998–2017 COMSOL
Protected by U.S. Patents listed on www.comsol.com/patents, and U.S. Patents 7,519,518; 7,596,474;
7,623,991; 8,457,932; 8,954,302; 9,098,106; 9,146,652; 9,323,503; 9,372,673; and 9,454,625. Patents
pending.
This Documentation and the Programs described herein are furnished under the COMSOL Software License
Agreement (www.comsol.com/comsol-license-agreement) and may be used or copied only under the terms
of the license agreement.
COMSOL, the COMSOL logo, COMSOL Multiphysics, Capture the Concept, COMSOL Desktop,
LiveLink, and COMSOL Server are either registered trademarks or trademarks of COMSOL AB. All other
trademarks are the property of their respective owners, and COMSOL AB and its subsidiaries and products
are not affiliated with, endorsed by, sponsored by, or supported by those trademark owners. For a list of such
trademark owners, see www.comsol.com/trademarks.
Version: COMSOL 5.3

Contact Information
Visit the Contact COMSOL page at www.comsol.com/contact to submit general
inquiries, contact Technical Support, or search for an address and phone number. You can
also visit the Worldwide Sales Offices page at www.comsol.com/contact/offices for
address and contact information.

If you need to contact Support, an online request form is located at the COMSOL Access
page at www.comsol.com/support/case. Other useful links include:

• Support Center: www.comsol.com/support

• Product Download: www.comsol.com/product-download
• Product Updates: www.comsol.com/support/updates
• COMSOL Blog: www.comsol.com/blogs
• Discussion Forum: www.comsol.com/community
• Events: www.comsol.com/events
• COMSOL Video Gallery: www.comsol.com/video
• Support Knowledge Base: www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase

Part number: CM020801

C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the Heat Transfer Module 18

Why Heat Transfer is Important to Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
How the Heat Transfer Module Improves Your Modeling. . . . . . . . 19
The Heat Transfer Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . . 19
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes. . . . . . . 24
The Heat Transfer Module Study Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Additional Materials Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 28

Overview of the User’s Guide 32

Chapter 2: Notations

C h a p t e r 3 : M o d e l i n g w i t h t h e H e a t Tr a n s f e r M o d u l e

Heat Transfer Variables 54

Predefined Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Global Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Domain Fluxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Out-of-Plane Domain Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Boundary Fluxes (Heat Transfer interface) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Boundary fluxes (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface) . . . . . . . . 65
Internal Boundary Heat Fluxes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Domain Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Boundary Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Line and Point Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Ambient Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Moist Air Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

CONTENTS |3
 Moisture Transport Variables 73
Predefined Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Moist air properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Domain Moisture Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Boundary Moisture Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Domain Moisture Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Using the Boundary Conditions for the Heat Transfer

Interfaces 78
Temperature and Heat Flux Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 78
Overriding Mechanism for Heat Transfer Boundary Conditions . . . . . 79

Handling Frames in Heat Transfer 82

Heat Transfer Analysis with Moving Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Material Density in Features Defined on the Material Frame . . . . . . 86

Heat Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization

Methods 88
Consistent Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Inconsistent Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling 90

Coupling Based on Model Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Temperature Coupling and Flow Coupling Multiphysics Features . . . . . 91
Adding Nonisothermal Flow Coupling in an Existing Model . . . . . . . 91
Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Multiphysics
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

Boundary Wall Temperature 93

Solver Settings 98
Linearity property of the temperature equation . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Linear Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Nonlinear Solver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Time-Dependent Study Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Guidelines for Solving Surface-to-Surface Radiation Problems . . . . . 105
Guidelines for Solving Multiphysics problems . . . . . . . . . . . 105

4 | CONTENTS
 Plotting Results in Thin Layers Extra Dimensions 107
Along the Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Through the Thin Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Using Ambient Data 110

Processing of ASHRAE Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Ambient Data Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Ambient Variables and Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Use of Ambient Data From the Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Modeling Heat Transfer by Radiation 120

Heat Part Library 124

Heat Part Library Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Heat Sink - Parameterized Fin Types Part. . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Heat Sink - Dissimilar Border Pins Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Heat Sink - Pin Fins Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Heat Sink - Straight Fins Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

References 130

C h a p t e r 4 : T h e o r y f o r t h e H e a t Tr a n s f e r M o d u l e

Foundations of the General Heat Transfer Equation 133

Thermodynamic Description of Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . 133
The Physical Mechanisms under Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . 137
The Heat Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Consistency with Mass and Momentum Conservation Laws. . . . . . 141

Theory for Heat Transfer in Solids 143

Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids 144

Theory for Bioheat Transfer 146

The Bioheat Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Damaged Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

CONTENTS |5
 Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media 150
When Should Local Thermal Equilibrium and Non-Equilibrium be
Considered? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Local Thermal Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Theory for Heat Transfer with Phase Change 156

Theory for Heat Transfer in Building Materials 159

Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer 161

Theory for Lumped Isothermal Domain 163

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures 166

Modeling Thin Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Theoretical Background of the Different Formulations. . . . . . . . 170
Thin Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Thin Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Thin Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation 182

Deriving the Radiative Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Wavelength Dependence of Surface Emissivity and Absorptivity . . . . 183
The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Gray Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . 189
The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Spectral Surfaces . . . . . . . . . 191
View Factor Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Theory for Radiation in Participating Media 198

Radiation and Participating Media Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Radiative Transfer Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Boundary Condition for the Radiative Transfer Equation . . . . . . . 200
Heat Transfer Equation in Participating Media . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Discrete Ordinates Method (DOM). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Discrete Ordinates Method Implementation in 2D . . . . . . . . . 203
Rosseland Approximation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
P1 Approximation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

6 | CONTENTS
Theory for Moisture Transport 209
Theory for moisture transport in building materials. . . . . . . . . 209
Theory for moisture transport in air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Theory for the Heat Transfer Multiphysics Couplings 211

Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Theory for the Thermoelectric Effect Interface . . . . . . . . . . 219
Theory for the Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium Interface. . . . . . . 222
Theory for the Heat and Moisture Transport Interface . . . . . . . 223
Theory for the Electromagnetic Heating Interfaces . . . . . . . . . 224
Theory for the Thermal Stress Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Theory for Thermal Contact 225

Surface Asperities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Constriction Conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Gap Conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Radiative Conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Thermal Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

Moist Air Fluid Type 230

Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Saturation State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Moist Air Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer 237

Equation Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

The Heat Transfer Coefficients 240

Defining the Heat Transfer Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Nature of the Flow — The Grashof Number . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Heat Transfer Coefficients — External Natural Convection . . . . . . 243
Heat Transfer Coefficients — Internal Natural Convection . . . . . . 249
Heat Transfer Coefficients — External Forced Convection . . . . . . 250
Heat Transfer Coefficients — Internal Forced Convection . . . . . . 253

Equivalent Thermal Conductivity Correlations 254

Horizontal Cavity With Bottom Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

CONTENTS |7
 Vertical Cavity With Sidewall Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

Temperature Dependence of Surface Tension 256

Heat Flux and Heat Balance 257

Total Heat Flux and Energy Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Heat and Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

Frames for the Heat Transfer Equations 261

Material and Spatial Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames . . . . . . . . . 262

References 266

C h a p t e r 5 : T h e H e a t Tr a n s f e r M o d u l e I n t e r f a c e s

About the Heat Transfer Interfaces 273

Space Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Study Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Versions of the Heat Transfer Physics Interface . . . . . . . . . . 274
Benefits of the Different Heat Transfer Interfaces . . . . . . . . . 274
Versions of the Heat Transfer in Thin Structures Physics Interface . . . 276
Benefits of the Different Heat Transfer in Thin Structures Interfaces . . 276
Versions of the Moisture Transport Physics Interface . . . . . . . . 277
Benefits of the Different Moisture Transport Interfaces . . . . . . . 277
Additional physics options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Settings for the Heat Transfer in Thin Structures Interface . . . . . . 285

The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface 289

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Solids Interface . . . . . . . 290

The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface 293

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface . . . . . . . 294

8 | CONTENTS
The Heat Transfer Interface 297
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface . . . . . . . . . . 297

The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface 298

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface . . . . 300

The Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface 303

Settings for the Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface . . . . . 303
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface. . . 303

The Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface 305

Settings for the Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface . . . . . . . . 305
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface . . . . . . 305

The Bioheat Transfer Interface 306

Feature Nodes for the Bioheat Transfer Interface . . . . . . . . . 307

The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

310
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface
Radiation Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media

Interface 315
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating
Media Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface 321

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface . . . . . 322

The Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface 325

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface . . . . . 326

The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface 329

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface . . . . . . 330

The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface 333

Settings for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface . . . . . . . . 334

CONTENTS |9
 Feature Nodes for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface . . . . . 336

The Radiation in Participating Media Interface 338

Settings for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface . . . . . . 338
Feature Nodes for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface . . . . 340

The Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface 342

Settings for the Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface . . . 342
Feature Nodes for the Moisture Transport in Building Materials
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

The Moisture Transport in Air Interface 345

Settings for the Moisture Transport in Air Interface . . . . . . . . . 345
Feature Nodes for the Moisture Transport in Air Interface . . . . . . 347

C h a p t e r 6 : T h e H e a t Tr a n s f e r Fe a t u r e s

Domain Features 350

Bioheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Biological Tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Building Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Change Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Change Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Geothermal Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Heat Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Immobile Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Isothermal Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Moist Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Opacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Out-of-Plane Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Out-of-Plane Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Phase Change Material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Porous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Pressure Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394

10 | C O N T E N T S
Radiation in Participating Media (Heat Transfer Interface) . . . . . . 395
Radiation in Participating Media (RPM Interface) . . . . . . . . . . 399
Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Irreversible Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Thermal Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Thermoelastic Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Translational Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Viscous Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

Boundary Features 414

Boundary Heat Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Change Thickness (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) . . . . . . 417
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Continuity on Interior Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Deposited Beam Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Diffuse Mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Diffuse Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
External Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin Film) . . . . . . . . . . . 428
External Temperature (Thin Layered Shell, Thin Film) . . . . . . . . 430
Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Harmonic Perturbation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Heat Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . . 436
Heat Source (Fracture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . 439
Heat Source (Thin Film) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Heat Source (Thin Layered Shell) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Incident Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Inflow Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Initial Values (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . 444
Isothermal Domain Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Layer Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Line Heat Source on Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Opaque Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Prescribed Radiosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

CONTENTS | 11
 Radiation Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Thermal Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Thermal Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Thin Conductive Layer (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) . . . . 469
Thin Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Thin Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Thin Layered Shell (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) . . . . . . 476

Edge Features 478

Change Effective Thickness (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) . . . 478
Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . . 479
Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . 480
Insulation/Continuity (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) . . . . . 481
Line Heat Source (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture) . . . . . . . . . . 483
Line Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) . . 486
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture) . . . . 488
Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Thin Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

Point Features 492

Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) . . . . . . . . 492
Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Point Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Point Heat Source on Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Temperature (Thin Rod) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498

Global Features 499

External Radiation Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Symmetry for Surface-to-Surface Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 504

12 | C O N T E N T S
C h a p t e r 7 : T h e M o i s t u r e Tr a n s p o r t Fe a t u r e s

Domain Features 510

Building Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Moist Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Moisture Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Turbulent Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515

Boundary Features 517

Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Moist Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Moisture Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Moisture Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Thin Moisture Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Wet Surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524

Chapter 8: Multiphysics Interfaces

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer

Interfaces 530
Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 530
The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow
Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features . . . . . . . . 532
Coupling Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Preset studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534

CONTENTS | 13
 The Thermoelectric Effect Interface 536
The Thermoelectric Effect Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features . . . . . . . . 537
Coupling Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539

The Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium Interface 540

The Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Physics Interface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces 542

The Heat and Moisture Transport multiphysics Interfaces . . . . . . 542
The Building Materials version of the Heat and Moisture Transport
multiphysics Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
Physics Interface Features in the Building Materials version . . . . . . 543
The Moist Air version of the Heat and Moisture Transport
multiphysics Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Physics Interface Features in the Moist Air version . . . . . . . . . 544
Coupling Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544

The Joule Heating Interface 545

The Joule Heating Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Coupling Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545

The Laser Heating Interface 546

The Laser Heating Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Coupling Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

The Induction Heating Interface 547

The Induction Heating Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Coupling Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547

The Microwave Heating Interface 548

The Microwave Heating Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Coupling Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548

14 | C O N T E N T S
Chapter 9: Multiphysics Couplings

Domain Multiphysics Couplings 551

Electromagnetic Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Flow Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
Heat and Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Nonisothermal Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
Temperature Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Thermoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563

Boundary Multiphysics Couplings 565

Boundary Thermoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Marangoni Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567

Index 571

CONTENTS | 15
16 | C O N T E N T S
 1

Introduction

This guide describes the Heat Transfer Module, an optional package that extends
the COMSOL Multiphysics® modeling environment with customized physics
interfaces for the analysis of heat transfer.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.

• About the Heat Transfer Module

• Overview of the User’s Guide

17
 About the Heat Transfer Module
In this section:

• Why Heat Transfer is Important to Modeling

• How the Heat Transfer Module Improves Your Modeling
• The Heat Transfer Module Physics Interface Guide
• Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
• The Heat Transfer Module Study Capabilities
• Additional Materials Database
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Why Heat Transfer is Important to Modeling

The Heat Transfer Module is an optional package that extends the COMSOL
Multiphysics modeling environment with customized physics interfaces and
functionality optimized for the analysis of heat transfer. It is developed for a wide
audience including researchers, developers, teachers, and students. To assist users at all
levels of expertise, this module comes with a library of ready-to-run examples that
appear in the companion Heat Transfer Module Applications Libraries.

Heat transfer is involved in almost every kind of physical process, and can in fact be the
limiting factor for many processes. Therefore, its study is of vital importance, and the
need for powerful heat transfer analysis tools is virtually universal. Furthermore, heat
transfer often appears together with, or as a result of, other physical phenomena.

The modeling of heat transfer effects has become increasingly important in product
design including areas such as electronics, automotive, and medical industries.
Computer simulation has allowed engineers and researchers to optimize process
efficiency and explore new designs, while at the same time reducing the need for costly
experimental trials.

18 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
How the Heat Transfer Module Improves Your Modeling
The Heat Transfer Module has been developed to greatly expand upon the base
capabilities available in COMSOL Multiphysics. The module supports all fundamental
mechanisms including conductive, convective, and radiative heat transfer. Using the
physics interfaces in this module along with the inherent multiphysics capabilities of
COMSOL Multiphysics, you can model a temperature field in parallel with other
physics — a versatile combination increasing the accuracy and predicting power of your
models.

This book introduces the basic modeling process. The different physics interfaces are
described and the modeling strategy for various cases is discussed. These sections cover
different combinations of conductive, convective, and radiative heat transfer. This
guide also reviews special modeling techniques for thin layers, thin shells, participating
media, and out-of-plane heat transfer. Throughout the guide the topics and examples
increase in complexity by combining several heat transfer mechanisms and also by
coupling these to physics interfaces describing fluid flow — conjugate heat transfer.

Another source of information is the Heat Transfer Module Applications Libraries, a

set of fully-documented examples that is divided into broadly defined application areas
where heat transfer plays an important role — electronics and power systems,
processing and manufacturing, and medical technology — and includes tutorial and
verification models.

Most of the examples involve multiple heat transfer mechanisms and are often coupled
to other physical phenomena, for example, fluid dynamics, moisture transport, or
electromagnetics. The authors developed several state-of-the art examples by
reproducing examples that have appeared in international scientific journals. See
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?.

The Heat Transfer Module Physics Interface Guide

The table below lists all the physics interfaces specifically available with this module.
Having this module also enhances these COMSOL Multiphysics basic interfaces: Heat
Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Solids, Joule Heating, and the Single-Phase Flow,
Laminar interface.

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E | 19
 If you have a Subsurface Flow Module combined with the Heat Transfer Module, this
module also enhances the Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface.

The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow (nitf) and Nonisothermal Flow,

Turbulent Flow (nitf) interfaces found under the Fluid
Flow>Nonisothermal Flow branch are identical to the Conjugate Heat
Transfer interfaces (Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow) found under the
Heat Transfer>Conjugate Heat Transfer branch. The difference is that Fluid
is the default domain node for the Nonisothermal Flow interfaces.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Studies and Solvers

• The Physics Interfaces
• For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY

DIMENSION TYPE

Chemical Species Transport

Moisture Transport

Moisture Transport in mt all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Building Materials
Moisture Transport in mt all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Air
Fluid Flow

Single-Phase Flow

Laminar Flow(1) spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric

20 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY
DIMENSION TYPE

Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, L-VEL spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, k-ε spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, Low spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Nonisothermal Flow

Laminar Flow(2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
L-VEL(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Turbulent Flow, k-ε(2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Turbulent Flow, Low — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization
Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer in Solids(1) ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent;

thermal perturbation,
frequency domain

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E | 21
 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY
DIMENSION TYPE

Heat Transfer in Fluids(1) ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent;

thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Local Thermal — all dimensions stationary; time dependent;
Non-Equilibrium(2) thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Heat Transfer in Porous ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent;
Media thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Bioheat Transfer ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent;
thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Thermoelectric Effect(2) — all dimensions stationary; time dependent;
thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Heat and Moisture Transport

Building Materials(2) — all dimensions stationary; time dependent;

thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Moist Air(2) — all dimensions stationary; time dependent;
thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Thin Structures

Heat Transfer in Thin htsh 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

Shells axisymmetric thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Heat Transfer in Thin htsh 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
Films axisymmetric thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Heat Transfer in Fractures htsh 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric thermal perturbation,
frequency domain

22 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY
DIMENSION TYPE

Conjugate Heat Transfer

Laminar Flow(2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

axisymmetric stationary, one-way
coupled, NITF; time
dependent, one-way
coupled, NITF; thermal
perturbation, frequency
domain
Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with

Algebraic yPlus(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization; stationary,
one-way coupled, NITF;
time dependent, one-way
coupled, NITF
Turbulent Flow, — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
L-VEL(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization; stationary,
one-way coupled, NITF;
time dependent, one-way
coupled, NITF
Turbulent Flow, k-ε(2) — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
axisymmetric stationary, one-way
coupled, NITF; time
dependent, one-way
coupled, NITF; thermal
perturbation, frequency
domain
Turbulent Flow, Low — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary with
Re k-ε(2) axisymmetric initialization; transient with
initialization; stationary,
one-way coupled, NITF;
time dependent, one-way
coupled, NITF

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E | 23
 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE PRESET STUDY
DIMENSION TYPE

Radiation

Heat Transfer with ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent;

Surface-to-Surface thermal perturbation,
Radiation frequency domain
Heat Transfer with ht 3D, 2D stationary; time dependent;
Radiation in thermal perturbation,
Participating Media frequency domain
Surface-to-Surface rad all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Radiation
Radiation in rpm 3D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Participating Media
Electromagnetic Heating

Joule Heating(1,2) — all dimensions stationary; time dependent;

thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
(1)
This physics interface is included with the core COMSOL package but has added
functionality for this module.
(2)
This physics interface is a predefined multiphysics coupling that automatically adds all the
physics interfaces and coupling features required.

Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes

There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in
the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used. There are also some
physics feature nodes that display in COMSOL Multiphysics.

24 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;
standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for

links to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

The Heat Transfer Module Study Capabilities

Table 1-1 lists the Preset Studies available for the physics interfaces most relevant to
this module.

Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

TABLE 1-1: HEAT TRANSFER MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY
1
PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DEPENDENT PRESET STUDIES
VARIABLES
THERMAL PERTURBATION, FREQUENCY

STATIONARY WITH INITIALIZATION

TRANSIENT WITH INITIALIZATION

TIME DEPENDENT
STATIONARY

DOMAIN

FLUID FLOW>SINGLE-PHASE FLOW

Laminar Flow spf u, p √ √

Turbulent Flow, k-ε spf u, p, k, ep √ √
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε spf u, p, k, ep, G √ √

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E | 25
 TABLE 1-1: HEAT TRANSFER MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY
1
PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DEPENDENT PRESET STUDIES
VARIABLES

THERMAL PERTURBATION, FREQUENCY

STATIONARY WITH INITIALIZATION

TRANSIENT WITH INITIALIZATION

TIME DEPENDENT
STATIONARY

DOMAIN
FLUID FLOW>NONISOTHERMAL FLOW

Laminar Flow(2,4) — u, p, T √ √
Turbulent Flow, k-ε(2,4) — u, p, k, ep, T √ √
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε(2,4) — u, p, k, ep, G, T √ √
HEAT TRANSFER

Heat Transfer in Solids(2) ht T √ √ √

Heat Transfer in Fluids(2) ht T √ √ √
Heat Transfer in Porous Media(2) ht T √ √ √
Bioheat Transfer(2) ht T √ √ √
Thermoelectric Effect(4) — T √ √ √
HEAT TRANSFER>HEAT AND MOISTURE
TRANSPORT

Building Materials — φ √ √
Moist Air — φ √ √
HEAT TRANSFER>THIN STRUCURES

Heat Transfer in Thin Shells(3) htsh T √ √ √

Heat Transfer in Thin Films(3) htsh T √ √ √
Heat Transfer in Fractures(3) htsh T √ √ √
HEAT TRANSFER>CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER

Laminar Flow(2,4) — u, p, T √ √
Turbulent Flow, k-ε(2,4) — u, p, k, ep, T √ √
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε(2,4) — u, p, k, ep, G, T √ √

26 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
TABLE 1-1: HEAT TRANSFER MODULE DEPENDENT VARIABLES AND PRESET STUDY AVAILABILITY
1
PHYSICS INTERFACE NAME DEPENDENT PRESET STUDIES
VARIABLES

THERMAL PERTURBATION, FREQUENCY

STATIONARY WITH INITIALIZATION

TRANSIENT WITH INITIALIZATION

TIME DEPENDENT
STATIONARY

DOMAIN
HEAT TRANSFER>RADIATION

Heat Transfer with ht T, J √ √ √

Surface-to-Surface Radiation(2)
Heat Transfer with Radiation in ht T, I (radiative √ √ √
Participating Media(2) intensity)
Surface-to-Surface Radiation rad J √ √
Radiation in Participating Media rpm I (radiative intensity) √ √
HEAT TRANSFER>ELECTROMAGNETIC HEATING

Joule Heating(2,4) — T, V √ √ √
1 Custom studies are also available based on the physics interface.
2
For these physics interfaces, it is possible to enable surface to surface radiation and
radiation in participating media. In these cases, J and I are dependent variables.
3 For these physics interfaces, it is possible to enable surface to surface radiation. In this
case, J is a dependent variable.
4
Multiphysics interfaces

Additional Materials Database

The Heat Transfer Module includes additional material databases:

• The Liquids and Gases material database provides temperature-dependent fluid

dynamic and thermal properties (dynamic viscosity, heat capacity at constant
pressure, density, and thermal conductivity).
• The Bioheat material database contains materials used with the Bioheat Transfer
interface. In addition to thermal properties (heat capacity at constant pressure,

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E | 27
 density, and thermal conductivity), properties for thermal damage analysis of
biological tissues are provided.
• The Building material database contains hygroscopic and thermal properties for
materials used with the Moisture Transport interface.

For detailed information, see Liquids and Gases Materials Database,

Bioheat Materials Database, Building Materials Database, and Materials
in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

A number of Internet resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the application libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules, application examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions about how to use COMSOL and how to access the electronic
Documentation and Help content.

Opening Topic-Based Help

The Help window is useful as it is connected to many of the features on the GUI. To
learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click to
highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then

28 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button ( ). This is called topic-based (or context) help.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder click a node or

window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder or Physics Builder click a node or window and then
press F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Help ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Help.

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• From the File menu select Help>Documentation ( ).

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Documentation ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E | 29
 THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW
Each application includes documentation with the theoretical background and
step-by-step instructions to create a model application. The applications are available
in COMSOL as MPH-files that you can open for further investigation. You can use the
step-by-step instructions and the actual applications as a template for your own
modeling and applications. In most models, SI units are used to describe the relevant
properties, parameters, and dimensions in most examples, but other unit systems are
available.

Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the application and its
properties, including options to open it or a PDF document.

The Application Libraries Window in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window ( ):

• From the Home toolbar, Windows menu, click ( ) Applications

Libraries.
• From the File menu select Application Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help

menu, select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

Select Application Libraries from the main File> or Windows> menus.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the Help menu
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

CONT ACT ING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at [email protected].

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to

30 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
[email protected]. An automatic notification and case number is sent to you by
email.

COMSOL WEBSITES

COMSOL website www.comsol.com

Contact COMSOL www.comsol.com/contact
Support Center www.comsol.com/support
Product Download www.comsol.com/product-download
Product Updates www.comsol.com/support/updates
Discussion Forum www.comsol.com/community
Events www.comsol.com/events
COMSOL Video Gallery www.comsol.com/video
Support Knowledge Base www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E | 31
 Overview of the User’s Guide
This Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide gets you started with modeling heat transfer
using COMSOL Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module.
Instructions on how to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics Help menu in the COMSOL Desktop.

TA BL E O F C O N T E N T S , N OTAT I O N S A N D I N D EX
To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents, Notations, and Index.

M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
The Modeling with the Heat Transfer Module chapter includes the following topics:

• Heat Transfer Variables

• Moisture Transport Variables
• Using the Boundary Conditions for the Heat Transfer Interfaces
• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
• Heat Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization Methods
• Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling
• Boundary Wall Temperature
• Solver Settings
• Plotting Results in Thin Layers Extra Dimensions
• Using Ambient Data
• Modeling Heat Transfer by Radiation
• Heat Part Library

T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
The Theory for the Heat Transfer Module chapter includes the theory related to the
heat transfer and moisture transport interfaces and multiphysics interfaces, and also to
some nodes.

32 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
After the establishment of the heat balance equation from the energy conservation laws
in Foundations of the General Heat Transfer Equation, the various versions of the heat
equation solved in COMSOL Multiphysics are presented in the following sections:

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Solids

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids
• Theory for Bioheat Transfer
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media
• Theory for Heat Transfer with Phase Change
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Building Materials
• Theory for Lumped Isothermal Domain
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures
• Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation
• Theory for Radiation in Participating Media
• Theory for Moisture Transport
Then the theory related to multiphysics interfaces is described in Theory for the Heat
Transfer Multiphysics Couplings.

Finally, topics related to specific features or variables are treated in Theory for Thermal
Contact, Moist Air Fluid Type, Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer, The Heat Transfer
Coefficients, Equivalent Thermal Conductivity Correlations, Temperature
Dependence of Surface Tension, Heat Flux and Heat Balance, and Frames for the Heat
Transfer Equations.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces chapter describes the main Heat Transfer
interface (ht) that forms the backbone for all the fundamental interfaces in this
module, and the other interfaces (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh), Radiation in
Participating Media (rpm), Surface-to-Surface Radiation (rad), and Moisture
Transport (mt)).

The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface, The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface, and The
Heat Transfer Interface discuss modeling heat transfer in solids and fluids.

The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface section discusses modeling heat transfer
in porous media.

O V E R V I E W O F T H E U S E R ’S G U I D E | 33
 The particular case of heat transfer in moist air and building materials is considered in
The Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface and The Heat Transfer in Building Materials
Interface sections.

The Bioheat Transfer Interface section discusses modeling heat transfer within
biological tissue using the Bioheat Transfer interface.

The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface, The Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface,
and The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface sections describe the physics interfaces
which are suitable for solving thermal conduction, convection, and radiation problems
in thin structures.

The The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface, The Heat
Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface, The Surface-To-Surface
Radiation Interface, and The Radiation in Participating Media Interface sections
discuss the modeling of radiative heat transfer in transparent and participating media.

Finally, The Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface and the The Moisture
Transport in Air Interface sections describe the modeling of moisture transfer in a
porous medium through moisture storage, vapor diffusion and capillary moisture
flows; or in air, through convection and diffusion.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R FE A T U RE S
The Heat Transfer Features chapter describes the Domain Features, Boundary
Features, Edge Features, Point Features, and Global Features available with the Heat
Transfer interfaces.

T H E M O I S T U RE TR A N S P O R T FE A T U RE S
The Moisture Transport Features chapter describes the Domain Features and
Boundary Features available with the Moisture Transport interface.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M U L T I P HY S I C S I N T E R F A C E S
The Multiphysics Interfaces chapter describes the predefined multiphysics interfaces.

The Thermoelectric Effect Interface section describes the predefined multiphysics

interface used to model the Peltier-Seebeck-Thomson effect.

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces chapter describes
the multiphysics versions of both the Nonisothermal Flow Laminar Flow and
Turbulent Flow interfaces found under the Fluid Flow branch, which are identical to
the Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces. Each section describes the applicable physics
interfaces in detail and concludes with the underlying theory.

34 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium Interface section describes the predefined
multiphysics interface used to model heat transfer in porous media when there is no
thermal equilibrium between porous and fluid phases.

The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces section describes the predefined
multiphysics interfaces used to model coupled heat and moisture transport either in
building materials, by taking into account heat and moisture storage, latent heat
effects, and liquid and convective transport of moisture; or in moist air by convection
and diffusion of moisture and heat.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M U L T I P H Y S I C S C O U P L I N G S

The Multiphysics Couplings chapter describes the Domain Multiphysics Couplings

and the Boundary Multiphysics Couplings available with the predefined multiphysics
interfaces.

O V E R V I E W O F T H E U S E R ’S G U I D E | 35
36 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

Notations

This section introduces the notations used in the remaining of the guide. The
notations are listed by alphabetical order and grouped in two tables, for Latin and
Greek symbols.

For each entry the SI unit and a short description are given.

37
 LATIN SYMBOLS

NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

A 1/s Frequency factor, damage integral analysis

A m2 Total boundaries area
a1,..., a12 dimensionless Legendre coefficients
Ac m2 Cross sectional area of domain
Al m2 Cross sectional area of thin rod
asf 1/m Specific surface area
Bi m Spectral band i
b dimensionless Thermal conductivity supplement
c mol/m3 Concentration
c kg/m3 Concentration
cl mol/m2 Liquid water concentration on moist surface
Cp, b J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, blood
Cp, l J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of thin rod
Cμ dimensionless Turbulence modeling constant
Cp J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure
Cp, a J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, dry air
Cp, d J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, damaged tissue
Cp, f J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, fluid phase
Cp, fr J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of solid material in
fracture
Cp, g J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of immobile fluid
in porous media
Cp, gi J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of immobile fluid i
in porous media
Cp, m kg/m3 Mixture specific heat capacity at constant pressure (moist air)
Cp, p J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of solid material in
porous media
Cp, pi J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of solid material i
in porous media
Cp, s J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, solid phase
Cp, s J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of dry solid
Cp, v J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure, water vapor

38 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

Cp, s J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of thin layer

csat mol/m3 Saturation concentration of water vapor
Cp, si J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of layer i in thin
layer
Cp, w J/(kg·K) Specific heat capacity at constant pressure of water
3
cv mol/m Water vapor concentration
d m Average particle diameter
D m Cylinder diameter (heat transfer coefficient)
D m Cylinder or sphere diameter (heat transfer coefficient)
D W/(m·K) Dispersion tensor
D m Parallel-plate gap average gas particle diameter
D 1/s Strain-rate tensor
D m2/s Vapor diffusion coefficient in air
Da dimensionless Darcy number
ΔE J/mol Activation energy, damage integral analysis
df m Thickness of thin film
dfr m Thickness of fracture
2
DP1 m /s P1 method diffusion coefficient
ds m Thickness of shell or thin layer
dsi m Thickness of layer i in thin layer
Dw m2/s Moisture diffusivity
dz m Thickness of domain in the out-of-plane direction
DPTamb K Ambient dew point temperature
e m Beam orientation
E J/kg Internal energy
E Pa Young’s modulus
E0 J/kg Total internal energy
EΩ J Internal energy of a body
eb, λ(λ, T) W/m2 Blackbody spectral emissive power
2
eb(T) W/m Blackbody total emissive power
Econtact Pa Effective contact interface Young’s modulus
Ed Pa Young’s modulus, down contact surface

| 39
 NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

Ek J/kg Kinetic energy

ep m2/s3 Turbulent dissipation rate
Ep J/kg Potential energy
Eu Pa Young’s modulus, up contact surface
etot W/m2 Total energy flux
F N/m3 Body force vector
F dimensionless Deformation gradient tensor
Famb dimensionless Ambient view factor
Famb, d dimensionless Ambient view factor, downside
Famb, u dimensionless Ambient view factor, upside
g m/s2 Acceleration of gravity
gevap kg/(m2·s) Evaporation flux
G W/m3 Moisture source
G 1/m Reciprocal wall distance
G W/m2 Surface irradiation
Gamb W/m2 Ambient irradiation
Gamb, d W/m2 Ambient irradiation, downside
Gamb, u W/m2 Ambient irradiation, upside
Gd W/m2 Surface irradiation, downside
Gext W/m2 External irradiation
Gext, d W/m2 External irradiation, downside
Gext, u W/m2 External irradiation, upside
Gm W/m2 Mutual surface irradiation
Gm, d W/m2 Mutual surface irradiation, downside
Gm, u W/m2 Mutual surface irradiation, upside
GrL dimensionless Grashof number associated with characteristic length L
2
Gu W/m Surface irradiation, upside
H m Chimney height (heat transfer coefficient)
H J/kg Enthalpy
h W/(m2·K) Gap conductance (thermal contact)
2
h W/(m ·K) Heat transfer coefficient
H0 J/kg Total enthalpy

40 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

HB Pa Brinell hardness
hc W/(m2·K) Constriction conductance
Hc Pa Microhardness
hd W/(m2·K) Out-of-plane heat transfer coefficient, downside
Hd J/kg Enthalpy, downside
Hext J/kg External enthalpy
hg W/(m2·K) Parallel-plate gap gas conductance
hr W/(m2·K) Radiative conductance
Href J/kg Reference enthalpy
hsf W/(m2·K) Interstitial heat transfer coefficient
hth W/K Thermal conductance (isothermal domain interface)
hu W/(m2·K) Out-of-plane heat transfer coefficient, upside
Hu J/kg Enthalpy, upside
hz W/(m2·K) Out-of-plane heat transfer coefficient, 1D
I(Ω) W/(m2·sr) Radiative intensity traveling in direction Ω
Ib(T) W/(m2·sr) Blackbody radiative intensity
Idiff W/m2 Diffuse irradiance
Iext W/(m2·sr) Incident radiative intensity
Ii W/(m2·sr) Radiative intensity traveling in ith discrete direction
is dimensionless Incident radiation direction (external radiation source)
Is W/m2 Solar irradiance
Is,amb W/m2 Ambient solar irradiance
Ish,amb W/m2 Clear sky noon diffuse horizontal irradiance
Isn,amb W/m2 Clear sky noon beam normal irradiance
isx, isy, dimensionless Solar source direction vector components
isz
Iwall W/(m2·sr) Boundary radiative intensity
2
J W/m Surface radiosity
Jd W/m2 Surface radiosity, downside
2
Ju W/m Surface radiosity, upside
k W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity
k J/kg Turbulent kinetic energy (turbulent nonisothermal flow)

| 41
 NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

ka W/(m·K) Dry air thermal conductivity

kB J/K Stefan-Boltzmann constant
kbnd W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity in shell local coordinate system
kcontact W/(m·K) Harmonic mean of contacting surface conductivities
kd W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity, damaged tissue
kdisp W/(m·K) Dispersive thermal conductivity tensor
keff W/(m·K) Effective thermal conductivity
kf W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity, fluid phase
kfr W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of solid material in fracture
kg W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of immobile fluid in porous media
kgap W/(m·K) Parallel-plate gap gas thermal conductivity
kgi W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of immobile fluid i in porous media
kl W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of thin rod
kL W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of mobile fluid in porous media
kp W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of solid material in porous media
kpi W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of solid material i in porous media
kR W/(m·K) Rosseland radiative conductivity
ks W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of thin layer
ks W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity, solid phase
ks W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of dry solid
ksi W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity of layer i in thin layer
kT W/(m·K) Turbulent thermal conductivity
kv W/(m·K) Water vapor thermal conductivity
K m/s Evaporation rate
KΩ J Kinetic energy of a body
L J/kg Latent heat
L m Total edge length
L m Wall height or plate diameter, distance or length (heat
transfer coefficient)
Ld, c J/kg Damage enthalpy change, cryogenic analysis
Ld, h J/kg Damage enthalpy change, hyperthermia analysis
Lit, c J/kg Transformation enthalpy change, overcooling analysis

42 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

Lit, h J/kg Transformation enthalpy change, overheating analysis

Lv J/kg Latent heat of evaporation
m kg Mass
ma kg Dry air mass
Ma kg/mol Dry air molar mass
masp m Asperities average slope (surface roughness)
Mg m Parallel-plate gap gas parameter
Mn kg/mol Mean molar mass
mtot kg Total mass (moist air)
mv kg Water vapor mass
Mv kg/mol Water vapor molar mass
n dimensionless Refractive index, transparent media
n dimensionless Normal vector toward exterior
na mol Amount of dry air
nr dimensionless Refractive index, participating media
ntot mol Amount of moist air
Nu dimensionless Nusselt number
NuL dimensionless Nusselt number associated with characteristic length L
nv mol Amount of water vapor
O m Beam origin point
p Pa Contact pressure, pressure
P N/m2 First Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor
P V Peltier coefficient
P0 W Heat rate
pa Pa Dry air partial pressure
pA Pa Absolute pressure
Pb W Heat rate, boundary heat source
Pc m Cross sectional perimeter of domain
pext Pa External absolute pressure
Pext W Power of applied forces
pgap Pa Parallel-plate gap gas pressure
Pindex dimensionless Performance index of the discrete ordinates method

| 43
 NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

Pl W Heat rate, line heat source, deposited beam power

Pr dimensionless Prandtl number
pamb Pa Ambient absolute pressure
pref Pa Reference pressure
PrT dimensionless Turbulent Prandtl number
Ps W Heat rate, layer heat source
Ps W Source power (external radiation source)
psat Pa Saturation pressure of water vapor
Pstr W Stress power
pv Pa Water vapor partial pressure
q W/m2 Conductive heat flux
qf W/m2 Conductive heat flux in fluid phase
qs W/m2 Conductive heat flux in solid phase
Q W/m3 Heat source
q0 W/m2 Inward heat flux
Q0 W/m3 Distributed heat source
q0, d W/m2 Out-of-plane heat flux, downside
q0, s W/m2 Source heat flux (external radiation source)
q0, u W/m2 Out-of-plane heat flux, upside
Qb W/m2 Boundary heat source
Qb, tot W/m2 Total boundary heat source
Qe W/m3 Electromagnetic heat source
qevap W/m2 Latent heat source
Qexch W Exchanged heat source rate
Qf W/m3 Heat source in fluid phase
qgeo W/kg Radiogenic heating per mass
3
Qgeo W/m Geothermal heat source
QInt W Total heat source over interior boundaries
Qit W/m3 Irreversible transformation heat source
Ql W/m Line heat source
3
Qmet W/m Metabolic heat source
Qp W Point heat source

44 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

Qp W/m3 Pressure work

Qr W/m3 Radiative heat source term
qr W/m2 Radiative heat flux
qr, net W/m2 Net radiative heat flux
qr, out W/m2 Radiative heat flux striking the wall
qs W/(m3·K) Production/absorption coefficient
Qs W/m3 Heat source in solid phase
Qs W/m3 Thin layer heat source
qsf W/(m3·K) Interstitial convective heat transfer coefficient
Qsi W/m3 Layer i heat source
Qted W/m3 Thermoelastic damping
qtot W/m2 Total heat flux
Qtot W/m3 Total domain heat source
Qvd W/m3 Viscous dissipation
r m Distance of the irradiated surface from the source
r dimensionless Heat partition coefficient (thermal friction)
R m Heat source radius, beam radius
R J/(mol·K) Universal gas constant
Ra dimensionless Rayleigh number
RaD dimensionless Rayleigh number associated with cylinder diameter D
RaL dimensionless Rayleigh number associated with characteristic length L
Reinf dimensionless Reynolds number at infinity
ReL dimensionless Reynolds number associated with characteristic length L
Rep dimensionless Particle Reynolds number
rh m Hydraulic radius
rl m Rod radius
rp m Average pellet radius
Rs J/(kg·K) Specific gas constant
Rt K·m2/W Thermal resistance
Rt, th K/W Absolute thermal resistance
sd m Vapor diffusion equivalent air layer thickness
2
S N/m Second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor

| 45
 NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

S V/K Seebeck coefficient

Si dimensionless Unit vector of discrete direction in space, i-th component
(angular space discretization)
Sp dimensionless Sparrow number
T K Temperature
T0 K Equilibrium temperature
T’ K Complex amplitude of harmonic perturbation
+
T dimensionless Dimensionless temperature
Tamb K Ambient temperature
Tamb, d K Ambient temperature, downside
Tamb, u K Ambient temperature, upside
Tb K Arterial blood temperature
Td K Temperature, downside
td, c s Damage time, cryogenic analysis
Td, c K Damage temperature, cryogenic analysis
td, h s Damage time, hyperthermia analysis
Td, h K Damage temperature, hyperthermia analysis
Text K External temperature
Text, d K Out-of-plane external temperature, downside
Text, u K Out-of-plane external temperature, upside
Text, z K Out-of-plane external temperature, 1D
Tf K Temperature, fluid phase
tit, c Transformation time, overcooling analysis
Tit, c Transformation temperature, overcooling analysis
tit, h Transformation time, overheating analysis
Tit, h Transformation temperature, overheating analysis
Tn, c K Temperature of necrosis, cryogenic
Tn, h K Temperature of necrosis, hyperthermia
Tpc K Phase change temperature
Tref K Reference temperature
Tref K Strain reference temperature
Ts K Temperature, solid phase

46 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

Tu K Temperature, upside
Tw K Wall temperature
u m/s Fluid velocity vector
u, v, w m/s Fluid velocity vector’s components
uf m/s Average linear velocity
up m/s Porous velocity field
utrans m/s Translational motion velocity vector
vamb m/s Wind velocity
V V Electric potential
V m3 Total domain volume
W W/m3 Work source
w kg/m3 Moisture storage function
WInt W Work from custom volume forces
Wdiss W Dissipative work from momentum equation
Xa dimensionless Molar fraction of dry air
xpl m Position along the plate (heat transfer coefficient)
xs m Source location (external radiation source)
Xv dimensionless Molar fraction of water vapor
xvap dimensionless Moisture content
xvap,amb dimensionless Ambient moisture content
Y m Parallel-plate gap mean separation thickness

GREEK SYMBOLS

NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

(ρCp)eff J/(m3·K) Effective volumetric heat capacity at constant pressure

∂Ω - Geometry domain’s boundaries
∂Ωext - Geometry domain’s exterior boundaries
∂Ωint - Geometry domain’s interior boundaries
∇t - Tangential gradient operator
α 1/K Coefficient of thermal expansion tensor in a solid
α dimensionless Degree of tissue injury (Arrhenius equation)

| 47
 NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

α dimensionless Irreversible transformation indicator (Arrhenius equation)

α dimensionless Parallel-plate gap gas thermal accommodation parameter
α dimensionless Surface absorptivity
α m2/s Thermal diffusivity
α1 dimensionless Damaged tissue indicator
α2 dimensionless Necrosis time indicator
αm dimensionless Vapor mass fraction
αp 1/K Coefficient of thermal expansion in a fluid
β 1/m Extinction coefficient
β s/m Moisture transfer coefficient
β dimensionless Parallel-plate gap gas property parameter
βR 1/m Rosseland mean extinction coefficient
γ dimensionless Ratio of specific heats
γTeq Pa/K Psychrometer constant
ΔR m Size of transition zone (deposited beam power)
ΔT K Temperature offset for periodic condition
ΔT0 K Temperature perturbation
δ s Vapor permeability of still air
δp s Vapor permeability
δw m Distance between the computational fluid domain and the
wall
ε dimensionless Surface emissivity
εd dimensionless Surface emissivity, downside
ελ dimensionless Surface spectral emissivity
εu dimensionless Surface emissivity, upside
εz dimensionless Surface emissivity, 1D out-of-plane radiation
θ rad Angle between the normal to the irradiated surface and the
direction of the source
θd dimensionless Volume fraction of necrotic tissue
θfr dimensionless Volume fraction of solid material in fracture
θg dimensionless Volume fraction of immobile fluid in porous media
θgi dimensionless Volume fraction of immobile fluid i in porous media
θit dimensionless Fraction of transformation

48 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

θL dimensionless Volume fraction of mobile fluid in porous media

θp dimensionless Volume fraction of solid material in porous media
θpi dimensionless Volume fraction of solid material i in porous media
θs rad Zenith angle of the Sun
κ 1/m Absorption coefficient (radiation)
κ m2 Permeability (porous media)
λ W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity (turbulent nonisothermal flow)
λ m Wavelength
Λ m Parallel-plate gap gas mean free path
λi m Wavelength band i endpoint
λijkl m Fourth-order dispersivity tensor’s component
λlo m Longitudinal dispersivity
λtr m Transverse dispersivity
λtr, h m Transverse horizontal dispersivity
λtr, v m Transverse vertical dispersivity
μ Pa·s Dynamic viscosity
μ dimensionless Vapor resistance factor
μ0 dimensionless Scattering angle
μa Pa·s Dry air dynamic viscosity
μf Pa·s Dynamic viscosity
μm Pa·s Mixture dynamic viscosity (moist air)
μT Pa·s Turbulent dynamic viscosity
μTh V/K Thomson coefficient
μv Pa·s Water vapor dynamic viscosity
ν dimensionless Poisson ratio
νd dimensionless Poisson ratio, down contact surface
νu dimensionless Poisson ratio, up contact surface
3
ρ kg/m Density
ρ dimensionless Surface reflectivity
ρb kg/m3 Density, blood
3
ρd kg/m Density, damaged tissue
3
ρf kg/m Density, fluid phase

| 49
 NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

ρfr kg/m3 Density of solid material in fracture

ρg kg/m3 Density of immobile fluid in porous media
ρgeo kg/m3 Geothermal density
ρgi kg/m3 Density of immobile fluid i in porous media
ρl kg/m3 Density of thin rod
ρm kg/m3 Mixture density (moist air)
ρp kg/m3 Density of solid material in porous media
ρpi kg/m3 Density of solid material i in porous media
ρs kg/m3 Density of thin layer
ρs kg/m3 Density, solid phase
ρs kg/m3 Density of dry solid
ρsi kg/m3 Density of layer i in thin layer
σ Pa Cauchy stress tensor
σ m Standard deviation (deposited beam power)
σ W/(m2·K4) Stefan-Boltzmann constant
σ N/m Surface tension coefficient
σasp m Asperities average height (surface roughness)
σs 1/m Scattering coefficient
τ dimensionless Optical thickness
τ Pa Viscous stress tensor
φ dimensionless Relative humidity
φamb dimensionless Ambient relative humidity
φ rad Tilt angle (heat transfer coefficient)
φext dimensionless External relative humidity
φd dimensionless Relative humidity, downside
φu dimensionless Relative humidity, upside
Φd → u kg/s Mass flow rate, positive direction
Φu → d kg/s Mass flow rate, negative direction
ϕ(Ω′, Ω) dimensionless Scattering phase function
ϕs rad Azimuth angle of the Sun
2
ϕd → u kg/(m ·s) Mass flux, positive direction
2
ϕu → d kg/(m ·s) Mass flux, negative direction

50 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
NOTATION SI UNIT DESCRIPTION

Ψ J/kg Force potential

Ω dimensionless Unit vector of a direction in space
Ω - Geometry domain
ω dimensionless Specific humidity
ω rad/s Angular frequency
ωb 1/s Blood perfusion rate
ωi W/(m2·K) Discrete incident radiation vector, i-th component
ξ kg/m3 Moisture storage capacity

| 51
52 | CHAPTER 2: NOTATIONS
 3

Modeling with the Heat Transfer Module

A variety of modeling techniques are discussed in the following sections:

• Heat Transfer Variables

• Moisture Transport Variables
• Using the Boundary Conditions for the Heat Transfer Interfaces
• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
• Heat Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization Methods
• Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling
• Boundary Wall Temperature
• Solver Settings
• Plotting Results in Thin Layers Extra Dimensions
• Using Ambient Data
• Modeling Heat Transfer by Radiation
• Heat Part Library

53
 Heat Transfer Variables
In this section:

• Predefined Variables
• Global Variables
• Domain Fluxes
• Out-of-Plane Domain Fluxes
• Boundary Fluxes (Heat Transfer interface)
• Boundary fluxes (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface)
• Internal Boundary Heat Fluxes
• Domain Heat Sources
• Boundary Heat Sources
• Line and Point Heat Sources
• Ambient Variables
• Moist Air Variables

Predefined Variables
This section lists some predefined variables that are available to evaluate heat fluxes,
sources, and integral quantities used in energy balance. All the variable names begin
with the physics interface name (the prefix). By default the Heat Transfer interface
prefix is ht, and the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface prefix is htsh. As an
example, you can access the variable named tflux using ht.tflux (as long as the
physics interface is named ht).
TABLE 3-1: HEAT TRANSFER PREDEFINED VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

dEiInt Total Accumulated Heat Rate Global

ntfluxInt Total Net Heat Rate Global
QInt Total Heat Source Global
WnsInt Total Fluid Losses Global
dEi0Int Total Accumulated Energy Rate Global
ntefluxInt Total Net Energy Rate Global

54 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
TABLE 3-1: HEAT TRANSFER PREDEFINED VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

tflux Total Heat Flux (Heat Transfer Domains, boundaries

interface)
dflux Conductive Heat Flux (Heat Domains, boundaries
Transfer interface)
cflux Convective Heat Flux (Heat Domains, boundaries
Transfer interface)
turbflux Turbulent Heat Flux (Heat Transfer Domains, boundaries
interface)
trlflux Translational Heat Flux (Heat Domains, boundaries
Transfer interface)
teflux Total Energy Flux (Heat Transfer Domains, boundaries
interface)
not Radiative Heat Flux (Heat Transfer Domains
applicable interface)
rflux_u Radiative Out-of-Plane Heat Flux Out-of-plane domains (1D
rflux_d (Heat Transfer interface) and 2D), boundaries
rflux_z
q0_u Out-of-Plane Inward Heat Flux Out-of-plane domains (1D
q0_d (Heat Transfer interface) and 2D)
q0_z
h Heat transfer coefficient (see The Exterior boundaries
Heat Transfer Coefficients)
ntflux Normal Total Heat Flux (Heat Boundaries
Transfer interface)
ndflux Normal Conductive Heat Flux Boundaries
(Heat Transfer interface)
ncflux Normal Convective Heat Flux (Heat Boundaries
Transfer interface)
ntrlflux Normal Translational Heat Flux Boundaries
(Heat Transfer interface)
nteflux Normal Total Energy Flux (Heat Boundaries
Transfer interface)
ndflux_u Internal Normal Conductive Heat Interior boundaries
Flux, Upside (Heat Transfer
interface)

H E A T TR A N S F E R V A R I A B L E S | 55
 TABLE 3-1: HEAT TRANSFER PREDEFINED VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

ndflux_d Internal Normal Conductive Heat Interior boundaries

Flux, Downside (Heat Transfer
interface)
ncflux_u Internal Normal Convective Heat Interior boundaries
Flux, Upside (Heat Transfer
interface)
ncflux_d Internal Normal Convective Heat Interior boundaries
Flux, Downside (Heat Transfer
interface)
ntrlflux_u Internal Normal Translational Heat Interior boundaries
Flux, Upside (Heat Transfer
interface)
ntrlflux_d Internal Normal Translational Heat Interior boundaries
Flux, Downside (Heat Transfer
interface)
ntflux_u Internal Normal Total Heat Flux, Interior boundaries
Upside (Heat Transfer interface)
ntflux_d Internal Normal Total Heat Flux, Interior boundaries
Downside (Heat Transfer interface)
nteflux_u Internal Normal Total Energy Flux, Interior boundaries
Upside (Heat Transfer interface)
nteflux_d Internal Normal Total Energy Flux, Interior boundaries
Downside (Heat Transfer interface)
tflux Total Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Boundaries
Thin Shells interface)
dflux Conductive Heat Flux (Heat Boundaries
Transfer in Thin Shells interface)
cflux Convective Heat Flux (Heat Boundaries
Transfer in Thin Shells interface)
teflux Total Energy Flux (Heat Transfer in Boundaries
Thin Shells interface)
ttflux In-Plane Total Heat Flux (Heat Exterior boundaries
Transfer in Thin Shells interface)
tdflux In-Plane Conductive Heat Flux Exterior boundaries
(Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
interface)

56 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
TABLE 3-1: HEAT TRANSFER PREDEFINED VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

tcflux In-Plane Convective Heat Flux Exterior boundaries

(Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
interface)
tteflux In-Plane Total Energy Flux (Heat Exterior boundaries
Transfer in Thin Shells interface)
q0 Inward Heat Flux (Heat Transfer Boundaries
interface)
rflux Radiative Heat Flux (Heat Transfer Boundaries
interface)
Qtot Domain Heat Sources Domains
Qbtot Boundary Heat Sources Boundaries
Qltot Line heat source (Line and Point Edges, Points (2D, 2Daxi)
Heat Sources)
Qptot Point heat source (Line and Point Points
Heat Sources)
T_amb Ambient temperature Global
p_amb Ambient absolute pressure Global
v_amb Wind velocity Global
phi_amb Ambient relative humidity Global
Is_amb Ambient solar irradiance Global
Ish_amb Clear sky noon diffuse horizontal Global
irradiance
Isn_amb Clear sky noon beam normal Global
irradiance
xvap_amb Ambient moisture content Global
alpha Damage indicator (see Theory for Domains
Bioheat Transfer)
alpha1 Damage indicator (see Theory for Domains
Bioheat Transfer)
alpha2 Instant tissue necrosis indicator (see Domains
Theory for Bioheat Transfer)
theta_d Fraction of damage (see Theory for Domains
Bioheat Transfer)
theta_d_sm Fraction of total damage (see Theory Domains
for Bioheat Transfer)

H E A T TR A N S F E R V A R I A B L E S | 57
 TABLE 3-1: HEAT TRANSFER PREDEFINED VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

T_dp Dew Point Temperature Domains

T_eq Equivalent Temperature Domains
psat Saturation Pressure Domains
phi Relative Humidity Domains
Lv Latent Heat of Evaporation Domains

Some of these variables are only available with the Heat Transfer Module
(rflux_u, rflux_d, rflux_z, q0_u, q0_d, and q0_z), or when either the
CFD Module or the Heat Transfer Module is added (rflux and
turbflux).

Global Variables
This section describes variables defined by integrals. A concise notation denotes the
different domains of integration: Ω is the geometry domain, ∂Ωext stands for the
exterior boundaries, and ∂Ωint for the interior boundaries.

TO T A L A C C U M U L A T E D H E A T R A T E
The total accumulated heat rate variable, dEiInt, is the variation of internal energy per
unit time in the domain:

d
dEiInt =
dt Ω ρEi dω
TO T A L N E T H E A T R A T E
The total net heat rate, ntfluxInt, is the integral of Total Heat Flux (Heat Transfer
interface) over all external boundaries. In the case of a fluid domain, it reads:

ntfluxInt = ∂Ω ext

( ρuE i – k∇T + q r ) ⋅ n dσ

This indicates the sum of incoming and outgoing total heat flux through the system.

TO T A L H E A T S O U R C E
The total heat source, QInt, accounts for all domain sources, interior boundary, edge
and point sources, and radiative sources at interior boundaries:

58 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 QInt = Ω Q dω + ∂Ω int
Q b dω + ∂Ω int
Q r dω

TO T A L F L U I D L O S S E S
The total fluid losses, WnsInt, correspond to the work lost by a fluid by degradation
of energy. These works are transmitted to the system through pressure work and
viscous dissipation:

WnsInt = Ω ( u ⋅ ∇pA ) dω + Ω ( –τ : ∇u ) dω
TO T A L A C C U M U L A T E D E N E R G Y R A T E
The total accumulated energy rate, dEi0Int, is the variation of total internal energy
per unit time in the domain:

d
dEi0Int =
dt Ω ρEi0 dω
where the total internal energy, Ei0, is defined as

u⋅u
E i0 = E i + ------------
2

TO T A L N E T E N E R G Y R A T E
The total net energy rate, ntefluxInt, is the integral of Total Energy Flux (Heat
Transfer interface) over all external boundaries. In the case of a fluid domain, it reads:

ntefluxInt = ∂Ω ext

( ρuH 0 – k∇T – τ u + q r ) ⋅ n dσ

This indicates the sum of incoming and outgoing total energy flux through the system.

HEAT BALANCE
According to Equation 4-145, the following equality between COMSOL Multiphysics
variables holds:

dEiInt + ntfluxInt = QInt - WnsInt

This is the most general form that can be used for time-dependent models. At
steady-state the formula is simplified. The accumulated heat rate equals zero, so the
total net heat rate (the sum of incoming and outgoing heat rates) should correspond
to the heat and work sources:

H E A T TR A N S F E R V A R I A B L E S | 59
 ntfluxInt = QInt - WnsInt

The sign convention used in COMSOL Multiphysics for QInt is positive when energy
is produced (as for a heater) and negative when energy is consumed (as for a cooler).
For WnsInt, the losses that heat up the system are positive and the gains that cool
down the system are negative.

For stationary models with convection by an incompressible flow, the heat balance
becomes:

ntfluxInt = QInt

which corresponds to the conservation of convective and conductive flux as in:

∂Ω ext
ρuE i ⋅ n dσ – ∂Ω ext
k∇T ⋅ n dσ = Q Int

Depending on the radiation discretization method chosen in Heat

Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media, the contribution to the heat
balance is handled differently. In the definition of ntfluxInt, the
Rosseland approximation defines qr, the radiative flux, as an extra
contribution to the conductive heat flux. The P1 approximation and
Discrete ordinates method, however, include the radiative source ∇ ⋅ qr to
Q on the domain, in the variable QInt.

ENERGY BALANCE
According to Equation 4-146, the following equality between COMSOL Multiphysics
predefined variables holds:

dEi0Int + ntefluxInt = QInt

In stationary models, dEi0Int is zero so the energy balance simplifies into:

ntefluxInt = QInt

At steady state, and without any additional heat source (QInt equal to zero), the
integral of the net energy flux on all boundaries of the flow domain, ntefluxInt,
vanishes. On the other hand, the corresponding integral of the net heat flux does not,
in general, vanish. It corresponds instead to the losses from mass and momentum
equations, such as WnsInt for pressure work and viscous dissipation in fluids. Hence,
energy is the conserved quantity, not heat.

60 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Domain Fluxes
On domains the fluxes are vector quantities. The definition can vary depending on the
active physics nodes and selected properties.

TO T A L H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
On domains the total heat flux, tflux, corresponds to the conductive and convective
heat flux. For accuracy reasons the radiative heat flux is not included.

See Radiative Heat Flux (Heat Transfer interface) to evaluate the radiative
heat flux.

For solid domains — for example, the solid and biological tissue domains — the total
heat flux is defined as:

tflux = trlflux + dflux

For fluid domains (for example, Fluid), the total heat flux is defined as:

tflux = cflux + dflux

C O N D U C T I VE H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The conductive heat flux variable, dflux, is evaluated using the temperature gradient
and the effective thermal conductivity:

dflux = – k eff ∇T

In the general case keff is the thermal conductivity, k.

For heat transfer in fluids with turbulent flow, keff = k + kT, where kT is the turbulent
thermal conductivity.

For heat transfer in porous media, keff is the effective conductivity computed from the
solid and fluid conductivities.

For heat transfer in building materials, a latent heat source due to evaporation is
included in the conductive heat flux variable:

dflux = – ( k eff ∇T + L v δ p ∇( φp sat ) )

H E A T TR A N S F E R V A R I A B L E S | 61
 TU R B U L E N T H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The turbulent heat flux variable, turbflux, enables access to the part of the
conductive heat flux that is due to turbulence.

turbflux = – k T ∇T

C O NVE C T I VE H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The convective heat flux variable, cflux, is defined using the internal energy, Ei:

cflux = ρuE i

The internal energy, Ei, is defined as:

• Ei = H for solid domains

• Ei = H − p/ρ for fluid domains

where H is the enthalpy defined in Equation 4-5.

The convective heat flux may be oriented in the opposite direction of the velocity
field’s direction, when the internal energy, Ei, has a negative value. This happens when
the sensible enthalpy (variation from reference enthalpy Href) is negative. Href is set to
0 J/kg at pref (1 atm) and Tref (298.15 K) in COMSOL Multiphysics. See
Thermodynamic Description of Heat Transfer for details.

TR A N S L A T I O N A L H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
Similar to convective heat flux but defined for solid domains with translation. The
variable name is trlflux.

TO T A L E N E R G Y F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The total energy flux, teflux, is defined when viscous dissipation is enabled:

teflux = ρuH 0 + dflux + τu

where the total enthalpy, H0, is defined as

u⋅u
H 0 = H + ------------
2

R A D I A T I VE H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
In participating media, the radiative heat flux, qr, is not available for analysis on
domains because it is more accurate to evaluate the radiative heat source Q r = ∇ ⋅ q r .

62 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Out-of-Plane Domain Fluxes

R A D I A T I VE O U T - O F - P L A N E H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The radiative out-of-plane heat flux, rflux, is generated by the Out-of-Plane
Radiation feature.

• In 2D:
4 4
upside: rflux_u = ε u σ ( T amb, u – T )

4 4
downside: rflux_d = ε d σ ( T amb, d – T )

• In 1D:

4 4
rflux_z = ε z σ ( T amb, z – T )

O U T - O F - P L A N E I N W A R D H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The convective out-of-plane heat flux, q0, is generated by the Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
feature.

• In 2D:
upside: q0_u = h u ( T ext, u – T )

downside: q0_d = h d ( T ext, d – T )

• In 1D:

q0_z = h z ( T ext, z – T )

Boundary Fluxes (Heat Transfer interface)

All the domain fluxes (vector quantity) computed by the Heat Transfer interface are
also available as boundary fluxes. The boundary fluxes are then equal to the mean value
of the fluxes on adjacent domains. In addition, normal boundary heat fluxes (scalar
quantity) are available on boundaries.

N O R M A L TO T A L H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The variable ntflux is defined as:

H E A T TR A N S F E R V A R I A B L E S | 63
 ntflux = ndflux + ncflux + ntrlflux

N O R M A L C O N D U C T I VE H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The variable ndflux is defined on exterior boundaries as:

• ndflux = −dflux_spatial(T) if the adjacent domain is on the downside,

• ndflux = −uflux_spatial(T) if the adjacent domain is on the upside,

and, on interior boundaries, as:

ndflux = (uflux_spatial(T) − dflux_spatial(T))/2

Frames for the Heat Transfer Equations for a description of spatial and
material frames.

N O R M A L C O NVE C T I VE H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The variable ncflux is defined as:

ncflux = mean ( cflux ) ⋅ n

N O R M A L TR A N S L A T I O N A L H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The variable ntrlflux is defined as

ntrlflux = mean ( trlflux ) ⋅ n

N O R M A L TO T A L E N E R G Y F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The variable nteflux is defined as:

nteflux = mean ( teflux ) ⋅ n – mean ( dflux ) ⋅ n + ndflux

I N W A RD H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
On boundaries the inward heat flux, q0, is a scalar quantity defined either in a general
way or as a convective heat flux as follows:

q0 = h ( T ext – T )

where Text is the external temperature defined in the Heat Flux feature.

R A D I A T I VE H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
On boundaries the radiative heat flux, rflux, is a scalar quantity defined as:

64 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 4 4 4
rflux = εσ ( T amb – T ) + εσ ( G – T ) + q r, net

where the terms account for surface-to-ambient radiative flux, surface-to-surface

radiative flux, and radiation in participating net radiative flux, respectively.

Boundary fluxes (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface)

On boundaries, the Heat Transfer in Shells interface computes fluxes (vector
quantities) depending on active physics nodes and selected properties.

TO T A L H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S I N T E R F A C E )
The total heat flux, tflux, is the sum of the conductive and convective heat fluxes:

tflux = cflux + dflux

C O N D U C T I VE H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S I N T E R F A C E )
The conductive heat flux variable, dflux, is evaluated depending on the conductive
behavior of the boundary (thermally thin approximation, thermally thick
approximation, or general).

C O N VE C T I VE H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S I N T E R F A C E )
The convective heat flux variable, cflux, is defined using the internal energy, Ei:

cflux = ρuE i

The internal energy, Ei, is defined as:

• Ei = H for solid boundaries

• Ei = H − p/ρ for fluid boundaries

where H is the enthalpy defined in Equation 4-5.

TO T A L E N E R G Y F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S I N T E R F A C E )
The total energy flux, teflux, is defined as:

teflux = ρuH 0 + dflux

where the total enthalpy, H0, is defined as

u⋅u
H 0 = H + ------------
2

H E A T TR A N S F E R V A R I A B L E S | 65
 In addition, in-plane boundary heat fluxes (scalar quantities) are available on
boundaries.

I N - P L A N E TO T A L H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S
INTERFACE)
The variable ttflux is defined as:

ttflux = tdflux + tcflux

I N - P L A N E C O N D U C T I VE H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S
INTERFACE)
The variable tdflux is defined as:

tdflux = dflux ⋅ t

I N - P L A N E C O N VE C T I VE H E A T F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S
INTERFACE)
The variable tcflux is defined as:

tcflux = cflux ⋅ t

I N - P L A N E TO T A L E N E R G Y F L U X ( H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S
INTERFACE)
The variable tteflux is defined as:

tteflux = teflux ⋅ t

Internal Boundary Heat Fluxes

The internal normal boundary heat fluxes (scalar quantity) are available on interior
boundaries. They are calculated using the upside and the downside value of heat fluxes
from the adjacent domains.

I N T E R N A L N O R M A L C O N D U C T I VE H E A T F L U X , U P S I D E ( H E A T TR A N S F E R
INTERFACE)
The variable ndflux_u is defined as:

ndflux_u = uflux_spatial ( T )

66 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
INTERNAL NORMAL CONDUCTIVE HEAT FLUX, DOWNSIDE (HEAT
TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The variable ndflux_d is defined as:

ndflux_d = dflux_spatial ( T )

Frames for the Heat Transfer Equations for a description of spatial and
material frames.

I N T E R N A L N O R M A L C O NVE C T I VE H E A T F L U X , U P S I D E ( H E A T TR A N S F E R
INTERFACE)
The variable ncflux_u is defined as:

ncflux_u = up ( cflux ) ⋅ un

INTERNAL NORMAL CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX, DOWNSIDE (HEAT

TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The variable ncflux_d is defined as:

ncflux_d = down ( cflux ) ⋅ dn

I N T E R N A L N O R M A L TR A N S L A T I O N A L H E A T F L U X , U P S I D E ( H E A T
TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The variable ntrlflux_u is defined as:

ntrlflux_u = up ( trlflux ) ⋅ un

I N T E R N A L N O R M A L TR A N S L A T I O N A L H E A T F L U X , D OW N S I D E ( H E A T
TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E )
The variable ntrlflux_d is defined as:

ntrlflux_d = down ( trlflux ) ⋅ dn

I N T E R N A L N O R M A L TO T A L H E A T F L U X , U P S I D E ( H E A T TR A N S F E R
INTERFACE)
The variable ntflux_u is defined as:

ntflux_u = ndflux_u + ncflux_u + ntrlflux_u

H E A T TR A N S F E R V A R I A B L E S | 67
 I N T E R N A L N O R M A L TO T A L H E A T F L U X , D OW N S I D E ( H E A T TR A N S F E R
INTERFACE)
The variable ntflux_d is defined as:

ntflux_d = ndflux_d + ncflux_d + ntrlflux_d

I N T E R N A L N O R M A L TO T A L E N E R G Y F L U X , U P S I D E ( H E A T TR A N S F E R
INTERFACE)
The variable nteflux_u is defined as:

nteflux_u = up ( teflux ) ⋅ un – up ( dflux ) ⋅ un + ndflux_u

I N T E R N A L N O R M A L TO T A L E N E R G Y F L U X , D OW N S I D E ( H E A T TR A N S F E R
INTERFACE)
The variable nteflux_d is defined as:

nteflux_d = down ( teflux ) ⋅ dn – down ( dflux ) ⋅ dn + ndflux_d

Domain Heat Sources

The sum of the domain heat sources added by different physics features is available in
the variable Qtot, which is the sum of:

• Q’s, which are the heat sources added by the Heat Source (described for the Heat
Transfer interface) and Electromagnetic Heat Source (described for the Joule
Heating interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual) features.
• Qmet, which is the metabolic heat source added by the Bioheat feature.
• Qdmg, which is the cooling source added by the Irreversible Transformation feature.
• Qr, which is the radiative heat source added by the Radiation in Participating Media
(Heat Transfer Interface) and Radiation in Participating Media (RPM Interface)
features.
• Qgeo, which is the geothermal heat source added by the Geothermal Heating
feature.

In Bioheat, the out-of-plane (heat flux and radiation) and blood

contributions are not added to Qtot because these are considered to be
fluxes.

68 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Boundary Heat Sources
The sum of the boundary heat sources added by different boundary conditions is
available in the variable, Qb,tot (SI unit: W/m2). This variable Qbtot is the sum of:

• Qb, which is the boundary heat source added by the Boundary Heat Source
boundary condition.
• Qsh, which is the boundary heat source added by the Boundary Electromagnetic
Heat Source boundary condition (described for the Joule Heating interface in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual).
• Qs, which is the boundary heat source added by a Layer Heat Source subfeature of
a thin layer, see Layer Heat Source.

Line and Point Heat Sources

The sum of the line heat sources is available in a variable called Qltot (SI unit: W/m).

The sum of the point heat sources is available in a variable called Qptot (SI unit: W).

Ambient Variables

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
See Conditions of temperature in Using Ambient Data section.

AMBIENT ABSOLUTE PRESSURE

See Pressure in Using Ambient Data section.

WIND VELOCITY
See Conditions of wind speed in Using Ambient Data section.

AMBIENT RELATIVE HUMIDITY

See Relative humidity in Using Ambient Data section.

AMBIENT SOLAR IRRADIANCE

The ambient solar irradiance Is_amb is the sum of the Direct and diffuse Solar
irradiances.

CLEAR SKY NOON DIFFUSE HORIZONTAL IRRADIANCE

See Direct and diffuse Solar irradiances in Using Ambient Data section.

H E A T TR A N S F E R V A R I A B L E S | 69
 CLEAR SKY NOON BEAM NORMAL IRRADIANCE
See Direct and diffuse Solar irradiances in Using Ambient Data section.

AMBIENT MOISTURE CONTENT

See Moisture content in Using Ambient Data section.

Moist Air Variables

The temperature variable solved by the Heat Transfer interfaces corresponds to the dry
bulb temperature. This is the temperature measured by a thermometer with a dry
sensor and screening to prevent from deviation due to external radiation like solar
radiation.

When the presence of water vapor is accounted for in the model, other temperatures
may be considered, depending on vapor pressure.

D E W PO I N T TE M P E R A T U RE
The dew point temperature of a sample of air with water vapor pressure pv is the
temperature to which it must be cooled to become fully saturated.

The variable T_dp is defined in Ref. 1 by:

p sat ( T_dp ) = p v = phi ⋅ psat

where phi is the Relative Humidity variable. See Saturation State for the definition of
saturation pressure psat as a function of temperature. See also Saturation Pressure for
the definition of the variable psat.

E Q U I VA L E N T TE M P E R A T U RE
The equivalent temperature is obtained by adiabatically condensing all the water vapor
of a sample of air with initial vapor pressure pv. In this process, the latent heat decrease
due to total removal of the vapor is balanced by a increase of the sensible heat and
temperature.

The variable T_eq is approximated in Ref. 1 by:

phi ⋅ psat
T_eq = T + -----------------------------
γ Teq

where phi is the Relative Humidity, and γTeq (SI unit: Pa/K) is the psychrometer
constant, defined in Ref. 1 by:

70 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 M a pC p, a
γ Teq = ------------------------
Mv Lv

where p is the total pressure, Cp, a is the heat capacity at constant pressure of dry air at
temperature T, Lv is the latent heat of evaporation at temperature T (see Latent Heat
of Evaporation), and Ma and Mv are the molar mass of dry air and water vapor,
respectively.

See also Saturation Pressure for the definition of the variable psat.

These definitions are illustrated on Figure 3-1.

Figure 3-1: Relation between dry bulb, dew point, equivalent, and wet bulb temperatures.

The wet bulb temperature is also represented on Figure 3-1. It is obtained by

adiabatically reaching saturation state for a sample of air with initial water vapor
pressure pv. In this process, the latent heat increase due to evaporation is balanced by
a decrease of the sensible heat and temperature. It is not available as a predefined
variable, but it can be approximated by solving the following equation:

p sat ( T wb ) phi ⋅ psat

T wb + --------------------------- = T + -----------------------------
γ γ

The psychrometer constant is again evaluated at temperature T.

SATURATION PRESSURE
The variable psat is defined by:

psat = fpsat ( T )

where T is the temperature. See Functions for the definition of the function fpsat.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
The variable phi is defined by:

H E A T TR A N S F E R V A R I A B L E S | 71
 pv
phi = --------------------
p sat ( T )

LATENT HEAT OF EVAPORATION

The variable Lv is defined by:

Lv = lv ( T )

where T is the temperature. See Functions for the definition of the function Lv.

72 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Moisture Transport Variables
Predefined Variables
This section lists the predefined variables that are available with the Moisture Transport
interface. All variable names begin with the physics interface name (the prefix). By
default, the Moisture Transport interface prefix is mt. As an example, you can access
the variable named phi using mt.phi (as long as the physics interface is named mt).
TABLE 3-2: MOISTURE TRANSPORT PREDEFINED VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

phi Relative humidity Domains

cv Vapor concentration Domains
cw Total moisture concentration Domains
cl Liquid water concentration Domains
csat Saturation concentration Domains
psat Saturation pressure of water vapor Domains
pv Partial pressure of water vapor Domains
rhol Liquid water content Domains
rhov Vapor content Domains
omega_moist Vapor mass fraction Domains
xvap Moisture content Domains
Lv Latent heat of evaporation Domains
cflux Convective moisture flux Domains
dflux Diffusive moisture flux Domains
tflux Total moisture flux Domains
tfluxMag Total moisture flux magnitude Domains
Gtot Total moisture source Domains
ncflux Normal convective moisture flux Boundaries
ndflux Normal diffusive moisture flux Boundaries
ntflux Normal total moisture flux Boundaries
ncflux_u Normal convective moisture flux, Interior boundaries
upside
ncflux_d Normal convective moisture flux, Interior boundaries
downside

M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T V A R I A B L E S | 73
 TABLE 3-2: MOISTURE TRANSPORT PREDEFINED VARIABLES

VARIABLE NAME GEOMETRIC ENTITY LEVEL

ndflux_u Normal diffusive moisture flux, upside Interior boundaries

ndflux_d Normal diffusive moisture flux, Interior boundaries
downside
ntflux_u Normal total moisture flux, upside Interior boundaries
ntflux_d Normal total moisture flux, downside Interior boundaries
gtot Total moisture flux Boundaries

Moist air properties

PARTIAL AND SATURATION PRESSURES OF WATER VAPOR

The partial pressure of vapor pv is the product of the saturation pressure psat and the
relative humidity phi:

pv = phi ⋅ psat

SATURATION CONCENTRATION OF WATER VAPOR

The saturation concentration csat is obtained from the saturation pressure psat and
temperature T by:

psat
csat = ------------
RT

where R is the universal gas constant.

MOISTURE CONTENT
The moisture content xvap is obtained from the vapor concentration cv, the absolute
pressure pA and temperature T by:

cv Mv
xvap = -------------------------- ⋅ --------
p M
 --------
A  a
 RT – cv

where R is the universal gas constant, Mv is the water vapor molar mass, and Ma is the
dry air molar mass.

VAP O R M AS S F RACT IO N
The vapor mass fraction omega_moist is obtained from the moisture content by:

74 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 xvap
omega_moist = ------------------------
1 + xvap

L I Q U I D , VA P O R, A N D M O I S T U RE C O N C E N T R AT I O N S
The total moisture concentration cw is the sum of the liquid water and vapor
concentrations cl and cv:

cw = cv + cl

CONCENTRATIONS AND CONTENTS

The liquid water and vapor contents rhol and rhov are obtained by multiplying the
concentrations cl and cv by the molar mass of water Mv:

rhol = Mv ⋅ cl

rhov = Mv ⋅ cv

LATENT HEAT OF EVAPORATION

The variable Lv is defined by:

Lv = lv ( T )

where T is the temperature. See Functions for the definition of the function Lv.

Domain Moisture Fluxes

CONVECTIVE MOISTURE FLUX

In building materials domains, the variable cflux is defined as:

cflux = – δ p φ∇ ( p sat ( T ) )

In moist air domains, the variable cflux is defined as:

cflux = M v uc v

DIFFUSIVE MOISTURE FLUX

In building materials domains, the variable dflux is defined as:

dflux = – ( ξ D w + δ p sat ( T ) )∇φ

p

In moist air domains, the variable dflux is defined as:

M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T V A R I A B L E S | 75
 dflux = – M v D∇c v

TO T A L M O I S T U R E F L U X
The variable tflux is defined as:

tflux = cflux+dflux

TO T A L M O I S T U R E F L U X M A G N I T U D E
The variable tfluxMag is defined as:

tfluxMag = norm ( tflux )

Boundary Moisture Fluxes

NORMAL CONVECTIVE MOISTURE FLUX

The variable ncflux is defined on all boundaries as:

ncflux = mean ( cflux ) ⋅ n

INTERNAL NORMAL CONVECTIVE MOISTURE FLUX, UPSIDE

The variable ncflux_u is defined on interior boundaries as:

ncflux_u = up ( cflux ) ⋅ un

INTERNAL NORMAL CONVECTIVE MOISTURE FLUX, DOWNSIDE

The variable ncflux_d is defined on interior boundaries as:

ncflux_d = down ( cflux ) ⋅ dn

NORMAL DIFFUSIVE MOISTURE FLUX

The variable ndflux is defined on all boundaries as:

ndflux = mean ( dflux ) ⋅ n

INTER NAL NORMAL DIFFUSIVE MOISTURE FLUX, UPSIDE

The variable ndflux_u is defined on interior boundaries as:

ndflux_u = up ( dflux ) ⋅ un

76 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
INTERNAL NORMAL DIFFUSIVE MOISTURE FLUX, DOWNSIDE
The variable ndflux_d is defined on interior boundaries as:

ndflux_d = down ( dflux ) ⋅ dn

N O R M A L TO T A L M O I S T U R E F L U X
The variable ntflux is defined on all boundaries as:

ntflux = mean ( tflux ) ⋅ n

I N T E R N A L N O R M A L TO T A L M O I S T U R E F L U X , U P S I D E
The variable ntflux_u is defined on interior boundaries as:

ntflux_u = up ( tflux ) ⋅ un

I N T E R N A L N O R M A L TO T A L M O I S T U R E F L U X , D O W N S I D E
The variable ntflux_d is defined on interior boundaries as:

ntflux_d = down ( tflux ) ⋅ dn

TO T A L M O I S T U R E F L U X
The sum of the boundary moisture fluxes added by Moisture Flux features is available
as the variable gtot.

Domain Moisture Source

The sum of the domain moisture sources added by Moisture Source features is
available as the variable Gtot.

M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T V A R I A B L E S | 77
 Using the Boundary Conditions for
the Heat Transfer Interfaces
In this section:

• Temperature and Heat Flux Boundary Conditions

• Overriding Mechanism for Heat Transfer Boundary Conditions

Temperature and Heat Flux Boundary Conditions

The heat equation accepts two basic types of boundary conditions: specified
temperature and specified heat flux. The specified condition is of constraint type and
prescribes the temperature on a boundary:

T = T0 on ∂Ω

while the latter specifies the inward heat flux

–n ⋅ q = q0 on ∂Ω

where

• q is the conductive heat flux vector (SI unit: W/m2), q = −k∇T.

• n is the normal vector on the boundary.
• q0 is the inward heat flux (SI unit: W/m2), normal to the boundary.

The inward heat flux, q0, is often a sum of contributions from different heat transfer
processes (for example, radiation and convection). The special case q0 = 0 is called
thermal insulation.

A common type of heat flux boundary conditions is one for which q0 = h·(Text − T),
where Text is the temperature far away from the modeled domain and the heat transfer
coefficient, h, represents all the physics occurring between the boundary and “far
away.” It can include almost anything, but the most common situation is that h

78 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
represents the effect of an exterior fluid cooling or heating the surface of a solid, a
phenomenon often referred to as convective cooling or heating.

The CFD Module and the Heat Transfer Module contain a set of
correlations for convective heat flux and heating. See Heat Transfer and
Fluid Flow Coupling.

Overriding Mechanism for Heat Transfer Boundary Conditions

Many boundary conditions are available in heat transfer. Some of these can coexist (for
example, Heat Flux and Thin Layer); others cannot (for example, Heat Flux and
Thermal Insulation).

Several categories of boundary condition exist in heat transfer. Table 3-3 gives the
overriding rules for these groups.

1 Temperature, Open Boundary, Open Boundary, Inflow Heat Flux

2 Thermal Insulation, Symmetry, Periodic Condition
3 Heat Flux
4 Boundary Heat Source, Radiation Group, Line Heat Source on Axis
5 Diffuse Mirror, Prescribed Radiosity, Diffuse Surface
6 Opaque Surface, Incident Intensity, Continuity on Interior Boundary
7 Thin Layer, Thermal Contact, Thin Film
8 Isothermal Domain Interface

TABLE 3-3: OVERRIDING RULES FOR HEAT TRANSFER BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

A\B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1-Temperature X X X
2-Thermal Insulation X X X
3-Heat Flux X X
4-Boundary heat source
5-Radiation X X
6-Opaque Surface X
7-Thin Layer X X
8-Isothermal Domain Interface X

U S I N G T H E B O U N D A R Y C O N D I T I O N S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S | 79
 When there is a boundary condition A above a boundary condition B in the model
tree and both conditions apply to the same boundary, use Table 3-3 to determine if A
is overridden by B or not:

• Locate the line that corresponds to the A group (see above the definition of the
groups). In the table above only the first member of the group is displayed.
• Locate the column that corresponds to the group of B.
• If the corresponding cell is empty, A and B contribute. If it contains an X, B
overrides A.

Group 3 and group 4 boundary conditions are always contributing. That

means that they never override any other boundary condition. But they
might be overridden.

Example 1
Consider a boundary where Temperature is applied. Then a Diffuse Surface boundary
condition is applied on the same boundary afterward.

• Temperature belongs to group 1.

• Diffuse Surface belongs to group 5.
• The cell on the line of group 1 and the column of group 5 is empty so Temperature
and Diffuse Surface contribute.
This mechanism can be checked on the COMSOL Desktop, in the Override and
Contribution section of each feature, as shown in the following table:

Table 3-4: Override and Contribution sections

TEMPERATURE DIFFUSE SURFACE

80 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Example 2
Consider a boundary where Heat Flux is applied. Then a Symmetry boundary condition
is applied on the same boundary afterward.

• Heat Flux belongs to group 3.

• Symmetry belongs to group 2.
• The cell on the line of group 3 and the column of group 2 contains an X so Heat
Flux is overridden by Symmetry.
This mechanism can be checked on the COMSOL Desktop, in the Override and
Contribution section of each feature, as shown in the following table:

Table 3-5: Override and Contribution sections

HEAT FLUX SYMMETRY

In Example 2 above, if Symmetry followed by Heat Flux is added, the

boundary conditions contribute.

U S I N G T H E B O U N D A R Y C O N D I T I O N S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S | 81
 Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
In this section:

Heat Transfer Analysis with Moving Frames

Material Density in Features Defined on the Material Frame

Heat Transfer Analysis with Moving Frames

This section discusses heat transfer analysis with moving frames, when spatial and
material frames do not coincide.

• Material and Spatial Frames

• About Frames in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

When the Enable conversions between material and spatial frame check box is selected
in the Advanced Settings section, all heat transfer interfaces account for deformation
effects on heat transfer properties.

The entire physics (equations and variables) are defined on the spatial frame. When a
moving mesh is detected, the user inputs for certain features are defined on the
material frame and are converted so that all the corresponding variables contain the
value on the spatial frame.

Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames

This subsection contains the list of all heat transfer nodes and the corresponding
definition frame:

• Physics Feature Nodes and Definition Frame

• Definition Frame of Domain Nodes
• Definition Frame of Boundary Nodes
• Definition Frame of Edge and Point Nodes

82 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
PHYSICS FEATURE NODES AND DEFINITION FRAME
The following explains the different values listed in the definition frame column in
Table 3-6, Table 3-7, Table 3-8, and Table 3-9:

Material: The inputs are entered by the user and defined on the material frame.
Because the heat transfer variables and equations are defined on the spatial frame, the
inputs are internally converted to the spatial frame.

Spatial: The inputs are entered by the user and defined on the spatial frame. No
conversion is done.

Material/(Spatial): For these physics nodes, select from a menu to decide if the inputs
are defined on the material or spatial frame. The default definition frame is the material
frame.

(Material)/Spatial: For these physics nodes, select from a menu to decide if the inputs
are defined on the material or spatial frame. The default definition frame is the spatial
frame.

N/A: There is no definition frame for this physics node.

H A N D L I N G F R A M E S I N H E A T TR A N S F E R | 83
 DEFINITION FRAME OF DOMAIN NODES

TABLE 3-6: DOMAIN PHYSICS NODES FOR FRAMES

NODE NAME DEFINITION FRAME

Bioheat Material
Biological Tissue Material
Building Material Spatial
Change Cross Section Spatial
Change Thickness Spatial
Fluid Spatial
Geothermal Heating Material
Heat Source Material/(Spatial)
Immobile Fluids Spatial
Infinite Elements Spatial
Initial Values Spatial
Isothermal Domain Spatial
Opacity N/A
Out-of-Plane Heat Flux Spatial
Out-of-Plane Radiation Spatial
Phase Change Material Spatial
Porous Medium Material (Solid part)
Spatial (Fluid part)
Pressure Work Spatial
Radiation in Participating Media Spatial
Solid Material
Thermal Dispersion Spatial
Thermoelastic Damping Spatial
Translational Motion Material
Viscous Dissipation Spatial

DEFINITION FRAME OF BOUNDARY NODES

TABLE 3-7: BOUNDARY PHYSICS NODES FOR FRAMES

NODE NAME DEFINITION FRAME

Boundary Heat Source Material/(Spatial)

Continuity Spatial

84 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
TABLE 3-7: BOUNDARY PHYSICS NODES FOR FRAMES

NODE NAME DEFINITION FRAME

Continuity on Interior Boundary Spatial

Diffuse Mirror Spatial
Diffuse Surface Spatial
Fracture Material (Solid part)
Spatial (Fluid part)
Heat Flux (Material)/Spatial
Incident Intensity Spatial
Inflow Heat Flux Spatial
Isothermal Domain Interface Spatial
Layer Heat Source Material
Opaque Surface Spatial
Open Boundary Spatial
Outflow N/A
Periodic Condition Spatial
Prescribed Radiosity Spatial
Radiation Group N/A
Symmetry N/A
Temperature Spatial
Thermal Contact Material
Thermal Insulation N/A
Thin Film Spatial
Thin Layer Material
The definition frames of the corresponding pair features are identical to the ones of the
standard features.

H A N D L I N G F R A M E S I N H E A T TR A N S F E R | 85
 DEFINITION FRAME OF EDGE AND POINT NODES

TABLE 3-8: EDGE AND POINT NODES FOR FRAMES

NODE NAME DEFINITION FRAME

Line Heat Source Material/(Spatial)

Line Heat Flux (Material)/Spatial
Point Heat Flux Spatial
Point Heat Source Material
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation Spatial
Temperature Spatial
Thin Rod Material

TABLE 3-9: HEAT TRANSFER IN THIN SHELLS NODES

NODE NAME DEFINITION FRAME

Change Effective Thickness Spatial

Change Thickness Spatial
Heat Flux Spatial/(Material)
Heat Source Material/(Spatial)
Initial Values Spatial
Surface-to-Ambient Radiation Spatial
Temperature Spatial
Thin Conductive Layer Material
Thin Layered Shell Material

Material Density in Features Defined on the Material Frame

In a model the features defined on the material frame with an input field for the density
expect the density on the material frame, defined for the reference geometry. Hence
this density is constant in most cases. A non constant density in the material frame
means that there is addition or removal of matter.

As a consequence when the material is defined from a material library and is

temperature dependent, a constant reference temperature should be used for the
definition of the density in the Material Contents table.

This reference temperature defines the density in the reference geometry that should
match with the geometry in the material frame.

86 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Following Table 3-6, Table 3-7, Table 3-8, and Table 3-9, this concerns the following
features: Solid, Porous Medium, Biological Tissue, Thin Layer, Fracture, Thin Rod,
Thin Conductive Layer (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface), and Thin Layered
Shell (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface).

H A N D L I N G F R A M E S I N H E A T TR A N S F E R | 87
 Heat Transfer Consistent and
Inconsistent Stabilization Methods
The different versions of the Heat Transfer interface include the advanced option to
set stabilization method parameters. This section has information about these options.
To display the stabilization sections, click the Show button ( ) and select
Stabilization.

In this section:

• Consistent Stabilization
• Inconsistent Stabilization

Consistent Stabilization
This section contains two consistent stabilization methods: streamline diffusion and
crosswind diffusion. These are consistent stabilization methods, which means that they
do not perturb the original transport equation.

The consistent stabilization methods are active by default. A stabilization method is

active when the corresponding check box is selected.

Continuous Casting: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Processing/continuous_casting

STREAMLINE DIFFUSION
Streamline diffusion is active by default and should remain active for optimal
performance for heat transfer in fluids or other applications that include a convective
or translational term.

CROSSWIND DIFFUSION
Streamline diffusion introduces artificial diffusion in the streamline direction. This is
often enough to obtain a smooth numerical solution provided that the exact solution
of the heat equation does not contain any discontinuities. At sharp gradients, however,
undershoots and overshoots can occur in the numerical solution. Crosswind diffusion
addresses these spurious oscillations by adding diffusion orthogonal to the streamline
direction — that is, in the crosswind direction.

88 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Inconsistent Stabilization
This section contains a single stabilization method: isotropic diffusion. Adding
isotropic diffusion is equivalent to adding a term to the physical diffusion coefficient.
This means that the original problem is not solved, which is why isotropic diffusion is
an inconsistent stabilization method. Although the added diffusion definitely
attenuates spurious oscillations, try to minimize the use of isotropic diffusion.

By default there is no isotropic diffusion. To add isotropic diffusion, select the Isotropic
diffusion check box. The field for the tuning parameter δid then becomes available. The
default value is 0.25; increase or decrease the value of δid to increase or decrease the
amount of isotropic diffusion.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Stabilization Techniques
• Stabilization

H E A T TR A N S F E R C O N S I S T E N T A N D I N C O N S I S T E N T S T A B I L I Z A T I O N M E T H O D S | 89
 Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow
Coupling
COMSOL Multiphysics offers physics interfaces for heat transfer and fluid flow
computations. These interfaces have model inputs that make it possible to couple the
physics. In addition, COMSOL Multiphysics and the Heat Transfer Module contain
multiphysics coupling interfaces that facilitate the coupling between heat transfer and
fluid flow interfaces: Temperature Coupling, Flow Coupling, and Nonisothermal Flow can
be used to couple fluid flow and heat transfer interfaces.

All these options make it possible to build a coupling in different ways. Even if the use
of the predefined multiphysics coupling interfaces — Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate
Heat Transfer — is the preferred choice, other alternatives can be of interest in
particular cases. This section describes the possibility for coupling heat transfer and
fluid flow interface and lists the advantages and limitations of each approach.

In this section:

• Coupling Based on Model Inputs

• Temperature Coupling and Flow Coupling Multiphysics Features
• Adding Nonisothermal Flow Coupling in an Existing Model
• Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Multiphysics Interfaces
See The Laminar Flow Interface, The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface, The
Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface, The Turbulent Flow, k-e Interface, and The
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-e Interface in the CFD Module User’s Guide for a
description of the laminar and turbulent single-phase flow interfaces.

See Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD
Module User’s Guide for a description of the nodes associated to these interfaces.

Coupling Based on Model Inputs

This option does not use any multiphysics feature. Instead you define the model inputs
in each physics interface. You define the temperature model input in the flow interface
and the velocity and pressure model inputs in the heat transfer interface. This approach
is valid for laminar flow only. Also, the consistent stabilization does not account for the
multiphysics coupling, which can lead to convergence issues when the multiphysics

90 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
coupling is strong. Pressure work and viscous dissipation are not handled. In addition
the physics interface settings may not be optimal for the numerical treatment of the
coupling.

One interesting aspect of this method it that the temperature, velocity, or pressure field
does not have to be a dependent variable. You can use an analytical expression instead.

Temperature Coupling and Flow Coupling Multiphysics Features

These multiphysics features implement a one-way coupling (one in each direction)
between the heat transfer and the fluid flow coupling. These couplings are interesting
when you want to explicitly show that the coupling is not bidirectional: it is possible
to use only the Flow Coupling when the fluid properties are not temperature dependent.

This approach is valid for laminar flow only. Also, the consistent stabilization does not
account for the multiphysics coupling, which, similarly to the previous approach, can
lead to convergence issues when the multiphysics coupling is strong, in particular when
the temperature dependence of the fluid properties is large. Pressure work and viscous
dissipation are not handled. In addition, the physics interface settings may not be
optimal for the numerical treatment of the coupling.

Adding Nonisothermal Flow Coupling in an Existing Model

The Heat Transfer Module provides the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics feature. This
feature can be added to a model containing a single-phase flow and a heat transfer
interface. It is common to start a model with a single physics (for example, fluid flow),
then implement the second one (for example, heat transfer). Then adding the
Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics feature realizes the coupling between the two
interfaces.

This multiphysics interface handles the two-way coupling. In addition, it accounts for
the turbulence in the coupling. In particular, it modifies the effective thermal
conductivity and implements thermal wall functions if the fluid flow model requires
them. Those modifications affect the implementation of several heat transfer features.
This multiphysics feature also redefines the consistent stabilization so that the
multiphysics coupling effects are accounted for in the numerical stabilization. It allows
to include work done by pressure changes and viscous dissipation, and Boussinesq
approximation is supported. Finally some physics features are updated when the
Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics feature is active. In particular, the Interior Fan and
Screen fluid-flow features are updated to account for the multiphysics coupling.

H E A T TR A N S F E R A N D F L U I D F L O W C O U P L I N G | 91
 Note that the physics interface settings may not be optimal for the numerical treatment
of the coupling when the multiphysics feature is added afterward.

Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Multiphysics

Interfaces
These Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Multiphysics
Interfacesmultiphysics interfaces are identical except that they do not have the same
default features. Both contain a single-phase flow interface and a heat transfer interface
coupled with the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics feature. So all the benefits of this
multiphysics feature (see above) are present when these multiphysics interfaces are
used.

In addition, the heat transfer and fluid flow interfaces are set up with optimal interface
settings: the discretization order of the heat transfer interface is the same as the one
used for the fluid flow interface, and the pseudo time stepping is activated in both
interfaces.

For these reasons, the use of these multiphysics interfaces is preferred.

Note that you can do a gradual implementation of the model: It is possible to start
from these multiphysics interfaces and to disable the multiphysics feature or one of the
physics in a first step and then reactivate them when the first step is validated.

92 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Boundary Wall Temperature
Depending on the model configuration, a single temperature field per boundary may
not be sufficient to model accurately the temperature. In some cases, different
dependent variables are used to compute the temperature in the wall, at the wall sides,
or in the turbulent boundary layer. This section describes when additional degrees of
freedom are needed and how they are handled.

The boundary temperature variable called ht.Tvar describes the wall temperature.
When the wall has a nonconstant temperature across its thickness, this variable contains
the average value between the temperatures of the two sides of the wall. The actual
definition of ht.Tvar depends on the model configuration.

Some features define a local temperature: ht.feat1.Tvar. For example, when a

boundary heat source is applied on a particular side of the layer, this local variable
ht.bhs1.Tvar contains either the temperature upside or downside the boundary.

The following list includes existing boundary temperature variables that are available
depending on the model configuration:

• T: general temperature variable that coincides with the wall temperature in most
cases
• TWall_u: upside wall temperature defined by a Wall or an Interior Wall feature with
turbulence only if a Fluid feature is defined on the upside of the wall.
• TWall_d: downside wall temperature defined by a Wall or an Interior Wall feature
with turbulence only if a Fluid feature is defined on the downside of the wall.
• Tu: temperature on the upside of the boundary.
• Td: temperature on the downside of the boundary.
• TExtFace: external temperature of an external boundary defined by a thermally
thick boundary condition.
• TuWF: temperature of the fluid in the turbulent boundary layer near the wall only if
the Fluid feature is defined on the upside of the Wall feature.
• TdWF: temperature of the fluid in the turbulent boundary layer near the wall only if
the Fluid feature is defined on the downside of the Wall feature.

B O U N D A R Y W A L L TE M P E R A T U R E | 93
 The values of these variables depend on the selections where they are defined. Here are
some illustrated cases:

• Intersection between a Wall boundary feature selection and interface exterior

boundaries
• Interface between a fluid domain feature and a solid domain feature where a Wall
boundary feature is active
• Interface between two fluid domain features where an Interior Wall boundary
feature is active

Depending on the turbulence model selected for the flow, wall functions are used or
not:

• No turbulence model: no wall functions, and TuWF = Tu, TdWF = Td.

• Turbulence models: wall functions detected by the Single Phase Flow physics
interface. TuWF and TdWF have different definitions and a flux qwf is applied on the
wall boundaries. See Temperature Condition for Automatic Wall Treatment and
Wall functions in the CFD Modue User’s Manual for details.
The following sections summarize the definitions of the temperature variables for the
above mentioned configurations.

INTERSECTION BETWEEN A WALL BOUNDAR Y FEATURE SELECTION AND

INTERFACE EXTERIOR BOUNDARIES
The following figure shows a configuration with a fluid domain, a thermally thick
boundary condition on the left boundary, and a Wall feature on the right boundary.
This example uses wall functions.

Fluid

Tu=TExtFace Td=TWall_d Tu=Td=TWall_d

TdWF=T TdWF=T
Thermally thick layer boundary

94 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
INTERFACE BETWEEN A FLUID DOMAIN FEATURE AND A SOLID DOMAIN
FE ATU RE W H E RE A WA LL B OU N D AR Y F EAT URE IS ACTI VE

Solid in the domain downside the wall

The following figures show configurations with a solid as downside domain and a fluid
as upside domain with either a thermally thick or thermally thin boundary condition
in between. This example uses wall functions.

Solid Fluid

Downside domain Upside domain

of the boundary of the boundary

Td=down(T) Tu=TWall_u Tu=Td=TWall_d

TuWF=up(T) TdWF=T
Thermally thick layer boundary

Solid Fluid

Downside domain Upside domain

of the boundary of the boundary

Tu=Td=down(T) Tu=Td=TWall_d

Thermally thin layer boundary

B O U N D A R Y W A L L TE M P E R A T U R E | 95
 Solid in the domain upside the wall
The following figures show configurations with a fluid as downside domain and a solid
as upside domain with either a thermally thick or thermally thin boundary condition
in between. This example uses wall functions.

Fluid Solid

Downside domain Upside domain

of the boundary of the boundary

Tu=Td=Twall_d
Td=TWall_d Tu=up(T)
TdWF=down(T)
Thermally thick layer boundary

Fluid Solid

Downside domain Upside domain

of the boundary of the boundary

Tu=Td=Twall_d Tu=Td=up(T)

Thermally thin layer boundary

96 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
INTERFACE BETWEEN TWO FLUID DOMAIN FEATURES WHERE AN
INTERIOR WALL BOUNDAR Y FEATURE IS ACTIVE
The following figure shows a configuration with two fluid domains with a thermally
thick boundary condition and an Interior Wall feature in between. This example uses
wall functions.
Fluid Fluid

Downside domain Upside domain

of the boundary of the boundary

Tu=Td=TWall_d Tu=Td=TWall_d

Td=TWall_d Tu=TWall_u
TdWF=down(T) TuWF=up(T)

Thermally thick layer and Interior

Wall boundary

B O U N D A R Y W A L L TE M P E R A T U R E | 97
 Solver Settings
The information about default solvers given below is specific to the Heat Transfer and
Moisture Transport interfaces when the Stationary and Time-Dependent studies are
used. A comprehensive description of solver settings and corresponding theory is
available in the Study and Study Step Types section of the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

See also Studies and Solvers in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

In this section:

• Linearity property of the temperature equation

• Linear Solver
• Nonlinear Solver
• Time-Dependent Study Step
• Guidelines for Solving Surface-to-Surface Radiation Problems
• Guidelines for Solving Multiphysics problems

Linearity property of the temperature equation

The Heat Transfer interfaces define an elliptic partial differential equation for the
temperature, T, of the form:

∂T
ρC p +∇⋅q = Q
∂t

q = – k ∇T

with Dirichlet and Neumann boundary conditions at some boundaries:

T = T0

–n ⋅ q = q0

In its basic form, the density, ρ, heat capacity, Cp, thermal conductivity, k, heat sources,
Q, constraint temperatures, T0, and heat fluxes, q0, are all constant, which leads to a

98 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
linear system. Here, linear solvers described in the next paragraphs are completely
suited for the resolution.

However, nonlinearities can appear in the equation in the following cases:

• The material properties, ρ, Cp, and k, have a temperature dependency.

• The heat sources are not linear in temperature.
• The Neumann boundary condition is not linear in temperature, hence
- A convective cooling condition of type −n ⋅ q = h(Text − T) keeps the linearity of
the problem when the heat transfer coefficient, h, is constant.
- A radiative condition of type −n ⋅ q = εσ(Tamb4 − T4) is strongly nonlinear.

Different nonlinear solvers are also provided for these kinds of problems.

Linear Solver

D E F A U L T S E T T I N G S F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S
The default linear solver is determined based on the number of degrees of freedom and
physics interface settings.

For small number of degrees of freedom, the direct PARDISO solver is used. It is
known to be robust and fast for small-sized problems.

For larger models, the linear iterative GMRES solver with multigrid preconditioner is
used. In most cases, SOR line is the presmoother and postsmoother. This solver is
memory effective and fast for large models. When the heat transfer model contains
settings that lead to a system matrix with 0 on the diagonal (for example, Lagrange
multipliers for weak constraints), SOR line cannot be used and is replaced by Vanka,
which is usually slower and uses more memory.

D E F A U L T S E T T I N G S F O R M O I S T U RE TR A N S P O R T I N T E R F A C E
The linear iterative GMRES solver with geometric multigrid (GMG) acceleration is
used by default. In most cases, SOR line is used as the presmoother and postsmoother
for better performance. When weak constraints are set, the use of Lagrange multipliers
leads to a system matrix with 0 on the diagonal, and SOR line cannot be used. It is
replaced by Vanka, which is usually slower and uses more memory.

TU N I N G L I N E A R S O L VE R
Tuning the linear solver may be considered in case of nonconvergence or low
performance. When convergence fails you should first verify that this is not due to an

SOLVER SETTINGS | 99
 ill-posed model, or inappropriate settings in the Time-Dependent study or nonlinear
solver.

Several options are available to tune the linear solver settings. This paragraph focuses
only on the most commonly used ones.

Switch to PARDISO
When the GMRES solver with multigrid preconditioner is set by default, using
PARDISO instead can be considered provided that enough RAM is available. Indeed,
PARDISO usually converges easily but uses much more memory than the default
iterative solver. If PARDISO does not converge, it may indicate that there is an issue
in the model definition or with other solver settings.

Optimize GMRES/Multigrid for Memory

In order to optimize further the memory needed by the iterative solver, the number of
mesh elements on the coarser multigrid level can be reduced by, for instance,
increasing the Mesh coarsening factor or the Number of multigrid levels. The latter
strategy may also increase the resolution time.

Optimize GMRES/Multigrid for Convergence

When the linear solver has difficulties to converge, the following settings can be tuned:

• When the convergence graph of GMRES shows a slow down every 50 iterations, the
Number of iteration before restart parameter (default value of 50) should be
increased — doubled for example. This may also increase the memory consumption.
• Increasing the Number of iteration in the Multigrid settings, and in the presmoother
and postsmoother nodes improves the quality of the preconditioner and
convergence of GMRES.
• Since an excessive difference between two multigrid levels can affect the
convergence, lowering the Mesh coarsening factor in the Multigrid settings can help
convergence.
• Consider creating the multigrid level meshes manually if the automatic coarsening
method fails or leads to poor quality meshes.

Choosing the Right Linear System Solver in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

100 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Nonlinear Solver

D E F A U L T S E T T I N G S F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S
Nonlinear solver settings depend on the heat transfer model and on the study type.

Fully Coupled Solver Attribute

Heat transfer models with and without surface-to-surface radiation use a fully coupled
nonlinear solver attribute by default. The Jacobian update is set to minimal. A Newton
nonlinear method is set by default with

• Automatic damping factor computation for stationary studies

• Constant damping factor for time-dependent studies

Segregated Solver Attribute

The segregated solver attribute is set by default in the following cases:

• Another physics interface is solved together with heat transfer. The dependent
variables of the heat transfer interface are placed in a separate segregated group.
• Radiation in participating media using the Discrete ordinates method defines a large
number of dependent variables (up to 80), which are placed in segregated groups.
The number of dependent variables per segregated group and the nonlinear method
settings depend on the Performance index parameter available in the heat transfer
interface settings in the Participating Media Settings section.
• The Biological Tissue feature with Include damage integral analysis option selected
defines an additional dependent variable that is placed in a dedicated segregated
group. In addition when the Temperature threshold option is used, a dependent
variable is added to the Previous solution step. It uses a direct linear solver. The
default nonlinear method is the Newton method with constant damping factor.

D E F A U L T S E T T I N G S F O R M O I S T U RE TR A N S P O R T I N T E R F A C E S
A Newton nonlinear method is set by default with a constant damping factor (0.5).
The Jacobian update is set to On every iteration. The termination technique is Iterations,
with Number of iterations set to 2.

TU N I N G T H E N O N L I N E A R S O L VE R
Default solver settings are defined to handle efficiently classical configurations. For
particular applications, the default settings may need modifications to improve the
robustness and performance of the solver.

SOLVER SETTINGS | 101

 Optimize Nonlinear Solver for Robustness
When the nonlinear solver fails or converges erratically, different options can be
considered:

• Using the Automatic highly nonlinear (Newton) option forces to start the
computation with a very low damping factor and increases it carefully. Alternatively
a low constant damping factor can be used. The damping factor ranges between 0
and 1. A constant damping factor equal to 0.1 is a very low value and should be
robust but slow to converge. For low values of the damping factor, it is thus usually
needed to increase the number of nonlinear iterations. If the nonlinear solver is
unstable with such a damping factor then the automatic option should be used
because it makes it possible to start with a lower damping factor and gradually
increases it.
• A good initial value, as close as possible from the expected solution and consistent
with the boundary conditions, helps to guide the nonlinear solver to a stable
physical solution. To do that:
- Try to ramp the temperature on the boundary from the initial to the desired value
by using a auxiliary sweep — for stationary problems — or a time-dependent step
function — for time-dependent problems.
- Use results from a simplified problem, for instance with no temperature
dependency, or using a one-way multiphysics coupling, as initial value.
Note that it is sometimes easier to update the boundary conditions than the initial
condition to get consistent initial settings (see the Heat Conduction in a Finite Slab
model).
• When it is not possible to provide a good initial value, the segregated solver
associated with low damping factors in each segregated step helps to achieve
convergence.
• Forcing the Jacobian update at every iteration ensures that the nonlinear solver
iterates using optimal information from the equation system. This is needed when
nonlinearities are due to the temperature itself — for example, in case of strong
temperature dependency of material properties — or to another variable solved in
the same segregated group as the temperature — for example, in natural convection
models.

102 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Optimize Convergence Speed
Low convergence can be improved by following ways:

• Using a constant damping factor equal to 1 for linear problems. The linearity is
determined at the beginning of the resolution and indicated in the Log section of the
solver window.
• Providing a good initial value is an asset for computational speed.
• In the convergence area, the fully coupled solver has a better convergence rate than
the segregated solver.
• Using minimal Jacobian update option avoid to spend time in Jacobian
computation. This is suited for linear models and models with mild nonlinearities.

Time-Dependent Study Step

D E F A U L T S E T T I N G S F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S
The default time-stepping method for the Heat Transfer interfaces is BDF at second
order. It excludes algebraic variable from the error estimate.

When the Biological Tissue feature is active with the Include damage integral analysis
option selected, particular settings for the time-dependent solver are used to efficiently
compute the damage indicators:

• The Absolute Tolerance of the scaled damage indicator dependent variables is set to
1, meaning that these variable are neglected in the error estimate.
• The damaged tissue indicator, α1, is solved with an iterative Jacobi method.
• If the Adaptive mesh refinement option is selected in the study settings, the error
indicator is set to ∇θ d, sm ⋅ ∇θ d, sm where θd, sm is the smoothed indicator of
necrotic tissue (the fraction of necrotic tissue, θd, is discontinuous in general).
• If the Temperature threshold option is used in the Biological Tissue feature, the instant
necrosis indicator, α2, is placed in the Previous Solution step. This setting avoids
wrong detection of irreversible damage due to nonlinear iterations that may go
through a state where the damage criteria is met and then converge to a solution
where the damage criteria is no longer met.

When the Irreversible Transformation feature is active, similar settings are used:

• The Absolute Tolerance of the scaled irreversible transformation indicator dependent

variable is set to 1.
• The irreversible transformation indicator α is solved with an iterative Jacobi method.

SOLVER SETTINGS | 103

 D E F A U L T S E T T I N G S F O R M O I S T U RE TR A N S P O R T I N T E R F A C E S
The default time-stepping method for the Moisture Transport interfaces is BDF at
second order.

TU N I N G T H E T I M E - D E P E N D E N T S O L VE R
The quality of the time-stepping influences the nonlinear solver convergence. Tiny
time steps usually lead to mildly nonlinear problems at each time step whereas large
time steps can result in (fewer) highly nonlinear problems.

The default solver settings for transient heat transfer defines the maximal number of
nonlinear iterations to 5. If this is not sufficient, it is recommended to use smaller time
steps and to verify if the model definition does not contain discontinuities in time. If
so, consider using smooth step functions to model sharp variations in time.

There are several ways to control the time step size:

• An implicit way is to define a lower relative tolerance in the study settings. When the
relative tolerance is lowered, the absolute tolerance should be reduced in the same
proportion.
• The most explicit way is to define a maximum time step. This is an appropriate
option when the same maximum time step is relevant for the entire simulation.
Otherwise, it is possible to include times of interest in the Times field of the
time-dependent study and to use the Intermediate option in the Time Stepping
settings.
• Lastly you can control the time step by triggering an event when a particular
condition is meet (see the documentation about The Events Interface in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual). This advanced method can be
efficient when the other simpler methods are not applicable.

It is also recommended to inspect the solver log and check the default scaling of
dependent variables in case of convergence failure. In case of incorrect automatic
scaling, consider using Manual settings in the Dependent Variable attribute node.

Time-Dependent Solver in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

104 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Guidelines for Solving Surface-to-Surface Radiation Problems
The following guidelines are helpful when selecting solver settings for models that
involve surface-to-surface radiation:

• Surface-to-surface radiation makes the Jacobian matrix of the discrete model partly
filled as opposed to the usual sparse matrix. The additional nonzero elements in the
matrix appear in the rows and columns corresponding to the radiosity degrees of
freedom. It is therefore common practice to keep the element order of the radiosity
variable, J, low. By default, linear Lagrange elements are used irrespective of the
shape-function order specified for the temperature. When you need to increase the
resolution of your temperature field, it might be worth considering raising the order
of the temperature elements instead of refining the mesh.
• The Assembly block size parameter (found in the Advanced solver feature) can have a
major influence on memory usage during the assembly of problems where
surface-to-surface radiation is enabled. When surface-to-surface is detected, the
solver sets the assembly block size at 100. Using a smaller block size also leads to
more frequent updates of the progress bar.

Introduction to Solvers and Studies and Advanced in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

Guidelines for Solving Multiphysics problems

MULTIPHYSICS MODELS
Unless the model contains a multiphysics node that defines a coupling between a Heat
Transfer interface and another interface (see Multiphysics Couplings below), each
physics interface defines default solver settings that are merged.

The Heat Transfer interfaces always define a dedicated segregated group that uses a
linear solver optimized for the heat transfer equations. For strongly coupled models, it
may be efficient to merge two (or more) segregated steps. In this case, a unique linear
solver must be chosen for the fully coupled solver or the new segregated group.

Time-dependent settings from different physics interfaces may compete. When the
different settings are merged the strictest one is kept.

SOLVER SETTINGS | 105

 MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS
When a Heat Transfer interface is coupled with another physics interface through a
multiphysics coupling feature, additional predefined default settings are loaded. The
next two paragraphs describes the subtleties of the Nonisothermal Flow,
Electromagnetic Heating, and Heat and Moisture Transport interfaces.

Nonisothermal Flow
The Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling controls the solver settings for the
flow and the temperature-dependent variables.

When it assumes a weak coupling between the flow and the heat interfaces (typically
no Volume Force feature in the flow interface), the default solver contains dedicated
segregated groups for heat and flow dependent variables. Each uses the default linear
solver of the corresponding interface.

When a strong coupling is assumed (at least one Volume Force feature in the flow
interface), the default solver merges the temperature, pressure, and velocity. In this
case, the linear solver corresponds to the default linear solver of the flow interface. The
Jacobian is updated once per time step.

Electromagnetic Heating
The Electromagnetic Heating multiphysics interfaces (Joule heating, Laser Heating,
Induction Heating, and Microwave Heating) define default settings that solve the
temperature and the electromagnetic fields using a coupled step. It can be the fully
coupled nonlinear solver if there is no additional variable to solve for, otherwise it is a
segregated step containing the temperature and the electromagnetic variables.
However when radiation in participating media or damage variable are solved they are
placed in a separate group as described above.

Heat and Moisture Transport

The Heat and Moisture Transport interface defines dedicated segregated groups for
heat and moisture dependent variables. Each uses the default linear solver of the
corresponding interface. A Lower Limit node is added for the relative humidity to
enforce a positive value.

106 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Plotting Results in Thin Layers Extra
Dimensions
When modeling thin layers with extra dimensions — if the Layer type is set to General
in the Thin Layer feature of the Heat Transfer interface, or when using the Thin Layered
Shell feature of the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface — a new shape function,
Txdim, is automatically created. This variable corresponds to the temperature field in
the layer. Because the layer is not explicitly represented in the geometry, dedicated
tools are available. There are two ways of plotting the temperature in the 1D extra
dimension:

• Along the layer, for a fixed coordinate between 0 and ds (the layer thickness) in the
1D extra dimension.
• Through the thin layer, at one position on the boundary

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Thin Layer

Thin Layered Shell (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

Using Extra Dimensions in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

Along the Layer

The extra dimension temperature Txdim can be evaluated along the layer by using the
atxd1 operator on the extra dimension, with the expression xdimTag.atxd1(xd,
expr), where:

• xdimTag is the extra dimension tag. For example, it is ht_tl1_xdim5_xdim, in the

case of a thin layer (tl1) with five layers (xdim5) in a physics interface with tag ht.
This tag can be deduced from the Selection column of the Equation View subnode of
Thin Layer, by clicking the Show button ( ) on the Model Builder tool bar and
selecting Equation View.
• xd is the coordinate in the extra dimension. It varies from 0 to ds, which is the sum
of layer thicknesses. By convention, xd=0 corresponds to the upside of the

PLOTTING RESULTS IN THIN LAYERS EXTRA DIMENSIONS | 107

 boundary where the thin layer is defined, whereas xd=ds corresponds to its
downside. Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global
normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside. See Tangent
and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual. Note that
the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented differently. The layer
thickness variables (ht.tl1.ds1 for example) can be retrieved from the Equation
View subnode of Thin Layer.
• expr is the quantity to be evaluated at the point xd. For example, it can be set to
ht.tl1.Txdim to evaluate the temperature. There are others postprocessing
variables defined on the extra dimension that can be found in the Equation View
subnode of Thin Layer.

In 2D and 2D axisymmetric geometries, the section is represented in a line graph

under a 1D plot group, whereas it is a surface plot for 3D geometries.

Extra
dimension

Computational
domain Along
the layer
xd

Thin Layer boundary

Figure 3-2: Schematic representation of a 2D geometry with a thin layer composed of three
layers, with an evaluation of the results along the layer at the coordinate xd.

Through the Thin Layer

The extra dimension temperature Txdim can be evaluated through the thin layer, at a
specific point (x0, y0) or (x0, y0,z0), by using the operators atxd1 in 2D and 2D
axisymmetric geometries, and atxd2 in 3D geometries. Note that this time the
operators are used on the component and not on the extra dimension.

For all dimensions, the section is represented in a line graph under a 1D plot group.
In order to use this, the Data set selected in the Data section of the 1D plot group has
to select the extra dimension as component. One method is to duplicate the default
Solution node under the Data Sets node, set the Component of the new node to the extra

108 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
dimension, and use this new data set into the 1D plot group, with the domains of the
extra dimension selected.

In 2D and 2D axisymmetric geometries, use compTag.atxd1(x0, y0, expr), where:

• compTag is the component tag. In most cases, this tag is comp1. It is possible to
check it in the Properties window of the component node (display it by
right-clicking on the node and selecting Properties).
• x0 and y0 are the coordinates of the point in the base geometry that belongs to the
boundary linked with the extra dimension. Note that these are 2D coordinates from
the global coordinate system and not curvilinear coordinates.
• expr is the quantity to be evaluated at the point (x0, y0). For example, it can be set
to ht.tl1.Txdim to evaluate the temperature.

In 3D geometries, use compTag.atxd2(x0, y0, z0, expr), where:

• compTag is the component tag. For example, it can be comp1.

• x0, y0, and z0 are the coordinates of the point in the base geometry that belongs
to the boundary linked with the extra dimension.
• expr is the quantity to be evaluated at the point (x0, y0, z0). For example, it can
be set to ht.tl1.Txdim to plot the temperature. Note that here too, these are 3D
coordinates from the global coordinate system and not curvilinear coordinates.
Extra
dimension
Computational
domain

(x0, y0)

Thin Layer boundary

Along the extra dimension

Figure 3-3: Schematic representation of a 2D geometry with a thin layer composed of three
layers, with an evaluation of the results through the layer at the point (x0,y0).

PLOTTING RESULTS IN THIN LAYERS EXTRA DIMENSIONS | 109

 Using Ambient Data
The ambient data available within the Heat Transfer interfaces come from the
processing of measured data from ASHRAE Weather Data Viewer 5.0 (©2013
ASHRAE, www.ashrae.org), given as frequencies of observations, monthly and hourly
averaged for several past years of observation. They provide time-dependent weather
conditions for more than 6000 stations worldwide in terms of the dry bulb
temperature, the dew point temperature, the relative humidity, the wind speed, and the
solar direct and diffuse irradiance.

See Ambient Settings for the settings related to the ambient variables in the Heat
Transfer (ht) and Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh) interfaces.

When no special mention is added, the term temperature stands for the
dry bulb temperature. See Moist Air Variables for the definition of the dry
bulb temperature, the dew point temperature, and the relative humidity.

Processing of ASHRAE Data

From frequencies of measured values, a weighted mean of the data and a standard
deviation from the weighted mean are computed for each month. For the temperature,
more data are available and the weighted mean and standard deviation are also
computed at each hour. Figure 3-4 shows an example of weighted mean computation
for the diurnal temperature fluctuations from the initial data given as frequencies of
observations.

Figure 3-4: Computation of weighted mean from frequencies of observations for the
diurnal fluctuations of temperature.

110 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
These values are used for the definition of different conditions, as detailed in Ambient
Variables and Conditions.

All the monthly averaged observations except the solar irradiance are supposed to be
made at the middle of each month. This time depends on the number of days in the
month:

• Months with 31 days (January, March, May, July, August, October, December):
data at the 16th at noon
• Months with 30 days (April, June, September, November): data at the 16th at
midnight
• Months with 29 days (February, leap years): data at the 15th at noon
• Months with 28 days (February, other years): data at the 15th at midnight

In addition, the temperature observations are supposed to be made at the beginning

of each hour (00:00 a.m. to 11:00 p.m.).

Finally, the solar irradiance observations are made at the 21st of each month at noon.
Depending on the number of days in the month, this date corresponds to 68% (for
months with 31 days), 70% (for months with 30 days), or 75% (for February) of the
month. The leap years are not considered and the 21st of February always corresponds
to 75% of this month.

Ambient Data Interpolation

The temperature is the only variable for which hourly data are available in addition to
monthly averages. So for the temperature a double interpolation is performed to get a
temperature profile for every time in a year depending on the date and the hour. For
other data the interpolation is based on date only. This interpolation provides:

• The annual fluctuation of the dew point temperature, the relative humidity, the
wind speed, and the direct and diffuse solar irradiances.
• The annual and diurnal fluctuation of the temperature.
In all cases, the interpolation is of second order, with continuous first-order derivative.

Ambient Variables and Conditions

The observed values are processed by computing weighted means, standard deviations,
maximum, and minimum, to define different conditions for the temperature, dew
point temperature, and wind speed.

USING AMBIENT DATA | 111

 CONDITIONS OF TEMPERATURE
• Average:
T amb =  T station

• Low:
T amb =  T station – σ T, station

• High:
T amb =  T station + σ T, station

• Lowest:
T amb = min ( T station )

• Highest:

T amb = max ( T station )

• User defined coefficient for deviation:

T amb =  T station + c σ ⋅ σ T, station

• User defined correction:

T amb =  T station + ΔT

where:

• <Tstation> (SI unit: K) is the weighted mean of the observed values of temperature
at the station.
• σT,station (SI unit: K) is the standard deviation of the observed values of
temperature at the station.
• Tstation (SI unit: K) is the set of the observed values of temperature at the station.
• cσ (dimensionless) is a user defined multiplicative coefficient applied to σT,station.
• ΔT (SI unit: K) is a user defined additive correction applied to <Tstation>.

112 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
All these conditions are illustrated on Figure 3-5 for the variation of temperature over
1 day at New York/John F. Ke, on the 1st of June.

Figure 3-5: Comparison of ambient conditions for the temperature at New York/John F.
Ke, on the 1st of June

Additional conditions are defined from observed couples of temperature and wind
speed and direction values:

• Heating wind correlation:

T amb =  T station + ΔT wind

• Cooling wind correlation:

T amb =  T station – ΔT wind

where ΔTwind (SI unit: K) is an additive correction applied to <Tstation>, defined as

1
ΔT wind = --- max ( ΔT ws, station, ΔT wd, station )
2

where ΔTws,station (SI unit: K) and ΔTwd,station (SI unit: K) are respectively the
maximal variations of observed values of temperature correlated with a set of wind
speed and direction observed values.

USING AMBIENT DATA | 113

 The heating and cooling wind correlations are illustrated on Figure 3-6 for the
variation of temperature over 1 day, at New York/John F. Ke, on the 1st of June.

Figure 3-6: Comparison of heating and cooling wind correlations for the temperature at
New York/John F. Ke, on the 1st of June

CONDITIONS OF DEW POINT TEMPERATURE

• Average:
DPTamb =  DPT station

• Low:
DPT amb =  DPT station – σ DPT, station

• High:
DPT amb =  DPT station + σ DPT, station

• Lowest:
DPTamb = min ( DPT station )

• Highest:

DPT amb = max ( DPT station )

114 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
where:

• <DPTstation> (SI unit: K) is the weighted mean of the observed values of dew point
temperature at the station.
• σDPT,station (SI unit: K) is the standard deviation of the observed values of dew
point temperature at the station.
• DPTstation (SI unit: K) is the set of the observed values of dew point temperature
at the station.

All these conditions are illustrated on Figure 3-7 for the variation of the dew point
temperature over 1 year at New York/John F. Ke.

Figure 3-7: Comparison of the ambient conditions for the dew point temperature at New
York/John F. Ke

CONDITIONS OF WIND SPEED

• Average:
v amb =  v station

• Low:
v amb =  v station – σ v, station

• High:
v amb =  v station + σ v, station

USING AMBIENT DATA | 115

 • Lowest:
v amb = min ( v station )

• Highest:

v amb = max ( v station )

where:

• <vstation> (SI unit: m/s) is the weighted mean of the observed values of wind
velocity at the station.
• σv,station (SI unit: m/s) is the standard deviation of the observed values of wind
velocity at the station.
• vstation (SI unit: m/s) is the set of the observed values of wind velocity at the station.

All these conditions are illustrated on Figure 3-8 for the variation of the wind speed
over 1 year at New York/John F. Ke.

Figure 3-8: Comparison of the ambient conditions for the wind speed at New York/John
F. Ke

PRESSURE
p amb = p station

where pstation (SI unit: Pa) is the observed value of absolute pressure at the station.
Only a single value is available so this data does not vary with time.

116 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
The relative humidity φamb (dimensionless) is computed from the temperature Tamb
and the dew point temperature DPTamb with the following relation:

p sat ( DPT amb )

φ amb = ---------------------------------------
p sat ( T amb )

where psat(Tamb) is the saturation pressure of vapor at Tamb.

See Relative Humidity for more details.

As the diurnal variation of temperature is available, the diurnal fluctuations of relative

humidity can be computed, as illustrated on Figure 3-9 for New York/John F. Ke, on
the 1st of June, for different ambient conditions.

Figure 3-9: Diurnal fluctuations of relative humidity for different ambient conditions at
New York/John F. Ke, on the 1st of June

Several conditions of relative humidity can be obtained from the selection of

conditions for the temperature and dew point temperature. For consistency, the
relative humidity is majored by 1, as shown on the red curve of Figure 3-9.

MOISTURE CONTENT
The moisture content xvap,amb (dimensionless) is computed from the temperature
Tamb, the absolute pressure pamb, and the relative humidity φamb with the following
relation:

USING AMBIENT DATA | 117

 φ amb ⋅ p sat ( T amb ) Mv
x vap, amb = -------------------------------------------------------------------- ⋅ --------
p amb – φ amb ⋅ p sat ( T amb ) M a

where psat(Tamb) is the saturation pressure of vapor at Tamb, and Mv and Ma are the
molar masses of water vapor and dry air.

See Moisture Content for more details.

DIRECT AND DIFFUSE SOLAR IRRADIANCES

With clear sky conditions, the noon solar irradiance is essentially provided by the beam
normal irradiance, coming directly from the sun. However, the diffuse horizontal
irradiance may be also considered. The sum of direct and diffuse solar irradiances is the
ambient solar irradiance Is, amb (SI unit: W/m3), defined by:

I s, amb = I sn, station + I sh, station

where Isn,station (SI unit: W/m3) and Ish,station (SI unit: W/m3) are respectively the
observed values of the clear sky noon beam normal and horizontal diffuse solar
irradiances.

Figure 3-10 illustrates the evolution of ambient solar irradiance for New York/John F.
Ke, over the year.

Figure 3-10: Decomposition of solar irradiance into normal and horizontal irradiance at
New York/John F. Ke

118 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Use of Ambient Data From the Features
The ambient variables defined in the physics interface are available as inputs for several
boundary and initial conditions. For example, when defining the heat transfer
coefficient for a Heat Flux boundary condition by using a correlation for external forced
convection, the wind velocity vamb, the ambient absolute pressure pamb, and the
ambient temperature Tamb can be selected as inputs:

Figure 3-11: Use of ambient data from Heat Flux feature

For an example of the use of user-defined ambient data, see:

Temperature Field in a Cooling Flange: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Processing/cooling_flange

For an example of the use of meteorological ambient data, see:

Condensation Detection in an Electronic Device with Transport and

Diffusion: Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/condensati
on_electronic_device_transport_diffusion

Condensation Detection in an Electronic Device: Application Library

path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/condensati
on_electronic_device

USING AMBIENT DATA | 119

 Modeling Heat Transfer by Radiation
This section summarizes the functionalities available within the Heat Transfer Module
for the modeling of heat transfer by radiation.

Radiation is a heat transfer mode that should be considered in addition to conduction

and convection in the following cases:

• In a transparent or semi-transparent medium.

• For a surface with a large emissivity (close to 1). Whereas most polished metals have
an emissivity below 0.1, other materials such as concrete, black painting, glass,
plastic, skin, paper, and ceramic have an emissivity over 0.8.
• When the difference between a surface temperature and the ambient temperature is
large.
• When conduction and convection are small, as radiation becomes the predominant
transfer mode.
• At small time scales, for which conduction and convection effects are too slow and
have a less significant effect.

As an example, consider a plate of concrete with a cold bottom wall at temperature T0,
placed in a hot environment with an air flux at temperature Tamb:

120 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
The figures below illustrate the relative importance of heat transfer by radiation and by
convection (due to the air flux), when the emissivity ε is 0.1 (left) and 0.9 (right).

Figure 3-12: Integral of convective and radiative heat fluxes (W/m) along the top
boundary, for two values of emissivity, in function of temperature gradient.

Whereas the boundary radiative and convective heat fluxes are of the same order for
temperature gradients up to 500K when the emissivity is low (ε=0.1), radiation
becomes the dominant mode of heat transfer even for small temperature gradients
when the emissivity is high (ε=0.9). Note that the convective heat flux decrease
observed for high temperature gradients is related to the fact that the velocity, not the
mass flow rate, is prescribed at the air inlet.

See Heat Transfer Variables for the definition of the variables q0 and
rflux giving access to the convective and radiative heat fluxes on
boundaries.

The following table recalls the functionalities available for the modeling of heat transfer
by radiation.
TABLE 3-10: MODELING OF HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT SURFACE-TO-SURFACE PARTICIPATING

MEDIA

Description

Physical and modeling assumptions

Propagation Transparent Transparent Participating (semi
medium for transparent)
radiation

M O D E L I N G H E A T TR A N S F E R B Y R A D I A T I O N | 121
 TABLE 3-10: MODELING OF HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT SURFACE-TO-SURFACE PARTICIPATING

MEDIA

Refractive index of n=1 Any, uniform Any, uniform

domain
Scattering in N/A N/A Isotropic
domain (Rosseland
approximation)
Linear anisotropic
(P1 method)
Anisotropic (DOM)
Shadowing effects No Yes (Hemicube) N/A
in view factor No (Direct Area
computation Integration)
Wavelength No No (Constant) No
dependency of Yes (Solar and
emissivity ambient / Multiple
spectral bands)
Dimension of the 3D, 2D axi, 2D, 1D 3D, 2D axi, 2D, 1D 3D, 2D axi(5), 2D
domain axi, 1D axi, 1D
Example model Continuous Casting Heat Sink with Glass Plate
Surface-to-Surface
Radiation
License, interfaces and features
License COMSOL Heat Transfer Heat Transfer
requirement Multiphysics / Module Module
Heat Transfer
Module
Interfaces with the Heat Transfer (ht) Heat Transfer (ht), Heat Transfer (ht),
functionality as Heat Transfer in with with Radiation in
default Thin Shells (htsh) Surface-to-surface Participating Media
radiation option option
Heat Transfer in Radiation in
Thin Shells (htsh), Participating Media
with (rpm)
Surface-to-surface
radiation option
Surface-to-Surface
Radiation (rad)

122 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
TABLE 3-10: MODELING OF HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT SURFACE-TO-SURFACE PARTICIPATING

MEDIA

Domain features Out-of-Plane Opacity Radiation in

Radiation (1)(2) Participating Media
Boundary features Diffuse Surface Diffuse Surface Continuity of
Diffuse Mirror Interior Boundary
(DOM)
Prescribed
Radiosity Incident Intensity
(P1 method/DOM)
Radiation Group
Opaque Surface (P1
method/DOM)
Edges/Point Surface-to-Ambient N/A N/A
features Radiation(1)
Global features N/A External Radiation N/A
Source (3)
Symmetry for
Surface-to-Surface
Radiation (4)
Numerical aspects
Numerical cost Low Medium to high Low (Rosseland
approximation)
Medium (P1
method)
High (DOM)
Additional variables None Surface radiosity J None (Rosseland
(if constant approximation)
wavelength), Incident radiation
JB1,JB2 (if solar G (P1 method)
and ambient
Radiative intensity
wavelengths),
I=I1,..., In, with n
JB1,...,JB5 (if up to 80 (DOM)
multiple
wavelengths)
(1) Only with the Heat Transfer Module
(2)
Only in 2D and 1D components
(3)
Only in 3D and 2D components
(4) Only in 3D, 2D axi, and 2D components
(5)
Only with Rosseland approximation and P1 method

M O D E L I N G H E A T TR A N S F E R B Y R A D I A T I O N | 123
 Heat Part Library
The Part Libraries can be used to store and access a set of standard geometric entities.
It is possible to create custom user-defined geometry libraries or to use built-in
collections of geometric entities that are available with many add-on modules for
COMSOL Multiphysics.

Part Libraries in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

In this section:

• Heat Part Library Contents

• Heat Sink - Parameterized Fin Types Part
• Heat Sink - Dissimilar Border Pins Part
• Heat Sink - Pin Fins Part
• Heat Sink - Straight Fins Part

Heat Part Library Contents

The part library included with the Heat Transfer Module contains typical heat sink
geometries. When accessing the library, the parts are sorted as in the figure below:

The heat sinks are composed of a rectangular base and an array of pin or straight fins,
as shown on Figure 3-13.

124 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 fins

border offset

base

Figure 3-13: Heat sinks components

All entities are fully parameterized, making them easy to use as parts in industrial
models where heat sinks are used for cooling. For example, you can control the
number, the shape, the dimensions, and the placement of the fins on the base. In
addition, fillet, chamfer, and notch transformations can be applied to the fins, and
parameter checks are applied to ensure that the values set in the Input Parameters
section are valid.

The library includes four parts. The Heat Sink - Parameterized Fin Types part is the most
general part. It supports multiple parameterization, while a reduced number of

HEAT PART LIBRARY | 125

 parameters is available in the three other parts, as shown in Table 3-11.
TABLE 3-11: OVERVIEW OF HEAT SINK PARTS

Heat Sink - Parameterized Fin Types

fin_type =1,2,3 (editable)

Heat Sink - Pin Fins Heat Sink - Dissimilar Heat Sink - Straight Fins
Border Pins

fin_type = 1 (not editable) fin_type = 2 (not editable) fin_type = 3 (not editable)

In the Heat Sink - Pin Fins part, all the fins are pins with the same dimension, whereas
the outer and inner fins (in y-direction) can have distinct dimensions in the Heat Sink
- Dissimilar Border Pins part. You may use the Heat Sink - Straight Fins part to define a
heat sink made of only straight fins.

By default, the base of the heat sink is positioned at the origin of the x-y plane. You
can apply a Displacement and a Rotation to this configuration in the Position and
Orientation of Output section.

126 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Finally, each fin is a separate domain and can be easily deleted, and selections can be
defined, for example for the base bottom face (Boundary Selections section) or the array
of fins (Domain Selections section).

Heat Sink - Parameterized Fin Types Part

The dimensions of the base and the fins can be parameterized, as shown on
Figure 3-14. In addition, an offset from the base border can be added.

n_fins_x=3
n_fins_y=4 Y_fins_top_2
Y_fins_top
X_fins_top

Z_fins

Z_base o_y
o_x
Y_fins_bottom_2

Y_fins_bottom X_fins_bottom

Y_base X_base

Figure 3-14: Fins and base parameters in Heat Sink - Parameterized part

A step can be defined in the x-direction at the center on the base. The parameter
step_width specifies the number of filled gaps from middle to border by the step, as
shown on Figure 3-15.

HEAT PART LIBRARY | 127

 step=1

step_height step_height
step_width=1 step_width=1

(odd number of fins in x-direction) (even number of fins in x-direction)

Figure 3-15: Step parameters in Heat Sink - Parameterized part

Finally, a fillet transformation can be applied at the top and bottom of the fins, as
shown on Figure 3-16.

fillet_top=1

fillet_bottom=1

Figure 3-16: Fillet parameters in Heat Sink - Parameterized part

128 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Heat Sink - Dissimilar Border Pins Part
This part inherits all the functionalities of the Heat Sink - Parameterized Fin Types part,
but different dimensions are set by default for the inner and outer fins in the
y-direction:

• Y_fins_bottom = 3 mm (outer fins) and Y_fins_bottom_2 = 6 mm (inner fins)

• Y_fins_top = 3 mm (outer fins) and Y_fins_top_2 = 6 mm (inner fins)

Heat Sink - Pin Fins Part

This part inherits all the functionalities of the Heat Sink - Parameterized Fin Types part,
but identical dimensions are enforced for the inner and outer fins in the y-direction:

• Y_fins_bottom = 3 mm (all fins)

• Y_fins_top = 3 mm (all fins)

Heat Sink - Straight Fins Part

This part inherits all the functionalities of the Heat Sink - Parameterized Fin Types part,
but the y-direction parameters are enforced to define straight fins.

In addition, notch and chamfer transformations can be applied to the fins, as shown
on Figure 3-17.

notch=1 chamfer=1

notch_height chamfer_height
notch_width chamfer_width

Figure 3-17: Notch and chamfer parameters in Heat Sink - Straight Fins part

HEAT PART LIBRARY | 129

 References
1. J.L. Monteith and M.H. Unsworth, Principles of Environmental Physics, Edward
Arnold, London, 290 pp., 1990.

130 | C H A P T E R 3 : M O D E L I N G W I T H T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 4

Theory for the Heat Transfer Module

This chapter details the theory of the physics interfaces, multiphysics couplings,
and features found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ).

In this chapter:

• Foundations of the General Heat Transfer Equation

• Theory for Heat Transfer in Solids
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids
• Theory for Bioheat Transfer
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media
• Theory for Heat Transfer with Phase Change
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Building Materials
• Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer
• Theory for Lumped Isothermal Domain
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures
• Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation
• Theory for Radiation in Participating Media
• Theory for Moisture Transport

131
 • Theory for the Heat Transfer Multiphysics Couplings
• Theory for Thermal Contact
• Moist Air Fluid Type
• Temperature Dependence of Surface Tension
• Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer
• The Heat Transfer Coefficients
• Equivalent Thermal Conductivity Correlations
• Heat Flux and Heat Balance
• Frames for the Heat Transfer Equations
• References

132 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Foundations of the General Heat
T r a ns f e r E qua ti on
This section presents basic results leading to the heat transfer equations solved in
COMSOL Multiphysics. Starting by a presentation of heat as another mode of energy
transfer different from work, the energy conservation laws that apply lead to the
establishment of The Heat Balance Equation. The latter is further derived to give the
different versions of the heat transfer equations in various media.

In this section:

• Thermodynamic Description of Heat Transfer

• The Physical Mechanisms under Heat Transfer
• The Heat Balance Equation
• Consistency with Mass and Momentum Conservation Laws

Thermodynamic Description of Heat Transfer

In continuum mechanics, a domain Ω is submitted to variations of its kinetic energy
due to some external forces according to an equation of motion. The study of such
phenomena is covered by solid mechanics and fluid mechanics and the theories behind
can be found in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide and CFD Module
User’s Guide. From an energy point of view, the aforementioned description is
incomplete because it does not include heat as another form of energy transfer due to
microscopic vibration and interactions of particles. The laws of thermodynamics
introduce several concepts to define heat transfer consistently with mechanical energy.
In the next paragraphs, a concise presentation of the theory adapted to the use of
COMSOL Multiphysics is given. More materials and details are provided in the
references listed in the References section.

EXTENSIVE PARAMETERS CHARACTERIZING A SYSTEM

A homogeneous fluid taking place in a domain Ω is characterized by the knowledge of
three extensive parameters:

• The entropy, SΩ (SI unit: J),

F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E G E N E R A L H E A T TR A N S F E R E Q U A T I O N | 133
 • The volume, VΩ (SI unit: m3),
• The mass, MΩ (SI unit: kg).

The internal energy, EΩ (SI unit: J), is an extensive state function of these three
variables. It measures the amount of energy in the system excluding kinetic energy and
potential energy from external applied forces and is the subject of conservation laws
more detailed in The Heat Balance Equation section. To fit with the finite element
method solved by COMSOL Multiphysics, specific quantities per unit mass are
preferred:

SΩ VΩ
S = --------- ν = ---------
MΩ MΩ

The specific internal energy, E (SI unit: J/kg), is then a function of specific entropy,
S, and specific volume, ν, related to EΩ by:

1
E ( S, ν ) = --------- E Ω ( S Ω, V Ω, M Ω )
MΩ

For a solid, the specific internal energy, E(S, F), is a function of entropy and
deformation gradient, F.

Internal energy is related to the enthalpy, H, via the following for a fluid:

p
H = E + ---
ρ

or the following for a solid (7.33 in Ref. 1):

1
H = E – --------------------- P:F
det(F)ρ

Compared to the internal energy, the enthalpy also includes the pressure-volume
potential energy, p ⁄ ρ, necessary for instance in volume expansion after an isobaric
transformation.

FIRST-ORDER PARAMETERS

The variations of internal energy correspond to variations of entropy and volume

according to:

∂E ∂E
dE =   dS +   dν
∂S ν ∂ν S

134 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
First-order parameters are partial derivatives of the specific internal energy. They
correspond to the thermodynamic definitions of temperature and pressure:

∂E ∂E
T =   p = –  (4-1)
 ∂ S ν ∂ν  S

These lead to the fundamental thermodynamic relation:

dE = T dS – p dν

Temperature is the measurable quantity that gives a phenomenological

description of heat transfer. When expressed in kelvin (K), the Second
Law of Thermodynamics ensures that T can only take positive values.

Similar relations as those of Equation 4-1 hold for solids:

∂E ∂E
T =   P = det(F)ρ   (4-2)
∂S F ∂F S

1
dE = T dS + --------------------- P: dF
det(F)ρ

Here, the counterpart of the fluid pressure is the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, P.

SECOND ORDER PARAMETERS

Second order parameters correspond to second partial derivatives of the specific
internal energy and provide a various number of thermodynamic coefficients. These
are usually given as material properties of the domain material. Among them, the heat
capacity at constant pressure and the coefficient of thermal expansion are most often
provided. For a fluid, these are

T 1
C p = --------------- α p = ------------------- (4-3)
 ∂T ν  ∂T
 ∂ S ν ∂ν S

and for a solid, the definitions become:

–1
– 1 ∂T
α = F  
T
C p = ---------------- (4-4)
∂T ∂F S
 
 ∂ S F

F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E G E N E R A L H E A T TR A N S F E R E Q U A T I O N | 135
 Specific heat capacity at constant pressure is the amount of energy required to raise one
unit of mass of a substance by one degree while maintained at constant pressure. This
quantity is also commonly referred to as specific heat or specific heat capacity.

The heat capacity at constant pressure and coefficient of thermal expansion are related
to the enthalpy, seen as a function of T and p (or P), according to:

 ∂H = C  ∂H = ν ( 1 – α T )
∂T p p ∂p  T p

 ∂H = C  ∂H = --------------------

1 -
F ( – I + αT )
∂T P p  ∂ P T det(F)ρ

The enthalpy can then be retrieved from Cp and αp (or α) by:

r1
H = H ref + r ∇r H ( r ) ⋅ dr
0
(4-5)

where r is the integration vector variable, containing temperature and pressure or

stress tensor components:

P
 11
P 
 22
P 
 33
r =  p or r = P 
 T  12
P 
 23
P 
 13
 T 

The starting point, r0, is the value of r at reference conditions, that is, pref (one
atmosphere) and Tref (298.15 K) for a fluid. The ending point, r1, is the solution
returned after simulation. In theory any value can be assigned to the enthalpy at
reference conditions, Href (Ref. 2), and COMSOL Multiphysics sets it to 0 J/kg by

136 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
default. The integral in Equation 4-5 is sometimes referred to as the sensible enthalpy
(Ref. 2) and is evaluated by numerical integration.

For the evaluation of H to work, it is important that the dependencies of

Cp, ρ, and γ on the temperature are prescribed either via Model Inputs or
as functions of the temperature variable. If Cp, ρ, or γ depends on the
pressure, that dependency must be prescribed either via a model input or
by using the variable pA, which is the variable for the absolute pressure in
COMSOL Multiphysics.

The Physical Mechanisms under Heat Transfer

The amount of heat transferred per unit time (heat transfer rate) depends on the
underlying physical mechanisms that define the mode of transfer. These are:

• Conduction — Heat conduction (or diffusion) occurs as a consequence of different

mechanisms in different media. Theoretically, it takes place in a gas through
collisions of molecules; in a fluid through oscillations of each molecule in a “cage”
formed by its nearest neighbors; in metals mainly by electrons carrying heat and in
other solids by molecular motion, which in crystals take the form of lattice vibrations
known as phonons.
In a continuous medium, Fourier’s law of heat conduction states that the
conductive heat flux, q, is proportional to the temperature gradient:
q = – k∇T (4-6)

The coefficient of proportionality, k, is the thermal conductivity (SI unit: W/(m·K))

and takes a positive value meaning that heat flows from regions of high temperature
to low temperature. More generally, the thermal conductivity can take the form of
a symmetric positive-definite second-order tensor (matrix) in anisotropic media
such as composite materials:

k xx k xy k xz
k = k xy k yy k yz
k xz k yz k zz

Thermal conductivity tensors that do not respect the symmetric

positive-definite property lead to unphysical results (Ref. 3).

F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E G E N E R A L H E A T TR A N S F E R E Q U A T I O N | 137
 • Convection — Heat convection (sometimes called heat advection) takes place
through the net displacement of a fluid that transports the heat content with its
velocity. The term convection (especially convective cooling and convective heating)
also refers to the heat dissipation from a solid surface to a fluid, typically described
by a heat transfer coefficient.
• Radiation — Heat transfer by radiation takes place through the transport of
photons. Participating (or semitransparent) media absorb, emit, and scatter
photons. Opaque surfaces absorb or reflect them.

The Heat Balance Equation

The equations of heat transfer in continua are derived from the first law of
thermodynamics, commonly referred to as the principle of conservation of energy. The
present part establishes the heat balance equation in its integral and localized forms
that stand as a root for deriving the different heat transfer equations solved in
COMSOL Multiphysics.

INTEGRAL FORM
The first law of thermodynamics states that the variations of macroscopic kinetic
energy, KΩ, and internal energy, EΩ, of a domain Ω are caused either by the mechanical
power of forces applied to the system, Pext, or by exchanged heat rate, Qexch (2.3.53
in Ref. 4):

dE Ω dK Ω
----------- + ----------- = P ext + Q exch (4-7)
dt dt

Mass and momentum balance are needed to complete the description of the system.
The mechanical laws, either for solids or fluids, generate the following balance
equation between variation of kinetic energy, KΩ, stress power, Pstr, and power of
applied forces, Pext (2.3.64 in Ref. 4):

dK Ω
----------- + P str = P ext (4-8)
dt

This equation involves quantities of the macroscopic level where the variation of the
kinetic energy due to some forces applied to it reflects a sensible displacement. In
COMSOL Multiphysics, the Solid Mechanics or Single-Phase Flow interfaces are
examples of physics interfaces that simulate the macroscopic level described by
Equation 4-8.

138 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Combining Equation 4-7 and Equation 4-8 yields the so-called heat balance equation
(2.3.65 in Ref. 4):

dE Ω
----------- = P str + Q exch (4-9)
dt

This time, the equation involves quantities of the microscopic level (exchanged heat
rate, Qexch, and internal energy, EΩ) more concerned with the atomic vibrations and
similar microscopic phenomena that are felt as heat. The presence of the stress power,
Pstr, in both Equation 4-8 and Equation 4-9 stands for the fact that such power is
converted into heat by dissipation. The Heat Transfer interfaces, described in the next
sections, simulate the heat exchanges described by Equation 4-9.

LOCALIZED FORM
In this paragraph, the different terms of Equation 4-9 are more detailed to obtain the
localized form of the heat balance equation.

Variation of Internal Energy

The equations given in the previous paragraph holds for a given macroscopic
continuous domain Ω where the internal energy is defined using the specific internal
energy (per unit mass), E, as:

EΩ = Ω E dm
Note that by conservation of mass, the variation of internal energy in time is:

dE Ω dE dE
----------- =
dt Ω d t dm = Ω ρ d t dv
In these last relations, ρ is the density, and dv denotes an elementary volume of Ω.
Contrary to the constant elementary mass, dm, the elementary volume changes by
expansion or contraction of the domain. Recall that the derivation operator d ⁄ dt
under the integrals is in the material frame (see Time Derivative in the Frames for the
Heat Transfer Equations section).

Stress Power
The stress power, derived from the Continuum Mechanics theory, is defined by
(2.3.59 in Ref. 4):

P str = Ω ( σ:D ) dv

F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E G E N E R A L H E A T TR A N S F E R E Q U A T I O N | 139
 where σ is the Cauchy stress tensor and D is the strain rate tensor. The operation “:”
is a contraction and can in this case be written on the following form:

a:b =   anm bnm

n m

Note that in fluid mechanics, the Cauchy stress tensor is divided into a static part for
the pressure, p, and a symmetric deviatoric part, τ, as in:

σ = – pI + τ (4-10)

so that Pstr becomes the following sum of pressure-volume work and viscous
dissipation:

P str = Ω p ( ∇ ⋅ u ) dv – Ω ( τ: ∇u ) dv
Equivalently, the stress power can also be expressed as:

1  P:  dv
dF
P str = Ω -----------------
det(F)  d t 

Exchanged Heat
Finally, the exchanged heat rates, Qexch, account for thermal conduction (see Fourier’s
Law at Equation 4-6), radiation and potentially additional heat sources. Joule heating
and exothermic chemical reactions are such examples of domain heat source. The
different kinds of exchanged heat are summarized by the equality below:

Q exch = – ∂Ω ( q ⋅ n ) ds – ∂Ω ( qr ⋅ n ) ds + Ω Q dv

Recall the following notations used above: q for the heat flux by conduction, qr for
the heat flux by radiation, Q for additional heat sources, and n for the external normal
vector to the boundary ∂Ω.

Localized Heat Balance Equation

With all these elements, the heat balance equation (Equation 4-9) becomes:

dE
Ω ρ d t dv + ∂Ω ( q ⋅ n ) ds + ∂Ω ( qr ⋅ n ) ds = Ω ( σ:D ) dv + Ω Q dv (4-11)

which leads to the following localized form in the material frame:

140 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 dE
ρ + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = σ:D + Q (4-12)
dt

or equivalently in the spatial frame:

∂E
ρ + ρu ⋅ ∇E + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = σ:D + Q (4-13)
∂t

This verbally means that variations of internal energy in time are balanced by
convection of internal energy, thermal conduction, radiation, dissipation of mechanical
stress and additional volumetric heat sources. In the next sections, Equation 4-13 will
be derived to obtain the heat transfer equations in different media.

See Frames for the Heat Transfer Equations for more details about the use
of material and spatial frames in the Heat Transfer interfaces.

Consistency with Mass and Momentum Conservation Laws

Although the heat transfer interfaces only solve for the energy equation, the context
leading to Equation 4-13 does account for the three additional conservation laws that
complete the Continuum Mechanics theory:

• Conservation of mass
• Conservation of linear momentum
• Conservation of angular momentum

The equations corresponding to each of them are recalled below in Table 4-1. For
more details about the theory of Solid and Fluid Mechanics, see the Structural
Mechanics Module User’s Guide and CFD Module User’s Guide.
TABLE 4-1: CONSERVATION OF MASS AND MOMENTUM

CONSERVATION LAW MATHEMATICAL MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION IN SPATIAL

EXPRESSION IN FRAME
MATERIAL FRAME

Conservation of ρ 0 = ρdet(F) ∂ρ
Mass + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0
∂t
Conservation of du ∂u
Linear Momentum ρ = ∇ ⋅ σ + Fv ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ σ + F v
dt ∂t
Conservation of T T
σ = σ σ = σ
Angular Momentum

F O U N D A T I O N S O F T H E G E N E R A L H E A T TR A N S F E R E Q U A T I O N | 141
 When modeling a heat transfer problem with one of the Heat Transfer interfaces, the
aforementioned laws needs to be respected. For example, the velocity field, u,
provided in the energy equation and responsible for convection in a fluid, should
satisfy the continuity equation here below in order to avoid unphysical results.

∂ρ
+ ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0
∂t

This is especially true when the velocity field is not computed from an additional
physics interface — such as Single-Phase Flow that solves for the continuity equation
— but instead defined by a custom expression in a Heat Transfer interface.

142 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Theory for Heat Transfer in Solids
The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface solves for the following equation derived from
Equation 4-13:

∂T
ρC p  ------- + u trans ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = – αT: + Q
dS
(4-14)
 ∂t  dt

The different quantities involved here are recalled below:

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant stress (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• utrans is the velocity vector of translational motion (SI unit: m/s)
• q is the heat flux by conduction (SI unit: W/m2)
• qr is the heat flux by radiation (SI unit: W/m2)
• α is the coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K)
• S is the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)
• Q contains additional heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)

For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the terms
with time derivatives disappear.

The first term on the right-hand side of Equation 4-14 is the thermoelastic damping
and accounts for thermoelastic effects in solids:

dS
Q ted = – αT: (4-15)
dt

It should be noted that the d ⁄ dt operator is the material derivative, as described in the
Time Derivative subsection of Material and Spatial Frames.

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S | 143
 Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids
The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface solves for the following equation (11.2-5 in
Ref. 5):

∂T ∂p
ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = α p T  + u ⋅ ∇p + τ: ∇u + Q (4-16)
 ∂t  ∂t 

which is derived from Equation 4-13, considering that:

• the Cauchy stress tensor, σ, is split into static and deviatoric parts as in:
σ = – pI + τ

• the dependent variables are the temperature, T, and pressure, p.

The different quantities involved here are recalled below:

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• q is the heat flux by conduction (SI unit: W/m2)
• qr is the heat flux by radiation (SI unit: W/m2)
• αp is the coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K):

1 ∂ρ
α p = – ---
ρ ∂T

for ideal gases, the thermal expansion coefficient takes the simpler form αp = 1 ⁄ T
• p is the pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• τ is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)
• Q contains heat sources other than viscous dissipation (SI unit: W/m3)

For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the terms
with time derivatives disappear.

The first term of the right-hand side of Equation 4-16 is the work done by pressure
changes and is the result of heating under adiabatic compression as well as some
thermoacoustic effects. It is generally small for low Mach number flows.

144 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 ∂p
Q p = α p T  + u ⋅ ∇p (4-17)
∂t

The second term represents viscous dissipation in the fluid:

Q vd = τ: ∇u (4-18)

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F L U I D S | 145
 Theory for Bioheat Transfer
The Bioheat Equation
The Bioheat Transfer Interface solves for the bioheat equation using Pennes’
approximation (Ref. 6). This is used to model heat transfer within biological tissue. It
accounts for heat sources from blood perfusion and metabolism in the classical heat
transfer equation:

∂T
ρCp + ∇ ⋅ q = ρ b C p, b ω b ( T b – T ) + Q met (4-19)
∂t

The different quantities involved here are recalled below:

• ρ is the density of the tissue (SI unit: kg/m3)

• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure of the tissue (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• T is the absolute temperature of the tissue (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux by conduction in the tissue (SI unit: W/m2)
• ρb is the blood density (SI unit: kg/m3)
• Cp, b is the blood specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• ωb is the blood perfusion rate (SI unit: 1/s)
• Tb is the arterial blood temperature (SI unit: K)
• Qmet is the metabolic heat source (SI unit: W/m3)

For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the terms
with time derivatives disappear.

There are specific predefined materials available in the Bioheat material

database. See Materials Overview and Bioheat Materials Database in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Damaged Tissue
On the Biological Tissue node, select the Include damage integral analysis check box to
calculate tissue damage.

146 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
In hyperthermia and cryogenic processes, tissue necrosis (permanent damage or death
of living tissue) occurs when one of the two phenomenas happens:

• an excessive thermal energy is absorbed (hyperthermia process) or released

(cryogenic process),
• a critical high (hyperthermia process) or low (cryogenic process) temperature is
exceeded.

Correspondingly, COMSOL Multiphysics has two ways to model energy absorption

— computing the period of time the tissue remained in the necrotic temperature
interval and direct time integration of the energy.

First Form Integral

In the first form of damage integral, tissue necrosis occurs in four cases:

• When the temperature exceeds the hyperthermia damage temperature Td, h for
more than a certain time period td, h,
• When the temperature falls below the cryogenic damage temperature Td, c for more
than a certain time period td, c,
• Instantly after the temperature exceeds the hyperthermia necrosis temperature
Tn, h,
• Instantly after the temperature falls below the cryogenic necrosis temperature Tn, c.

For the first two cases, the damaged tissue indicator, α1, defined by

t t
1 1
α 1 = ----------
t d, h 0 ϕd, h dt + t-------- 
- ϕ d, c dt
d, c 0

1 if T > T d, h 1 if T < T d, c
ϕ d, h ( t ) =  ϕ d, c ( t ) = 
0 otherwise 0 otherwise

is the ratio of the period of time when T > Td, h to the time limit td, h, plus the ratio of
the period of time when T < Td, c to the time limit td, c. It gives an indication of
damage state of the tissue. When it reaches 1, the tissue is necrotic. The fraction of
necrotic tissue corresponds to the quantity min(α1, 1).

For the last two cases, the necrosis time indicator, α2, defined by

t t
α2 = 0 ϕn, h dt + 0 ϕn, c dt

T H E O R Y F O R B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R | 147
 1 if T > T n, h 1 if T < T n, c
ϕ n, h ( t ) =  ϕ n, c ( t ) = 
0 otherwise 0 otherwise

evaluates the period of time when T > Tn, h plus the period of time when T < Tn, c. If
α2 > 0, the tissue is necrotic because it already reached the necrosis temperatures Tn, h
or Tn, c at some time step of the simulation. Hence, the fraction of necrotic tissue due
to immediate necrosis is equal to 1 if α2 > 0 and 0 otherwise.

Combining all cases, the overall fraction of necrotic tissue, θd, is equal to:

 1 if α 2 > 0
θd =  (4-20)
 min ( α 1, 1) otherwise

Second Form Integral

The second form of damage integral is applicable only for hyperthermia processes and
provides the degree of tissue injury, α, based on the Arrhenius equation:

t – ΔE
-----------
α = 0 Ae RT dt

Here, A is the frequency factor (SI unit: 1/s), and ΔE is the activation energy for the
irreversible damage reaction (SI unit: J/mol). The parameters A and ΔE are dependent
on the type of tissue and have been characterized for liver tissues by Jacques et others
(Ref. 7) to be A = 7.39 ⋅ 1039 s–1 and ΔE = 2.577 ⋅ 105 J/mol. See Ref. 8, Ref. 9, and
Ref. 10 for the characterization of these parameters for prostate, skin, and fat. See also
Ref. 11 and Ref. 12 for more references on biological tissues material properties.

The fraction of necrotic tissue is then expressed by:

–α
θd = 1 – e (4-21)

Thermal Properties
The material properties of the damaged tissue is redefined to take into account the
influence of tissue injury. If ρd, Cp, d, and kd denote the density, heat capacity at
constant pressure, and thermal conductivity of the necrotic tissue, respectively, then
two effective quantities are defined:

• The effective thermal conductivity, keff = θdkd + (1 − θd)k

• The effective heat capacity at constant pressure, (ρCp)eff = θdρdCp, d + (1 − θd)ρCp

148 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
In these equalities, θd takes one of the two definitions given above in Equation 4-20
or Equation 4-21 according to the integral form chosen.

Heat source
A cooling or heating source is associated with the reaction leading to damage of tissue.
Depending on the damage integral model, this source is expressed as follows:

• Temperature threshold for hyperthermia analysis:

∂θ d
Q = – ρL d, h --------- ( T > T d, h )
∂t

• Temperature threshold for cryogenic analysis:

∂θ d
Q = ρL d, c --------- ( T < T d, c )
∂t

• Energy absorption:
∂θ d
Q = – ρL ----------
∂t

T H E O R Y F O R B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R | 149
 Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous
Media
The heat transfer equation for porous media is derived from the mixture rule on
energies appearing in solid and fluid heat transfer equations (see Ref. 13). For
undeformed immobile solids, Equation 4-14 simplifies into:

∂T s
ρ s C p, s --------- + ∇ ⋅ q s = Q s
∂t

and for a fluid domain where pressure work and viscous dissipation are neglected,
Equation 4-16 becomes:

∂T f
ρ f C p, f --------- + ρ f C p, f u f ⋅ ∇T f + ∇ ⋅ q f = Q f
∂t

The mixture rule applies by multiplying the first equation by the solid volume fraction,
θp, multiplying the second one by the porosity, 1−θp, and summing resulting
equations.

The local thermal equilibrium hypothesis assumes equality of temperature in both fluid
and solid phases:

Tf = Ts = T (4-22)

The theory for this hypothesis is detailed in the section Local Thermal Equilibrium
below. Otherwise, the Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium section describes the theory
for modeling heat transfer in porous media using two temperatures.

When Should Local Thermal Equilibrium and Non-Equilibrium be

Considered?
The classical local equilibrium hypothesis in modeling heat transfer in porous media
considers pointwise equality of solid and fluid temperatures as said in Equation 4-22.
The Local Thermal Equilibrium section below details the derivation of the energy
equation considering such assumption that remains accurately sufficient for several
applications. Ref. 29 shows for instance that solid and fluid temperatures are equal in
steady conduction problems where only prescribed temperature conditions are

150 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
applied. Most slow motion problems can also assume equality of phase temperatures if
volumetric internal heating do not differ in both materials.

In the case of conduction in porous plates, Ref. 30 provides criteria based on the
dimensionless Sparrow number, Sp, to indicate if temperature equilibrium is still valid
or if a non-equilibrium point of view should be preferred. In Ref. 31, the influence of
the Darcy number, Da, and the ratio of phase conductivities is examined for transient
heat transfer in packed beds. The Sparrow and Darcy numbers are defined by:

2
h sf L κ
Sp = --------------- Da = -----2-
k eff r h d

where:

• hsf is the interstitial heat transfer coefficient between solid and fluid phases (SI unit:
W/(m2·K))
• L is the plate layer thickness (SI unit: m)
• keff is the equivalent thermal conductivity of the porous medium (SI unit:
W/(m·K))
• rh is the hydraulic radius (SI unit: m)
• κ is the permeability (SI unit: m2)
• d is the average particle diameter (SI unit: m)

In the situations described in Ref. 30 and Ref. 31, small values of Sp (less than 100 or
500) and large values of Da (from order of magnitude 10-7) indicate discrepancies of
temperature in each phase. However, in general, assessing the validity of local thermal
equilibrium assumption remains not straightforward in specific situations. The Local
Thermal Non-Equilibrium approach, described below, makes use of two energy
equations, one for each phase of the porous medium, that solve for two temperature
fields. It numerically doubles the number of freedom to solve but provides a general
frame for heat transfer in porous media where evaluating the validity of the equilibrium
hypothesis is not required anymore.

Local Thermal Equilibrium

The local thermal equilibrium hypothesis of Equation 4-22 implies a common
temperature, T, for both solid and fluid phase. The Heat Transfer in Porous Media
Interface solves for the following version of the heat equation (Ref. 16), reformulated
using T:

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N P O R O U S M E D I A | 151
 ∂T
( ρC p ) eff ------- + ρC p u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q (4-23)
∂t

q = – k eff ∇T (4-24)

The different quantities appearing here are:

• ρ is the fluid density.

• Cp is the fluid heat capacity at constant pressure.
• (ρCp)eff is the effective volumetric heat capacity at constant pressure, defined by
( ρC p ) eff = θ p ρ p C p, p + ( 1 – θ p )ρC p

• keff is the effective thermal conductivity (a scalar or a tensor if the thermal

conductivity is anisotropic).
• q is the conductive heat flux.
• u is the velocity field, either an analytic expression or computed from a Fluid Flow
interface. It should be interpreted as the Darcy velocity, that is, the volume flow rate
per unit cross sectional area. The average linear velocity (the velocity within the
pores) can be calculated as uf = u/(1−θp), where (1−θp) is the fluid’s volume fraction,
or equivalently the porosity.
• Q is the heat source (or sink). Add one or several heat sources as separate physics
features.

For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time, and the terms
with time derivatives of Equation 4-23 disappear.

The effective thermal conductivity of the solid-fluid system, keff, is related to the
conductivity of the solid, kp, and to the conductivity of the fluid, k, and depends in a
complex way on the geometry of the medium. In Ref. 13, three models are proposed
for an isotropic medium:

• If the heat conduction occurs in parallel in the solid and the fluid, then the effective
thermal conductivity is the weighted arithmetic mean of the conductivities k and kp:
k eff = θ p k p + ( 1 – θ p )k

This volume average model provides an upper bound for the effective thermal
conductivity.

152 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
• If the heat conduction takes place in series, with all of the heat flux passing through
both solid and fluid, then the effective thermal conductivity is the weighted
harmonic mean of the conductivities k and kp:

1- θp ( 1 – θp )
-------- = ------ + --------------------
k eff kp k

This reciprocal average model provides a lower bound for the effective thermal
conductivity.
• A last estimate is given by the weighted geometric mean of k and kp:

θ 1 – θp
k eff = k pp ⋅ k

This model provides a good estimate as long as k and kp are not too different from
each other.

When k and kp are equal the three models give the same effective thermal conductivity.

Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium

The Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium Interface implements heat transfer in porous
media for which the temperatures into the porous matrix and the fluid are not in
equilibrium.

E Q U A T I O N S F O R L O C A L N O N - E Q U I L I B R I U M H E A T TR A N S F E R
Non-equilibrium heat transfer in porous media for binary systems of rigid porous
matrix and fluid phase are governed by a set of two equations. These are the usual heat
equations for solids and fluids, multiplied by the volume fractions θp and (1 − θp)
respectively, and with an additional source term quantifying exchanged heat between
both phases (2.12 and 2.13 in Ref. 13):

∂T s
θ p ρ s C p, s --------- + ∇ ⋅ q s = q sf ( T f – T s ) + θ p Q s (4-25)
∂t

q s = – θ p k s ∇T s

∂T f
( 1 – θ p )ρ f C p, f -------- + ( 1 – θ p )ρ f C p, f u f ⋅ ∇T f + ∇ ⋅ q f = q sf ( T s – T f ) + ( 1 – θ p )Q f
∂t

q f = – ( 1 – θ p )k f ∇T f

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N P O R O U S M E D I A | 153
 In these expressions:

• θp is the solid volume fraction (SI unit: 1)

• ρs and ρf are the solid and fluid densities (SI unit: kg/m3)
• Cp, s and Cp, f are the solid and fluid heat capacities at constant pressure (SI unit:
J/(kg·K))
• qs and qf are the solid and fluid conductive heat fluxes (SI unit: W/m2)
• ks and kf are the solid and fluid thermal conductivities (SI unit: W/(m·K))
• qsf is the interstitial convective heat transfer coefficient (SI unit: W/(m3·K))
• Qs and Qf are the solid and fluid heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)
• uf is the fluid velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
The fluid velocity is often deduced from a porous velocity up, coming for example
from Darcy’s law or Brinkman equations, according to:

up
u f = ---------------
1 – θp

so that the heat equations in the fluid domain reduces to:

∂T f
( 1 – θ p )ρ f C p, f -------- + ρ f C p, f u p ⋅ ∇T f + ∇ ⋅ q f = q sf ( T s – T f ) + ( 1 – θ p )Q f (4-26)
∂t

q f = – ( 1 – θ p )k f ∇T f

The Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium multiphysics coupling adds the exchanged

opposite heat sources qsf(Tf − Ts) and qsf(Ts − Tf) that one phase receives from or
releases to the other when respective temperatures differ. The porous temperature, T,
has the following definition (Ref. 32):

θ p ρ s C p, s T s + ( 1 – θ p )ρ f C p, f T f
T = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
θ p ρ s C p, s + ( 1 – θ p )ρ f C p, f

C O R R E L A T I O N F O R T H E I N T E R S T I T I A L C O NVE C T I VE H E A T TR A N S F E R
COEFFICIENT
The Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium multiphysics feature provides a built-in
correlation for qsf in the spherical pellet bed configuration (2.14, 2.15, and 2.16 in
Ref. 13):

q sf = a sf h sf

154 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
The specific surface area, asf (SI unit: 1/m), for a bed packed with spherical particles
of radius rp is:

6θ p
a sf = ---------
2r p

The interstitial heat transfer coefficient, hsf (SI unit: W/(m2·K)), satisfies the relation:

1 2r p 2r p
------- = -------------- + ---------
h sf k f Nu βk s

where β = 10 for spherical particles, and Nu is the fluid-to-solid Nusselt number

derived from following correlation (Ref. 14):

1⁄3 0.6
Nu = 2.0 + 1.1Pr Re p

The Prandtl number, Pr, and particle Reynolds number, Rep, are defined by:

μC p, f 2r p ρ f u f
Pr = -------------- Re p = --------------------------
kf μ

VO L U M E T R I C A N D S U R F A C E T H E R M A L C O N D I T I O N S
Because the Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium multiphysics coupling multiplies each
energy equation by its volume fraction, θp and (1 − θp) for solid and fluid phases
respectively, a heat source or heat flux defined in a couple heat transfer interface is also
accounted with that ratio. As shown in Equation 4-25 and Equation 4-26, the
volumetric heat sources θpQs and (1 − θp)Qf are applied to the energy equations while
the Heat Source features of each physics interface specify Qs and Qf.

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N P O R O U S M E D I A | 155
 Theory for Heat Transfer with Phase
Change
The Phase Change Material node is used to solve the heat equation after specifying the
properties of a phase change material according to the apparent heat capacity
formulation.

Instead of adding a latent heat L in the energy balance equation exactly when the
material reaches its phase change temperature Tpc, it is assumed that the
transformation occurs in a temperature interval between Tpc − ΔT ⁄ 2 and Tpc + ΔT ⁄ 2.
In this interval, the material phase is modeled by a smoothed function, θ, representing
the fraction of phase before transition, which is equal to 1 before Tpc − ΔT ⁄ 2 and to
0 after Tpc + ΔT ⁄ 2. The density, ρ, and the specific enthalpy, H, are expressed by:

ρ = θρ ph1 + ( 1 – θ )ρ ph2

1
H = --- ( θρ ph1 H ph1 + ( 1 – θ )ρ ph2 H ph2 )
ρ

where the indices ph1 and ph2 indicate a material in phase 1 or in phase 2, respectively.
Differentiating with respect to temperature, this equality provides the following
formula for the specific heat capacity:

∂H
Cp =
∂T

which becomes, after some formal transformations:

1 dα m
C p = --- ( θ 1 ρ ph1 C p, ph1 + θ 2 ρ ph2 C p, ph2 ) + ( H ph2 – H ph1 ) -----------
ρ dT

Here, θ1 and θ2 are equal to θ and 1−θ, respectively. The mass fraction, αm, is defined
from ρph1, ρph2 and θ according to:

1 θ 2 ρ ph2 – θ 1 ρ ph1
α m = --- -------------------------------------------
2 ρ

It is equal to −1 ⁄ 2 before transformation and 1 ⁄ 2 after transformation. The specific

heat capacity is the sum of an equivalent heat capacity Ceq:

156 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 1
C eq = --- ( θ 1 ρ ph1 C p, ph1 + θ 2 ρ ph2 C p, ph2 )
ρ

and the distribution of latent heat CL:

dα m
C L ( T ) = ( H ph2 – H ph1 ) -----------
dT

In the ideal case, when 1 − θ is the Heaviside function (equal to 0 before

Tpc and to 1 after Tpc), dαm ⁄ dT is the Dirac pulse.

Therefore, CL is the enthalpy jump, L, at temperature Tpc that is added

when you have a pure substance.

The latent heat distribution CL is approximated by

dα m
C L ( T ) = L -----------
dT

so that the total heat per unit volume released during the phase transformation
coincides with the latent heat:

ΔT ΔT
T pc + -------- T pc + -------- dα
 
2 2 m
C ( T ) dT = L ----------- dT = L
ΔT L ΔT
T pc – -------- T pc – -------- dT
2 2

The latent heat, L, can depend on the absolute pressure but should not
depend on the temperature.

Finally, the apparent heat capacity, Cp, used in the heat equation, is given by:

1
C p = --- ( θ 1 ρ ph1 C p, ph1 + θ 2 ρ ph2 C p, ph2 ) + C L
ρ

The effective thermal conductivity reduces to:

k = θ 1 k ph1 + θ 2 k ph2

and the effective density is:

ρ = θ 1 ρ ph1 + θ 2 ρ ph2

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H P H A S E C H A N G E | 157
 To satisfy energy and mass conservation in phase change models, particular attention
should be paid to the density in time simulations. When the material density is not
constant over time, for example, dependent on the temperature, volume change is
expected. The transport velocity field and the density must be defined so that mass is
conserved locally.

Moving Mesh Interface (described in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual) can be used to account for model deformation.

158 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
T he o r y f o r H e a t Tran sfer i n Bu i l d i n g
M a te r i a ls
The Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface solves for the following equations
derived from Ref. 15:

∂T
( ρC p ) eff ------- + ∇ ⋅ q = Q (4-27)
∂t

q = – ( k eff ∇T + L v δ p ∇( φp sat ) ) (4-28)

which is derived from Equation 4-13, considering the building material as a porous
medium in local thermal equilibrium in which the following mixing rules apply:

• (ρCp)eff (SI unit: J/(m3·K)) is the effective volumetric heat capacity at constant
pressure, defined to account for both solid matrix and moisture properties:
( ρC p ) eff = ρ s C p, s + wC p, w

where ρs (SI unit: kg/m3) is the dry solid density, Cp,s (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the dry
solid specific heat capacity, w (SI unit: kg/m3) is the water content given by a
moisture storage function, and Cp,w (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the water heat capacity at
constant pressure.
• keff (SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the effective thermal conductivity, defined in function of
the solid matrix and moisture properties:

k eff = k s  1 + --------
bw
 ρs 

where ks (SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the dry solid thermal conductivity and b
(dimensionless) is the thermal conductivity supplement.
This definition neglects the contribution due to the volume fraction change of the
moist air.

The heat source due to moisture content variation is expressed as the vapor diffusion
flow multiplied by latent heat of evaporation:

L v δ p ∇( φp sat )

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N B U I L D I N G M A T E R I A L S | 159
 where Lv (SI unit: J/kg) is the latent heat of evaporation, δp (SI unit: s) is the vapor
permeability, φ (dimensionless) is the relative humidity, and psat (SI unit: Pa) is the
vapor saturation pressure.

160 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer
When submitted to periodic sinusoidal heat loads at a given frequency, the temperature
response of a body can, in some cases, be assumed periodic, sinusoidal, and of same
frequency around an equilibrium temperature. If the temperature changes are small
enough or if the thermal properties are constant, this time-dependent periodic
problem may be replaced by an equivalent linear steady-state problem in the frequency
domain, which is far less computationally expensive. The Heat Transfer interfaces
support such frequency domain studies via the Thermal Perturbation, Frequency Domain
study sequence.

In complex notations, the aforementioned temperature decomposition is expressed as:

jωt
T ( t ) = T 0 + T'e (4-29)

where T0 is the equilibrium temperature that verifies the steady-state heat transfer
equation and may come from the solution of a previous study, T′ is the complex
amplitude of the harmonic perturbation around T0, and ω is the angular frequency,
related to the ordinary frequency, f, according to

ω = 2πf

Note: The amplitude, T′, is complex-valued since it includes the phase term ejϕ.

From the temperature decomposition in Equation 4-29, and according to the heat
transfer equation in Equation 4-14, heat transfer by conduction in solids is then
governed by:

jωt jωt jωt

jωρC p T'e + ∇ ⋅ ( – k∇T 0 ) + ∇ ⋅ ( – k∇T' )e = Q + Q'e

where Q′ejωt is the harmonic perturbation in domain around an average heat source,
Q. Removing the terms of the steady-state heat transfer equation satisfied by T0, and
simplifying by ejωt, this reduces to:

jωρC p T' + ∇ ⋅ ( – k∇T' ) = Q'

T H E O R Y F O R H A R M O N I C H E A T TR A N S F E R | 161
 which is the governing equation for T′. For constant material properties, the linearized
form reads:

jωρ 0 C p, 0 T' + ∇ ⋅ ( – k 0 ∇T' ) = Q' (4-30)

and for nonlinear material properties:

∂k 
jωρ 0 C p, 0 T' + ∇ ⋅  – k 0 ∇T' – T'  ∇T  = Q' (4-31)
∂ T T 0 0

Here, ρ0, Cp, 0, and k0 denote the density, heat capacity at constant pressure, and
thermal conductivity, evaluated at T0, that is: ρ(T0), Cp(T0), and k(T0), respectively.

When the linearized heat transfer equation, such as Equation 4-30 or Equation 4-31,
can still describe the model accurately, the problem becomes steady-state in the
frequency domain, therefore computationally less expensive than a time-dependent
simulation. An automatic linearization process is performed by COMSOL
Multiphysics so that no additional action is needed from the user to get these
equations, even in the presence of temperature-dependent coefficients, in domains and
boundaries. Only the expressions of the material properties and other parameters, as
functions of the temperature, are required as for usual nonlinear modeling.

Harmonic loads can be prescribed through temperature harmonic constraints on

boundaries or heat sources on domains and boundaries.

162 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Theory for Lumped Isothermal
Domain
The Isothermal Domain feature considers the temperature to be homogeneous in
space but not necessarily in time. This is an approximation adapted to situations where
a domain is nearly at the average temperature and with small fluctuations, for instance,
solid objects made of conductive material immersed in water, or global temperature of
a heated and well insulated room adjacent to a cold environment.

Recalling Equation 4-16 given previously in the Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids
section, without pressure-volume work and viscous dissipation, the equation to be
solved reduces to:

dT
ρC p +∇⋅q = Q
dt

Integrating this equation over the domain leads to:

dT
mC p
dt
+ S ( n ⋅ q ) ds = V Q dv (4-32)

where the domain mass and the heat capacity at constant pressure are

1
m =  V ρ dv C p = -----
m V ρCp dv

THEORY FOR LUMPED ISOTHERMAL DOMAIN | 163

 The exterior boundaries of each Isothermal Domain need the heat exchange to be
specified.

Isothermal domain 3

Isothermal domain 2

Isothermal domain 1

Isothermal domain interfaces

Figure 4-1: Interfaces at exterior boundaries of each Isothermal Domain.

COMSOL Multiphysics provides several types of interfaces: thermal insulation,

continuity, ventilation, convective heat flux, and thermal contact.

THERMAL INSULATION
The Thermal insulation condition prevents any heat transfer between both adjacent
domains.

CONTINUITY
The Continuity condition ensures equal temperature at both sides of the interface.

VE N T I L A T I O N
The Ventilation condition is used for cases when an isothermal domain is considered
fluid and has an adjacent domain containing the same fluid. An opening lets the fluid
going from one domain to another with a determined mass flux, denoted by ϕd → u or
ϕu → d, respectively, along or opposite to the geometrical normal vector. The
Ventilation condition is written

164 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 –nd ⋅ qd = ϕd → u Hd – ϕu → d Hu (4-33)

CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX

The Convective heat flux condition is adapted to cases when an isothermal domain is
considered solid and is adjacent to a fluid. Convection occurs at the interface with a
specified heat transfer coefficient, h. The interface condition reads

–nd ⋅ qd = –h ( Tu – Td ) (4-34)

THERMAL CONTACT
When an isothermal domain is considered solid and is adjacent to another solid,
thermal contact occurs and is characterized by a given thermal resistance, Rt. At the
interface, the condition Thermal contact reads

Tu – Td
– n d ⋅ q d = – -------------------- (4-35)
Rt

THEORY FOR LUMPED ISOTHERMAL DOMAIN | 165

 Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin
Structures
In COMSOL Multiphysics, thin domains of solid, fluid or porous materials have
dedicated tools to model them with boundaries instead of full domains. This way,
simulations directly benefit from a reduced number of mesh elements. This section
presents the hypotheses needed for such approximations and the resulting heat transfer
equations that hold.

In this section:

• Modeling Thin Structures

• Theoretical Background of the Different Formulations
• Thin Layer
• Thin Film
• Fracture
• Thin Rod

Modeling Thin Structures

The Heat Transfer interfaces contain several lumped conditions for modeling heat
transfer in thin domains: Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Thin Rod.

In addition, standalone physics interface are available for the modeling of heat transfer
by conduction, convection and radiation in thin structures:

• The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface

• The Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface

Either the Thin Conductive Layer (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface), Thin Film,
or Fracture feature is available by default in each of these interfaces. The Thin Layered
Shell (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) feature is also available to model
multi-layered structures.

The features mentioned above are the counterparts of domain features for the
modeling of heat transfer in solid, fluid, and porous thin structures that can be

166 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
represented as boundaries or edges, as described in Table 4-2.
TABLE 4-2: EQUIVALENT DOMAIN AND THIN STRUCTURES FEATURES

TYPE OF MEDIUM DOMAIN FEATURE BOUNDARY FEATURE EDGE FEATURE

Solid Solid Thin Layer (ht) Thin Rod (ht)

Thin Conductive
Layer (ht, htsh)
Fluid Fluid Thin Film (ht, htsh) —
Porous Porous Medium Fracture (ht, htsh) —

All these functionalities have in common the fact that the thin domains they model are
lumped into boundaries (for The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface, Thin Layer,
Thin Film and Fracture) or 3D edges (for Thin Rod).

REDUCED MESH ELEMENT NUMBER

A significant benefit is that a thin structure can be represented as a boundary instead
of a domain and a rod can be represented as a 3D edge. This simplifies the geometry
and reduces the required number of mesh elements. Figure 4-2 shows an example
where a thin structure significantly reduces the mesh density.

Copper wire modeled

with a mesh

Copper wire represented

as a thin structure

Figure 4-2: Modeling a copper wire as a domain (top) requires a denser mesh compared to
modeling it as a boundary with a conductive layer (bottom).

THIN STRUCTURE AS AN EXTRA DIMENSION

To model heat transfer through the thickness of a thin structure, or multiple
sandwiched layers with different material properties and thicknesses, COMSOL
Multiphysics gives the possibility to create a product space between the dimensions of
the boundary and an additional dimension. This is realized by the Extra Dimension
tool through either the Thin Layered Shell (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S T R U C T U R E S | 167
 feature or the General option of the Thin Layer and Thin Film features.

Adding Extra Dimensions to a Model and Using Extra Dimensions in the

COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Plotting Results in Thin Layers Extra Dimensions

An additional 1D segmented line represents the thickness of the thin structure. The
number of mesh points for each interval of the extra dimension is set to 2 by default.

TAN G EN TI AL AN D N ORMA L GRA D IE N TS

In thin structures, the tangential gradient and the normal gradient can be more
appropriate to express the governing equations.

The normal gradient is the projection of the gradient operator onto the normal
vector, n, of the boundary representing the thin structure. This is mathematically
expressed for any scalar field T as:

∇ n T = ( ∇T ⋅ n )n

The tangential gradient removes the normal component from the gradient
operation, so that only tangential components remain. This is mathematically
expressed for any scalar field T as:

∇ t T = ∇T – ( ∇T ⋅ n )n

The gradient operator is then split into a tangential part and a normal part:

∇T = ∇ t T + ∇ n T (4-36)

This relation simplifies to:

∇T = ∇ t T or ∇T = ∇ n T

168 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
when tangential heat transfer is dominant or negligible. These results will be useful in
the next sections describing heat transfer in the different thin structures.

It should be noted that when an extra dimension is used, the equations

are written from the point of view of the extra dimension. In particular,
the dtang() operator would correspond to ∇n since it performs the
derivation along the extra line. In the thin structure boundary, dtang()
would correspond to ∇t.

T H E R M A L C O N D U C T I V I T Y TE N S O R I N L O C A L B O U N D A R Y S Y S T E M S
The thermal conductivity k describes the relationship between the heat flux vector q
and the temperature gradient ∇T as in

q = – k ∇T

which is Fourier’s law of heat conduction (see also The Physical Mechanisms under
Heat Transfer).

The tensor components can be specified in the local coordinate system of the
boundary, which is defined from the geometric tangent and normal vectors. The local
x-direction, ex, loc, is the surface tangent vector t1, and the local z-direction, ez, loc, is
the normal vector n. Their cross product defines the third orthogonal direction such
that:

x, loc
e = t1
y, loc
e = n × t1
z, loc
e = n

From this, a transformation matrix between the local coordinate system and the global
coordinate system can be constructed in the following way:

x, loc y, loc z, loc

ex ex ex
A = e x, loc e y, loc e z, loc
y y y
x, loc y, loc z, loc
ez ez ez

The thermal conductivity tensor in the local coordinate system, kbnd, is then expressed
as

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S T R U C T U R E S | 169
 k bnd = AkA T

Theoretical Background of the Different Formulations

Three formulations are available for the modeling of heat transfer in thin structures
defined as boundaries:

• The general formulation, using the Extra Dimension tool to solve the equations
into the boundaries and through the thin structure’s thickness
• The thermally thin approximation, a lumped formulation assuming that heat
transfer mainly follows the tangential direction of the thin structure
• The thermally thick approximation, a lumped formulation assuming that heat
transfer is dominant in the direction normal to the thin structure

They all derive from the energy equation established in Equation 4-13, and recalled
here below:

∂E
ρ + ρu ⋅ ∇E + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = – ( σ:D ) + Q
∂t

where E is the variable for the internal energy.

GENERAL FORMULATION
The general formulation uses the Extra Dimension tool to solve the equations through
the thin structure’s thickness. The thin structure has its domain represented by the
product space between the lumped boundary and the additional dimension for the
thickness. Applying the split of the gradient operator given earlier at Equation 4-36,
the energy equation becomes

∂E s
ρ + ρu ⋅ ( ∇ t E s + ∇ n E s ) + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = – ( σ:D ) + Q (4-37)
∂t

The ∇t operator is the tangential derivative in the thin structure boundary, and the ∇n
operator is the derivation operator along the extra dimension which is normal to the
thin structure (see Tangential and Normal Gradients). The subscript s appended on E
(and T in the following) is here to recall that this variable lives in the product space of
the thin structure.

Equation 4-37 comes along with Fourier’s law of conduction:

q = –k ( ∇t Ts + ∇n Ts ) (4-38)

170 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
and constraints on the temperature at the extremities of the extra dimension:

Tu = ( Ts )L = 0 Td = ( Ts )L = d (4-39)
s

Here, ds is the length of the extra dimension, or equivalently the thickness of the thin
structure, and Tu and Td are the temperature at the upside and the downside of the
thin structure.

THERMALLY THIN APPROXIMATION

This formulation applies to a thin structure where heat transfer mainly follows the
tangential direction. The gradient operator is then simplified to

∇T = ∇ t T

This assumption is often valid for thin structures that are good thermal conductors
compared to the adjacent domains, and/or with fast convection along the tangential
direction.

With these assumptions, Equation 4-13 becomes:

∂E
ds ρ + d s ρu ⋅ ∇ t E + ∇ t ⋅ ( q s + q r ) = – d s ( σ:D ) + d s Q + q 0 (4-40)
∂t

q s = – d s k∇ t T (4-41)

where ds is the layer thickness (SI unit: m). The heat source Q is a density distributed
in the layer while q0 is the received out-of-plane heat flux.

In 2D, Equation 4-40 and Equation 4-41 have an additional factor, dz,
to account for the out-of-plane thickness.

When Equation 4-40 is solved in a boundary adjacent to a domain modeling heat

transfer, the two entities exchange a certain amount of heat flux according to:

q0 = n ⋅ q

In this coupling relation, the outgoing heat flux n ⋅ q leaves the domain and is received
in the source term q0 by the adjacent thin layer modeled as a boundary. From the point
of view of the domain, and neglecting thermoelastic effects, the following heat source
is received from the thin structure:

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S T R U C T U R E S | 171
 ∂E
–n ⋅ q = ds Qs – ds ρ – ( d s ρu ⋅ ∇ t E ) – ∇ t ⋅ ( q s + q r ) (4-42)
∂t

Equations for all supported types of medium are presented in the next sections, Thin
Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Thin Rod.

THERMALLY THICK APPROXIMATION

This formulation applies to a thin structure where heat transfer mainly follows the
normal direction. The gradient operator is then simplified to

∇T = ∇ n T

This assumption is often valid for thin structures that are thermally resistive compared
to the adjacent domains.

With these assumptions, Equation 4-13 becomes:

∂E
ds ρ + d s ρu ⋅ ∇ n E + ∇ n ⋅ ( q s + q r ) = – d s ( σ:D ) + d s Q + q 0 (4-43)
∂t

q s = – d s k∇ n T (4-44)

where ds is the layer thickness (SI unit: m). The heat source Q is a density distributed
in the layer while q0 is the received out-of-plane heat flux.

In 2D, Equation 4-43 and Equation 4-44 have an additional factor, dz,
to account for the out-of-plane thickness.

When Equation 4-43 is solved in a boundary adjacent to a domain modeling heat

transfer, the two entities exchange a certain amount of heat flux according to:

q0 = n ⋅ q

In this coupling relation, the outgoing heat flux n ⋅ q leaves the domain and is received
in the source term q0 by the adjacent thin layer modeled as a boundary. From the point
of view of the domain, and neglecting thermoelastic effects, the following heat source
is received from the thin structure:

∂E
–n ⋅ q = ds Qs – ds ρ – ( d s ρu ⋅ ∇ n E ) – ∇ n ⋅ ( q s + q r ) (4-45)
∂t

172 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
To evaluate the normal gradient operation, ∇n, temperatures Tu and Td are
introduced for the upside and downside of the thin structure boundary. They are
defined from the heat flux across the thin resistive structure. At the middle of the
thickness, the temperature, T1 ⁄ 2, is approximated by (1 ⁄ 2)(Tu + Td). The term
∇n ⋅ (−dsk∇nT) is then given by:

T d – 2T 1 ⁄ 2 + T u
∇ n ⋅ ( – d s k∇ n T ) ≈ – k s ------------------------------------------
ds

which can be seen as the sum of two contributive sources on the upside and on the
downside of the boundary that compensate:

Tu – Td Td – Tu
– k s -------------------- – k s --------------------
ds ds

Similarly, the time-dependent term can be expressed using Tu and Td by:

∂T ∂T 1 ⁄ 2 1 ∂T u 1 ∂T d
ρC p ------- ≈ ρC p --------------- = --- ρC p ---------- + --- ρC p ----------
∂t ∂t 2 ∂t 2 ∂t

leading to:

ds Q d s ∂T d Tu – Td
– n d ⋅ q d = ----------- – ρC p  ------ ---------- + u d ⋅ n d T d –  – k s -------------------- – ( q r, d ⋅ n d ) (4-46)
2  2 ∂t   ds 

ds Q d s ∂T u Td – Tu
– n u ⋅ q u = ----------- – ρC p  ------ ---------- + u u ⋅ n u T u –  – k s -------------------- – ( q r, u ⋅ n u ) (4-47)
2  2 ∂t   ds 

Equations for all supported types of medium are presented in the next sections, Thin
Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Thin Rod.

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S T R U C T U R E S | 173
 U P S I D E , D OW N S I D E , A N D E X T E R I O R TE M P E R A T U R E S
This formulation is provided by the Thermally thick approximation option of the Thin
Layer feature. Figure 4-3 shows how Thin Layer splits the temperature into Tu and Td
on interior boundaries:

Downside domain Upside domain

of the boundary of the boundary

Td Tu
Thin Layer boundary

Figure 4-3: Upside and downside temperatures at a thin layer applied on an interior
boundary. The thin layer is represented by the gray domain.

On exterior boundaries, it introduces a new degree of freedom represented by the

variable TextFace. Depending on whether the heat domain is on the upside or the
downside of the boundary, TextFace, is equal to Tu or Td and the same thing goes for
the dependent variable T. An example is illustrated in the figure below:

Downside domain
of the boundary

T = Td
Tu = TextFace

Thin Layer boundary

Figure 4-4: Upside and downside temperatures at a thin layer applied on an exterior
boundary.

When using the pair Thin Layer node, the u and d subscripts refer to the
upside and the downside of the pair, respectively, instead of the layer.

174 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 Like any pair feature, the Thin Layer condition contributes to any other
pair feature. However, do not use two conditions of the same type on the
same pair. In order to model a thin resistive layer made of several
materials, use the Multiple layers option, which is available with the Heat
Transfer Module.

FORMULATIONS AVAILABLE WITHIN THE FEATURES

Table 4-3 summarizes the formulations available within the thin structure features of
the Heat Transfer (ht) and Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh) interfaces.
TABLE 4-3: FORMULATIONS AVAILABLE WITH THE THIN STRUCTURES FEATURES

FEATURE GENERAL THERMALLY THIN THERMALLY THICK

APPROXIMATION APPROXIMATION

Thin layer (ht) Yes Yes Yes

Thin conductive layer (htsh) No Yes No
Thin layered shell (htsh) Yes No No
Thin film (ht, htsh) Yes Yes No
Fracture (ht, htsh) No Yes No

Thin Layer
Thin layers of solid materials can be considered as boundaries when their thickness is
significantly smaller than the typical lengths of the adjacent domains.

GENERAL FORMULATION
With this formulation, multiple sandwiched layers with different material properties
and thicknesses can be modeled. An additional 1D segmented line represents the
multiple layers in the thin structure. In this extra dimension, the governing equation
is derived from Equation 4-37 to give:

∂T s
ρ si C p, si --------- + ∇ t ⋅ q si = Q si (4-48)
∂t

q si = – k si ( ∇tT s + ∇nT s ) (4-49)

Tu = ( Ts )L = 0

Td = ( Ts )L = d
s

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S T R U C T U R E S | 175
 where Ts is an auxiliary dependent variable defined on the product space. The
remaining quantities are recalled below:

• ρsi is the density of layer i (SI unit: kg/m3)

• Cp, si is the heat capacity of layer i (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• ksi is the thermal conductivity of layer i (SI unit: W/(m·K))
• Qsi is the heat source applied to layer i (SI unit: W/m3)
• ds is the shell thickness (SI unit: m)

The constraint T = Ts is specified on each side of the extra dimension to connect T to

Ts.

See Thin Layer with Layer type set as General or more information about
the boundary feature solving Equation 4-48 and Equation 4-49.

THERMALLY THIN APPROXIMATION

The Heat Transfer Module supports heat transfer in thermally thin structures in 3D,
2D, and 2D axisymmetry. The material in the thin structure might be a good thermal
conductor for this approximation to be valid. For example, in a printed circuit with
copper traces, where the traces are often good thermal conductors compared to the
board’s substrate material.

The thermally thin approximation is derived from Equation 4-40 to Equation 4-42.
Inside the thin layer, the heat equation becomes:

∂T
d s ρC p, s + ∇t ⋅ qs = ds Q s + q0 (4-50)
∂t

q s = – d s k ∇t T (4-51)

where ds is the layer thickness (SI unit: m). The heat source Qs is a density distributed
in the layer while q0 is the received out-of-plane heat flux.

In 2D, Equation 4-50 and Equation 4-51 have an additional factor, dz,
to account for the out-of-plane thickness.

From the point of view of the domain, the following heat source, derived from
Equation 4-42, is received from the layer:

176 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 ∂T
– n ⋅ q = d s Q s – d s ρC p, s ------- – ∇ t ⋅ q s (4-52)
∂t

See Thin Layer with Layer type set as Thermally thin approximation for
more information about the boundary feature solving Equation 4-52. See
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface for more information about
the physics interface solving Equation 4-50.

• Heat Transfer in a Surface-Mount Package for a Silicon Chip:

Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/surface
_mount_package
• Silica Glass Block Coated with a Copper Layer: Application Library
path Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/copper_layer

THERMALLY THICK APPROXIMATION

When a thin layer is formed of one or more thermally resistive materials, it can be
defined through its thermal resistance:

ds
R s = ------
ks

The heat flux across the thermally thick structure is derived from Equation 4-45 and
gives

1 ∂T d Tu – Td 1
– n d ⋅ q d = – --- d s ρ s C p, s ---------- – k s -------------------- + --- d s Q s (4-53)
2 ∂t ds 2

1 ∂T u Td – Tu 1
– n u ⋅ q u = – --- d s ρ s C p, s ---------- – k s -------------------- + --- d s Q s (4-54)
2 ∂t ds 2

where the u and d subscripts refer to the upside and downside of the layer, respectively.

When the material has a multilayer structure, ks and ds in the expressions above are
replaced by dtot and ktot, which are defined according to Equation 4-55 and
Equation 4-56:

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S T R U C T U R E S | 177
 n

d tot =  dsj (4-55)

j=1

d tot
k tot = -----------------
n
- (4-56)
d sj
 -------
k sj
j=1

where n is the number of layers.

See Thin Layer with Layer type set as Thermally thick approximation for
more information about the boundary feature solving Equation 4-53 and
Equation 4-54.

Thin Film
Thin films of fluid can be considered as boundaries of thickness significantly smaller
than the typical lengths of the overall model.

GENERAL FORMULATION
With this formulation, heat transfer is modeled in the whole film, including its
thickness. An additional 1D segmented line represents the thickness in the thin film.
In this extra dimension, the governing equation is derived from Equation 4-37 to give:

∂T s
ρC p --------- + ρC p u ⋅ ( ∇tT s + ∇nT s ) + ∇ t ⋅ q f = Q f (4-57)
∂t

q f = – k ( ∇tT s + ∇nT s ) (4-58)

Tu = ( Ts )L = 0

Td = ( Ts )L = d
f

where Ts is an auxiliary dependent variable defined on the product space. The

remaining quantities are recalled below:

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• Cp is the heat capacity (SI unit: J/(kg·K))

178 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
• k is the thermal conductivity (SI unit: W/(m·K))
• Qf is the heat source applied to the film (SI unit: W/m3)
• df is the film thickness (SI unit: m)

The constraint T = Ts is specified on each side of the extra dimension to connect T to

Ts.

See Thin Film with Thin film model set as General for more information
about the boundary feature solving Equation 4-57 and Equation 4-58.

THERMALLY THIN APPROXIMATION

The thermally thin approximation is derived from Equation 4-40 to Equation 4-42.
Inside the thin layer, the heat equation becomes:

∂T
d f ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇ t T + ∇ t ⋅ q f = d f Q f + q 0 (4-59)
 ∂t 

q f = – d f k∇ t T (4-60)

where df is the film thickness (SI unit: m). The heat source Qf is a density distributed
in the layer while q0 is the received out-of-plane heat flux.

In 2D, Equation 4-50 and Equation 4-51 have an additional factor, dz,
to account for the out-of-plane thickness.

From the point of view of the domain, the following heat source, derived from
Equation 4-42, is received from the layer:

∂T
– n ⋅ q = d f Q f – d f ρC p ------- – d f ρC p u ⋅ ∇ t T – ∇ t ⋅ q f (4-61)
∂t

See Thin Film with Thin film model set as Thermally thin approximation for
more information about the boundary feature solving Equation 4-59. See
The Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface for more information about
the physics interface solving Equation 4-61.

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S T R U C T U R E S | 179
 Fracture
When fractures occur in porous media, fluid flow tends to move faster than in the bulk
medium. The transport of heat occurs faster in the fractures that in the surrounding
medium, so in this sense, heat transfer in fractures filled with fluids is more similar to
a highly conductive layer than to a thin thermally resistive layer.

The mass transport in fractures can be modeled as Darcy’s law in a thin sheet of porous
medium:

κ
u = --- ∇ t p
μ

where u is the tangential Darcy’s velocity (SI unit: m/s), κ is the fracture permeability
(SI unit: m2), μ the fluid’s dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pa⋅s), and ∇tp the tangential
gradient of the fluid’s pressure.

Typically, Darcy’s Law with tangential derivatives is solved to compute mass transport,
so in addition to the fluid properties, the fracture should define its own permeability
(or hydraulic conductivity in case the fluid is water), porosity, and fracture thickness.

For heat transfer in fractures, the fracture also needs to define the density of the porous
sheet, heat capacity, and thermal conductivity. The effective thermal conductivity of
the fracture must be adjusted to the fracture porosity and thermal conductivity of the
fluid. In rocks and geological formations, the fracture might also contain highly
conductive material, different than the bulk porous matrix.

The equation to solve for computing heat transfer in fractures is derived from
Equation 4-40 to Equation 4-42 and using the procedure detailed in Theory for Heat
Transfer in Porous Media to apply the mixture rule on solid and fluid internal energies.
The resulting equations are:

∂T
d fr ( ρC p ) eff + d fr ρC p u ⋅ ∇ t T + ∇ t ⋅ q fr = d fr Q + q 0 (4-62)
∂t

q fr = – d fr k eff ∇ t T (4-63)

Here (ρCp)eff is the effective heat capacity at constant pressure of the fracture-fluid
volume, ρ is the fluid’s density, Cp is the fluid’s heat capacity at constant pressure, qfr
is the conductive heat flux in the fracture-fluid volume, keff is the effective thermal
conductivity of the fluid-fracture mixture, and Q is a possible heat source.

180 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
From the point of view of the domain, the following heat source, derived from
Equation 4-42, is received from the fracture:

∂T
– n ⋅ q = d fr Q 0 – d fr ( ρC p ) eff – d fr ρC p u ⋅ ∇ t T – ∇ t ⋅ q fr (4-64)
∂t

See Fracture for more information about the boundary feature solving
Equation 4-64. See The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface for more
information about the physics interface solving Equation 4-62.

Thin Rod
The Thin Rod feature is similar to Thin Layer with Layer type set as Thermally thin
approximation. It provides a lumped heat transfer model to model thermally thin rods
as edges.

The edge condition reads:

∂T
S ( R) Q ds = A l Q l – A l ρ l C p, l +
∂t
– ∇t ⋅ ql (4-65)

ql = –Al kl ∇t T (4-66)

with

2
A l = πr l

See Thin Rod for node information.

T H E O R Y F O R H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S T R U C T U R E S | 181
 Theory for Surface-to-Surface
Radiation
In addition to conduction and convection, the third mechanism for heat transfer is
radiation. Consider an environment with fully transparent or fully opaque objects.
Thermal radiation denotes the stream of electromagnetic waves emitted from a body
at a certain temperature.

The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface theory is described in this section:

• Deriving the Radiative Heat Flux

• Wavelength Dependence of Surface Emissivity and Absorptivity
• The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Gray Surfaces
• The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Spectral Surfaces
• View Factor Evaluation

Deriving the Radiative Heat Flux

In Figure 4-5, consider a point P located on a surface that has an emissivity ε,
reflectivity ρ, absorptivity α, refractive index n, and temperature T. The body is
assumed opaque, which means that no radiation is transmitted through the body. This
is true for most solid bodies.
J = ρG + εn2σT4
G

εn2σT4

ρG

P P

Figure 4-5: Incoming irradiation (left), outgoing radiosity (right).

The total incoming radiative flux at P is called irradiation and denoted G. The total
outgoing radiative flux at P is called radiosity and denoted J. This radiosity is the sum
of reflected and emitted radiation:

J = ρG + εe b ( T ) (4-67)

182 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, eb(T) is the power radiated across all
wavelengths and depends on the forth power of the temperature:

e b ( T ) = n 2 σT 4

The net inward radiative heat flux, q, is then given by the difference between the
irradiation and the radiosity:

q = G–J (4-68)

Using Equation 4-67 and Equation 4-68, J can be eliminated and a general expression
is obtained for the net inward heat flux into the opaque body based on G and T.

q = ( 1 – ρ )G – εe b ( T ) (4-69)

Most opaque bodies also behave as ideal gray bodies, meaning that the absorptivity and
emissivity are equal, and the reflectivity is therefore obtained from the following
relation:

α = ε = 1–ρ (4-70)

Thus, for ideal gray bodies, q is given by:

q = ε ( G – eb ( T ) ) (4-71)

This is the expression used for the radiative boundary condition.

Wavelength Dependence of Surface Emissivity and Absorptivity

The surface properties for radiation, the emissivity, and absorptivity can be dependent
on the angle of emission or absorption, the surface temperature, or the radiation
wavelength. The emissivity and absorptivity are defined in Ref. 17.

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface in the Heat Transfer module implements

the radiosity method that enables arbitrary temperature dependence and assumes that
the emissivity and absorptivity is independent of the angle of emission and absorption.
It is also possible to account for wavelength dependence on the surface emissivity and
absorptivity.

PLANCK SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION

The Planck’s distribution of emissive power for a blackbody in vacuum is given as a
function of surface temperature and wavelength.

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 183

 The blackbody hemispherical emissive power (SI unit: W/(m3·sr)), is denoted
eb, λ(λ, T), and defined as (1-37 in Ref. 17):

2πn 2 C 1
e b, λ ( λ, T ) = ------------------------------ (4-72)
C2
 ------- 
λ  e – 1
5 λT
 
 

where:

• the two constants C1 (SI unit: W·m2/sr) and C2 (SI unit: m·K) are given by

2 hc 0
C 1 = hc 0 C 2 = ---------
kB

• h is the Planck constant (SI unit: J·s)

• kB is the Boltzmann constant (SI unit: J/K)
• c0 is the speed of the light in vacuum (SI unit: m/s)
• λ is the wavelength in vacuum (SI unit: m)
• n is the refractive index of the media (SI unit: 1), equal to 1 in vacuum

Figure 4-6 and Figure 4-7 show the hemispherical spectral emissive power for a
blackbody at 5780 K (the Sun’s blackbody temperature) and for a blackbody at 300 K.
The dotted vertical lines delimit the visible spectrum (from 0.4 µm to 0.7 µm).

Figure 4-6: Planck distribution of a blackbody at 5780 K.

184 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Figure 4-7: Planck distribution of a blackbody at 300 K.

The integral of eb, λ(λ, T) over a spectral band represents the power radiated on the
spectral band and is defined by

λ2 ∞
λ eb, λ ( λ, T ) dλ = Fλ T → λ T 0 eb, λ ( λ, T ) dλ
1
1 2

where F λ1 T → λ 2 T is the fractional blackbody emissive power,

λ2

λ1

e b, λ ( λ, T ) dλ
F λ 1 T → λ2 T = ----------------------------------------
∞
-

0 eb, λ ( λ, T ) dλ
Recall the Stefan-Boltzmann law that computes the power radiated across all
wavelengths:

∞
0 eb, λ ( λ, T ) dλ = e b ( T ) = n 2 σT 4

where n is the refractive index, and σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant equal to

5.67 ⋅ 10-8 W/(m2·K4). The power radiated in the spectral band [λ1, λ2] becomes:

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 185

 λ2
λ eb, λ ( λ, T ) dλ
1
= F λ1 T → λ2 T eb ( T )

The function eb(T) is available as a predefined function via ht.feb(T) in

the Heat Transfer interfaces.

Notice that:

F λ1 T → λ2 T = F 0 → λ2 T – F 0 → λ1 T and F 0 → ∞ = 1

The figure below shows the value of F 0 → λT for different values of λT.

DIFFUSE-GRAY SURFACES
Diffuse-gray surfaces correspond to the hypothesis that surface properties are
independent of the radiation wavelength and angle between the surface normal and
the radiation direction.

The assumption that the surface emissivity is independent of the radiation wavelength
is often valid when most of the radiative power is concentrated on a relatively narrow

186 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
spectral band. This is likely the case when the radiation is emitted by a surface at
temperatures in limited range.

This setting is rarely applicable if there is solar radiation.

SOLAR AND AMBIENT SPECTRAL BANDS

When solar radiation is part of the model, it is possible to enhance a diffuse-gray
surface model by considering two spectral bands: one for short wavelengths and one
for large wavelengths.

It is interesting to notice that about 97% of the radiated power from a blackbody at
5800 K is at wavelengths of 2.5 µm or shorter, and 97% of the radiated power from a
blackbody at 700 K is at wavelengths of 2.5 µm or longer (see Figure 4-8).

Figure 4-8: Normalized Planck distribution of blackbodies at 700 K and 5800 K.

Many problems have a solar load, but the peak temperatures are below 700 K.

In such cases, it is appropriate to use a two-band approach with

• A solar band for wavelengths shorter than 2.5 µm

• An ambient band for wavelengths above 2.5 µm

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 187

 For each surface, properties are then described in terms of a solar absorptivity and an
emissivity.

Solar irradiation,
λ < 2.5 µm

Reradiation to
surroundings,

λ > 2.5 µm

Figure 4-9: Absorption of solar radiation and emission to the surroundings.

By splitting the bands at the default of 2.5 μm, the fraction of absorbed solar radiation
on each surface is defined primarily by the solar absorptivity.

The reradiation at longer wavelengths (objects below ~700 K) and the reabsorption of
this radiation is defined primarily via the emissivity

Emissivity

Wavelength

Figure 4-10: Solar and ambient spectral band approximation of the surface emissivity by
a constant per band emissivity.

188 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
GENERAL DIFFUSE-SPECTRAL SURFACES
Diffuse-spectral surfaces correspond to the hypothesis that surface properties are
wavelength dependent but independent of the angle between the surface normal and
the radiation direction.

The heat transfer module enables to define constant surface properties per spectral
bands (with up to 5 spectral bands) and to adjust spectral intervals endpoints.

Emissivity

λ1 λ2 λ3 Wavelength

The multiple spectral bands approach is used in cases when the surface emissivity varies
significantly over the bands of interest.

The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Gray Surfaces

The heat transfer by radiation is combined with convective and conductive heat
transfer through a source term added to the heat equation along with the other
contributions from the heat flux and boundary heat source boundary conditions.
Recalling Equation 4-68, this source account for the difference between incident
radiation, or irradiation, G, and radiation leaving the surface, or radiosity, J:

q = G–J

The radiosity, J, is given in Equation 4-67. It is the sum of reflected and emitted
radiation. For diffuse-gray surfaces, J is defined by:

J = ( 1 – ε )G + εe b ( T )

Here

• G is the incoming radiative heat flux, or irradiation (SI unit: W/m2)

• ε is the surface emissivity (SI unit: 1), a dimensionless number in the range 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1.
The diffuse-gray surface hypothesis corresponds to surfaces where ε is independent
of the radiation wavelength.

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 189

 • eb(T) is the blackbody hemispherical total emissive power (SI unit: W/m2).
• T is the surface temperature (SI unit: K).

The irradiation, G, at a given point is split into three contributions according to:

G = G m + G ext + G amb (4-73)

where:

• Gm is the mutual irradiation, coming from other boundaries in the model

(SI unit: W/m2).
• Gext is the irradiation from external radiation sources (SI unit: W/m2). It is the sum
of the products, for each external source, of the external heat sources view factor
Fext by the corresponding source radiosity:

G ext =  Fext Ps +  Fext q0, s

The first term of the sum gathers radiation sources located on a point. The second
term stands for directional radiative sources.
• Gamb is the ambient irradiation (SI unit: W/m2), defined as:
G amb = F amb e b ( T amb )

• Famb is an ambient view factor; its value is equal to the fraction of the field of view
that is not covered by other boundaries. Therefore, by definition, 0 ≤ Famb ≤ 1 at
all points.
• Tamb is the assumed far-away temperature (SI unit: K) in the directions included in
Famb.

The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface includes the following radiation types:

• Diffuse Surface is the default radiation type. It requires accurate evaluation of the
mutual irradiation, Gm. The incident radiation at one point on the boundary is a
function of the radiosity, J, at every other point in view. The radiosity, in turn, is a
function of Gm, which leads to an implicit radiation balance:
J = ( 1 – ε ) ( G m ( J ) + G ext + G amb ) + εe b ( T ) (4-74)

• Diffuse Mirror is a variant of the Diffuse Surface radiation type with ε = 0.

Reradiation surfaces are common as an approximation of a surface that is well
insulated on one side and for which convection effects can be neglected on the
opposite (radiating) side (see Ref. 18). It resembles a mirror that absorbs all

190 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 irradiation and then radiates it back in all directions.
• Prescribed Radiosity makes it possible to specify graybody radiation. The radiosity
expression is then εeb(T). A user-defined surface radiosity expression can also be
defined.

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface handles the radiosity J as a shape function

unless J is prescribed.

The Radiosity Method for Diffuse-Spectral Surfaces

For a general diffuse-spectral surface:

∞
J = 0 ( ( 1 – ε ( λ, T ) )G ( λ ) + ε ( λ, T )eb, λ ( λ, T ) ) dλ
where

• ε(λ, T) is the hemispherical spectral surface emissivity, a dimensionless quantity in

the range 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1. Diffuse-spectral surface corresponds to a surface where ε is
dependent on the radiation wavelength and surface temperature.
• T is the surface temperature (SI unit: K).
• eb, λ(λ, T) is the blackbody hemispherical emissive power (SI unit: W/(m3·sr))
defined in Equation 4-72.

The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface assumes that the surface emissivity and
opacity properties are constant per spectral band. It defines N spectral bands (N = 2
when solar and ambient radiation model is used),

 B i = [λ i – 1,λ i] for 1 ≤ i ≤ N

 λ0 = 0

 λN = ∞

so that the radiosity has a custom definition in each interval:

J =  Ji
i=1
J i = ( 1 – ε i )G i + ε i e b ( T )

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 191

 The surface properties can then be defined per spectral band:

• Surface emissivity on Bi: εi(T) = ε(λ, T) for λ in the interval Bi

• Ambient irradiation on Bi, assuming that the ambient fractional emissive power
corresponds to the one of a blackbody at temperature Tamb:
λi
G amb, i = λ = λ i–1
G amb ( λ ) dλ = F λi – 1 T → λ i T F amb e b ( T amb )

• External radiation sources on Bi with q0, s, i and Ps, i the external radiation source
heat flux and heat rate, respectively, over Bi:
λi
G ext, i = λ = λ i–1
G ext ( λ ) dλ = F ext, i ( i s )q 0, s, i

or
λi
G ext, i = λ = λ i–1
G ext ( λ ) dλ = F ext, i ( i s )P s, i

When the external source fractional emissive power corresponds to the one of a
blackbody at Text, external radiation sources on Bi can be defined from the external
radiation source heat flux, q0, s, and heat rate, Ps, over all wavelengths:
G ext, i = F ext, i F λ i – 1 T → λ i T ( i s )q 0, s

or
G ext, i = F ext, i F λ i – 1 T → λi T ( i s )P s

The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface includes the following radiation types:

• Diffuse Surface is the default radiation type. The incident radiation over the Bi
spectral band at one point of the boundary is a function of the radiosity, Ji (SI unit:
W/m2), at every other point in view. The radiosity, in turn, is a function of Gm, i,
which leads to an implicit radiation balance:
J i = ( 1 – ε i ) ( G m, i ( J i ) + G ext, i + G amb, i ) + ε i e b ( T ) (4-75)

• Diffuse Mirror is a variant of the Diffuse Surface radiation type with εi = 0.

Reradiation surfaces are common as an approximation of a surface that is well
insulated on one side and for which convection effects can be neglected on the
opposite (radiating) side (see Ref. 18). It resembles a mirror that absorbs all

192 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 irradiation and then radiates it back in all directions.
• Prescribed Radiosity makes it possible to specify the surface radiation for each
spectral band. Using the graybody radiation definition, the radiosity is then
F λ 1 T → λ2 T e b ( T ) . A user-defined surface radiosity expression can also be defined.

The Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface handles the radiosity Ji as a shape function

unless Ji is prescribed.

View Factor Evaluation

The strategy for evaluating view factors is central to any radiation simulation. Loosely
speaking, a view factor is a measure of how much influence the radiosity at a given part
of the boundary has on the irradiation at some other part.

The quantities Gm and Famb in Equation 4-74 are not strictly view factors in the
traditional sense. Instead, Famb is the view factor of the ambient portion of the field
of view, which is considered to be a single boundary with constant radiosity

J amb = e b ( T amb )

On the other hand, Gm is the integral over all visible points of a differential view factor,
multiplied by the radiosity of the corresponding source point. In the discrete model,
think of it as the product of a view factor matrix and a radiosity vector. This is, however,
not necessarily the way the calculation is performed.

Consider a point P on a surface as in Figure 4-11. It can be seen by points on other

surfaces such as S′ in the figure, as well as the ambient surrounding, Samb. Assume

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 193

 that the points on S′ have a local radiosity, J′, while the ambient surrounding has a
constant temperature, Tamb.

Samb

S′

J′
P′

r
n′ n

Jamb
Samb

Figure 4-11: Example geometry for surface-to-surface radiation.

The mutual irradiation at point P is given by the following surface integral:

( – n′ ⋅ r ) ( n ⋅ r )
Gm = S′ -------------------------------------
πr
4
- J′ ds

The heat flux that arrives from P′ depends on the local radiosity J′ projected onto P.
The projection is computed using the normal vectors n and n′ along with the vector
r, which points from P to P′.

The ambient view factor, Famb, is determined from the integral of the surrounding
surfaces S′, here denoted as F′:

( – n′ ⋅ r ) ( n ⋅ r )
F amb = 1 – F ′ = 1 – S′ -------------------------------------
πr
4
- ds

The two last equations plug into Equation 4-73 to yield the final equation for
irradiative flux.

The equations used so far apply to the general 3D case. 2D geometries result in simpler
integrals. For the 2D case, the resulting equations for the mutual irradiation and
ambient view factor are

194 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 ( – n′ ⋅ r ⊥ ) ( n ⋅ r ⊥ )
Gm = S ′ --------------------------------------------
2r
3
- J′ ds (4-76)
⊥
⊥

( – n′ ⋅ r ⊥ ) ( n ⋅ r ⊥ )
F amb = 1 – S ' --------------------------------------------
2r
3
- ds
⊥
⊥

where the integral over S⊥′ denotes the line integral along the boundaries of the 2D
geometry.

In axisymmetric geometries or when a symmetry plane is defined, the irradiation and

ambient view factor cannot be computed directly from a closed-form expression.
Instead, a virtual geometry must be constructed, and the view factors evaluated
according to Equation 4-76.

A separate evaluation is performed for each unique point where Gm or Famb is

requested, typically for each quadrature point during solution. Differential view factors
are normally computed only once, the first time they are needed, and then stored in
memory until next time the model definition or the mesh is changed.

The Heat Transfer Module supports two surface-to-surface radiation methods, which
are selected in the Radiation Settings section in a Heat Transfer interface:

• Hemicube
• Discrete area integration

View factors are always calculated directly from the mesh, which is a
polygonal representation of the geometry. To improve the accuracy of the
radiative heat transfer simulation, the mesh must be refined rather than
raising the element order.

VIEW FACTOR FOR EXTERNAL RADIATION SOURCES

In 3D, the view factor for a point at finite distance is given by

cos θ
------------
2
4πr

where θ is the angle between the normal to the irradiated surface and the direction of
the source, and r is the distance from the source. For a source at infinity, the view factor
is given by cos θ.

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 195

 In 2D the view factor for a point at finite distance is given by

cos θ-
-----------
2πr

and the view factor for a source at infinity is cos θ.

SOLAR POSITION
The Sun is the most common example of an external radiation source. The position of
the Sun is necessary to determine the direction of the corresponding external radiation
source. The direction of sunlight (zenith angle and the solar elevation) is automatically
computed from the latitude, longitude, time zone, date, and time using similar a
method as described in Ref. 17. The estimated solar position is accurate for a date
between year 2000 and 2199, due to an approximation used in the Julian Day calendar
calculation.

The zenith angle, θs, and azimuth angle, ϕs, of the Sun are converted into a direction
vector is = (isx, isy, isz) in Cartesian coordinates assuming that the north, the west, and
the up directions correspond to the x, y, and z directions, respectively, in the model.
The relation between θs, ϕs, and is is given by:

i sx = – cos ( ϕ s ) sin ( θ s )
i sy = sin ( ϕ s ) sin ( θ s )
i sz = – cos ( θ s )

RADIATION IN AXISYMMETRIC GEOMETRIES

For an axisymmetric geometry, Gm and Famb must be evaluated in a corresponding
3D geometry obtained by revolving the 2D boundaries around the axis. COMSOL
Multiphysics creates this virtual 3D geometry by revolving the 2D boundary mesh into
a 3D mesh. The resolution can be controlled in the azimuthal direction by setting the
number of azimuthal sectors, which is the same as the number of elements to a full
revolution. Try to balance this number against the mesh resolution in the rz-plane.
This number, the azimuthal sectors, is accessible from the Radiation Settings section
in physics interfaces for heat transfer.

Select between the hemicube and the direct area integration methods also in axial
symmetry. Their settings work the same way as in 3D.

196 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
While Gm and Famb are in fact evaluated in a full 3D, the number of
points where they are requested is limited to the quadrature points on the
boundary of a 2D geometry. The savings compared to a full 3D
simulation are therefore substantial despite the full 3D view factor code
being used.

THEORY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION | 197

 Theory for Radiation in Participating
Media
Radiation and Participating Media Interactions

Figure 4-12: Example of interactions between participating media and radiation.

In some applications the medium is not completely transparent and the radiation rays
interact with the medium.

Let I(Ω) denote the radiative intensity traveling in a given direction, Ω. Different kinds
of interactions are observed:

• Absorption: The medium absorbs a fraction of the incident radiation. The amount
of absorbed radiation is κI(Ω), where κ is the absorption coefficient.
• Emission: The medium emits radiation in all directions. The amount of emitted
radiative intensity is equal to κIb, where Ib is the blackbody radiation intensity.
• Scattering: Part of the radiation coming from a given direction is scattered in other
directions. The scattering properties of the medium are described by the scattering
phase function φ(Ω′, Ω), which gives the probability that a ray coming from one
direction Ω′ is scattered into the direction Ω. The phase function φ(Ω′, Ω) satisfies:

198 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 1
------
4π 4π φ ( Ω′, Ω ) dΩ′ = 1

Radiative intensity in a given direction is attenuated and augmented by scattering:

- It is attenuated because a part of the incident radiation in this direction is
scattered into other directions. The amount of radiation attenuated by scattering
is σsI(Ω).
- It is augmented because a part of the radiative intensity coming from other
directions is scattered in all direction, including the direction we are looking at.
The amount of radiation augmented by scattering is obtained by integrating
scattering coming from all directions Ω′:
σ
------s
4π 4π I ( Ω′ )φ ( Ω′, Ω ) dΩ′

Radiative Transfer Equation

The balance of the radiative intensity including all contributions (propagation,
emission, absorption, and scattering) can now be formulated. The general radiative
transfer equation can be written as (see Ref. 20):

σs
Ω ⋅ ∇I ( Ω ) = κI b ( T ) – βI ( Ω ) + ------
4π 4π I ( Ω′ )φ ( Ω′, Ω ) dΩ′ (4-77)

where

• I(Ω) is the radiative intensity at a given position following the Ω direction (SI unit:
W/(m2·sr))
• Ib(T) is the blackbody radiative intensity (SI unit: W/(m2·sr)), defined as
2 4
n r σT
I b ( T ) = ----------------- (4-78)
π

The quantity Ib(T) is available as a predefined function, ht.fIb(T), in

heat transfer interfaces.

• nr is the refractive index (SI unit: 1)

• σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (SI unit: W/(m2·K4))

THEORY FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA | 199

 • κ, β, σs are absorption, extinction, and scattering coefficients, respectively (SI unit:
1/m) and are related by:
β = κ + σs

• φ(Ω′, Ω) is the scattering phase function (SI unit: 1)

• T is the temperature (SI unit: K)

The phase function, φ(Ω′, Ω), gives the probability that a ray from the Ω′ direction is
scattered into the Ω direction. The phase function’s definition is material dependent
and its definition can be complicated. It is common to use approximate scattering
phase functions that are defined using the cosine of the scattering angle, μ0. The
current implementation handles:

• Isotropic phase functions:

φ ( Ω′, Ω ) = φ ( μ 0 ) = 1

• Linear anisotropic phase functions:

φ ( μ0 ) = 1 + a1 μ0

• Polynomial anisotropic up to the 12th order:

12

φ ( μ0 ) = 1 +  an Pn ( μ0 )
n=1

where Pn are the n-th order Legendre polynomials.

Legendre polynomials can be defined by the Rodriguez formula:

k k
1 d 2
P k ( x ) = -----------
k
((x – 1) )
k
2 k! d x

A quantity of interest is the incident radiation, denoted G, and defined by

G = 4π I ( Ω ) dΩ

Boundary Condition for the Radiative Transfer Equation

For gray walls, corresponding to opaque surfaces reflecting diffusively and emitting,
the radiative intensity I(Ω) entering participating media along the Ω direction is

200 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 1–ε
I ( Ω ) = εI b ( T ) + ----------- q r, out for all Ω such that n ⋅ Ω < 0
π

where

2 4
n r σT
I b ( T ) = -------------------- (4-79)
π

• Equation 4-78 is the blackbody radiation intensity and nr is the refractive index
• ε is the surface emissivity, which is in the range [0, 1]
• 1 − ε is the diffusive reflectivity
• n is the outward normal vector
• qr,out is the heat flux striking the wall:

q r, out = n ⋅ Ω > 0 I ( Ω ) ( n ⋅ Ω ) dΩ
For black walls ε = 1. Thus I(Ω) = Ib(T).

Heat Transfer Equation in Participating Media

Heat flux in gray media is defined by

qr = 4π I ( Ω )Ω dΩ
Heat flux divergence can be defined as a function of G and T (see Ref. 20):

Q r = ∇ ⋅ q r = κ ( G – 4πI b ( T ) )

In order to couple radiation in participating media, radiative heat flux is taken into
account in addition to conductive heat flux. Recalling Equation 4-16, the heat transfer
equation reads:

∂T ∂p
ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = α p T  + u ⋅ ∇p + τ: ∇u + Q
 ∂t  ∂t

and is implemented using following form:

∂T ∂p
ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ q = κ ( G – 4nσT 4 ) + α p T  + u ⋅ ∇p + τ: ∇u + Q
 ∂t  ∂t 

THEORY FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA | 201

 Discrete Ordinates Method (DOM)

The discrete ordinates method is implemented for 3D and 2D

geometries.

Radiative intensity is defined for any direction Ω, because the angular space is
continuous. In order to handle the radiative intensity equation numerically, the angular
space is discretized.

The discrete ordinates method (or SN approximation) provides a discretization of

angular space into n = N(N + 2) in 3D (or n = N(N + 2)/2 in 2D) discrete directions.
It consists in a set of directions and quadrature weights. Several sets are available in the
literature. A set should satisfy first, second, and third moments (see Ref. 20); it is also
recommended that the quadrature fulfills the half moment for vectors of Cartesian
basis. Since it is not possible to fulfill exactly all these conditions, accuracy should be
improved when N increases.

Following the conclusion of Ref. 21, the implementation uses the LSE symmetric
quadrature for S2, S4, S6, and S8. The LSE symmetric quadrature fulfills the half, first,
second, and third moments.

Thanks to angular space discretization, integrals over directions are replaced by

numerical quadratures of discrete directions:

4π I ( Ω ) dΩ ≈  wj Ij
j=1

Depending on the value of N, a set of n dependent variables has to be defined and

solved for I1, I2, …, In.

Each dependent variable satisfies the equation

n
σs
S i ⋅ ∇I i = κI b ( T ) – βI i + ------
4π  w j I j φ ( S j, S i )
j=1

where Si is the i-th discrete ordinate, with the following boundary condition

202 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 1–ε
I i, bnd = εI b ( T ) + ----------- q out for all S i such that n ⋅ S i < 0
π

with

q r, out =  wj Ij n ⋅ Ωj
n ⋅ Ωj > 0

Discrete Ordinates Method Implementation in 2D

For a given index i, define two indices, i+ and i−, so that

• Ω, Si+, and Si- have the same components in the xy–plane

• and Si+ and Si- have opposite components in the z direction.

Assuming that a model is invariant in the z direction, the radiative transfer equation in
two directions, Si+ and Si-, for the discrete ordinates method (DOM) reads:

n
σs
S i + ⋅ ∇I i + = κI b ( T ) – βI i+ + ------
4π  wj Ij φ ( Sj, Si ) +

j=1

n
σs
S i- ⋅ ∇I i- = κI b ( T ) – βI i- + ------
4π  w j I j φ ( S j, S i )
-

j=1

By summing these two equations and introducing I˜i which is equal to I i- and I i +
(these are equal in 2D):

n
σs
2S i ⋅ ∇I˜i = 2κI b ( T ) – 2βI˜i + ------
4π  w j I j ( φ ( S j, S i ) + φ ( S j, S i ) )
+ -

j=1

which can be rewritten as:

n
σs
S i ⋅ ∇I˜i = κI b ( T ) – βI˜i + ------
8π  w j I j ( φ ( S j, S i ) + φ ( S j, S i ) )
+ -

j=1

In addition if φ(Si, Sj) can be rewritten as a function of Si ⋅ Sj, as it is in COMSOL

Multiphysics implementation, then

THEORY FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA | 203

 φ ( S j+, S i+ ) = φ ( S j-, S i- ) and φ ( S j-, S i+ ) = φ ( S j+, S i- )

In addition

I j - φ ( S j-, S i+ ) + I j+ φ ( S j+, S i- ) = 2I˜j φ ( S j+, S i- ) = 2I˜j φ ( S j-, S i + )

so the above equation can be simplified:

n
σs
S˜ i ⋅ ∇I˜i = κI b ( T ) – βI˜i + ------  wj Ii φ ( Sj, Si )
˜ (4-80)
4π
j=1

with

S i, 1
S˜ i = S
i, 2
0

since the third component of ∇I˜i is zero in 2D.

Also notice that

n n⁄2 n⁄2

4π I ( Ω ) dΩ ≈  wj Ij =  wj Ij + wj Ij  wi Ii
= ˜ ˜ (4-81)
- - + +

j=1 j=1 j=1

with w˜ i = 2w i .

Using results from Equation 4-80 and Equation 4-81 the DOM is formulated in 2D
using only radiative intensities, I˜i , on half of the 3D DOM directions, S˜ i , except for
the scattering term. In other expressions than the scattering term, the z component of
the radiative intensities Ii and of the discrete directions Ωi can be ignored (or set to
zero) and the weight wi, multiplied by 2.

Rosseland Approximation Theory

For The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface, Rosseland
approximation is available as a radiation discretization method. Then for Radiation in
Participating Media (Heat Transfer Interface) feature node this theory is applicable.

204 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Rosseland approximation relies on the hypotheses that the participating media is
optically thick — that is, τ >>1 — where τ is the optical thickness defined by the integral
of absorption coefficient, κ, along a typical optical path:

s
τ = 0 κ ds
From a computational point of view this approximation has a limited impact because
it does not introduce any extra degree of freedom to the heat equation. Instead it adds
nonlinear contribution to the thermal conductivity. This is why this method is popular
for some applications where the optical thickness is large. Nevertheless, because it gives
a simple approximation of heat transfer by radiation in a participating media, it should
be carefully validated.

In this case, the radiative heat flux can be evaluated by (Ref. 20):

4π
q r, λ = – ------ ∇i b, λ
βλ

For a gray media it leads to

4σ
q r = – ---------- ∇ ( n 2 T 4 )
3β R

Assuming a constant refractive index, this can be rewritten as qr = − kR ΔT with

16n 2 σT 3
k R = ------------------------
3β R

and

16n 2 σT 3
q r = – ------------------------ ∇T
3β R

Notice that the Rosseland approximation does not account at all for the scattering in
the participating media.

P1 Approximation Theory
For The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface and The
Radiation in Participating Media Interface, P1 approximation is available as a radiation
discretization method.

THEORY FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA | 205

 P1 approximation is the simplest approximation provided by the method of spherical
harmonics method (PN-method). This approximation provides additional accuracy
compared to a Rosseland approximation even if it remains a very simple method. The
P1 method relies on the following hypotheses:

• The media is optically thick media: τ >>1, where τ is the optical thickness defined by
the integral of absorption coefficient, κ, along a typical optical path:
s
τ =  0 κ ds
• The scattering is linear isotropic.

From a computational point of view this approximation has a limited impact because
it introduces only one additional degree of freedom for G, which is a scalar quantity
and adds a heat source or sink to the temperature equation to account for radiative heat
transfer contributions. This method, however, fails to accurately represent cases where
the radiative intensity propagation dominates over its diffusivity or where the
scattering effects cannot be described by a linear isotropic phase function.

The P1 approximation accounts for the radiation transfer equation

σs
Ω ⋅ ∇I ( Ω ) = κI b ( T ) – βI ( Ω ) + ------
4π 4π I ( Ω′ )φ ( Ω′, Ω ) dΩ′
by solving following equation for G = 4π I ( Ω ) dΩ (Ref. 20):
– ∇ ⋅ ( D P1 ∇G ) = Q r (4-82)

where

• DP1is the P1 diffusion coefficient, defined as

1
D P1 = ----------------------------------------
3κ + σ s ( 3 – a 1 )

• a1 is the linear Legendre coefficient of the scattering phase function

• Qr is the radiative heat source:

Q r = κ ( G – 4πI b ) (4-83)

When scattering is modeled as isotropic, a1=0 and the P1 diffusion coefficient reduces
to

206 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 1
D P1 = ----------------------
3κ + 3σ s

The following boundary condition applies (Ref. 20):

n ⋅ D P1 ∇G = – q r, net

where qr, net is the net radiative heat flux at the boundary.

RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA

For the Radiation in Participating Media (Heat Transfer Interface) and Radiation in
Participating Media (RPM Interface) feature nodes, the equation Equation 4-82 is
implemented.

In addition Qr, defined by Equation 4-83, is added as an heat source in the heat
transfer equation:

∂T ∂p
ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q r + α p T  + u ⋅ ∇p + τ: ∇u + Q
 ∂t  ∂t

OPAQUE SURFACE
The Opaque Surface boundary condition defines a boundary opaque to radiation and
defines the incident intensity on a boundary:

n ⋅ D P1 ∇G = – q r, net

The Opaque Surface feature accounts for the net radiative heat flux, qr, net, in the heat
balance.

Two cases are considered, depending on surface emissivity value:

• Gray wall: ε is a number between 0 and 1

• Black wall: ε=1

Gray Wall
The radiative heat flux at the boundary depends on the surface emissivity, ε:

ε
q r, net = -------------------- ( 4πI b, w – G )
2(2 – ε)

with

THEORY FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA | 207

 n2 σT4
I b, w = I b = -----------------
π

Black Wall
The radiative heat flux at the boundary expression simplifies to

1
n ⋅ D P1 ∇G = --- ( 4πI b, w – G )
2

with

n 2 σT 4
I b, w = I b = -----------------
π

INCIDENT INTENSITY
The Incident Intensity node defines a boundary that receives incident radiative
intensity Iext and that is transparent for outgoing intensity. On these boundaries, the
relation between G, qr, net (net radiative heat flux) and Iext (incident radiative
intensity) is

G + 2q r, net = 4 Ω ⋅ n > 0 Iext ( Ω )Ω ⋅ n dΩ

by defining

I ext = Ω ⋅ n > 0 Iext ( Ω )Ω ⋅ n dΩ

there is

1
q r, net = --- ( 4I ext – G )
2

which defines the heat radiative heat flux and also contributes to G boundary
condition:

n ⋅ D P1 ∇G = – q r, net

208 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Theory for Moisture Transport
Theory for moisture transport in building materials
The Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface solves for the following
equation derived from Ref. 15:

∂φ
ξ ------ + ∇ ⋅ ( – ξ D w ∇φ – δ p ∇ ( φp sat ( T ) ) ) = G (4-84)
∂t

This equation models the moisture transfer as the sum of the capillary moisture flux:

∂w
– D w ∇ ( w ( φ ) ) = – D w ------- ∇φ = – ξD w ∇φ
∂φ

and the vapor diffusion flux:

δ p ∇p v ( T ) = δ p ∇ ( φp sat ( T ) )

with the following material properties, fields, and source:

• ξ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the moisture storage capacity.

• δp (SI unit: s) is the vapor permeability.
• φ (dimensionless) is the relative humidity.
• psat (SI unit: Pa) is the vapor saturation pressure.
• T (SI unit: K) is the temperature.
• Dw (SI unit: m2/s) is the moisture diffusivity.
• G (SI unit: kg/m3·s) is the moisture source.

Theory for moisture transport in air

The Moisture Transport in Air Interface solves for the following equation, in which
the moisture content variation is expressed through the transport of vapor
concentration, which itself can be expressed as the product of molar mass of water,
relative humidity, and vapor saturation concentration:

∂ ( M v φc sat )
- + ∇ ⋅ ( – D ∇( M φc
v sat ) ) + u ⋅ ∇( M v φc sat ) = G
-------------------------------- (4-85)
∂t

T H E O R Y F O R M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T | 209
 c v = M v φc sat

with the following material properties, fields, and source:

• Μv (SI unit: kg/mol) is the molar mass of water vapor.

• φ (dimensionless) is the relative humidity.
• csat (SI unit: mol/m3) is the vapor saturation concentration.
• D (SI unit: m2/s) is the vapor diffusion coefficient in air.
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the air velocity field.
• G (SI unit: kg/(m3⋅s)) is the moisture source (or sink).
The transport of vapor concentration is done by convection and diffusion in moist air.

The moisture is supposed to be constituted only of vapor. In other terms the liquid
concentration is null.

210 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Theory for the Heat Transfer
Multiphysics Couplings
In this section:

• Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces
• Theory for the Thermoelectric Effect Interface
• Theory for the Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium Interface
• Theory for the Heat and Moisture Transport Interface
• Theory for the Electromagnetic Heating Interfaces
• Theory for the Thermal Stress Interface

Theory for the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer

Interfaces
The following points of the theory of Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat
Transfer are discussed in this part:

• The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Equations

• Turbulent Nonisothermal Flow Theory
• Theory for the Nonisothermal Screen Boundary Condition
• Theory for the Interior Fan Boundary Condition

See Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces and Theory for the Turbulent Flow
Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s Guide for a description of the theory related to
laminar and turbulent single-phase flow interfaces.

T H E N O N I S O T H E R M A L F L OW A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R
EQUATIONS
In industrial applications it is common that the density of a process fluid varies. These
variations can have a number of different sources but the most common one is the
presence of an inhomogeneous temperature field. This module includes the
Nonisothermal Flow predefined multiphysics coupling to simulate systems in which
the density varies with temperature.

T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M U L T I P H Y S I C S C O U P L I N G S | 211
 Other situations where the density might vary includes chemical reactions, for instance
where reactants associate or dissociate.

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces contain the fully
compressible formulation of the continuity and momentum equations:

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0
∂t
(4-86)
∂u
ρ ------- + ρu ⋅ ∇u = – ∇p + ∇ ⋅ τ + F
∂t

where

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is the pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• τ is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa), equal for a compressible fluid to:
2
τ = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I
3

• μ is the dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s)

• F is the body force vector (SI unit: N/m3)

It also solves the heat equation, which for a fluid is given in Equation 4-16 by

∂T ∂p
ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = α p T  + u ⋅ ∇p + τ: ∇u + Q
 ∂t  ∂t 

where in addition to the quantities above

• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))

• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux by conduction (SI unit: W/m2)
• qr is the heat flux by radiation (SI unit: W/m2)
• αp is the coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K):

1 ∂ρ
α p = – ---
ρ ∂T

• Q contains heat sources other than viscous heating (SI unit: W/m3)

The work done by pressure changes term

212 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 ∂p
Q p = α p T  ------ + u ⋅ ∇ p
∂t

and the viscous heating term

Q vd = τ: ∇u

are not included by default because they are usually negligible. These terms can,
however, be added by selecting corresponding check boxes in the Nonisothermal Flow
feature.

The physics interface also supports heat transfer in solids (Equation 4-14):

∂T
ρC p  ------- + u trans ⋅ ∇ T + ∇ ⋅ ( q + q r ) = Q ted + Q
 ∂t 

where Qted is the thermoelastic damping heat source (SI unit: W/(m3)). This term is
not included by default but must be added by selecting the corresponding check box.

• The Heat Balance Equation

• Turbulent Nonisothermal Flow Theory

TU R B U L E N T N O N I S O T H E R M A L F L OW T H E O R Y
Turbulent energy transport is conceptually more complicated than energy transport in
laminar flows because the turbulence is also a form of energy.

Equations for compressible turbulence are derived using the Favre average. The Favre
˜
average of a variable T is denoted T and is defined by

˜ ρT
T = -------
ρ

where the bar denotes the usual Reynolds average. The full field is then decomposed as

˜
T = T + T″

With this notation the energy balance equation becomes

T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M U L T I P H Y S I C S C O U P L I N G S | 213
 ˜ ˜ u˜i u˜i ˜ ρu i ″u i ″
∂ ρE˜ u i u i ρu i ″u i ″ ∂  ρu˜  ˜ + ----------
  + ----------- + -------------------- +  jH - + u j -------------------- = (4-87)
∂t  2  2  ∂ xj   2  2 

∂  q ρu j ″u i ″u i ″ ∂ u˜
– j – ρu j ″H″ + τ ij u i ″ – ----------------------------- + ( ( τ – ρu i ″u j ″ ) )
∂ xj  2  ∂ x i ij
j

where H is the enthalpy. The vector

∂T
q j = – λ ------- (4-88)
∂x j

is the laminar conductive heat flux and

∂u i ∂u j 2 ∂u k
τ ij = μ  -------- + -------- – --- μ --------- δ ij
 ∂x j ∂x i  3 ∂x k

is the laminar, viscous stress tensor. Notice that the thermal conductivity is denoted λ.

The modeling assumptions are in large part analogous to those for incompressible
turbulence modeling. The stress tensor

– ρu i''u'' j

is modeled using the Boussinesq approximation:

T  ∂u˜i ∂u˜ j 2 ∂u˜k 2

– ρu i ″u j ″ = ρτ ij = μ T  -------- + -------- – --- μ --------- δ ij – --- ρkδ ij (4-89)
 ∂x j ∂x i  3 ∂x k 3

where k is the turbulent kinetic energy, which in turn is defined by

1
ρk = --- ρu i ″u i ″ (4-90)
2

The correlation between uj″ and H″ in Equation 4-87 is the turbulent transport of
heat. It is modeled analogously to the laminar conductive heat flux

˜ μ T C p ∂T ˜
T ∂T
ρu j ″H″ = q j = – λ T ------- = – -------------- ------- (4-91)
∂x j Pr T ∂x j

The molecular diffusion term,

τ ij u i ″

214 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
and turbulent transport term,

ρu j ″u i ″u i ″
----------------------------
-
2

are modeled by a generalization of the molecular diffusion and turbulent transport

terms found in the incompressible k equation

ρu j ″u i ″u i ″ μ T ∂k
τ ij u i ″ – ----------------------------- =  μ + ------ ------- (4-92)
2  σ k ∂x j

Inserting Equation 4-88, Equation 4-89, Equation 4-90, Equation 4-91 and
Equation 4-92 into Equation 4-87 gives

˜ ˜ u˜i u˜i
∂  ρE
˜ ui ui  ∂  ρu˜  ˜ + ---------- 
  + ----------- + k  +  jH - + k  = (4-93)
∂t  2  ∂ x j  2 

∂  – q – qT +  μ μ T ∂k 
------- + ∂ ( u˜ ( + ρτ T
 + σ k ∂x j ∂ x i τ ij ij ) )
------
∂ xj j j
j

The Favre average can also be applied to the momentum equation, which, using
Equation 4-89, can be written

∂ ρu˜ ∂ ρu˜ ˜ ∂p ∂ τ T
( i) + ( j u i ) = – ------- + ( + ρτ ij ) (4-94)
∂t ∂ xj ∂x j ∂ x j ij

Taking the inner product between u˜ i and Equation 4-94 results in an equation for the
resolved kinetic energy, which can be subtracted from Equation 4-93 with the
following result:

∂ (ρ(E + k ) ) + ∂ ( ρu˜ j ( E + k ) ) =
˜ ˜
(4-95)
∂t ∂ xj
∂ũ j ∂  μ T ∂k ∂ u˜
– q j – q j +  μ + ------ ------- +
T T
–p +  ( ( τ + ρτ ij ) )
∂ xj ∂ xj  σ k ∂x j ∂ x j i ij

where the relation

˜ ˜ p
H = E + ---
ρ

has been used.

T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M U L T I P H Y S I C S C O U P L I N G S | 215
 According to Wilcox (Ref. 24), it is usually a good approximation to neglect the
contributions of k for flows with Mach numbers up to the supersonic range. This gives
the following approximation of Equation 4-95:

∂ ( ρE ∂ũ j ∂
) + ∂ ( ρu˜ j E ) = – p
˜ ˜ T ∂ u˜ T
+ ( – qj – qj ) + ( ( τ + ρτ ij ) ) (4-96)
∂t ∂ xj ∂ xj ∂ xj ∂ x j i ij

Larsson (Ref. 25) suggests to make the split

τ ij = τ˜ij + τ ij ″

Since

τ˜ij » τ ij ″

for all applications of engineering interest, it follows that

τ ij ≈ τ˜ij

and consequently

˜
∂ ( ρE ∂ũ j ∂  ∂T 
) + ∂ ( ρu˜ j E ) = – p
˜ ˜ ∂ u˜ tot
+  ( λ + λ T ) ------- + ( τ̃ ) (4-97)
∂t ∂ xj ∂ xj ∂ xj  ∂x j ∂ x j i ij

where

˜
tot  ∂u˜ i ∂u˜ j 2 ∂u k 
τ̃ ij = ( μ + μ T )  -------- + -------- – --- --------- δ ij
 ∂x j ∂x i 3 ∂x k 

Equation 4-97 is completely analogous to the laminar energy equation of

Equation 4-13 and can be expanded using the same theory to get the temperature
equation similar to Equation 4-16 (see for example Ref. 25):

˜ ˜ ˜ ˜
∂T ∂T ∂  λ λ ------
∂T  1  ∂ρ  ˜ ∂p ˜ ∂p ˜ ∂u i
ρC p ------- + ρC p u˜ j ------- +  – ( + T ) - = – ---  ------˜- T  ------ + u j ------- + τ ij --------
∂t ∂x j ∂ x j  ∂x j ρ  ∂T ∂t ∂x j ∂x j
p

which is the temperature equation solved in the turbulent Nonisothermal Flow and
Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces.

216 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Turbulent Conductivity

Kays-Crawford This is a relatively exact model for PrT, while still quite simple. In
Ref. 26, it is compared to other models for PrT and found to be a good approximation
for most kinds of turbulent wall bounded flows except for turbulent flow of liquid
metals. The model is given by

 1 0.3C p μ T 0.3C p μ T 2 λ  –1
Pr T =  ----------------- + ----------------------- –  -----------------------  1 – exp  – ------------------------------------------   (4-98)
 2Pr T∞ λ Pr T∞  λ    0.3C μ Pr   
p T T∞

where the Prandtl number at infinity is PrT∞ = 0.85 and λ is the conductivity.

Extended Kays-Crawford Weigand et al. (Ref. 27) suggested an extension of

Equation 4-98 to liquid metals by introducing

100λ
Pr T∞ = 0.85 + -------------------------------
-
C p μRe ∞ 0.888

where Re∞, the Reynolds number at infinity must be provided either as a constant or
as a function of the flow field. This is entered in the Model Inputs section of the Fluid
feature.

Temperature Wall Functions

Analogous to the single-phase flow wall functions (see Wall Functions described for the
Wall boundary condition), there is a theoretical gap between the solid wall and the
computational domain for the fluid and temperature fields. This gap is often ignored
when the computational geometry is drawn.

The heat flux between the fluid with temperature Tf and a wall with temperature Tw, is:

ρC p C μ1 / 4 k 1 / 2 ( T w – T f )
q wf = -----------------------------------------------------------
+
-
T

where ρ is the fluid density, Cp is the fluid heat capacity, Cμ is a turbulence modeling
constant, and k is the turbulent kinetic energy. T+ is the dimensionless temperature
and is given by (Ref. 28):

T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M U L T I P H Y S I C S C O U P L I N G S | 217
  + + +
 Prδ w for δ w < δ w1

 2 / 3 – 500 + + +
---------- for δ w1 ≤ δ w < δ w2
T =  15Pr
+
δw +2

 Pr T
 ---------- ln δ +w2 + β +
for δ w2 ≤ δ w
+
 κ

where in turn

+ δ w ρ C μ1 / 2 k + 10
δ w = ------------------------------- δ w1 = --------------
μ Pr 1 / 3
+ κ Cp μ
δ w2 = 10 10 ---------- Pr = -----------
Pr T λ
Pr T κ
β = 15Pr 2 / 3 – ----------  1 + ln  1000 ---------- 
2κ   Pr T 

λ is the thermal conductivity, and κ is the von Karman constant equal to 0.41.

The computational results should be checked so that the distance between the
computational fluid domain and the wall, δw, is everywhere small compared to any
geometrical quantity of interest. The distance δw is available for evaluation on
boundaries.

THEORY FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL SCREEN BOUNDARY CONDITION

When the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling feature is active, the conditions
that apply across a screen in isothermal flow are complemented by:

+
[ H0 ]- = 0 (4-99)

where H0 is the total enthalpy.

• See Screen for the feature node details.

• Also see Screen boundary condition described for the single-phase flow
interfaces.

218 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
THEORY FOR THE INTERIOR FAN BOUNDARY CONDITION
When the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling feature is active, the conditions
that apply across an interior fan are complemented by:

• If direction is Along normal vector, the outlet temperature is T_avg where T_avg is
the weighted averaged temperature defined as:

 ( down ( u ⋅ nρCp T ) ) dS
Γ
T avg = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
 
 
max  ε, ( down ( u ⋅ nρC p T ) ) dS

Γ

• If the direction is opposite to normal vector, the outlet temperature is T_avg where
T_avg is:

 ( up ( u ⋅ nρCp T ) ) dS
Γ
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
T avg =
 
 
max  ε, ( up ( u ⋅ nρC p T ) ) dS

Γ

Theory for the Thermoelectric Effect Interface

The Thermoelectric Effect Interface implements thermoelectric effect, which is the
direct conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage or vice versa. Devices
such as thermoelectric coolers for electronic cooling or portable refrigerators rely on
this effect. While Joule heating (resistive heating) is an irreversible phenomenon, the
thermoelectric effect is, in principle, reversible.

Historically, the thermoelectric effect is known by three different names, reflecting its
discovery in experiments by Seebeck, Peltier, and Thomson. The Seebeck effect is the
conversion of temperature differences into electricity, the Peltier effect is the
conversion of electricity to temperature differences, and the Thomson effect is heat
produced by the product of current density and temperature gradients. These effects
are thermodynamically related by the Thomson relations:

P = ST

dS
μ Th = T
dT

T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M U L T I P H Y S I C S C O U P L I N G S | 219
 where P is the Peltier coefficient (SI unit: V), S is the Seebeck coefficient
(SI unit: V/K), T is the temperature (SI unit: K), and μTh is the Thomson coefficient
(SI unit: V/K). These relations show that all coefficients can be considered different
descriptions of one and the same quantity. The COMSOL formulation primarily uses
the Seebeck coefficient. The Peltier coefficient is also used as an intermediate variable,
but the Thomson coefficient is not used.

When simulating the thermoelectric effect, the following fluxes are the quantities of
interest:

• Conductive heat flux q, defined by

q = – k∇T + PJ (4-100)

• Electric current density J, defined by

J = – σ ( ∇V + S∇T ) (4-101)

Thermoelectric efficiency is measured by the figure of merit Z (SI unit: 1/K), defined
as:

S2 σ
Z = ----------
k

where σ is the electrical conductivity and k the thermal conductivity.

Some other quantities of relevance are the electric field E and the Joule heat source Q:

E = – ∇V

Q = J⋅E

From these definitions, conservation of heat energy and electrical current in an

immobile solid reads:

∂T
ρC p +∇⋅q = Q
∂t

∇ ⋅ J = Qj

where ρ is the density, Cp the heat capacity, and Qj is the current source.

220 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
HOW TH E SE EB E CK, PEL TI ER, AN D THO M SO N E FFE CTS ARE I NCL UDED
IN THE GENERAL FORMULATION
The general formulation of thermoelectric effect redefines the heat flux and the electric
current according to Equation 4-100 and Equation 4-101, respectively. This
formulation does not necessarily correspond to the formulation used when only a
particular aspect of thermoelectric effect is considered: Seebeck, Peltier, or Thomson.
This paragraph describes how these separated effects can be recognized in the general
formulation.

Seebeck Effect
The Seebeck effect is described as the conversion of temperature gradient into electric
current. The contribution of the Seebeck effect is defined as a current contribution

J Se = – σS∇T

This formulation corresponds directly to Equation 4-101 used in the general

formulation.

Peltier Effect
The Peltier effect is described as the conversion of t electric current in heat source or
sink. It is defined as an heat source contribution

Q Pe = – P∇ ⋅ J

This contribution is obtained by developing the divergence of q term in the heat

equation when q is defined following Equation 4-100.

Thomson Effect
The Thomson effect defines the heat source induced by a current in presence of a
temperature gradient in thermoelectric material. The heat source is defined by

Q Th = – μ Th J ⋅ ∇T

This contribution is obtained again by developing the divergence of the q term in the
heat equation when q is defined following Equation 4-100. This time consider the
term −TJ ⋅ ∇S. Assuming that S is function of T, then:

dS
– TJ ⋅ ∇S = – T J ⋅ ∇T = – μ Th J ⋅ ∇T
dT

T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M U L T I P H Y S I C S C O U P L I N G S | 221
 Theory for the Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium Interface
The detailed theory leading to the equations of local thermal non-equilibrium heat
transfer in porous media is presented above in Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous
Media. This part only recalls the main results and describes how Local Thermal
Non-Equilibrium multiphysics coupling feature implements them.

The local thermal non-equilibrium hypothesis describes heat transfer in a porous

medium using two temperature fields to solve: Tf for the fluid phase and Ts for the
porous matrix. These should satisfy the following couple of partial differential
equations:

∂T s
θ p ρ s C p, s + ∇ ⋅ q s = q sf ( T f – T s ) + θ p Q s (4-102)
∂t

∂T f
( 1 – θ p )ρ f C p, f + ρ f C p, f u p ⋅ ∇T f + ∇ ⋅ q f = q sf ( T s – T f ) + ( 1 – θ p )Q f (4-103)
∂t

Recall the Fourier’s law of conduction adapted to the local thermal non-equilibrium
hypothesis:

q s = – θ p k s ∇T s

q f = – ( 1 – θ p )k f ∇T f

and the quantities used in this problem:

• θp is the solid volume fraction (SI unit: 1)

• ρs and ρf are the solid and fluid densities (SI unit: kg/m3)
• Cp, s and Cp, f are the solid and fluid heat capacities at constant pressure (SI unit:
J/(kg·K))
• qs and qf are the solid and fluid conductive heat fluxes (SI unit: W/m2)
• ks and kf are the solid and fluid thermal conductivities (SI unit: W/(m·K))
• qsf is the interstitial convective heat transfer coefficient (SI unit: W/(m3·K))
• Qs and Qf are the solid and fluid heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)
• up is the porous velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)

PREDEFINED MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACE

The Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium Interface is a predefined coupling between The
Heat Transfer in Solids Interface and The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface. These two

222 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
interfaces solve for Equation 4-102 and Equation 4-103, respectively, but without the
heat exchange term ±qsf(Tf − Ts).

The Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium multiphysics coupling feature combines two

actions in order to couple the two aforementioned physics interfaces. It first multiplies
each energy equation by its volume fraction: θp and (1 − θp) for solid and fluid phases,
respectively. Then it adds the heat exchange term ±qsf(Tf − Ts) in both equations.

VO L U M E T R I C A N D S U R F A C E T H E R M A L C O N D I T I O N S
As shown in Equation 4-102 and Equation 4-103, the volumetric heat sources θpQs
and (1 − θp)Qf are applied to the energy equations. The Heat Source features of each
physics interface though specifies Qs and Qf. Special care is therefore needed when
defining a heat source for the whole porous medium. You would have to ensure that
the heat source densities, Qs and Qf, are both equal to the heat rate density that was
intended to the porous medium.

Theory for the Heat and Moisture Transport Interface

The Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling implements the following equations for
heat and moisture transport, derived from Ref. 15:

∂T
( ρC p ) eff ------- + ∇ ⋅ ( – k eff ∇T – L v δ p ∇( φp sat ) ) = Q (4-104)
∂t

∂φ
ξ ------ + ∇ ⋅ ( – ξ D w ∇φ – δ p ∇( φp sat ) ) = G (4-105)
∂t

where:

• (ρCp)eff (SI unit: J/(m3·K)) is the effective volumetric heat capacity at constant
pressure.
• T (SI unit: K) is the temperature.
• keff (SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the effective thermal conductivity.
• Lv (SI unit: J/kg) is the latent heat of evaporation.
• δp (SI unit: s) is the vapor permeability.
• φ (dimensionless) is the relative humidity.
• psat (SI unit: Pa) is the vapor saturation pressure.
• Q (SI unit: W/m3) is the heat source.
• ξ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the moisture storage capacity.

T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M U L T I P H Y S I C S C O U P L I N G S | 223
 • Dw (SI unit: m2/s) is the moisture diffusivity.
• G (SI unit: W/m3) is the moisture source.

Theory for the Electromagnetic Heating Interfaces

COMSOL Multiphysics provides four multiphysics interfaces for handling
electromagnetic heating in the Heat Transfer interfaces:

• The Joule Heating Interface

• The Laser Heating Interface (requires the Wave Optics Module)
• The Induction Heating Interface (requires the AC/DC Module for 3D models)
• The Microwave Heating Interface (requires the RF Module)

They all have in common these three multiphysics coupling features:

• Electromagnetic Heat Source

• Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source
• Temperature Coupling

The first two features add weak contributions due to resistive losses in the domains and
boundaries, respectively. The underlying theory can be found in the AC/DC Module
User’s Guide, RF Module User’s Guide, and Wave Optics Module User’s Guide.

The reverse coupling is carried by the Temperature Coupling feature that shares the
temperature variable with the electromagnetics interfaces.

Theory for the Thermal Stress Interface

In the Structural Mechanics interfaces, two multiphysics interfaces handle thermal
stress:

• The Thermal Stress Interface

• The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion Interface

Both require the Structural Mechanics Module. They have in common the use of the
Thermal Expansion multiphysics coupling that models temperature dependence of the
strain tensor and thermoelastic damping. For more details about the underlying
theory, see the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide.

224 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Theory for Thermal Contact
The Thermal Contact feature has correlations to evaluate the joint conductance at two
contacting surfaces.

The heat fluxes at the upside and downside boundaries depend on the temperature
difference according to the relations:

– n d ⋅ ( – k d ∇T d ) = – h ( T u – T d ) + rQ b

– n u ⋅ ( – k u ∇T u ) = – h ( T d – T u ) + ( 1 – r )Q b

At a microscopic level, contact is made at a finite number of spots as in Figure 4-13.

masp,u asp,u
Y

Figure 4-13: Contacting surfaces at the microscopic level.

The joint conductance, h, has three contributions: the constriction conductance, hc,
from the contact spots, the gap conductance, hg, due to the fluid at the interstitial
space, and the radiative conductance, hr:

h = hc + hg + hr

Surface Asperities
The microscopic surface asperities are characterized by the average height σu, asp and
σd, asp and the average slope mu, asp and md, asp. The RMS values σasp and masp are
(4.16 in Ref. 22):

σ asp = σ u2, asp + σ d2, asp m asp = m u2, asp + m d2, asp

THEORY FOR THERMAL CONTACT | 225

 Constriction Conductance

C O O P E R - M I K I C - YO V A N O V I C H ( C M Y ) C O R R E L A T I O N
The Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY) correlation is valid for isotropic rough surfaces
and has been formulated using a model assuming plastic deformation of the surface
asperities. However, this model does not compute nor store the plastic deformations
of the asperities. It means that, despite that a plastic deformation of the asperities is
assumed, this contact model has no memory. For example, if a load is applied twice the
thermal contact is identical in both cases. The Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY)
correlation relates hc to the asperities and pressure load at the contact interface:

m asp p 0.95
h c = 1.25k contact -------------  -------
σ asp H c

Here, Hc is the microhardness of the softer material, p is the contact pressure, and
kcontact is the harmonic mean of the contacting surface conductivities:

2k u k d
k contact = -------------------
ku + kd

When ku (resp. kd) is not isotropic, it is replaced by its normal

conductivity nTkun (resp. nTkdn).

The relative pressure p ⁄ Hc can be evaluated by specifying Hc directly or using the

following relation (4.16.1 in Ref. 22) for the relative pressure using the Vickers
correlation coefficient c1 and size index c2:

  -----------------------------------
1
  ( 1 + 0.071c2 )
p-  p 
------ =  ------------------------------------------------
c2

Hc   σ asp  
 c 1  1.62 -------------------- 
  m asp σ 0 

where σ0 is equal to 1 µm. For materials with a Brinell hardness between 1.30 and
7.60 GPa, c1 and c2 are given by the correlation below (4.16.1 in Ref. 22):

c1 HB HB 2 HB 3
------- = 4.0 – 5.77 -------- + 4.0  -------- – 0.61  --------
H0 H0  H0   H0 

226 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 HB
c 2 = – 0.37 + 0.442 --------
c1

The Brinell hardness is denoted by HB, and H0 is equal to 3.178 GPa.

MIKIC ELASTIC CORRELATION

The Mikic correlation is valid for isotropic rough surfaces and assumes elastic
deformations of surface asperities. It gives hc by the following relation:

m asp 0.94
h c = 1.54k contact -------------  ---------------------------
2p
σ asp  mE contact

Here, Econtact is an effective Young’s modulus for the contact interface, satisfying
(4.16.3 in Ref. 22):

1 1 – ν u2 1 – ν d2
---------------------- = --------------- + ---------------
E contact Eu Ed

where Eu and Ed are the Young’s moduli of the two contacting surfaces and νu and νd
are the Poisson’s ratios.

Gap Conductance
The gap conductance due to interstitial fluid cannot be neglected for high fluid
thermal conductivity or high contact pressure. The parallel-plate gap gas correlation
assumes that the interstitial fluid is a gas and defines hg by:

k gap
h g = ------------------
Y + Mg

Here kgap is the gas conductivity, Y denotes the mean separation thickness (see
Figure 4-13), and Mg is the gas parameter equal to:

kB Tg
M g = αβΛ Λ = ------------------------
2
-
2πD p g

In these relations, α is the contact thermal accommodation parameter, β is a gas

property parameter (equal to 1.7 for air), Λ is the gas mean free path, kB is the
Boltzmann constant, D is the average gas particle diameter, pg is the gas pressure
(often the atmospheric pressure), and Tg is the gap temperature equal to:

THEORY FOR THERMAL CONTACT | 227

 Tu + Td
T g = --------------------
2

The mean separation thickness, Y, is a function of the contact pressure, p. For low
values of p near 0 Pa, Y goes to infinity since no contact occur. For high values of p —
greater than Hc ⁄ 2 in the Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich model and greater than Hc ⁄ 4 in
the Mikic elastic model — Y reduces to 0 meaning that the contact is considered as
perfect.

Radiative Conductance
At high temperatures, above 600 °C, radiative conductance needs to be considered.
The gray-diffuse parallel plate model provides the following formula for hr:

εu εd
h r = ----------------------------------- σ ( T u3 + T u2 T d + T u T d2 + T d3 )
εu + εd – εu εd

which implies that:

εu εd
h r ( T u – T d ) = ----------------------------------- σ ( T u4 – T d4 )
εu + εd – εu εd

εu εd
h r ( T d – T u ) = ----------------------------------- σ ( T d4 – T u4 )
εu + εd – εu εd

Thermal Friction
The friction heat source, Qb, is partitioned into rQb and (1 − r)Qb at the contact
interface. If the two bodies are identical, r and (1 − r) would be 0.5 so that half of the
friction heat goes to each surface. However, in the general case where the two bodies
are made of different materials, the partition rate might not be 0.5. The Charron’s
relation (Ref. 23) defines r as:

1 ρ u C p, u k u
r = --------------- ξd = -------------------------
1 + ξd ρ d C p, d k d

and symmetrically, (1 − r) is:

1 ρ d C p, d k d
( 1 – r ) = --------------- ξu = -------------------------
1 + ξu ρ u C p, u k u

228 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
For anisotropic conductivities, nTkdn and nTkun replaces kd and ku, respectively.

Thermal Contact

Contact Switch: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/contact_switch

THEORY FOR THERMAL CONTACT | 229

 Moist Air Fluid Type
For The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface, you can select moist air as the fluid type.
This is provided to calculate the relative humidity and to deduce if there is
condensation. The following theory assumes that moist air is an ideal gas.

Humidity
This part defines the different definitions of humidity in the moist air theory.

MOISTURE CONTENT
The moisture content (also called mixing ratio or humidity ratio) is defined as the
ratio of water vapor mass, mv, to dry air mass, ma:

mv pv Mv
x vap = -------- = --------------- (4-106)
ma pa Ma

where pv is the water vapor partial pressure, pa is the dry air partial pressure, and Ma
and Mv are the molar mass of dry air and water vapor, respectively. Without
condensation, the moisture content is not affected by temperature and pressure. The
moisture content represents a ratio of mass, and it is thus a dimensionless number.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
The relative humidity of an air mixture is expressed as follows:

pv
φ = ---------- (4-107)
p sat

where pv is the water vapor partial pressure and psat is the saturation pressure of water
vapor.

According to Dalton’s law, the total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of all the
partial pressures of each individual gas; that is, p = pv + pa where pa is the dry air
partial pressure.

The relative humidity formulation is often used to quantify humidity. However, for the
same quantity of moisture content, the relative humidity changes with temperature
and pressure, so in order to compare different values of φ it has to be at the same
temperature and pressure conditions.

230 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
This quantity is useful to study the condensation as it defines the boundary between
the liquid phase and the vapor phase. In fact, when the relative humidity φ reaches
unity, it means that the vapor is saturated and that water vapor condenses.

The Reference relative humidity (dimensionless) is a quantity defined between 0 and 1,

where 0 corresponds to dry air and 1 to a water vapor-saturated air. This Reference
relative humidity associated to the Reference temperature and the Reference pressure are
used to calculate the moisture content. Then the thermodynamical properties of moist
air can be deduced through the mixture formula described below.

The Reference relative humidity cannot be greater than 1, above which

value the water vapor is condensing. If the value is greater than 1, the
Reference relative humidity value is forced to be 1. The condensation area
cannot be simulated.

SPECIFIC HUMIDITY
The specific humidity is defined as the ratio of water vapor, mv, to the total mass,
mtot = mv + ma:

mv
ω = ------------ (4-108)
m tot

When the water vapor only accounts for a few percent in the total mass,
the moisture content and the specific humidity are very close: xvap ≈ ω
(only for low values). For larger values of ω, the two quantities are more
precisely related by:

ω
x vap = -------------
1–ω

CONCENTRATION
The concentration is defined by:

nv
c v = ------ (4-109)
V

where nv is the amount of water vapor (SI unit: mol) and V is the total volume (SI unit:
m3). According to the ideal gas hypothesis, the saturation concentration is defined as
follows:

M O I S T A I R F L U I D TY P E | 231
 p sat ( T )
c sat = -------------------- (4-110)
RT

Saturation State
The saturation state is reached when the relative humidity reaches one. It means that
the partial pressure of the water vapor is equal to the saturation pressure (which also
depends on the temperature).

From Ref. 33, the saturation pressure can be defined using the following expression:

T – 273.15 [ K ]
7.5 --------------------------------------
T – 35.85 [ K ]
p sat ( T ) = 610.7 [ Pa ] ⋅ 10 (4-111)

Temperature and saturation pressure are deduced from this formulation.

Moist Air Properties

The thermodynamical properties of moist air can be found with some mixture laws.
These are defined in this paragraph.

PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS

Molar Fraction
The molar fraction of dry air, Xa, and the molar fraction of water vapor, Xv, are defined
such as:

na pa p – φp sat
X a = ---------- = ------ = ----------------------- (4-112)
n tot p p

nv pv φp sat
X v = ---------- = ------ = -------------- (4-113)
n tot p p

where:

• na is amount of dry air

• nv is amount of water vapor
• ntot is the total amount of moist air in mol
• pa is the partial pressure of dry air
• pv is the partial pressure of water vapor

232 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
• p is the pressure
• φ is the relative humidity, and
• psat is the saturation pressure.

From Equation 4-112 and Equation 4-113, the following relation holds:

Xa + Xv = 1

Relative Humidity and Moisture Content

Moisture content and relative humidity can be related with the following expression:

x vap p
φ = ------------------------------------------- (4-114)
Mv
p sat  -------- + x vap
 Ma 

MIXTURE PROPERTIES
The thermodynamical properties are built through a mixture formula. The expressions
depend on dry air properties and pure steam properties and are balanced by the mass
fraction.

Density
According to the ideal gas law, the mixture density ρm expression is defined as follows:

p
ρ m = -------- ( M a X a + M v X v ) (4-115)
RT

where Ma and Mv are the molar mass of dry air and water vapor, respectively, and Xa
and Xv are the molar fraction of dry air and water vapor, respectively.

The ideal gas assumption sets the compressibility factor and the
enhancement factor to unity. In fact, the accuracy lost by this assumption
is small as the pure steam represents a small fraction.

Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure

According to Ref. 34, the heat capacity at constant pressure of a mixture is:

Ma Mv
C p, m = ---------- X a C p, a + ---------- X v C p, v (4-116)
Mm Mm

where Mm represents the mixture molar fraction and is defined by

M O I S T A I R F L U I D TY P E | 233
 Mm = Xa Ma + Xv Mv

and where Cp, a and Cp, v are the heat capacity at constant pressure of dry air and
steam, respectively.

Dynamic Viscosity
According to Ref. 34 and Ref. 35, the dynamic viscosity is defined as:

Xi μi
μm =  ---------------------------- (4-117)
i = a, v  X j ϕ ij
j = a, v

where ϕij is given by

1 1 2
--- ---
μi 2 Mj 4
1 +  -----  -------
 μ j  M i
ϕ ij = -----------------------------------------------
1
-
---
Mi 2
8  1 + -------
 M j

Here, μa and μv are the dynamic viscosity of dry air and steam, respectively.

Thermal Conductivity
According to Ref. 35 and Ref. 34, the thermal conductivity of the mixture is defined
similarly:

Xi ki
km =  ---------------------------- (4-118)
i = a, v  X j ϕ ij
j = a, v

where ka and kv are the thermal conductivity of dry air and steam, respectively.

PURE COMPONENT PROPERTIES

The dry air and steam properties used to define the mixture properties are
temperature-dependent high-order polynomials. The polynomials have been
computed according to Ref. 18 for dry air properties and Ref. 36 for pure steam
properties. The steam properties are based on the Industrial Formulation
IAPWS-IF97.

The valid temperature range is 200 K < T < 1200 K for dry air properties and
273.15 K < T < 873.15 K for steam properties.

234 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
RES U LTS AN D A NA LY SI S VA RIABLES
These variables are provided to display the related quantities:

• Moisture content xvap.

• Vapor mass fraction omega_moist.
• Concentration of water vapor c.
• Relative humidity phi. This variable corresponds to the calculated φ with the system
temperature and pressure.
• Condensation indicator condInd; this indicator is set to 1 if condensation has been
detected (φ = 1) and 0 if not.

FUNCTIONS
The following functions are defined and can be used as feature parameters as well as in
postprocessing. Here, feature stands for fluid or porous, depending on whether the
function is defined in the Fluid or in the Porous Medium feature:

• ht.feature.fc(RH,T, pA), where RH is the relative humidity 0 ≤ φ ≤ 1, T is the

temperature (SI unit: K), and pA is the pressure (SI unit: Pa). It returns the
corresponding water vapor concentration (SI unit: mol/m3) by deriving the
following relation from Equation 4-107, Equation 4-110, and Equation 4-114:
x vap p
c v = -----------------------------------------
x M
-------v-
 vap + M a RT

The concentration computation assumes that the ideal gas assumption is

valid.

• ht.feature.fxvap(RH, T, pA), where RH is the relative humidity 0 ≤ φ ≤ 1, T is

the temperature (SI unit: K) and pA is the pressure (SI unit Pa). It returns the
moisture content (SI unit: 1) by using the following relation:
φp sat Mv
x vap = ----------------------- ⋅ --------
p – φp sat M a

• ht.feature.fpsat(T), where T is the temperature (SI unit: K). It returns the

saturation pressure (SI unit: Pa) by using Equation 4-111.
• ht.feature.Lv(T), where T is the temperature (SI unit: K). It returns the latent
heat of evaporation (SI unit: J/kg) as a linear interpolation of the data from Ref. 36,

M O I S T A I R F L U I D TY P E | 235
 which provides steam properties based on the Industrial Formulation IAPWS-IF97.
The temperature-dependency is as shown on Figure 4-14.

Figure 4-14: Latent heat of evaporation in function of temperature.

236 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer
When the object to model in COMSOL Multiphysics is thin or slender enough along
one of its geometry dimensions, there is usually only a small variation in temperature
along the object’s thickness or cross section. For such objects, it is computationally
more efficient to reduce the model geometry to 2D or even 1D and to use the
out-of-plane heat transfer mechanism. Figure 4-15 shows examples of possible
situations in which this type of geometry reduction can be applied.

qup

qdown

Figure 4-15: Geometry reduction from 3D to 1D (top) and from 3D to 2D (bottom).

The reduced geometry does not include all the boundaries of the original 3D
geometry. For example, the reduced geometry does not represent the upside and
downside surfaces of the plate in Figure 4-15 as boundaries.

Out-of-Plane Radiation and Out-of-Plane Heat Flux

Equation Formulation

2D GEOMETRIES
In 2D geometries, the temperature is assumed to be constant in the out-of-plane
direction (z-direction with default spatial coordinate names). The equation for heat
transfer in solids, Equation 4-14, and in fluids, Equation 4-16, are replaced by:

O U T - O F - P L A N E H E A T TR A N S F E R | 237
 ∂T
d z ρC p ------- + ∇ ⋅ q = d z Q + q 0 (4-119)
∂t

∂T
d z ρC p ------- + ρC p d z u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = d z Q + q 0 (4-120)
∂t

Here dz is the thickness of the domain in the out-of-plane direction. Here, the
conductive heat flux, q, becomes

q = – d z k∇T

1D AXISYMMETRIC GEOMETRIES
In 1D axisymmetric geometries, the temperature is assumed to be constant in the
out-of-plane direction (z-direction with default spatial coordinate names) in addition
to the axisymmetry (φ-coordinate with default spatial coordinate names). The equation
for heat transfer in solids, Equation 6-9 is replaced by

∂T
( 2πrd z )ρC p ------- + ∇ ⋅ q = ( 2πrd z )Q + q 0 (4-121)
∂t

where dz is the thickness of the domain in the z-direction. The equation for heat
transfer in fluids, Equation 6-3, is replaced by

∂T
( 2πrd z )ρC p ------- + ( 2πrd z )ρC p u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = ( 2πrdz )Q + q 0 (4-122)
∂t

Here, the conductive heat flux, q, becomes

q = – ( 2πrd z )k∇T

1D GEOMETRIES
In 1D geometries, the temperature is assumed to be constant in the radial direction.
The equation for heat transfer in solids, Equation 6-9 is replaced by

∂T
A c ρC p ------- + ∇ ⋅ q = A c Q + q 0 (4-123)
∂t

where Ac is the cross section of the domain in the plane perpendicular to the 1D
geometry. The equation for heat transfer in fluids, Equation 6-3, is replaced by

∂T
A c ρC p ------- + A c ρC p u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = A c Q + q 0 (4-124)
∂t

Here, the conductive heat flux, q, becomes

238 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 q = – A c k∇T

Out-of-plane flux conditions would apply to the exterior boundaries of the domain if
the 1D geometry was seen as a cylinder. With the geometry reduction process, this
heat flux condition is mathematically expressed using the cross section perimeter, Pc,
as in:

q 0 = P c q 0, z

where q0, z is the heat flux density distributed along the cross section perimeter.

O U T - O F - P L A N E H E A T TR A N S F E R | 239
 The Heat Transfer Coefficients
One of the most common boundary conditions when modeling heat transfer is
convective cooling or heating whereby a fluid cools or heats a surface by natural or
forced convection. In principle, it is possible to model this process in two ways:

• Using a heat transfer coefficient on the surfaces

• Extending the model to describe the flow and heat transfer in the surrounding fluid

The second approach is the most accurate if the geometry or the external flow is
complicated. The Heat Transfer Module includes the Conjugate Heat Transfer
predefined multiphysics coupling and the CFD Module includes the Nonisothermal
Flow predefined multiphysics coupling for this purpose. However, such a simulation
can become costly, both in terms of computational time and memory requirement.

The first method is simple, yet powerful and efficient. The convective heat flux on the
boundaries in contact with the fluid is then modeled as being proportional to the
temperature difference across a fictitious thermal boundary layer. Mathematically, the
heat flux is described by the equation

– n ⋅ q = h ( T ext – T )

where h is a heat transfer coefficient and Text the temperature of the external fluid far
from the boundary.

The main difficulty in using heat transfer coefficients is in calculating or specifying the
appropriate value of the h coefficient. That coefficient depends on the fluid’s material
properties, and the surface temperature — and, for forced convection, also on the
fluid’s flow rate. In addition, the geometrical configuration affects the coefficient. The
Heat Transfer interface has built-in functions for the heat transfer coefficients. For
most engineering purposes, the use of such coefficients is an accurate and numerically
efficient modeling approach.

In this section:

• Defining the Heat Transfer Coefficients

• Nature of the Flow — The Grashof Number
• Heat Transfer Coefficients — External Natural Convection
• Heat Transfer Coefficients — Internal Natural Convection

240 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
• Heat Transfer Coefficients — External Forced Convection
• Heat Transfer Coefficients — Internal Forced Convection

Defining the Heat Transfer Coefficients

It is possible to divide the convective heat flux into four main categories depending on
the type of convection condition (natural or forced) and on the type of geometry
(internal or external flow). In addition, these cases can all experience either laminar or
turbulent flow conditions, resulting in eight types of convection, as in Figure 4-16.
Natural Forced

External

Internal

Laminar Flow

Turbulent Flow

Figure 4-16: The eight categories of convective heat flux.

The difference between natural and forced convection is that in the forced convection
an external force such as a fan creates the flow. In natural convection, buoyancy forces
induced by temperature differences together with the thermal expansion of the fluid
drive the flow.

Heat transfer books generally contain a large set of empirical and theoretical
correlations for h coefficients. This module includes a subset of them. The expressions
are based on the following set of dimensionless numbers:

• The Nusselt number, NuL = hL ⁄ k

• The Reynolds number, ReL = ρUL ⁄ μ

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T S | 241
 • The Prandtl number, Pr = μCp ⁄ k
• The Rayleigh number, RaL = GrLPr = ρ2 gαpCp ΔTL3 ⁄ (μk)

where

• h is the heat transfer coefficient (SI unit: W/(m2·K))

• L is the characteristic length (SI unit: m)
• ΔT is the temperature difference between the surface and the external fluid bulk
(SI unit: K)
• g is the acceleration of gravity (SI unit: m/s2)
• k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid (SI unit: W/(m·K))
• ρ is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3)
• U is the bulk velocity (SI unit: m/s)
• μ is the dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s)
• Cp is the heat capacity at constant pressure of the fluid (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• αp is the coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K)

Further, GrL refers to the Grashof number, which is the squared ratio of the viscous
time scale to the buoyancy time scale multiplied by the Reynolds number.

Nature of the Flow — The Grashof Number

In cases of externally driven flow, such as forced convection, the nature of the flow is
characterized by the Reynolds number, Re, which describes the ratio of the inertial
forces to the viscous forces. However, the velocity scale is initially unknown for
internally driven flows such as natural convection. In such cases the Grashof number,
Gr, characterizes the flow. It describes the ratio of the time scales for viscous diffusion
in the fluid and the internal driving force (the buoyancy force). Like the Reynolds
number it requires the definition of a length scale, the fluid’s physical properties, and
the temperature scale (temperature difference). The Grashof number is defined as:

3
gα p ( T s – T 0 )L
Gr L = -----------------------------------------
2
-
(μ ⁄ ρ)

where g is the acceleration of gravity, αp is the fluid’s coefficient of thermal expansion,

Ts denotes the temperature of the hot surface, T0 equals the temperature of the
surrounding air, L is the length scale, μ represents the fluid’s dynamic viscosity, and ρ
its density.

242 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
In general, the coefficient of thermal expansion αp is given by

1 ∂ρ
α p = – ---  -------
ρ ∂T p

which for an ideal gas reduces to

1
α p = ----
T

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at a Gr value of 109; the flow is
turbulent for larger values.

The Rayleigh number, Ra, is another indicator of the regime. It is similar to the
Grashof number except that it accounts for the thermal diffusivity: Ra = Pr Gr. A small
value of the Ra number indicates that the conduction dominates. It such case using
heat transfer coefficients to model convective heat transfer is not relevant. Instead,
modeling the fluid as immobile is likely to be accurate.

Heat Transfer Coefficients — External Natural Convection

VE R T I C A L WA L L

Figure 4-17: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection on a vertical wall.

The following correlations correspond to equations 9.26 and 9.27 in Ref. 18:

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T S | 243
 
  1⁄4 
 --- k-  0.67Ra L 
 L  0.68 + --------------------------------------------------------- - if Ra L ≤ 10 9
   0.492k
-------------------
9 / 16
 4 / 9

   1 +  μC p   
h =  (4-125)
  1⁄6 2
 k 0.387Ra L 
 ----  0.825 + ------------------------------------------------------------
- if Ra L > 10 9
 L  1 +  -------------------
0.492k 
9 / 16 8 / 27

    μC p   


where the height of the wall, L, is a correlation input and

2
gα p ρ C p T – Text L 3
Ra L = -------------------------------------------------------- (4-126)
kμ

where in turn g is the acceleration of gravity equal to 9.81 m/s2. All material
properties are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2. This correlation is valid for 104≤ RaL ≤ 1013.

INCLINED WA LL

Figure 4-18: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection on an inclined wall.

The following correlations correspond to equations 9.26 and 9.27 in Ref. 18 (the
same as for a vertical wall):

244 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 
  
 --- k-  0.67 ( cos ϕRa L ) 1 / 4 
 L  0.68 + --------------------------------------------------------- - if Ra L ≤ 10 9
    0.492k 9 / 16 4 / 9
-------------------
   1 +  μC p   
h =  (4-127)
  1⁄6 2
 k 0.387Ra L 
 ----  0.825 + ------------------------------------------------------------
- if Ra L > 10 9
 L  1 +  -------------------
0.492k 
9 / 16 8 / 27

    μC p   


where the length of the wall, L, is a correlation input and ϕ is the tilt angle (the angle
between the wall and the vertical direction; ϕ = 0 for vertical walls). These correlations
are valid for −60° < ϕ < 60° and 104≤ RaL ≤ 1013.

The definition of the Raleigh number, RaL, is analogous to the one for vertical walls
and is given by the following:

2
gα p ρ C p T – Text L 3
Ra L = -------------------------------------------------------- (4-128)
kμ

where in turn g denotes the gravitational acceleration, equal to 9.81 m/s2.

For turbulent flow, 1 is used instead of cos φ in the expression for h, because this gives
better accuracy (see Ref. 38).

According to Ref. 18, correlations for inclined walls are only satisfactory
for the top side of a cold plate or the down face of a hot plate. Hence,
these correlations are not recommended for the bottom side of a cold face
and for the top side of a hot plate.

The laminar-turbulent transition depends on φ (see Ref. 38). Unfortunately, little data
is available about transition. There is some data available in Ref. 38 but this data is only
approximative, according to the authors. In addition, data is only provided for water
(Pr around 6). For this reason, the flow is defined as turbulent, independently of the
φ value, when

2
gα p ρ C p T – T ext L 3
- > 10 9
-------------------------------------------------------
kμ

All material properties are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T S | 245
 HORIZONTAL PLATE, UPSIDE

Figure 4-19: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection on the top surface of an horizontal
plate.

The following correlations correspond to equations 9.30–9.32 in Ref. 18 but can also
be found as equations 7.77 and 7.78 in Ref. 38.

If T > Text, then


 k-
--- 1⁄4
0.54Ra L if 10 4 ≤ Ra L ≤ 10 7
 L
h =  (4-129)
 k-
--- 1⁄3
0.15Ra L if 10 7 ≤ Ra L ≤ 10 11
 L


while if T ≤ Text, then

k 1⁄4
h = ---- 0.27Ra L if 10 5 ≤ Ra L ≤ 10 10 (4-130)
L

RaL is given by Equation 4-126, and L, the characteristic length (defined as

area/perimeter, see Ref. 38) is a correlation input. The material data are evaluated at
(T + Text) ⁄ 2.

246 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
HORIZONTAL PLATE, DOWNSIDE

Figure 4-20: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection on the bottom surface of an
horizontal plate.

Equation 4-129 is used when T ≤ Text and Equation 4-130 is used when T > Text.
Otherwise it is the same implementation as for Horizontal Plate, Upside.

LONG HORIZONTAL CYLINDER

Figure 4-21: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection on a long horizontal cylinder.

The following correlations correspond to equations 9.34 in Ref. 18. It is validated for
RaD ≤ 1012.

 1⁄6 2
k 0.387Ra D 
h = ----  0.6 + ---------------------------------------------------------
⁄ ⁄
- (4-131)
D  1 +  0.559
9 16 8 27

 --------------- 

  Pr  

Here D is the cylinder diameter and RaD is given by

2
gα p ρ C p T – T ext D 3
Ra D = ---------------------------------------------------------
kμ

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T S | 247
 The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2.

SPHERE

Figure 4-22: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection on a sphere.

The following correlations correspond to equation 9.35 in Ref. 18. It is validated for
RaD ≤ 1011 and Pr ≥ 0.7.

 1⁄4 2
k  0.589Ra D 
h = ----  2 + ------------------------------------------------------
9 ⁄ 16 4 ⁄ 9
- (4-132)
D  1 +  ---------------
0.469  
   Pr   

Here D is the cylinder diameter and RaD is given by

2
gα p ρ C p T – Text D 3
Ra D = ---------------------------------------------------------
kμ

The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2.

VE R T I C A L T H I N C Y L I N D E R

Figure 4-23: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection on a vertical thin cylinder.

248 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
The following correlation corresponds to equation 7.83 in Ref. 38. It is validated only
for side walls of the thin cylinder (δT ≥ D), the horizontal disks (top and bottom)
should be treated as horizontal plates. If the boundary thin layer is much smaller than
D, vertical wall correlations should be used.

7Ra H Pr 1⁄4
4 ( 272 + 315Pr )H
h = -----  ---  ----------------------------------- + -----------------------------------------------
k 4
H  3 5 ( 20 + 21Pr ) 35 ( 64 + 63Pr )D

where D is the cylinder diameter, H is the cylinder height, and RaH is given by

3
gα p T – T ext H
Ra H = -------------------------------------------
kμ

The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2.

Heat Transfer Coefficients — Internal Natural Convection

N A R R O W C H I M N E Y, P A R A L L E L P L A T E S

Figure 4-24: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection in a parallel-plate narrow chimney.

If RaL < H ⁄ L and T > Text, then

k 1
h = ----- ------ Ra L (4-133)
H 24

where the plate distance, L, and the chimney height, H, are correlation inputs
(equation 7.96 in Ref. 38). RaL is given by Equation 4-126. The material data are
evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T S | 249
 N A R R O W C H I M N E Y, C I R C U L A R TU B E

Figure 4-25: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the heat transfer
coefficient correlation applied to natural convection in a circular narrow chimney.

If RaD < H ⁄ D, then

k 1
h = ----- ---------- Ra D
H 128

where the tube diameter, D, and the chimney height, H, are correlation inputs (table
7.2 in Ref. 38 with Dh = D). RaD is given by Equation 4-126 with L replaced by D.
The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2.

Heat Transfer Coefficients — External Forced Convection

P L A T E , A VE R A G E D TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T

Figure 4-26: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the averaged heat
transfer coefficient correlation applied to forced convection on an horizontal plate.

This correlation is a combination of equations 7.33 and 7.41 in Ref. 18:

250 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
  1⁄2
 0.3387Pr 1 / 3 Re L
k- ------------------------------------------------------
 2 --- - if Re L ≤ 5 ⋅ 10 5
L 0.0468- 2 / 3 1 / 4
 ------------------
h =  1 + (4-134)
   Pr  

 2 ---- Pr 1 / 3 ( 0.037Re 4 ⁄ 5 – 871 ) if Re > 5 ⋅ 10 5
k
 L L L

where Pr = μCp ⁄ k and ReL = ρUL ⁄ μ. The plate length, L, and the exterior velocity,
U, are correlation inputs. The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2.

P L A T E , L O C A L TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T

Figure 4-27: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the local heat
transfer coefficient correlation applied to forced convection on an horizontal plate.

This correlation corresponds to equations 5.79b and 5.131’ in Ref. 38:


 k 1⁄2
--- 0.332Pr 1 / 3 Re x if Re x ≤ 5 ⋅ 10 5
 x
h =  (4-135)
 k
--- 0.0296Pr 1 / 3 Re 4x ⁄ 5 if Re x > 5 ⋅ 10 5
 x


where Pr = μCp ⁄ k and Rex = ρUx ⁄ μ. The correlation inputs are x, the position along
the plate, and U, the exterior velocity. The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2.
To avoid division by zero when the position along the plate is located at the origin
point (x = 0), the implementation replaces k ⁄ x by k ⁄ max(x, √ε) where ε is the floating
point relative accuracy.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T S | 251
 CYLINDER IN CROSS FLOW

Figure 4-28: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the averaged heat
transfer coefficient correlation applied to forced convection on a cylinder in cross flow.

This correlation is given by equation 7.54 in Ref. 18:

 1⁄2 
k  0.62Re D Pr 1 / 3   Re D  5 ⁄ 8 4 ⁄ 5
h = ----  0.3 + ----------------------------------------------  282000   if Re D Pr ≤ 0.2 (4-136)
- 1 + --------------------
D 0.4- 2 ⁄ 3 1 ⁄ 4 
 1 +  --------
   Pr   

where Pr = μCp ⁄ k and ReD = ρUD ⁄ μ. The cylinder diameter, D, and the exterior
velocity, U, are correlation inputs. The material data are evaluated at (T + Text) ⁄ 2.

SPHERE

Figure 4-29: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the averaged heat
transfer coefficient correlation applied to forced convection on a sphere.

This correlation corresponds to equation 7.56 in Ref. 18:

μ 1⁄4
h = ----  2 + ( 0.4Re D + 0.06Re D )Pr  ------------- 
k 1⁄2 2⁄3 0.4
(4-137)
D μ(T )

252 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 
 3.5 ≤ Re D ≤ 7.6 ⋅ 10
4

if  0.71 ≤ P r ≤ 380
 μ
 1 ≤ ------------- ≤ 3.2
 μ ( T)

where Pr = μCp ⁄ k and ReD = ρUD ⁄ μ. The sphere diameter, D, and the exterior
velocity, U, are correlation inputs. All material data are evaluated at Text except μ(T),
which is evaluated at the wall temperature, T.

Heat Transfer Coefficients — Internal Forced Convection

I S O T H E R M A L TU B E

Figure 4-30: Schematic representation of geometry and parameters for the averaged heat
transfer coefficient correlation applied to forced convection in an isothermal circular tube.

This correlation corresponds to equations 8.55 and 8.61 in Ref. 18:


 k-
--- 3.66 if Re D ≤ 2500
 D
h =  (4-138)
 --- n  μ -
k 0.14
4/5
 D- 0.027Re D Pr  ----------- if Re D > 2500
μ ( T )


where Pr = μCp ⁄ k, ReD = ρUextD ⁄ μ and n = 0.3 if T < Text and n = 0.4 if T ≥ Text.
D (the tube diameter) and the velocity U are correlation inputs. All material data are
evaluated at Text except μ(T), which is evaluated at the wall temperature, T.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T S | 253
 Equivalent Thermal Conductivity
Correlations
The Nusselt number Nu is the ratio of total heat flux to conductive heat flux. If the
fluid flow is not solved, the heat equation can still use an equivalent conductivity to
account for the convective heat flux in the conductive part. The conductivity is
increased according to Nu to account for the contribution of the convective heat flux.

Fluid node

Correlations giving Nu from various material properties for two configurations of

rectangular enclosures are described below. These correlations are based on the
Rayleigh number

ρ 2 gα p C p
Ra = ------------------------ ΔTL 3
μk

where ρ is the fluid density, g the gravitational acceleration, αp the coefficient of

thermal expansion, Cp the heat capacity, μ the dynamic viscosity, k the thermal
conductivity coefficient, ΔT the temperature difference through the cavity, and L the
characteristic dimension of the cavity. The temperature difference through the cavity
may be unknown a priori. In this case, ΔT can be defined using the Automatic option.
The Automatic option defines a minimum and a maximum operator on the external
boundaries of the domains where the correlation is used. As this option is designed for
fluid domains where no heat source is defined, the difference between the maximum
and the minimum of the temperature corresponds to the temperature difference
through the cavity.

Horizontal Cavity With Bottom Heating

The following correlation corresponds to equation 9.49 in Ref. 18. It is validated for
3⋅105 ≤ RaH ≤ 7⋅109:

1 / 3 Pr 0.074
Nu = 0.069Ra H (4-139)

254 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
where RaH is computed from the height H of the cavity and the temperatures T1 and
T2 of the bottom and top walls, and Pr = μCp ⁄ k. The material data are evaluated at
(T1 + T2) ⁄ 2.

Vertical Cavity With Sidewall Heating

The following correlations correspond to equations 9.50, 9.51, and 9.52 in Ref. 18:
–3 5 3 PrRa L
• If 1 ≤ H ⁄ L ≤ 2, 10 ≤ Pr ≤ 10 , and 10 ≤ ---------------------- :
0.2 + Pr
0.29
Nu = 0.18  ---------------------- Ra L
Pr
(4-140)
0.2 + Pr

• If 2 ≤ H ⁄ L ≤ 10, Pr ≤ 105, and 103 ≤ RaL ≤ 1010:

0.28 H – 1 ⁄ 4
Nu = 0.22  ---------------------- Ra L  -----
Pr
 L (4-141)
0.2 + Pr

• If 10 ≤ H ⁄ L ≤ 40, 1 ≤ Pr ≤ 2 ⋅ 104, and 104 ≤ RaL ≤ 107:

1⁄4 0.012  H – 0.3

Nu = 0.42Ra L Pr ----- (4-142)
 L

where H is the height of the cavity, L is the distance between the side plates, RaL is
computed from L and the temperatures T1 and T2 of the side walls, and Pr = μCp ⁄ k.
The material data are evaluated at (T1 + T2) ⁄ 2.

EQUIVALENT THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY CORRELATIONS | 255

 Temperature Dependence of Surface
T e ns i o n
The variation of the surface tension σ (SI unit: N/m) with temperature at fluid
interfaces must be taken into account for the computation of phenomena such as
Marangoni effect. These temperature dependencies are available in the form of a
coefficient library for a set of liquid-gas interfaces.

For a liquid water-air interface, the following quadratic relation is used:

–7 2 –5 –2
σ = – 2.3519705 ⋅ 10 T – 1.63350014 ⋅ 10 T + 9.77001279 ⋅ 10

where T (SI unit: K) is the temperature.

In other cases, a linear relation is used instead:

σ = A ( T – T0 ) + B

where T0 is a reference temperature taken at 0 °C (273.15 K) and the coefficients A

(SI unit: N/(m·K)) and B (SI unit: N/m) are given in the following table for some
liquid-gas interfaces:
TABLE 4-4: COEFFICIENTS OF SURFACE TENSION

INTERFACE A B REFERENCE

Acetone - Air −1.120 ⋅ 10-4 2.626 ⋅ 10-2 Ref. 39

-4 -2
Acetic Acid - Air −0.994 ⋅ 10 2.958 ⋅ 10 Ref. 39
Ethanol - Air −0.832 ⋅ 10-4 2.405 ⋅ 10-2 Ref. 39
-4 -2
Toluene - Air −1.189 ⋅ 10 3.09 ⋅ 10 Ref. 39
-4 -2
Diethyl Ether - Air −0.908 ⋅ 10 1.892 ⋅ 10 Ref. 39
-4 -2
Glycerol - Air −0.885 ⋅ 10 6.517 ⋅ 10 Ref. 39
Heptane - Nitrogen −0.980 ⋅ 10-4 2.21 ⋅ 10-2 Ref. 40
-4 -2
Mercury - Mercury (Vapor) −2.049 ⋅ 10 49.06 ⋅ 10 Ref. 40
-4 -2
Ethylene Glycol - Ethylene −0.890 ⋅ 10 5.021 ⋅ 10 Ref. 40
Glycol (Vapor)

More data can be found in Ref. 39 and Ref. 40.

256 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Heat Flux and Heat Balance
The concept of heat flux is not as simple as it first might seem. The reason is that heat
is not a conserved quantity. Instead, the conserved quantity is the total energy. Hence,
there is both a heat flux and an energy flux that are similar but not identical.

This section briefly describes the theory for the variables for Total Heat Flux and
Energy Flux, used when computing Heat and Energy Balance. The definitions of these
postprocessing variables do not affect the computational results, only variables
available for results analysis and visualization.

In this section:

• Total Heat Flux and Energy Flux

• Heat and Energy Balance

Total Heat Flux and Energy Flux

TO T A L H E A T F L U X
The total heat flux vector is defined as (Ref. 5):

q tot = ρuE + q + q r (4-143)

where E is the internal energy. It is the sum of convective heat flux, ρuE, conductive
heat flux, q, and radiative heat flux, qr. Hence, the total heat flux accounts for all
three kinds of heat transfer described in The Physical Mechanisms under Heat
Transfer. Recall that the internal energy is related to the enthalpy, H, via the following
for a fluid (see Thermodynamic Description of Heat Transfer):

p
E = H – ---
ρ

or the following for a solid:

1
E = H + --- P:F
ρ

The total heat flux vector, qtot, is more suited to check the heat balance as described
in the next section Heat and Energy Balance.

HEAT FLUX AND HEAT BALANCE | 257

 TO T A L E N E R G Y F L U X
The total energy flux is equal to:

e tot = ρu  --- u ⋅ u + ρu ( E + Ψ ) + q + q r – σu
1
2 

Again, convective heat flux, ρuE, conductive heat flux, q, and radiative heat flux, qr
are accounted in the sum. The additional terms that complete the total energy flux are
the convected kinetic energy, ρu(u ⋅ u ⁄ 2), force potential energy, ρuΨ, and stress,
−σu. For a fluid, this expression becomes (Ref. 5, chapter 3.5):

e tot = ρu  --- u ⋅ u + ρu ( E + Ψ ) + q + q r – ( – pI + τ )u

1
2

Introducing the total internal energy, E0, and total enthalpy, H0:

1 1
E 0 = E + --- u ⋅ u H 0 = H + --- u ⋅ u
2 2

leads to the following equivalent expression involving total enthalpy:

e tot = ρu ( H 0 + Ψ ) + q + q r – τu

The potential Ψ has a simple form in some special cases — for example, for
gravitational effects (Chapter 1.4 in Ref. 37) — but it is in general rather difficult to
derive. Potential energy is therefore often excluded and the total energy flux is
approximated by

e tot = ρuE 0 + q + q r – σu (4-144)

The total energy flux vector, etot, is more suited to check the energy balance as
described in the next section Heat and Energy Balance.

Heat and Energy Balance

HEAT BALANCE
This section assumes a heat transfer model that only solves for the temperature T. In
particular, for a fluid, the velocity field u and pressure field p are user defined or
computed from another physics interface. In this case, the heat balance in a domain
follows the identity below (chapter 11.2 in Ref. 5), derived from Equation 4-11. It
expresses the idea that internal energy variations in time and net heat flux are balanced
by external heat and work sources.

258 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 d
dt Ω ρE dv + ∂Ω ext
q tot ⋅ n ds = Q Int – W str, Int (4-145)

The different variables in this formula are defined in Total Heat Flux and Energy Flux.
For this equality to be true, the provided dependent variables (velocity field u and
pressure field p for the Navier-Stokes equations) must satisfy a mass and a momentum
conservation equation. The dissipation power, Wstr, Int, contains both pressure work
and viscous dissipation in fluids. The heat sources QInt include domain sources,
interior boundary, edge and point sources, and radiative source at interior boundaries.

In 2D and 3D components if isolated point or edge source is not adjacent

to a boundary, these are not included in QInt. In this case, these need to
be computed separately.

Equation 4-145 is more visually represented by the diagram of Figure 4-31 below.
Mechanical Losses: Wstr

Heat source: Q
∂E
Accumulated heat:
∂t

Net heat transfer: q tot = ρuE + q + q r

Figure 4-31: A heat balance diagram.

Several predefined variables are available in COMSOL Multiphysics to describe the

heat rates involved in the system heat balance. See Global Variables for their definition.

ENERGY BALANCE
When the temperature T is solved together with additional mass and momentum
equations, the total energy flux also becomes a conserved quantity and the following
equation holds (chapter 11.1 in Ref. 5):

d
dt Ω ρE0 dv + ∂Ω ext
e tot ⋅ n ds = Q Int + W Int (4-146)

HEAT FLUX AND HEAT BALANCE | 259

 The variables in this formula are defined in Total Heat Flux and Energy Flux.
Equation 4-146 is more visually represented by the diagram of Figure 4-32 below.

Heat source: Q

Work source: W
∂E 0
Accumulated energy:
∂t

Net energy transfer: e tot = ρuE 0 + q + q r – σu

Figure 4-32: An energy balance diagram.

Several predefined variables are available in COMSOL Multiphysics to describe the

energy rates involved in the system energy balance. See Global Variables for their
definition.

260 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
Frames for the Heat Transfer
Equations
In this section:

• Material and Spatial Frames

• Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames

Material and Spatial Frames

The heat equation can be formulated either in a spatial coordinate system, with
coordinate axes fixed in space, or in a material coordinate system, fixed to the material
in its reference configuration and following the material as it deforms. COMSOL
Multiphysics refers to these coordinate systems as the spatial frame and the material
frame. In the case of immobile and undeformed materials, these two frames coincide.

USE OF FRAMES
The spatial frame is well adapted to simulate heat transfer in liquids and gases, where
it is unreasonable to follow the state of individual material particles. The temperature
is computed at fixed positions in space.

In solids, the material frame is more convenient. The temperature is computed at

material particles uniquely identified by their position in some given reference
configuration. It makes in particular the anisotropic material properties (thermal
conductivity for example) independent of the current spatial orientation of the
material.

In the heat transfer interfaces, the variables and equations are all defined on the spatial
frame, and depending on the features, the user inputs may be defined on the material
or spatial frame. Hence, they must be internally converted into the spatial frame if
some deformation occurs.

PO S I T I O N VE C T O R S A N D D E F O R M A T I O N G R A D I E N T
The position vector in the physical space is identified by the lowercase symbol x and
lowercase letters x, y, and z for each coordinate (or r, ϕ, and z in axisymmetric
components). After a given transformation, the position of an elementary volume is
modified in the spatial frame but not in the material frame. The position vector in the

F R A M E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R E Q U A T I O N S | 261
 this material frame is denoted by the uppercase symbol X and uppercase letters X, Y,
and Z for each coordinate (or R, Φ, and Z in axisymmetric components).

The relation between x and X is carried by the deformation gradient:

∂x ∂x ∂x
∂X ∂Y ∂Z
F = ∂y ∂y ∂y (4-147)
∂X ∂Y ∂Z
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂X ∂Y ∂Z

It relates elementary distances dx and dX in the domain, expressed in material and

spatial frames, according to:

dx = FdX (4-148)

The determinant of the deformation gradient, det(F), is the volume ratio field. In
COMSOL Multiphysics, det(F) should always be strictly positive. Otherwise, the
negative value is likely to be caused by an inverted mesh during the resolution of the
model since it corresponds to a mathematical reflection operation.

The deformation gradient tensor and its determinant are essential in the conversion of
physical quantities presented in the next paragraphs between material and spatial
frames.

Note: In COMSOL Multiphysics, the variables spatial.F11, spatial.F12, …,

store the coefficient of the transpose of the deformation gradient tensor F.

• About Frames in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

Conversion Between Material and Spatial Frames

This section explains how the user inputs are converted between material and spatial
frames. The conversion depends on the dimension of the variables (scalars, vectors, or
tensors) and on the density order.

262 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
As described in the previous paragraph Material and Spatial Frames, lowercase letters
are used to denote the spatial frame coordinates while uppercase letters denote the
material frame coordinates. In the followings, a physical quantity A will be referred to
as A(x, y, z) in the spatial frame and to as A(X, Y, Z) in the material frame.

The equations solved by the heat transfer interfaces are written in the spatial frame.
When an input is specified in the material frame, conversion is necessary to deduce
A(x, y, z) from A(X, Y, Z).

D E N S I T Y, H E A T S O U R C E , H E A T F L U X
In heat transfer, the following variables are relative scalars of weight one (also called
scalar densities):

• Mass density, ρ (SI unit: kg/m3),

• Heat source, Q0 (SI unit: W/m3),
• Production/absorption coefficient, qs (SI unit: W/(m3·K)),
• Heat flux, q0 (SI unit: W/m2),
• Heat transfer coefficient, h (SI unit: W/(m2·K)).

For all these variables, the conversion between material and spatial frame follows the
relation:

A ( X, Y , Z )
A ( x, y, z ) = ----------------------
det(F)

This way, the integral of volumetric quantities over the domain, such as the mass
density, is invariant between frames:

Ω ρ( X, Y, Z ) dτ0 = Ω ρ( x, y, z ) det(F) dτ0 = Ω ρ( x, y, z ) dτ

0 0

In these equalities, Ω0 and Ω denote the same domain but represented in material or
in spatial frame, respectively. As expected, the same mass is found by integrating
ρ(X, Y, Z) over the domain in the material frame or by integrating ρ(x, y, z) over the
domain in the spatial frame. The same invariance principle applies to quantities per unit
area, in particular heat flux and heat transfer coefficient:

∂Ω h( X, Y, Z ) ds0 = ∂Ω h( x, y, z )det(F) ds0 = ∂Ω h( x, y, z ) ds

0 0

Here, ∂Ω0 and ∂Ω are the boundaries of the same domain in material and spatial
frames, respectively.

F R A M E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R E Q U A T I O N S | 263
 VE L O C I T Y
The relationship between the velocity vectors in material and spatial frames, u(X, Y, Z)
and u(x, y, z), is

u ( x, y, z ) = Fu ( X, Y, Z )

This is directly deduced from the differential relation of Equation 4-148.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conductivity, k, is a tensor density. The relationship between the value on the
spatial frame and the material frame is:

1 T
k ( x, y, z ) = ------------------- Fk ( X, Y, Z ) F
det ( F )

With this relation, and recalling that

T
n ( X, Y, Z ) = F n ( x, y, z )

T
∇ ( X, Y, Z ) T = F ∇ ( x, y, z ) T

the total conductive heat flux through a boundary, computed in both frames according
to the integrals below, gives the same result:

∂Ω –k( X, Y, Z ) ∇( X, Y, Z ) T ⋅ n( X, Y, Z ) ds0 = ∂Ω –k( x, y, z) ∇( x, y, z ) T ⋅ n( x, yz ) ds

0

Here, ∂Ω0 and ∂Ω are the boundaries of the same domain in material and spatial
frames, respectively.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A LAYER

The same transformations are applied to thermal conductivity but with different
transformation matrices. The deformation gradient tensor depends on the layer type:

• When the layer is resistive, the deformation gradient tensor Fxdim is equal to the
deformation gradient tensor F defined in Equation 4-147.
• When the layer is conductive, the deformation gradient tensor Ft is defined using
tangential derivatives as follows:

264 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 xT X xT Y xT Z
F t = yT X yT Y yT Z
zT X zT Y zTZ

where xTX corresponds to the tangential derivative x with respect to X, and so on.
• When the layer is an extra dimension, the deformation gradient tensor Fxdim is
defined as follows:

xT X + n x n X xT Y + n x n Y xT Z + n x n Z
F xdim = yT X + n y n X yT Y + n y n Y yT Z + n y n Z
zT X + n z n X zT Y + n z n Y zT Z + n z n Z

where xTX corresponds to the tangential derivative x with respect to X, and so on.
The (nx, ny, nz) vector corresponds to the normal vector in the spatial frame, and
the (nX, nY, nZ) vector corresponds to the normal vector in the material frame.

TIME DERIVATIVE
Partial differential equations often involve time derivative of a physical quantity such
as temperature or internal energy in heat transfer. The variations of such state variables
during an elementary time step are studied for a same elementary volume that could
be subjected to spatial transformations. The material derivative, denoted d ⁄ dt, is the
derivation operator used in such cases. The following relation defines the material
derivative in the spatial frame.

d ∂
= + u ( x, y, z ) ⋅ ∇ ( x, y, z )
dt ∂t

The right-hand side of this relation shows a new term u ⋅ ∇ corresponding to

convection in the case of fluids, or convected quantity by translational motion of a
solid.

• About Frames in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

F R A M E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R E Q U A T I O N S | 265
 References
1. G.A. Holzapfel, Nonlinear Solid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.

2. T. Poinsot and D. Veynante, Theoretical and Numerical Combustion, 2nd ed.,

Edwards, 2005.

3. J.M. Powers, “On the Necessity of Positive Semi-Definite Conductivity and

Onsager Reciprocity in Modeling Heat Conduction in Anisotropic Media,” ASME J.
Heat Transfer, vol. 126, pp. 670–675, 2004.

4. G.A. Maugin, The Thermomechanics of Nonlinear Irreversible Behaviors: An

Introduction, World Scientific, 1999.

5. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, 2007.

6. Harry H. Pennes, Analysis of Tissue and Arterial Blood Temperatures in the

Resting Human Forearm, Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 1 no. 2, pp. 93-122, 1
August 1948.

7. S. Jacques, S. Rastegar, S. Thomsen, and M. Motamedi, Nonlinear Finite-element

Analysis The Role of Dynamic Changes in Blood Perfusion and Optical Properties
in Laser Coagulation of Tissue, IEEE J. Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics,
vol. 2, issue 4, pp. 922–933, 1996.

8. S. Bhowmick, J.E. Coad, D.J. Swanlund, J.C. Bischof, “In vitro thermal therapy of
AT-1 Dunning prostate tumors” Int. J. Hyperthermia, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 73–92,
2004.

9. F. Xu, K.A. Seffen and T.J. Lu, “Temperature-Dependent Mechanical Behaviors of

Skin Tissue,” IAENG Int. J. Computer Science, vol. 35, no 1, 2008.

10. M. Pop, A. Molckovsky, L. Chin, M.C. Kolios, M.A. Jewett, M.D. Sherar,
“Changes in dielectric properties at 460 kHz of kidney and fat during heating:
importance for radio-frequency thermal therapy”, Phys. Med. Biol., vol. 48, 2003
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12953912/).

11. P.A. Hasgall, F. Di Gennaro, C. Baumgartner, E. Neufeld, M.C. Gosselin, D.

Payne, A. Klingenböck, N. Kuster, IT’IS Database for thermal and electromagnetic
parameters of biological tissues, Version 3.0, 2015. www.itis.ethz.ch/database

266 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
12. C. Rossmann and D. Haemmerich, Review of Temperature Dependence of
Thermal Properties, Dielectric Properties, and Perfusion of Biological Tissues at
Hyperthermic and Ablation Temperatures, Critical Reviews in Biomedical
Engineering, Vol. 42, pp. 467-492, 2014.

13. D.A. Nield and A. Bejan, Convection in Porous Media, in Convection Heat
Transfer, Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2013.

14. N. Wakao, S. Kaguei, and T. Funazkri, Effect of fluid dispersion coefficients on

particle-to-fluid heat transfer coefficients in packed beds, Chem. Engng Sci. 34, pp.
325-336, 1979.

15. EN 15026, Hygrothermal performance of building components and building

elements - Assessment of moisture transfer by numerical simulation, CEN, 2007.

16. J. Bear and Y. Bachmat, Introduction to Modeling of Transport Phenomena in

Porous Media, Kluwer Academic Publisher, 1990.

17. R. Sieger and J. Howell, Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer, 4th ed., Taylor &
Francis, New York, 2002.

18. F.P. Incropera, D.P. DeWitt, T.L. Bergman, and A.S. Lavine, Fundamentals of
Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2006.

19. http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/grad/solcalc

20. M.F. Modest, Radiative Heat Transfer, 2nd ed., Academic Press, San Diego,
California, 2003.

21. W.A. Fiveland, “The Selection of Discrete Ordinate Quadrature Sets for
Anisotropic Scattering,” Fundamentals of Radiation Transfer, HTD, vol. 160,
ASME, 1991.

22. A. Bejan et al., Heat Transfer Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, 2003.

23. F. Charron, Partage de la chaleur entre deux corps frottants, Publication

Scientifique et Technique du Ministère de l’Air, no. 182, 1943. (In French)

24. D.C. Wilcox, Turbulence Modeling for CFD, 2nd ed., DCW Industries, 1998.

25. J. Larsson, Numerical Simulation of Turbulent Flows for Turbine Blade Heat
Transfer, Doctoral Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Chalmers
University of Technology, Sweden, 1998.

26. W.M. Kays, “Turbulent Prandtl Number — Where Are We?”, ASME J. Heat
Transfer, vol. 116, pp. 284–295, 1994.

REFERENCES | 267
 27. B. Weigand, J.R. Ferguson, and M.E. Crawford, “An Extended Kays and Crawford
Turbulent Prandtl Number Model,” Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 40, no. 17,
pp. 4191–4196, 1997.

28. D. Lacasse, È. Turgeon, and D. Pelletier, “On the Judicious Use of the k-ε Model,
Wall Functions and Adaptivity,” Int. J. Thermal Sciences, vol. 43, pp. 925–938, 2004.

29. D.A. Nield, “Effects of local thermal non-equilibrium in steady convective

processes in a saturated porous medium: forced convection in a channel,” J. Porous
Media, vol. 1, 1998, pp. 181–186.

30. W.J. Minkowycz et al., “On departure from local thermal equilibrium in porous
media due to a rapidly changing heat source: the Sparrow number,” Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer, vol. 42, 1999, pp. 3373–3385.

31. A. Amiri and K. Vafai, “Transient analysis of incompressible flow through a packed
bed,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer, vol 41, 1998, pp. 4259–4279.

32. R.G. Carbonell and S. Whitaker, “Heat and Mass Transfer in Porous Media,”
Fundamentals of Transport Phenomena in Porous Media, J. Bear and M.Y.
Corapcioglu, eds., Springer, 1984, pp. 121–198.

33. J.L. Monteith and M.H. Unsworth, Principles of Environmental Physics, Edward
Arnold, London, 290 pp., 1990.

34. P.T. Tsilingiris, “Thermophysical and Transport Properties of Humid Air at

Temperature Range Between 0 and 100 °C,” Energy Conversion and Management,
vol. 49, no. 5, pp. 1098–1110, 2008.

35. J. Zhang, A. Gupta, and J. Bakera, “Effect of Relative Humidity on the Prediction
of Natural Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients,” Heat Transfer Engineering, vol.
28, no. 4, pp. 335–342, 2007.

36. W. Wagner and H-J Kretzschmar, International Steam Tables, 2nd ed., Springer,
2008.

37. M. Kaviany, Principles of Convective Heat Transfer, 2nd ed., Springer, 2001.

38. A. Bejan, Heat Transfer, John Wiley & Sons, 1993.

39. Tables of Physical & Chemical Constants (16th edition 1995). 2.2.5 Surface
tension. Kaye & Laby Online. Version 1.0 (2005), www.kayelaby.npl.co.uk

40. J.J. Jasper, “The Surface Tension of Pure Liquid Compounds”, J. Phys. Chem.
Ref. Data, vol. 1, pp. 841–1010, 1972.

268 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
41. G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University
Press, 2000.

REFERENCES | 269
270 | C H A P T E R 4 : T H E O R Y F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E
 5

The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces

The Heat Transfer Module includes five physics interfaces used to compute the
temperature field, the radiative intensity field, or the relative humidity field:
TABLE 5-1: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

INTERFACE TAG VERSIONS

Heat Transfer ht Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer in Solids
Heat Transfer in Fluids
Bioheat Transfer
Heat Transfer in Porous Media
Heat Transfer in Building Materials
Heat Transfer in Moist Air
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating
Media
Heat Transfer in Thin htsh Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
Structures Heat Transfer in Thin Films
Heat Transfer in Fractures

271
 TABLE 5-1: THE HEAT TRANSFER MODULE INTERFACES

INTERFACE TAG VERSIONS

Surface-to-Surface rad Surface-to-Surface Radiation

Radiation
Radiation in rpm Radiation in Participating Media
Participating Media
Moisture Transport mt Moisture Transport in Air
Moisture Transport in Building Materials
See also The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface (htp) in the Pipe Flow Module User’s
Guide.

In this chapter:

• About the Heat Transfer Interfaces

• The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface
• The Heat Transfer Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface
• The Bioheat Transfer Interface
• The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface
• The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface
• The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface
• The Radiation in Participating Media Interface
• The Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface
• The Moisture Transport in Air Interface
See also the Multiphysics Interfaces.

272 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
About the Heat Transfer Interfaces
The Heat Transfer Module includes the following interfaces:

• Heat Transfer (with several versions)

• Heat Transfer in Thin Structures (with several versions)
• Surface-to-Surface Radiation
• Radiation in Participating Media
• Moisture Transport (with several versions)

They are used to compute the temperature field, the radiative intensity field, and the
relative humidity field.

The multiphysics interfaces also compute other physical fields like velocity, pressure, or
electromagnetic fields, depending on the available COMSOL products. See
Multiphysics Interfaces.

The main dependent variable is the temperature, T.

The various kinds of Heat Transfer interfaces and the thermal multiphysics couplings
can be used for modeling heat transfer by conduction, convection, or radiation, as well
as conjugate heat transfer, evaporation, and electromagnetic heating.

Space Dimensions
The physics interfaces are available in 1D, 2D, and 3D and for axisymmetric
components with cylindrical coordinates in 1D and 2D.

All the interfaces except Heat Transfer in Thin Structures apply in domains, with
features available at each geometric level (volumes, surfaces, edges, and points).

Study Types
Stationary, time-dependent, and frequency domain studies are available with the Heat
Transfer interfaces.

You can consider a heat transfer problem as stationary if the temperature field is
independent of time at each point. The system is said to be at thermal equilibrium. It
happens when the conditions are independent of time or vary on a time scale large

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S | 273
 enough so that they can be approximated as constant. This type of study can be used
as an initial step for a time-dependent analysis.

For other cases, use a time-dependent or a frequency domain study.

Study and Study Step Types in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Versions of the Heat Transfer Physics Interface

The versions of the Heat Transfer physics interface (ht) are:

• The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface

• The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface
• The Heat Transfer Interface
• The Bioheat Transfer Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface
• The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface
• The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface

After selecting a version, default nodes are added under the main node, which then
defines which version of the Heat Transfer interface is added. Depending on the
version of the physics interface selected, the default nodes vary. For example:

• If Heat Transfer in Solids ( ) is selected, a Heat Transfer in Solids (ht) interface is

added with a default Solid model.
• If Heat Transfer in Fluids ( ) is selected, a Heat Transfer in Fluids (ht) interface is
added with a default Fluid model.

• The Heat Transfer (ht) interface is automatically added when a multiphysics interface
under the Conjugate Heat Transfer branch is added. It contains two default models:
Solid (enabled by default) and Fluid (empty selection by default).

Benefits of the Different Heat Transfer Interfaces

The benefit of the different versions of the Heat Transfer interface, with ht as the
common default name (see Heat Transfer Variables), is that it is easy to add the default

274 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
settings when selecting the physics interface. At any time, add a Fluid or Solid node from
the Physics toolbar — the functionality is always available.

Depending on the available COMSOL products, physics interface options

are also available from a Heat Transfer interface by selecting a specific
check box under the Physical Model section (for surface-to-surface
radiation, biological tissue, radiation in participating media, porous
media, or isothermal domain). See Table 5-2 and Table 5-4 for a
description of the interface options.

TABLE 5-2: THE HEAT TRANSFER (HT) INTERFACE OPTIONS

ICON NAME DEFAULT PHYSICAL MODEL

Heat Transfer in Solids No check box is selected.

Heat Transfer in Fluids No check box is selected.

Heat Transfer with The Surface-to-surface radiation check box is

Surface-to-Surface selected (which enables the Radiation Settings
Radiation (under the section).
Radiation branch)
Heat Transfer with The Radiation in participating media check box is
Radiation in Participating selected (which enables the Participating Media
Media (under the Settings section).
Radiation branch)
Bioheat Transfer The Heat transfer in biological tissue check box is
selected (which enables the Damage Integral
Analysis Discretization section).
Heat Transfer in Porous The Heat Transfer in Porous Media check box is
Media selected (which enables the Porous matrix model
list).
Heat Transfer in Building The Heat Transfer in Porous Media check box is
Materials selected (which enables the Porous matrix model
list).
Heat Transfer No check box is selected.
Also see The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface in the Pipe Flow Module User’s Guide
for simulating heat transfer in pipe networks, including wall heat transfer to the
surroundings.

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S | 275
 Versions of the Heat Transfer in Thin Structures Physics Interface
The versions of the Heat Transfer in Thin Structures physics interface (htsh) are:

• The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface

• The Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface

After selecting a version, default nodes are added under the main node, which then
defines which version of the Heat Transfer in Thin Structures interface is added.
Depending on the version of the physics interface selected, the default nodes vary:

• If Heat Transfer in Thin Shells ( ) is selected, a Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh)
interface is added with a default Thin Conductive Layer model.
• If Heat Transfer in Thin Films ( ) is selected, a Heat Transfer in Thin Films (htsh)
interface is added with a default Thin Film model.

• If Heat Transfer in Fractures ( ) is selected, a Heat Transfer in Fractures (htsh)

interface is added with a default Fracture model.

Benefits of the Different Heat Transfer in Thin Structures Interfaces

The benefit of the different versions of the Heat Transfer in Thin Structures interface,
with htsh as the common default name (see Heat Transfer Variables), is that it is easy
to add the default settings when selecting the physics interface. At any time, add a Thin
Conductive Layer node from the Physics toolbar — the functionality is always available.

Depending on the available COMSOL products, physics interface options

are also available from a Heat Transfer in Thin Structures interface by
selecting a specific check box under the Physical Model section (for
surface-to-surface radiation and porous media). See Table 5-3 and
Table 5-4 for a description of the interface options.

TABLE 5-3: THE HEAT TRANSFER IN THIN STRUCTURES (HTSH) INTERFACE OPTIONS

ICON NAME DEFAULT PHYSICAL MODEL

Heat Transfer in Thin No check box is selected.

Shells

276 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
TABLE 5-3: THE HEAT TRANSFER IN THIN STRUCTURES (HTSH) INTERFACE OPTIONS

ICON NAME DEFAULT PHYSICAL MODEL

Heat Transfer in Thin No check box is selected.

Films
Heat Transfer in Fractures The Heat Transfer in Porous Media check box is
selected.

Versions of the Moisture Transport Physics Interface

The versions of the Moisture Transport physics interface (mt) are:

• The Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface

• The Moisture Transport in Air Interface
After selecting a version, default nodes are added under the main node, which then
defines which version of the Moisture Transport interface is added. Depending on the
version of the physics interface selected, the default nodes vary:

• If Moisture Transport in Building Materials ( ) is selected, a Moisture Transport in

Building Materials (mt) interface is added with a default Building Material model.
• If Moisture Transport in Air ( ) is selected, a Moisture Transport in Air (mt) interface
is added with a default Moist Air model.

Benefits of the Different Moisture Transport Interfaces

The benefit of the different versions of the Moisture Transport interface, with mt as
the common default name (see Moisture Transport Variables), is that it is easy to add
the default settings when selecting the physics interface. At any time, add a Building
Material or a Moist Air node from the Physics toolbar — the functionality is always
available.

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S | 277
 Additional physics options
Then, additional physics options are provided with the other interfaces and
multiphysics interfaces:
TABLE 5-4: ADDITIONAL HEAT TRANSFER PHYSICS OPTIONS

ICON NAME ID DEFAULT PHYSICAL MODEL

Laminar Flow (under the — See Table 5-2.

Conjugate Heat Transfer
branch)
Turbulent Flow k-ε and — See Table 5-2.
Turbulent Flow, Low Re
k-ε (under the Conjugate
Heat Transfer branch)
Thermoelectric Effect — No check boxes are selected under
Physical Model.
Surface-to-Surface rad No Physical Model section, but the
Radiation (under the Radiation Settings section is automatically
Radiation branch) available by default.
Radiation in Participating rpm No Physical Model section, but the
Media (under the Participating Media Settings section is
Radiation branch) automatically available by default.
Joule Heating (under the — No check boxes are selected under
Electromagnetic Heating Physical Model.
branch)
Local Thermal — See Table 5-2.
Non-Equilibrium
Heat and Moisture — See Table 5-2.

More turbulent flow interfaces are available under the Conjugate Heat Transfer branch
with the CFD Module:

• Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus

• Turbulent Flow, L-VEL
• Turbulent Flow, k-ω
• Turbulent Flow, SST
• Turbulent Flow, Spalart-Allmaras
See The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces in the
CFD Module User’s Guide for more details.

278 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
More interfaces are available under the Electromagnetic Heating branch with ACDC,
WaveOptics, and RF Modules.

See The Laser Heating Interface in the Wave Optics Module User’s Guide, The
Induction Heating Interface in the AC/DC Module User’s Guide, and The
Microwave Heating Interface in the RF Module User’s Guide for more details.

Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface

The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is ht.

PHYSICAL MODEL
In 2D and 1D axisymmetric components, set the Thickness dz, which is the thickness
of the domain in the out-of-plane direction. The default value is 1 m.

In 1D components, set the Cross sectional area Ac and the Cross sectional perimeter Pc
of the domain. Default values are 1 m2 and 1 m, respectively.

Some check boxes are also present in this section with certain COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Click to select any of the following check boxes to activate the versions of the ht
interface as described in Benefits of the Different Heat Transfer Interfaces:

• Select the Surface-to-surface radiation check box to enable surface-to-surface

radiation features as described in The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface
Radiation Interface.

• Select the Radiation in participating media check box to enable radiation in

participating media features. See The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating
Media Interface.

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S | 279
 • Select the Heat transfer in biological tissue check box to enable the Biological Tissue
feature.
• Selecting Isothermal domain provides support for isothermal domain modeling. See
Isothermal Domain Interface and Isothermal Domain.
• Select the Heat Transfer in Porous Media check box to enable the Porous Medium,
Fracture, and Building Material features. See The Heat Transfer in Porous Media
Interface and The Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface.

AMBIENT SETTINGS
In this section, you can define ambient variables to be available as inputs from several
features: the temperature Tamb, the absolute pressure pamb, the relative humidity
φamb, the wind velocity vamb, and the direct and diffuse solar irradiances Isn,amb and
Ish,amb.

See Heat Flux, Diffuse Surface, Temperature, Initial Values, or External

Radiation Source for examples of features of the Heat Transfer interface
that have ambient variables available as inputs.

See Initial Values, Moisture Content, or Moisture Flux for examples of

features of the Moisture Transport interface that have ambient variables
available as inputs.

Two options are available for the definition of the Ambient data:

• When User defined (the default) is selected, the Ambient temperature Tamb, the
Ambient absolute pressure pamb, the Ambient relative humidity φamb, the Wind
velocity vamb, the Clear sky noon beam normal irradiance Isn,amb, and the Clear sky
noon diffuse horizontal irradiance Ish,amb should be specified directly.
• When Meteorological data (ASHRAE 2013) is selected, the ambient variables are
computed from monthly and hourly averaged measurements, made over several
years at weather stations worldwide. See Using Ambient Data for more information.
Further settings for the choice of the location, time, and ambient conditions are
needed; and additional input fields are displayed underneath.

280 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
Location
In this section you can set the location by choosing among more than 6000 weather
stations worldwide. Two options are available for the selection of the Weather station:

• When From list is selected, additional lists display underneath for the selection of a
Region, a Country, and a Station. The Country list is refreshed for each selection in the
Region list, and the Station list is refreshed for each selection in the Country list.
• It is also possible to select a station From reference by entering the corresponding
World Meteorological Organization reference, which is a 6-digit number.

A single country may be available for more than one region selection if it
has stations spread over different regions. For example, United States of
America is available in the Country list when either North America,
Eurasia, or Oceania is selected in the Region list.

When a station is selected From list, its World Meteorological

Organization (WMO) reference is displayed below the Station list. The
WMO references can also be retrieved from maps offered by third parties
like the one available as of this product release on
http://ashrae-meteo.info/.

Time
The Date and Local time should be set by entering values or expressions in the Day,
Month, Hour, Minute, and Second fields of the two tables.

If the Specify year check box is selected, a value or expression for the Year should also
be set. As the data are given as averages over several past years, this input is only used
for the detection of leap years, in order to interpolate the data over the months.

For temporal studies, these inputs define the starting time of the simulation. By
default, the Update time from solver check box is selected, and the time is then
automatically updated with the time from the solver to evaluate the variables by
interpolation of the measured data. Unselect this check box to manually set the time
update.

See Ambient Data Interpolation for more information about the

interpolation of data over months and hours.

See Processing of ASHRAE Data for more information about the data.

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S | 281
 A time unit suitable for simulations over a day or a year may be set in the
Study Settings section of the Time Dependent node, by using for example
h for hour, d for day, or a for a year. See Using Units in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

Ambient conditions
Based on the measured data, several conditions are available for the Temperature, the
Dew point temperature, and the Wind speed. The formula for each condition is recalled
in Table 5-5, Table 5-6, and Table 5-7. The Average conditions correspond to
weighted means of the measured data, whereas the other conditions are obtained by
applying standard or modified deviations (Low, High, and User defined coefficient for
deviation conditions), user defined corrections, or wind correlations to the average
conditions; or by taking the minimum or maximum of the measured data (Lowest and
Highest conditions). More information about these definitions can be found in
Ambient Variables and Conditions.
TABLE 5-5: TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS

CONDITION DEFINITION

Average T amb =  T station

Low T amb =  T station – σ T, station
High T amb =  T station + σ T, station
Lowest T amb = min ( T station )
Highest T amb = max ( T station )
User defined coefficient for deviation T amb =  T station + c σ ⋅ σ T, station
User defined correction T amb =  T station + ΔT
Heating wind correlation(1) T amb =  T station + ΔT wind
Cooling wind correlation (1) T amb =  T station – ΔT wind
(1)
These correlations are not related to the wind speed conditions described in
Table 5-7.

TABLE 5-6: DEW POINT TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS

CONDITION DEFINITION

Average DPTamb =  DPT station

Low DPTamb =  DPT station – σ DPT, station
High DPTamb =  DPT station + σ DPT, station
Lowest DPTamb = min ( DPT station )
Highest DPTamb = max ( DPT station )

282 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
TABLE 5-7: WIND SPEED CONDITIONS

CONDITION DEFINITION

Average v amb =  v station

Low v amb =  v station – σ v, station
High v amb =  v station + σ v, station
Lowest v amb = min ( v station )
Highest v amb = max ( v station )

The conditions set for Temperature and Dew point temperature should be
consistent in order to keep the temperature larger than the dew point
temperature. However, all settings combinations are available, and the
relative humidity is majored by 1 when necessary.

The sum of the Clear sky noon beam normal irradiance and the Clear sky
noon diffuse horizontal irradiance is available through the post-processing
variable ht.Is_amb, defined as the Ambient solar irradiance.

For an example of the use of user-defined ambient data, see:

Temperature Field in a Cooling Flange: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Processing/cooling_flange

For an example of the use of meteorological ambient data, see:

Condensation Detection in an Electronic Device with Transport and

Diffusion: Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/condensati
on_electronic_device_transport_diffusion

Condensation Detection in an Electronic Device: Application Library

path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/condensati
on_electronic_device

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
The Streamline diffusion check box is selected by default and should remain selected for
optimal performance for heat transfer in fluids or other applications that include a
convective or translational term. Crosswind diffusion provides extra diffusion in regions

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S | 283
 with sharp gradients. The added diffusion is orthogonal to the streamlines, so
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion can be used simultaneously. The
Crosswind diffusion check box is also selected by default.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
The Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected by default.

Heat Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization Methods

ADVANCED SETTINGS
Add both a Heat Transfer (ht) and a Moving Mesh (ale) interface (found under the
Mathematics>Deformed Mesh branch when adding a physics interface) then click the
Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options to display this section.

When the component contains a moving mesh, the Enable conversions between material
and spatial frame check box is selected by default. This option has no effect when the
component does not contain a moving frame because the material and spatial frames
are identical in such cases. With a moving mesh, and when this option is active, the
heat transfer features automatically account for deformation effects on heat transfer
properties. In particular the effects of volume changes on the density are considered.
Rotation effects on the thermal conductivity of an anisotropic material and, more
generally, deformation effects on an arbitrary thermal conductivity, are also covered.
When the Enable conversions between material and spatial frame check box is not
selected, the feature inputs (for example, Heat Source, Heat Flux, Boundary Heat
Source, and Line Heat Source) are not converted and are instead defined on the Spatial
frame.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization.

In the Heat Transfer interfaces you can choose not only the order of the discretization,
but also the type of shape functions: Lagrange or serendipity. For highly distorted
elements, Lagrange shape functions provide better accuracy than serendipity shape
functions of the same order. The serendipity shape functions will however give
significant reductions of the model size for a given mesh containing hexahedral, prism,
or quadrilateral elements. At first order, Lagrange and serendipity shape functions are
the same.

284 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
The default shape functions used for the temperature are Quadratic Lagrange for the
modeling of heat transfer in solids, and Linear for the modeling of heat transfer in
fluids. See the description of each version of the physics interface for more details.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

The Heat Transfer interfaces have the dependent variable Temperature T. The
dependent variable names can be changed. Editing the name of a scalar dependent
variable changes both its field name and the dependent variable name. If a new field
name coincides with the name of another field of the same type, the fields share degrees
of freedom and dependent variable names. A new field name must not coincide with
the name of a field of another type or with a component name belonging to some other
field.

Settings for the Heat Transfer in Thin Structures Interface

The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is htsh.

SHELL THICKNESS
Define the Shell thickness ds (SI unit: m) (see Equation 4-50). The default is 0.01 m.

OUT-OF-PLANE THICKNESS
For 2D components, define the Out-of-plane thickness dz (SI unit: m) (see
Equation 4-50). The default is 1 m.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Some check boxes are present in this section with certain COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S | 285
 Click to select any of the following check boxes to activate related features:

• Select the Surface-to-surface radiation check box to add a Radiation Settings section.
By selecting this check box you can also add an Opacity node.

• Select the Heat Transfer in Porous Media check box to enable the Fracture feature for
the modeling of porous media. This check box is selected by default in The Heat
Transfer in Fractures Interface.

AMBIENT SETTINGS
The settings are the same as for the Heat Transfer interface. See Ambient Settings for
details.

RADIATION SETTINGS
To display this section for any version of the Heat Transfer in Thin Structures interface,
select the Surface-to-surface radiation check box under the Physical Model section.

See The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface for

details about the Surface-to-surface radiation method and Radiation
resolution settings.

Define the Wavelength dependence of emissivity.

• Keep the default value, Constant, to define a diffuse gray radiation model. In this
case, the surface emissivity has the same definition for all wavelengths. The surface
emissivity can still depend on other quantities, in particular on the temperature.
• For Solar and ambient define a diffuse spectral radiation model with two spectral
bands, one for short wavelengths, [0, λ1], (solar radiation) and one for large
wavelengths, [λ1, +∞[, (ambient radiation). It is then possible to define the Intervals
endpoint (SI unit: m), λ1, to adjust the wavelength intervals corresponding to the
solar and ambient radiation. The surface properties can then be defined for each
spectral band. In particular it is possible to define the solar absorptivity for short
wavelengths and the surface emissivity for large wavelengths.
• For Multiple spectral bands set the Number of wavelength bands value (2 to 5), to
define a diffuse spectral radiation model. It is then possible to provide a definition
of the surface emissivity for each spectral band. Update Intervals endpoint (SI unit:
m), λ1, λ2, ..., to define the wavelength intervals [λi − 1, λi[ for i from 1 to the
Number of wavelength bands. Note that the first and the last endpoints, λ0 and λN

286 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
 (with N equal to the value selected to define the Number of wavelength bands), are
predefined and equal to 0 and +∞ respectively.

Modify the Transparent media refractive index if it is different from 1 that corresponds
to vacuum refractive index and that is usually a good approximation for air refractive
index.

Also select the Use radiation groups check box to enable the ability of defining radiation
groups, which can, in many cases, speed up the radiation calculations.

Select the Surface-to-surface radiation method: Hemicube (the default) or Direct area
integration. See below for descriptions of each method.

• For Direct area integration select the Radiation integration order. Sharp angles and
small gaps between surfaces can require a higher integration order for more accuracy
but also more computational cost to evaluate the irradiation.
• For Hemicube select the Radiation resolution — 256 is the default.

Select Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic to define the
Discretization level used for the surface radiosity shape function.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
The Streamline diffusion check box is selected by default and should remain selected for
optimal performance for heat transfer in fluids or other applications that include a
convective or translational term. Crosswind diffusion provides extra diffusion in regions
with sharp gradients. The added diffusion is orthogonal to the streamlines, so
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion can be used simultaneously. The
Crosswind diffusion check box is also selected by default.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
The Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected by default.

Heat Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization Methods

ADVANCED SETTINGS
Add both a Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh) and a Moving Mesh (ale) interface (found
under the Mathematics>Deformed Mesh branch when adding a physics interface) then
click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options to display this section.

A B O U T T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S | 287
 When the component contains a moving mesh, the Enable conversions between material
and spatial frame check box is selected by default. This option has no effect when the
component does not contain a moving frame because the material and spatial frames
are identical in such cases. With a moving mesh, and when this option is active, the
heat transfer features automatically account for deformation effects on heat transfer
properties. In particular the effects of volume changes on the density are considered.
Rotation effects on the thermal conductivity of an anisotropic material and, more
generally, deformation effects on an arbitrary thermal conductivity, are also covered.
When the Enable conversions between material and spatial frame check box is not
selected, the feature inputs (for example, Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
Interface) and Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)) are not converted
and are instead defined on the Spatial frame.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization.

In the Heat Transfer in Thin Structures interfaces you can choose not only the order
of the discretization, but also the type of shape functions: Lagrange or serendipity.
For highly distorted elements, Lagrange shape functions provide better accuracy than
serendipity shape functions of the same order. The serendipity shape functions will
however give significant reductions of the model size for a given mesh containing
hexahedral, prism, or quadrilateral elements.

The shape functions used for the temperature are Quadratic Lagrange for the modeling
of heat transfer in thin shells, and Linear for the modeling of heat transfer in thin films
and heat transfer in fractures.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The Heat Transfer in Thin Structures interfaces have the dependent variable
Temperature T. The dependent variable names can be changed. Editing the name of a
scalar dependent variable changes both its field name and the dependent variable
name. If a new field name coincides with the name of another field of the same type,
the fields share degrees of freedom and dependent variable names. A new field name
must not coincide with the name of a field of another type or with a component name
belonging to some other field.

288 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface
The Heat Transfer in Solids ( ) interface is used to model heat transfer in solids by
conduction, convection, and radiation. A Solid model is active by default on all
domains. All functionality for including other domain types, such as a fluid domain, is
also available.

The temperature equation defined in solid domains corresponds to the differential

form of the Fourier’s law that may contain additional contributions like heat sources.

When this version of the physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to
the Model Builder: Solid, Thermal Insulation (the default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and sources. You can also right-click Heat Transfer is Solids to
select physics features from the context menu.

PHYSICAL MODEL
By default, no check boxes are selected under the Physical Model section.

AMBIENT SETTINGS
See Ambient Settings for details.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Consistent Stabilization for more details.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Inconsistent Stabilization for more details.

DISCRETIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Discretization.
By default, the shape functions used for the temperature are Quadratic Lagrange. See
Discretization for more details.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S I N T E R F A C E | 289
 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
See Dependent Variables for details.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface for a description of all the
settings.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for links
to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Solids Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Solids

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Solids Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface with
default settings:

• Domain Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Solids Interface

• Boundary Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Solids Interface
• Edge Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Solids Interface
• Point Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Solids Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

290 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
D O M A I N N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface has the following domain nodes:

• Change Cross Section • Phase Change Material

• Change Thickness • Pressure Work
• Fluid • Solid
• Heat Source • Irreversible Transformation
• Initial Values • Thermoelastic Damping
• Out-of-Plane Heat Flux • Translational Motion
• Out-of-Plane Radiation • Viscous Dissipation

When the Isothermal domain check box is selected in the Physical Model section, the
Isothermal Domain node is also available from the context menu or the Physics toolbar
Domains menu.

B O U N D A R Y N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Boundary Heat Source • Open Boundary

• Continuity • Outflow
• Deposited Beam Power • Periodic Condition
• External Temperature (Thin Layer, • Symmetry
Thin Film) • Temperature
• Heat Flux • Thermal Contact
• Heat Source (Thin Film) • Thermal Insulation
• Inflow Heat Flux • Thin Film
• Layer Heat Source • Thin Layer
• Line Heat Source on Axis

When the Isothermal domain check box is selected in the Physical Model section, the
Isothermal Domain Interface node is added by default and is also available from the
context menu or the Physics toolbar Boundaries menu.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S I N T E R F A C E | 291
 E D G E N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface has the following edge nodes (3D components
only):

• Line Heat Source (Thin Rod) • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
Film, Fracture) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
• Line Heat Source Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells)
• Thin Rod

PO I N T N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface has the following point nodes:

• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

Film, Fracture) Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
• Line Heat Source • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin
• Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod) Rod)

• Point Heat Source • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin

Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
• Point Heat Source on Axis
Thin Shells)
• Temperature (Thin Rod)

More nodes are available with more advanced settings. For the complete list of nodes
available see Domain Features, Boundary Features, Edge Features, Point Features, and
Global Features.

Select the Isothermal domain check box to make the Isothermal Domain
and Isothermal Domain Interface nodes available.

292 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface
The Heat Transfer in Fluids ( ) interface is used to model heat transfer in fluids by
conduction, convection, and radiation. A Fluid model is active by default on all
domains. All functionality for including other domain types, such as a solid domain, is
also available.

The temperature equation defined in fluid domains corresponds to the

convection-diffusion equation that may contain additional contributions like heat
sources.

When this version of the physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to
the Model Builder: Fluid, Thermal Insulation (the default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and sources. You can also right-click Heat Transfer in Fluids to
select physics features from the context menu.

PHYSICAL MODEL
By default, no check boxes are selected under the Physical Model section.

AMBIENT SETTINGS
See Ambient Settings for details.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Consistent Stabilization for more details.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Inconsistent Stabilization for more details.

DISCRETIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Discretization.
By default, the shape functions used for the temperature are Linear. See Discretization
for more details.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F L U I D S I N T E R F A C E | 293
 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
See Dependent Variables for details.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface for a description of all the
settings.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for links
to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface with
default settings:

• Domain Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface

• Boundary Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface
• Edge Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface
• Point Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

294 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
D O M A I N N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F L U I D S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface has the following domain nodes:

• Change Cross Section • Phase Change Material

• Change Thickness • Pressure Work
• Fluid • Solid
• Heat Source • Irreversible Transformation
• Initial Values • Thermoelastic Damping
• Out-of-Plane Heat Flux • Translational Motion
• Out-of-Plane Radiation • Viscous Dissipation

B O U N D A R Y N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F L U I D S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Boundary Heat Source • Open Boundary

• Continuity • Outflow
• Deposited Beam Power • Periodic Condition
• External Temperature (Thin Layer, • Symmetry
Thin Film) • Temperature
• Heat Flux • Thermal Contact
• Heat Source (Thin Film) • Thermal Insulation
• Inflow Heat Flux • Thin Film
• Layer Heat Source • Thin Layer
• Line Heat Source on Axis

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F L U I D S I N T E R F A C E | 295
 E D G E N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F L U I D S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface has the following edge nodes (3D components
only):

• Line Heat Source (Thin Rod) • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
Film, Fracture) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
• Line Heat Source Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells)
• Thin Rod

PO I N T N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F L U I D S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface has the following point nodes:

• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

Film, Fracture) Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
• Line Heat Source • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin
• Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod) Rod)

• Point Heat Source • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin

Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
• Point Heat Source on Axis
Thin Shells)
• Temperature (Thin Rod)

More nodes are available with more advanced settings. For the complete list of nodes
available see Domain Features, Boundary Features, Edge Features, Point Features, and
Global Features.

Select the Isothermal domain check box to make the Isothermal Domain
and Isothermal Domain Interface nodes available.

296 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
The Heat Transfer Interface
The Heat Transfer ( ) interface is automatically added when a predefined
multiphysics interface under the Conjugate Heat Transfer branch is added.

It is used to model heat transfer in solids and fluids by conduction, convection, and
radiation. A Solid model is active by default on all domains, and a Fluid model is also
added but not active.

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer Interface

The settings and the feature nodes are the same as for The Heat Transfer in Fluids
Interface.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E | 297
 The Heat Transfer in Porous Media
Interface
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface ( ), found under the Heat Transfer
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to model heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation in porous media. A Porous Medium model is
active by default on all domains. All functionality for including other domain types,
such as a solid domain, is also available.

The temperature equation defined in porous media domains corresponds to the

convection-diffusion equation with thermodynamic properties averaging models to
account for both solid matrix and fluid properties. This equation is valid when the
temperatures into the porous matrix and the fluid are in equilibrium. If not, use The
Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium Interface instead.

The physics interface is an extension of the generic Heat Transfer interface. When this
physics interface is added, the following default nodes are added in the Model Builder:
Porous Medium, Thermal Insulation (the default boundary condition), and Initial Values.
Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions. You can also right-click Heat Transfer in Porous Media to select
physics features from the context menu.

PHYSICAL MODEL
The capability to define material properties, boundary conditions, and more for
porous media heat transfer is activated by selecting the Heat Transfer in Porous Media

298 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
check box (see Figure 5-1).

Figure 5-1: The capability to model porous media heat transfer is activated by selecting the
Heat Transfer in Porous Media check box in any Settings window for Heat Transfer (ht)
under Physical Model.

This check box is selected by default when adding The Heat Transfer in Porous Media
Interface.

When the Subsurface Flow Module is added, under Physical Model, select Extended
from the Porous matrix model list to use a version of the matrix feature to account for
multiple immobile solids and fluids, as well as for geothermal heating.

Free Convection in Porous Media: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Heat_Transfer/convection_porous_medium

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for links
to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

DISCRETIZATION
By default, the shape functions used for the temperature are Linear.

The rest of the settings are the same as for The Heat Transfer in Solids
Interface. See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface for a description of
the other settings.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N P O R O U S M E D I A I N T E R F A C E | 299
 • Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Heat Transfer in Porous Media
Interface with default settings:

• Domain Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface

• Boundary Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
• Edge Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
• Point Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

D O M A I N N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N PO RO U S M E D I A
INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface has the following domain nodes:

• Building Material • Phase Change Material

• Change Cross Section • Porous Medium
• Change Thickness • Pressure Work
• Fluid • Solid
• Geothermal Heating • Irreversible Transformation
• Heat Source • Thermal Dispersion
• Immobile Fluids • Thermoelastic Damping
• Initial Values • Translational Motion
• Out-of-Plane Heat Flux • Viscous Dissipation
• Out-of-Plane Radiation

300 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
Set the Porous matrix model to Extended to make the Geothermal Heating and
Immobile Fluids subnodes available.

B O U N D A R Y N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N PO RO U S M E D I A
INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Boundary Heat Source • Outflow

• Continuity • Periodic Condition
• Deposited Beam Power • Symmetry
• External Temperature (Thin Layer, • Temperature
Thin Film) • Thermal Contact
• Fracture • Thermal Insulation
• Heat Flux • Thin Film
• Heat Source (Thin Film) • Thin Layer
• Inflow Heat Flux
• Layer Heat Source
• Line Heat Source on Axis
• Open Boundary

E D G E N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N PO RO U S M E D I A I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface has the following edge nodes (for 3D
components only):

• Line Heat Source (Thin Rod) • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
Film, Fracture) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
• Line Heat Source Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells)
• Thin Rod

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N P O R O U S M E D I A I N T E R F A C E | 301
 PO I N T N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N PO R O U S M E D I A I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface has the following point nodes:

• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

Film, Fracture) Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
• Line Heat Source • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin
• Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod) Rod)

• Point Heat Source • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin

Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
• Point Heat Source on Axis
Thin Shells)
• Temperature (Thin Rod)

More nodes are available with more advanced settings. For the complete list of nodes
available see Domain Features, Boundary Features, Edge Features, Point Features, and
Global Features.

Select the Isothermal domain check box to make the Isothermal Domain
and Isothermal Domain Interface nodes available.

302 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
The Heat Transfer in Building
Materials Interface
The Heat Transfer in Building Materials ( ) interface is automatically added when the
Building Materials version of the predefined multiphysics interface Heat and Moisture
Transport is added. A Building Material model is active by default on all domains.

It is used to model heat transfer in building materials defined as porous media

containing moisture, which is a mixture of liquid water and vapor. The temperature
equation corresponds to the diffusion equation in which effective thermodynamic
properties account for both the dry solid matrix and moisture properties. The latent
heat of evaporation is included to define a heat source or sink.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are added in the
Model Builder: Building Material, Thermal Insulation, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Heat Transfer in Building Materials to select physics features from
the context menu.

Settings for the Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface

The settings are the same as for The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface, except
for the discretization of the temperature, for which Quadratic Lagrange shape functions
are used.

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface

The feature nodes are the same as for The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface,
with in addition the Moist Air node.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Building Materials

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N B U I L D I N G M A T E R I A L S I N T E R F A C E | 303
 See Building Materials Database in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual for a description of materials containing the thermal and
hygroscopic properties required by some feature nodes of the The Heat
Transfer in Building Materials Interface.

304 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
The Heat Transfer in Moist Air
Interface
The Heat Transfer in Moist Air ( ) interface is automatically added when the Moist Air
version of the predefined multiphysics interface Heat and Moisture Transport is added.
A Moist Air model is active by default on all domains.

It is used to model heat transfer in moist air by convection and diffusion, by using
thermodynamics properties defined as a function of the quantity of vapor in the moist
air.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are added in the
Model Builder: Moist Air, Thermal Insulation, and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can
also right-click Heat Transfer in Moist Air to select physics features from the context
menu.

Settings for the Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface

The settings are the same as for The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface.

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface

The feature nodes are the same as for The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface, with in
addition the Moist Air node.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids

Moist Air Fluid Type

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N M O I S T A I R I N T E R F A C E | 305
 The Bioheat Transfer Interface
The Bioheat Transfer interface ( ), selected under the Heat Transfer branch ( )
when adding a physics interface, is used to model heat transfer by conduction,
convection, and radiation. A Biological Tissue model is active by default on all domains.
All functionality for including other domain types, such as a solid domain, are also
available.

The temperature equation defined in biological tissue domains corresponds to the

differential form of the Fourier’s law with predefined contributions for bioheat
sources. In addition, tissue damage integral models can be included, based on a
temperature threshold or an energy absorption model.

When this version of the physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to
the Model Builder: Biological Tissue (with a default Bioheat node), Thermal Insulation
(the default boundary condition), and Initial Values. All functionality to include both
solid and fluid domains are also available. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other
nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and sources. You can also
right-click Bioheat Transfer to select physics features from the context menu.

PHYSICAL MODEL
The Heat transfer in biological tissue check box is selected by default, which enables the
Damage Integral Analysis Discretization section.

AMBIENT SETTINGS
See Ambient Settings for details.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Consistent Stabilization for more details.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Inconsistent Stabilization for more details.

DAMAGE INTEGRAL ANALYSIS DISCRETIZATION

Select the type of the Shape function for damaged tissue indicators. The default is
Discontinuous Lagrange. The order is set in the Discretization section.

306 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
DISCRETIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Discretization.
By default, the shape functions used for the temperature are Quadratic Lagrange. See
Discretization for more details.

Select Constant (the default), Linear, Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic or Quintic to define the
discretization level used for the Damage tissue indicator shape function.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

See Dependent Variables for details.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface for a description of all the
settings.

• Theory for Bioheat Transfer

• Biological Tissue and Bioheat
• Feature Nodes for the Bioheat Transfer Interface

Hepatic Tumor Ablation: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/tumor_ablation

Feature Nodes for the Bioheat Transfer Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Bioheat Transfer Interface with
default settings:

• Domain Nodes for the Bioheat Transfer Interface

• Boundary Nodes for the Bioheat Transfer Interface
• Edge Nodes for the Bioheat Transfer Interface
• Point Nodes for the Bioheat Transfer Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

T H E B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E | 307
 D O M A I N N O D E S F O R T H E B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
The Bioheat Transfer Interface has the following domain nodes:

• Bioheat • Out-of-Plane Radiation

• Biological Tissue • Phase Change Material
• Change Cross Section • Pressure Work
• Change Thickness • Solid
• Fluid • Irreversible Transformation
• Heat Source • Thermoelastic Damping
• Initial Values • Translational Motion
• Out-of-Plane Heat Flux • Viscous Dissipation

B O U N D A R Y N O D E S F O R T H E B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
The Bioheat Transfer Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Boundary Heat Source • Open Boundary

• Continuity • Outflow
• Deposited Beam Power • Periodic Condition
• External Temperature (Thin Layer, • Symmetry
Thin Film) • Temperature
• Heat Flux • Thermal Contact
• Heat Source (Thin Film) • Thermal Insulation
• Inflow Heat Flux • Thin Film
• Layer Heat Source • Thin Layer
• Line Heat Source on Axis

308 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
E D G E N O D E S F O R T H E B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
The Bioheat Transfer Interface has the following edge nodes (for 3D components
only):

• Line Heat Source (Thin Rod) • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
Film, Fracture) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
• Line Heat Source Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells)
• Thin Rod

PO I N T N O D E S F O R T H E B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E
The Bioheat Transfer Interface has the following point nodes:

• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

Film, Fracture) Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
• Line Heat Source • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin
• Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod) Rod)

• Point Heat Source • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin

Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
• Point Heat Source on Axis
Thin Shells)
• Temperature (Thin Rod)

More nodes are available with more advanced settings. For the complete list of nodes
available see Domain Features, Boundary Features, Edge Features, Point Features, and
Global Features.

T H E B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E | 309
 The Heat Transfer with
Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Interface
The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation (ht) interface ( ), found under
the Radiation branch ( ), is used to model heat transfer by conduction, convection,
and radiation, including surface-to-surface radiation.

Whereas The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface requires the

temperature field as model input, this physics interface computes it. If the
medium participates in the radiation (semi-transparent medium), then
use The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface
instead.

A Solid model is active by default on all domains and when the Surface-to-surface
radiation check box is selected for the Heat Transfer interface. All functionality to
include other heat transfer models, such as Fluid, is also available. The radiosity
equation defined on boundaries where surface-to-surface radiation is enabled
corresponds to the radiosity method equation.

These default nodes are added to the Model Builder: Solid (with a default Opacity node,
with Opacity set to Transparent), Thermal Insulation, and Initial Values. Then, from the
Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions.
You can also right-click Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation to select physics
features from the context menu.

PHYSICAL MODEL
When this physics interface is added, the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is
selected by default, which enables the Radiation Settings section.

AMBIENT SETTINGS
See Ambient Settings for details.

310 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Consistent Stabilization for more details.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Inconsistent Stabilization for more details.

RADIATION SETTINGS
This section is available when the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected in
the Physical Model section. See Radiation Settings for more details.

DISCRETIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Discretization.
By default, the shape functions used for the temperature are Quadratic Lagrange. See
Discretization for more details.

Select Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic or Quintic to define the
discretization level used for the Surface radiosity shape function.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

See Dependent Variables for details.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface for a description of all the
settings.

Thermo-Photo-Voltaic Cell: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/tpv_cell

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface

Radiation Interface
This section details the nodes available with The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface
Radiation Interface with default settings:

• Domain Nodes for the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface
• Boundary Nodes for the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H S U R F A C E - T O - S U R F A C E R A D I A T I O N I N T E R F A C E | 311
 • Edge Nodes for the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface
• Point Nodes for the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

D O M A I N N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H S U R F A C E - T O - S U R F A C E
RADIATION INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface has the following
domain nodes:

• Change Cross Section • Phase Change Material

• Change Thickness • Pressure Work
• Fluid • Solid
• Heat Source • Irreversible Transformation
• Initial Values • Thermoelastic Damping
• Opacity • Translational Motion
• Out-of-Plane Heat Flux • Viscous Dissipation
• Out-of-Plane Radiation

312 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
B O U N D A R Y N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H
SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface has the following
boundary nodes:

• Boundary Heat Source • Open Boundary

• Continuity • Outflow
• Deposited Beam Power • Periodic Condition
• Diffuse Mirror • Prescribed Radiosity
• Diffuse Surface • Radiation Group
• External Radiation Source • Symmetry
• External Temperature (Thin Layer, • Temperature
Thin Film) • Thermal Contact
• Heat Flux • Thermal Insulation
• Heat Source (Thin Film) • Thin Film
• Inflow Heat Flux • Thin Layer
• Layer Heat Source
• Line Heat Source on Axis

E D G E N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H S U R F A C E - T O - S U R F A C E
RADIATION INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface has the following edge
nodes (for 3D components only):

• Line Heat Source (Thin Rod) • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
Film, Fracture) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
• Line Heat Source Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells)
• Thin Rod

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H S U R F A C E - T O - S U R F A C E R A D I A T I O N I N T E R F A C E | 313
 PO I N T N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H S U R F A C E - T O - S U R F A C E
RADIATION INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface has the following point
nodes:

• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

Film, Fracture) Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
• Line Heat Source • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin
• Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod) Rod)

• Point Heat Source • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin

Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
• Point Heat Source on Axis
Thin Shells)
• Temperature (Thin Rod)

More nodes are available with more advanced settings. For the complete list of nodes
available see Domain Features, Boundary Features, Edge Features, Point Features, and
Global Features.

314 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
The Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media Interface
The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media (ht) interface ( ), found under
the Heat Transfer>Radiation branch ( ), is used to model heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation, including radiation in participating
(semi-transparent) media.

Whereas The Radiation in Participating Media Interface requires the

temperature field as model input, this physics interface computes it. If the
medium does not participate in the radiation (transparent medium), then
use The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface
instead.

A Solid model is active by default on all domains and when the Radiation in participating
media check box is selected for the Heat Transfer interface. All functionality to include
other heat transfer models, like Fluid, is also available.

The radiative intensity equations defined in participating media domains are

approximated either with the Rosseland approximation, P1 approximation, or discrete
ordinates method.

The following default nodes are added to the Model Builder: Solid, Initial Values, Thermal
Insulation, Opaque Surface, and Continuity on Interior Boundary. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions. You can
also right-click Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media to select physics
features from the context menu.

PHYSICAL MODEL
When this physics interface is added, the Radiation in participating media check box is
selected by default, which enables the Participating Media Settings section.

AMBIENT SETTINGS
See Ambient Settings for details.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H R A D I A T I O N I N P A R T I C I P A T I N G M E D I A I N T E R F A C E | 315
 CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Consistent Stabilization for more details.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Inconsistent Stabilization for more details.

PARTICIPATING MEDIA SETTINGS

Radiation Discretization Method

Select a Radiation discretization method: Discrete ordinates method (the default),
Rosseland approximation, or P1 approximation.

• When Discrete ordinates method is selected, Opaque Surface and Continuity on

Interior Boundary are automatically added as default features.
• When P1 approximation is selected, Opaque Surface is automatically added as a
default feature and both this and Incident Intensity are made available from the
Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users),
or the context menu (all users). Continuity on Interior Boundary is not available.
• When Rosseland approximation is selected, neither Continuity on Interior Boundary
nor Opaque Surface is included or available.

The choice of Radiation discretization method also offers different settings

for the Radiation in Participating Media (Heat Transfer Interface) (all
methods), Opaque Surface (P1 approximation), and Incident Intensity
(P1 approximation) nodes.

Refractive Index
For either selection, define the Refractive index nr (dimensionless) of the participating
media. The same refractive index is used for the whole model.

Performance Index
For Discrete ordinates method select a Performance index Pindex from the list. Select a
value between 0 and 1 that modifies the strategy used to define automatic solver
settings. The default is 0.4. With small values, a robust setting for the solver is
expected. With large values (up to 1), less memory is needed to solve the model.

316 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
Discrete Ordinates Method
For Discrete ordinates method, select an order from the list. This order defines the
angular discretization of the radiative intensity direction.

In 3D, S2, S4, S6, and S8 generate 8, 24, 48, and 80 directions,
respectively. The default is S4.

In 2D, S2, S4, S6, and S8 generate 4, 12, 24, and 40 directions,
respectively.

For additional background theory also see Discrete Ordinates Method

(DOM), Discrete Ordinates Method Implementation in 2D, Rosseland
Approximation Theory, and P1 Approximation Theory.

DISCRETIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Discretization.
By default, the shape functions used for the temperature are Quadratic Lagrange. See
Discretization for more details.

When the Radiation discretization method is set to Discrete ordinates method in

Participating Media Settings, set the discretization level of the Radiative intensity:
Constant, Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic.

When the Radiation discretization method is set to P1 approximation in Participating

Media Settings, set the discretization level of the Incident radiation: Linear (the default),
Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic.

DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

See Dependent Variables for details.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer Interface for a description of all the
settings.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H R A D I A T I O N I N P A R T I C I P A T I N G M E D I A I N T E R F A C E | 317
 Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating
Media Interface
This section details the nodes available with The Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media Interface with default settings:

• Domain Nodes for the Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media
Interface
• Boundary Nodes for the Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media
Interface
• Edge Nodes for the Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface
• Point Nodes for the Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

D O M A I N N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H R A D I A T I O N I N
PARTICIPATING MEDIA INTERFACE
The The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface has the
following domain nodes:

• Change Cross Section • Pressure Work

• Change Thickness • Radiation in Participating Media
• Fluid (Heat Transfer Interface)

• Heat Source • Solid

• Initial Values • Irreversible Transformation

• Out-of-Plane Heat Flux • Thermoelastic Damping

• Out-of-Plane Radiation • Translational Motion

• Phase Change Material • Viscous Dissipation

318 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
B O U N D A R Y N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H R A D I A T I O N I N
PARTICIPATING MEDIA INTERFACE
The The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface has the
following boundary nodes:

• Boundary Heat Source • Line Heat Source on Axis

• Continuity • Opaque Surface
• Continuity on Interior Boundary • Open Boundary
• Deposited Beam Power • Outflow
• Diffuse Surface • Periodic Condition
• External Temperature (Thin Layer, • Symmetry
Thin Film) • Temperature
• Heat Flux • Thermal Contact
• Heat Source (Thin Film) • Thermal Insulation
• Incident Intensity • Thin Film
• Inflow Heat Flux • Thin Layer
• Layer Heat Source

E D G E N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H R A D I A T I O N I N
PARTICIPATING MEDIA INTERFACE
The The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface has the
following edge nodes (for 3D components only):

• Line Heat Source (Thin Rod) • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
Film, Fracture) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
• Line Heat Source Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells)
• Thin Rod

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H R A D I A T I O N I N P A R T I C I P A T I N G M E D I A I N T E R F A C E | 319
 PO I N T N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H R A D I A T I O N I N
PARTICIPATING MEDIA INTERFACE
The The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media Interface has the
following point nodes:

• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin

Film, Fracture) Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
• Line Heat Source • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin
• Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod) Rod)

• Point Heat Source • Temperature (Thin Rod)

• Point Heat Source on Axis • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin

Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells)

More nodes are available with more advanced settings. For the complete list of nodes
available see Domain Features, Boundary Features, Edge Features, Point Features, and
Global Features.

320 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
Interface
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh) interface ( ), found in the Thin Structures
physics area under the Heat Transfer branch ( ), is used to model heat transfer by
conduction, convection and radiation in thin structures. A Thin Conductive Layer model
is active by default on all boundaries. All functionalities for including other boundary
contributions, such as surface-to-surface radiation, are also available.

The temperature equation defined on shells corresponds to the tangential differential

form of the Fourier’s law (see Equation 4-50) that may contain additional
contributions such as heat sources.

The physics interface is available for 2D components, 3D components, and for

axisymmetric components with cylindrical coordinates in 2D.

When this version of the physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added
to the Model Builder: Thin Conductive Layer, Insulation/Continuity (a boundary
condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add additional nodes that
implement, for example, edge or point conditions, and heat sources. You can also
right-click Heat Transfer in Thin Shells to select physics features from the context menu.

PHYSICAL MODEL
By default, no check boxes are selected under the Physical Model section.

AMBIENT SETTINGS
See Ambient Settings for details.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Consistent Stabilization for more details.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Inconsistent Stabilization for more details.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S I N T E R F A C E | 321
 RADIATION SETTINGS
This section is available when the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected in
the Physical Model section. See Radiation Settings for more details.

DISCRETIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Discretization.
By default, the shape functions used for the temperature are Quadratic Lagrange. See
Discretization for more details.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
See Dependent Variables for details.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer in Thin Structures Interface for a
description of the other settings.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Shell Conduction: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/shell_conduction

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface
with default settings:

• Boundary Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface

• Edge Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface
• Point Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

322 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
 The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface does not have any domain
node, as it can be applied only on boundaries.

B O U N D A R Y N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S
INTERFACE
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Change Thickness (Heat Transfer in • Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin

Thin Shells Interface) Shells Interface)
• Continuity • Heat Source (Thin Layered Shell)
• Deposited Beam Power • Initial Values (Heat Transfer in Thin
• Diffuse Surface Shells Interface)

• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin • Thin Conductive Layer (Heat

Shells Interface) Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)
• Thin Layered Shell (Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells Interface)

E D G E N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface has the following edge nodes (for 3D
components only):

• Change Effective Thickness (Heat • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin Interface)
Shells Interface) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) Thin Shells)

• Insulation/Continuity (Heat
Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S I N T E R F A C E | 323
 PO I N T N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface has the following point nodes:

• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin • Insulation/Continuity (Heat

Shells Interface) Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Shells Interface) (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin Interface)
Shells Interface) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells)

More nodes are available with more advanced settings. For the complete list of nodes
available see Domain Features, Boundary Features, Edge Features, Point Features, and
Global Features.

324 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
The Heat Transfer in Thin Films
Interface
The Heat Transfer in Thin Films (htsh) interface ( ), found in the Thin Structures
physics area under the Heat Transfer branch ( ), is used to model heat transfer by
conduction, convection and radiation in thin structures. A Thin Film model is active by
default on all boundaries. All functionalities for including other boundary
contributions, such as surface-to-surface radiation, are also available.

The temperature equation defined on thin films corresponds to the tangential

differential form of the convection-diffusion equation that may contain additional
contributions such as heat sources.

The physics interface is available for 2D components, 3D components, and for

axisymmetric components with cylindrical coordinates in 2D.

When this version of the physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added
to the Model Builder: Thin Film, Insulation/Continuity (a boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add additional nodes that implement, for
example, edge or point conditions, and heat sources. You can also right-click Heat
Transfer in Thin Films to select physics features from the context menu.

PHYSICAL MODEL
By default, no check boxes are selected under the Physical Model section.

AMBIENT SETTINGS
See Ambient Settings for details.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Consistent Stabilization for more details.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Inconsistent Stabilization for more details.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N F I L M S I N T E R F A C E | 325
 RADIATION SETTINGS
This section is available when the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected in
the Physical Model section. See Radiation Settings for more details.

DISCRETIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Discretization.
By default, the shape functions used for the temperature are Linear. See Discretization
for more details.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
See Dependent Variables for details.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer in Thin Structures Interface for a
description of the other settings.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface
with default settings:

• Boundary Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface

• Edge Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface
• Point Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

The Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface does not have any domain
node, as it can be applied only on boundaries.

326 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
B O U N D A R Y N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N F I L M S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Change Thickness (Heat Transfer in • Heat Source (Thin Layered Shell)

Thin Shells Interface) • Initial Values (Heat Transfer in Thin
• Continuity Shells Interface)
• Deposited Beam Power • Thin Conductive Layer (Heat
• Diffuse Surface Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin • Thin Film

Shells Interface) • Thin Layered Shell (Heat Transfer in
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin Thin Shells Interface)
Shells Interface)

E D G E N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N F I L M S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface has the following edge nodes (for 3D
components only):

• Change Effective Thickness (Heat • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin Interface)
Shells Interface) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) Thin Shells)

• Insulation/Continuity (Heat
Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N F I L M S I N T E R F A C E | 327
 PO I N T N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N F I L M S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Thin Films Interface has the following point nodes:

• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin • Insulation/Continuity (Heat

Shells Interface) Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Shells Interface) (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin Interface)
Shells Interface) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells)

More nodes are available with more advanced settings. For the complete list of nodes
available see Domain Features, Boundary Features, Edge Features, Point Features, and
Global Features.

328 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
The Heat Transfer in Fractures
Interface
The Heat Transfer in Fractures (htsh) interface ( ), found in the Thin Structures
physics area under the Heat Transfer branch ( ), is used to model heat transfer by
conduction, convection and radiation in porous thin structures. A Fracture model is
active by default on all boundaries. All functionalities for including other boundary
contributions, such as surface-to-surface radiation, are also available.

The temperature equation defined on fractures corresponds to the tangential

differential form of the convection-diffusion equation with thermodynamic properties
averaging models to account for both solid matrix and fluid properties. The equation
is valid when the temperatures into the porous matrix and the fluid are in equilibrium,
and may contain additional contributions such as heat sources.

The physics interface is available for 2D components, 3D components, and for

axisymmetric components with cylindrical coordinates in 2D.

When this version of the physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added
to the Model Builder: Fracture, Insulation/Continuity (a boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add additional nodes that implement, for
example, edge or point conditions, and heat sources. You can also right-click Heat
Transfer in Fractures to select physics features from the context menu.

PHYSICAL MODEL
By default, the Heat Transfer in Porous Media check box is selected under the Physical
Model section.

AMBIENT SETTINGS
See Ambient Settings for details.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Consistent Stabilization for more details.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Stabilization.
See Inconsistent Stabilization for more details.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F R A C T U R E S I N T E R F A C E | 329
 RADIATION SETTINGS
This section is available when the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected in
the Physical Model section. See Radiation Settings for more details.

DISCRETIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Discretization.
By default, the shape functions used for the temperature are Linear. See Discretization
for more details.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
See Dependent Variables for details.

See Settings for the Heat Transfer in Thin Structures Interface for a
description of the other settings.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface
with default settings:

• Boundary Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface

• Edge Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface
• Point Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface does not have any domain node,
as it can be applied only on boundaries.

330 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
B O U N D A R Y N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F R A C T U RE S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Change Thickness (Heat Transfer in • Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin

Thin Shells Interface) Shells Interface)
• Continuity • Heat Source (Thin Layered Shell)
• Deposited Beam Power • Initial Values (Heat Transfer in Thin
• Diffuse Surface Shells Interface)

• Fracture • Thin Conductive Layer (Heat

Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)
• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin
Shells Interface) • Thin Layered Shell (Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells Interface)

E D G E N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F R A C T U R E S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface has the following edge nodes (for 3D
components only):

• Change Effective Thickness (Heat • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin Interface)
Shells Interface) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Shells Interface) Thin Shells)

• Insulation/Continuity (Heat
Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F R A C T U R E S I N T E R F A C E | 331
 PO I N T N O D E S F O R T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F R A C T U R E S I N T E R F A C E
The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface has the following point nodes:

• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin • Insulation/Continuity (Heat

Shells Interface) Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Shells Interface) (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin Interface)
Shells Interface) • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells)

More nodes are available with more advanced settings. For the complete list of nodes
available see Domain Features, Boundary Features, Edge Features, Point Features, and
Global Features.

332 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
The Surface-To-Surface Radiation
Interface
The Surface-to-Surface Radiation (rad) interface ( ), found under the Heat
Transfer>Radiation branch ( ), is used to model heat transfer by radiation. It treats
thermal radiation as an energy transfer between boundaries and external heat sources
where the medium does not participate in the radiation (radiation in transparent
media).

Whereas The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

computes the temperature field, this physics interface requires it as model
input. If the medium participates in the radiation (semi-transparent
medium), then use The Radiation in Participating Media Interface
instead.

The radiosity equation defined on boundaries where surface-to-surface radiation is

enabled corresponds to the radiosity method equation.

From the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions. You can also right-click Surface-to-Surface Radiation to select physics
features from the context menu. For the Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface, select a
Stationary or Time Dependent study as a preset study type. The surface-to-surface
radiation is always stationary (that is, the radiation time scale is assumed to be shorter
than any other time scale), but the physics interface is compatible with all standard
study types.

Absolute (thermodynamical) temperature units must be used. See

Specifying Model Equation Settings in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In this section:

• Settings for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

• Feature Nodes for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

T H E S U R F A C E - TO - S U R F A C E R A D I A T I O N I N T E R F A C E | 333
 Settings for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is rad.

RADIATION SETTINGS
This section is always available for The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface. To
display this section for any version of the Heat Transfer interface, select the
Surface-to-surface radiation check box in the Physical Model section.

Define the Wavelength dependence of emissivity.

• Keep the default value, Constant, to define a diffuse gray radiation model. In this
case, the surface emissivity has the same definition for all wavelengths. The surface
emissivity can still depend on other quantities, in particular on the temperature.
• Select Solar and ambient to define a diffuse spectral radiation model with two
spectral bands, one for short wavelengths, [0, λ1], (solar radiation) and one for large
wavelengths, [λ1, +∞[, (ambient radiation). It is then possible to define the Intervals
endpoint (SI unit: m), λ1, to adjust the wavelength intervals corresponding to the
solar and ambient radiation. The surface properties can then be defined for each
spectral band. In particular it is possible to define the solar absorptivity for short
wavelengths and the surface emissivity for large wavelengths.
• Select Multiple spectral bands and set the Number of wavelength bands value (2 to 5),
to define a diffuse spectral radiation model. It is then possible to provide a definition
of the surface emissivity for each spectral band. Update Intervals endpoint (SI unit:
m), λ1, λ2, ..., to define the wavelength intervals [λi − 1, λi[ for i from 1 to the
Number of wavelength bands.

The first and the last endpoints, λ0 and λN (with N equal to the value
selected to define the Number of wavelength bands), are predefined and
equal to 0 and +∞, respectively.

334 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
Modify the Transparent media refractive index if it is different from 1 and corresponds
to vacuum refractive index, which is usually a good approximation for air refractive
index.

In the Exterior radiation menu, select Exterior is transparent or Exterior is opaque to

define if the exterior of the heat transfer interface selection should be considered as
transparent or opaque, respectively, when Opacity controlled option is used to define
Radiation direction in surface-to-surface radiation boundary conditions. It has no effect
on a boundary where Opacity controlled option is not selected.

Also select the Use radiation groups check box to enable the ability to define radiation
groups, which can, in many cases, speed up the radiation calculations.

Select the Surface-to-surface radiation method: Hemicube (the default) or Direct area
integration.

• For Direct Area Integration select a Radiation integration order — 4 is the default.
• For Hemicube select a Radiation resolution — 256 is the default.

Hemicube
Hemicube is the default method for the heat transfer interfaces. The more
sophisticated and general hemicube method uses a z-buffered projection on the sides
of a hemicube (with generalizations to 2D and 1D) to account for shadowing effects.
Think of it as rendering digital images of the geometry in five different directions (in
3D; in 2D only three directions are needed), and counting the pixels in each mesh
element to evaluate its view factor.

Its accuracy can be influenced by setting the Radiation resolution of the virtual
snapshots. The number of z-buffer pixels on each side of the 3D hemicube equals the
specified resolution squared. Thus the time required to evaluate the irradiation
increases quadratically with resolution. In 2D, the number of z-buffer pixels is
proportional to the resolution property, and thus the time is, as well.

For an axisymmetric geometry, Gm and Famb must be evaluated in a corresponding

3D geometry obtained by revolving the 2D boundaries about the axis. COMSOL
Multiphysics creates this virtual 3D geometry by revolving the 2D boundary mesh into
a 3D mesh. The resolution can be controlled in the azimuthal direction by setting the
number of azimuthal sectors, which is the same as the number of elements to a full
revolution. Try to balance this number against the mesh resolution in the rz-plane.

T H E S U R F A C E - TO - S U R F A C E R A D I A T I O N I N T E R F A C E | 335
 Direct Area Integration
COMSOL Multiphysics evaluates the mutual irradiation between surface directly,
without considering which face elements are obstructed by others. This means that
shadowing effects (that is, surface elements being obstructed in nonconvex cases) are
not taken into account. Elements facing away from each other are, however, excluded
from the integrals.

Direct area integration is fast and accurate for simple geometries with no shadowing,
or where the shadowing can be handled by manually assigning boundaries to different
groups.

If shadowing is ignored, global energy is not conserved. Control the

accuracy by specifying a Radiation integration order. Sharp angles and small
gaps between surfaces may require a higher integration order for accuracy
but also more time to evaluate the irradiation.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization.

Select Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic or Quintic to define the
discretization level used for the Surface radiosity shape function.

• About the Heat Transfer Interfaces

• Feature Nodes for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface
• The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface
• Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

Feature Nodes for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Surface-To-Surface Radiation
Interface with default settings:

• Domain Nodes for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

336 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
• Boundary Nodes for the Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

DOMAIN NODES FOR THE SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION INTERFACE

The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface has one domain node: Opacity.

BOUNDARY NODES FOR THE SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION

INTERFACE
The Surface-To-Surface Radiation Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Continuity • External Radiation Source

• Diffuse Mirror • Prescribed Radiosity
• Diffuse Surface • Radiation Group

T H E S U R F A C E - TO - S U R F A C E R A D I A T I O N I N T E R F A C E | 337
 The Radiation in Participating Media
Interface
The Radiation in Participating Media (rpm) interface ( ), found under the Heat
Transfer>Radiation branch ( ), is used to model radiative heat transfer inside
participating (semi-transparent media) media.

Whereas The Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media

Interface computes the temperature field, this physics interface requires it
as a model input. If the medium does not participate in the radiation
(transparent medium), then use The Surface-To-Surface Radiation
Interface instead.

The radiative intensity equations defined in participating media domains correspond

to a P1 approximation or to the discrete ordinates method approximation equations
depending on the selected approximation.

When the physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to the Model Builder:
Radiation in Participating Media, Wall, Continuity on Interior Boundary, and Initial Values.
Right-click the main node to add boundary conditions or other features. Then, from
the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions. You can also right-click Radiation in Participating Media node to select
physics features from the context menu.

In this section:

• Settings for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface

• Feature Nodes for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface

Settings for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface

The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

338 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is rpm.

• Radiative Heat Transfer in Finite Cylindrical Media: Application

Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/
cylinder_participating_media
• Radiative Heat Transfer in a Utility Boiler: Application Library
path Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/boiler

PARTICIPATING MEDIA SETTINGS

To display this section select the Radiation in participating media check box under
Physical Model on any version of the Settings window for Heat Transfer.

Radiation Discretization Method

Select a Radiation discretization method: Discrete ordinates method (the default) or P1
approximation.

• When Discrete ordinates method is selected, Opaque Surface and Continuity on

Interior Boundary are automatically added as default features.
• When P1 approximation is selected, Opaque Surface is automatically added as a
default feature and both this and Incident Intensity are made available from the
Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users),
or the context menu (all users). Continuity on Interior Boundary is not available.

The choice of Radiation discretization method also offers different settings

for the Radiation in Participating Media (Heat Transfer Interface) (all
methods), Opaque Surface (P1 approximation), and Incident Intensity
(P1 approximation) nodes.

Refractive Index
For either selection, define the Refractive index nr (dimensionless) of the participating
media. The same refractive index is used for the whole model.

Performance Index
When Discrete ordinates method is selected, choose a Performance index Pindex from the
list. Select a value between 0 and 1 that modifies the strategy used to define automatic
solver settings. The default is 0.4. With small values, a robust setting for the solver is
expected. With large values (up to 1), less memory is needed to solve the model.

THE RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA INTERFACE | 339

 Discrete Ordinates Method
When Discrete ordinates method is selected, choose the Discrete ordinates method order
from the list. This order defines the angular discretization of the radiative intensity
direction.

In 3D, S2, S4, S6, and S8 generate 8, 24, 48, and 80 directions,
respectively. The default is S4.

In 2D, S2, S4, S6, and S8 generate 4, 12, 24, and 40 directions,
respectively.

For additional background theory also see Discrete Ordinates Method

(DOM), Discrete Ordinates Method Implementation in 2D, and P1
Approximation Theory.

DISCRETIZATION
This section is available by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Discretization.

When the Radiation discretization method is set to Discrete ordinates method in

Participating Media Settings, set the discretization level of the Radiative intensity:
Constant, Linear (the default), Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic.

When the Radiation discretization method is set to P1 approximation in Participating

Media Settings, set the discretization level of the Incident radiation: Linear (the default),
Quadratic, Cubic, Quartic, or Quintic.

Feature Nodes for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface

This section details the nodes available with The Radiation in Participating Media
Interface with default settings:

• Domain Nodes for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface

340 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
• Boundary Nodes for the Radiation in Participating Media Interface

Some nodes are only available with some COMSOL products.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

DOMAIN NODES FOR THE RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA

INTERFACE
The Radiation in Participating Media Interface has one domain node: Radiation in
Participating Media (RPM Interface).

BOUNDARY NODES FOR THE RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA

INTERFACE
The Radiation in Participating Media Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Continuity • Incident Intensity

• Continuity on Interior Boundary • Opaque Surface

THE RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA INTERFACE | 341

 T he M o i s tur e Tran sp ort i n Bu i l d i n g
Materials Interface
The Moisture Transport in Building Materials ( ) interface is used to model moisture
transport in building materials by taking into account moisture storage, liquid
transport by capillary suction forces, and the convective transport of vapor. A Building
Material model is active by default on all domains.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to the Model
Builder: Building Material, Insulation (the default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions. You can also right-click Moisture Transport in Building Materials
to select physics features from the context menu.

See Building Materials Database in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for a description of materials containing the thermal and
hygroscopic properties required by some feature nodes of the Moisture
Transport in Building Materials Interface.

Settings for the Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface

The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is mt.

PHYSICAL MODEL
In 2D and 1D axisymmetric components, set the Thickness dz, which is the thickness
of the domain in the out-of-plane direction. The default value is 1 m.

In 1D components, set the Cross sectional area Ac and the Cross sectional perimeter Pc
of the domain. Default values are 1 m2 and 1 m, respectively.

342 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
The Streamline diffusion check box is selected by default and should remain selected for
optimal performance for applications that include a convective or translational term.
Crosswind diffusion provides extra diffusion in regions with sharp gradients. The added
diffusion is orthogonal to the streamlines, so streamline diffusion and crosswind
diffusion can be used simultaneously. The Crosswind diffusion check box is also selected
by default.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
The Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected by default. To add isotropic diffusion,
select the Isotropic diffusion check box. The field for the tuning parameter δid then
becomes available. The default value is 0.25; increase or decrease the value of δid to
increase or decrease the amount of isotropic diffusion.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Stabilization Techniques
• Stabilization

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Normally these settings do not need to be changed, and only apply to the domains in
which a Moist Air feature is active. Select a Convective term—Non-conservative form (the
default) or Conservative form. The latter should be used for compressible flow.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. The shape
functions used for the relative humidity are Quadratic Lagrange.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for links
to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Theory for Moisture Transport

T H E M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T I N B U I L D I N G M A T E R I A L S I N T E R F A C E | 343
 Feature Nodes for the Moisture Transport in Building Materials
Interface
This section details the nodes available with The Moisture Transport in Building
Materials Interface with default settings:

• Domain Nodes for the Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface

• Boundary Nodes for the Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface

D O M A I N N O D E S F O R T H E M O I S T U RE TR A N S P O R T I N B U I L D I N G
MATERIALS INTERFACE
The Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface has the following domain
nodes:

• Building Material • Moist Air

• Initial Values • Moisture Source

B O U N D A R Y N O D E S F O R T H E M O I S T U RE TR A N S P O R T I N B U I L D I N G
MATERIALS INTERFACE
The Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface has the following boundary
nodes:

• Continuity • Outflow
• Insulation • Symmetry
• Moist Surface • Thin Moisture Barrier
• Moisture Content • Wet Surface
• Moisture Flux

344 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
The Moisture Transport in Air
Interface
The Moisture Transport in Air ( ) interface is used to model moisture transport
through convection and diffusion of vapor in moist air. A Moist Air model is active by
default on all domains.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are added to the Model
Builder: Moist Air, Insulation (the default boundary condition), and Initial Values. Then,
from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary
conditions. You can also right-click Moisture Transport in Air to select physics features
from the context menu.

Settings for the Moisture Transport in Air Interface

The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is mt.

PHYSICAL MODEL
In 2D and 1D axisymmetric components, set the Thickness dz, which is the thickness
of the domain in the out-of-plane direction. The default value is 1 m.

In 1D components, set the Cross sectional area Ac and the Cross sectional perimeter Pc
of the domain. Default values are 1 m2 and 1 m, respectively.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
The Streamline diffusion check box is selected by default and should remain selected for
optimal performance for applications that include a convective or translational term.
Crosswind diffusion provides extra diffusion in regions with sharp gradients. The added
diffusion is orthogonal to the streamlines, so streamline diffusion and crosswind

T H E M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T I N A I R I N T E R F A C E | 345
 diffusion can be used simultaneously. The Crosswind diffusion check box is also selected
by default.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
The Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected by default. To add isotropic diffusion,
select the Isotropic diffusion check box. The field for the tuning parameter δid then
becomes available. The default value is 0.25; increase or decrease the value of δid to
increase or decrease the amount of isotropic diffusion.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Stabilization Techniques
• Stabilization

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Normally these settings do not need to be changed, and only apply to the domains in
which a Moist Air feature is active. Select a Convective term—Non-conservative form (the
default) or Conservative form. The latter should be used for compressible flow.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. The shape
functions used for the relative humidity are Linear.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-3 for links
to common sections and Table 2-4 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Theory for Moisture Transport

346 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
Feature Nodes for the Moisture Transport in Air Interface
This section details the nodes available with The Moisture Transport in Air Interface
with default settings:

• Domain Nodes for the Moisture Transport in Air Interface

• Boundary Nodes for the Moisture Transport in Air Interface

D O M A I N N O D E S F O R T H E M O I S T U RE TR A N S P O R T I N A I R I N T E R F A C E
The Moisture Transport in Air Interface has the following domain nodes:

• Building Material • Moist Air

• Initial Values • Moisture Source

B O U N D A R Y N O D E S F O R T H E M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T I N A I R I N T E R F A C E
The Moisture Transport in Air Interface has the following boundary nodes:

• Continuity • Outflow
• Insulation • Symmetry
• Moist Surface • Thin Moisture Barrier
• Moisture Content • Wet Surface
• Moisture Flux

T H E M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T I N A I R I N T E R F A C E | 347
348 | C H A P T E R 5 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D U L E I N T E R F A C E S
 6

The Heat Transfer Features

The Heat Transfer Interfaces have domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes
and subnodes (including out-of-plane and layer features) available. These nodes,
listed in alphabetical order in this section, are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), from the Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or
by right-clicking to access the context menu (all users). Subnodes are available by
right-clicking the parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

In this section:

• Domain Features
• Boundary Features
• Edge Features
• Point Features
• Global Features

349
 Domain Features
The Heat Transfer interfaces have the following domain nodes and subnodes available:

• Bioheat • Out-of-Plane Heat Flux

• Biological Tissue • Out-of-Plane Radiation
• Building Material • Phase Change Material
• Change Cross Section • Porous Medium
• Change Thickness • Pressure Work
• Fluid • Radiation in Participating Media
• Geothermal Heating (Heat Transfer Interface)

• Heat Source • Radiation in Participating Media

(RPM Interface)
• Immobile Fluids
• Solid
• Initial Values
• Thermal Dispersion
• Irreversible Transformation
• Thermoelastic Damping
• Isothermal Domain
• Translational Motion
• Moist Air
• Viscous Dissipation
• Opacity

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Bioheat
This feature provides the source terms that represent blood perfusion and metabolism
to model heat transfer in biological tissue using the bioheat equation:

ρ b C p, b ω b ( T b – T ) + Q met

350 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
BIOHEAT
Enter values or expressions for these properties and source terms:

• Arterial blood temperature Tb, which is the temperature at which blood leaves the
arterial blood veins and enters the capillaries. T is the temperature in the tissue,
which is the dependent variable that is solved for and not a material property.
• Specific heat, blood Cp, b, which describes the amount of heat energy required to
produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass of blood.
• Blood perfusion rate ωb (SI unit: 1/s, which in this case means (m3/s)/m3),
describes the volume of blood per second that flows through a unit volume of tissue.
• Density, blood ρb, which is the mass per volume of blood.
• Metabolic heat source Qmet, which describes heat generation from metabolism.
Enter this quantity as the unit power per unit volume.

Hepatic Tumor Ablation: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/tumor_ablation

Microwave Heating of a Cancer Tumor: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/microwave_cancer_therapy

Modeling a Conical Dielectric Probe for Skin Cancer Diagnosis:

Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/conical_dielectric_probe

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

A default Bioheat node is automatically added to the Biological Tissue node.

Context menus
Bioheat Transfer>Biological Tissue>Bioheat

More locations are available if the Heat transfer in biological tissue check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Biological Tissue>Bioheat

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Biological Tissue selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Bioheat

DOMAIN FEATURES | 351

 Biological Tissue
This node adds the bioheat equation as the mathematical model for heat transfer in
biological tissue. This equation can include source terms representing blood perfusion
and metabolism using Pennes’ approximation, through the addition of a Bioheat
subnode; see Equation 4-19. Optionally it can define a damage model to account for
overheating or freezing in tissues.

HEAT CONDUCTION, SOLID

The default Thermal conductivity k uses values From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity and enter another value or expression in the field or matrix.

THERMODYNAMICS, SOLID
The default Density ρ and Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp are taken From material.
See Material Density in Features Defined on the Material Frame if a
temperature-dependent density should be set.

The heat capacity describes the amount of heat energy required to produce a unit
temperature change in a unit mass.

For User defined enter other values or expressions.

DAMAGED TISSUE
Select the Include damage integral analysis check box to account for overheating or
freezing in tissues with a damage model.

Two methods are available for the analysis; choose Damage integral form: Temperature
threshold (the default) or Energy absorption. Depending to the material properties you
have access to, you may choose one of the damage models.

The Energy absorption method is only applicable to hyperthermia analysis.

For Temperature threshold, define the settings for the Hyperthermia Analysis and
Cryogenic Analysis. See First Form Integral for more details on the parameters of the
model.

Hyperthermia Analysis
Enter values for:

• Damage temperature Td, h to define the (high) temperature that the tissue needs to
reach to start getting damaged. The default is 323.15 K.

352 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
• Damage time td, h to define the time needed for the necrosis to happen while the
temperature is above Td, h. The default is 50 s.
• Temperature of necrosis Tn, h to define the (high) temperature to be reached for the
necrosis to happen instantly. The default is 373.15 K.
• Enthalpy change Ld, h to define the enthalpy variation associated with damage by
hyperthermia. The following heat source is added to the right-hand side of the
bioheat equation:

∂θ d
Q = – ρL d, h --------- ( T > T d, h )
∂t

Cryogenic Analysis
Enter values for:

• Damage temperature Td, c to define the (low) temperature that the tissue needs to
reach to start getting damaged. The default is 273.15 K.
• Damage time td, c to define the time needed for the necrosis to happen while the
temperature is below Td, c. The default is 50 s.
• Temperature of necrosis Tn, c to define the (low) temperature to be reached for the
necrosis to happen instantly. The default is 253.15 K.
• Enthalpy change Ld, c to define the enthalpy variation associated with damage by
freezing. The following heat source is added to the right-hand side of the bioheat
equation:

∂θ d
Q = ρL d, c --------- ( T < T d, c )
∂t

For Energy absorption, define the Frequency Factor and Activation Energy to compute
the degree of tissue injury with the Arrhenius equation. See Second Form Integral for
more details.

Frequency Factor and Activation Energy

Enter values for:

• Frequency factor A in the Arrhenius equation. Default is taken From material. For
User defined enter a value or an expression. The default is 7.39 ⋅ 1039 s–1.
• Activation energy ΔE in the Arrhenius equation. Default is taken From material. For
User defined enter a value or an expression. The default is 2.577 ⋅ 105 J/mol.
• Enthalpy change L to define the enthalpy variation associated with damage. The
following heat source is added to the right-hand side of the bioheat equation:

DOMAIN FEATURES | 353

 ∂θ d
Q = – ρL ---------
∂t

As required, also define how to Specify Different Material Properties for healthy and
damaged tissue.

Specify Different Material Properties

When the Specify different material properties for damaged tissue check box is selected,
choose a Damaged material, which can point to any material in the model. The default
uses the Domain material. The healthy tissue properties correspond to the properties
specified in the Heat Conduction, Solid and Thermodynamics, Solid sections. The effective
tissue properties change from the healthy tissue properties to the damaged tissue
properties as the damage evolves.

HEAT CONDUCTION, DAMAGED TISSUE

This section is available when the Specify different material properties for damaged tissue
check box is selected.

Select a Thermal conductivity kd —From material (the default) or User defined, to be

used for damaged tissue. For User defined choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or
Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter another
value or expression in the field or matrix.

THERMODYNAMICS, DAMAGED TISSUE

This section is available when the Specify different material properties for damaged tissue
check box is selected.

Select a Density ρd and Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp, d —From material (the
default) or User defined, to be used for damaged tissue. The heat capacity describes the
amount of heat energy required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass.

Theory for Bioheat Transfer

Damaged Tissue

354 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
 When Surface-to-surface radiation is activated, the Opacity subnode is
automatically added to the entire selection, with Opaque option selected.
The domain selection can’t be edited. To set some part of the domain as
transparent, add a new Opacity subnode from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

There are specific predefined materials available in the Bioheat material

database. See Materials Overview and Bioheat Materials Database in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Hepatic Tumor Ablation: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/tumor_ablation

Microwave Heating of a Cancer Tumor: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/microwave_cancer_therapy

Modeling a Conical Dielectric Probe for Skin Cancer Diagnosis:

Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/conical_dielectric_probe

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Bioheat Transfer>Biological Tissue
More locations are available if the Heat transfer in biological tissue check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Biological Tissue

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Bioheat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids,
Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Domains>interface >Biological Tissue

DOMAIN FEATURES | 355

 Building Material
Use this node to model a building material as a porous medium containing a mixture
of liquid water and vapor. The overall material properties change due to moisture
transfer is accounted for through an apparent thermal conductivity change and a heat
source or sink given in the divergence operator in function of the latent heat of
evaporation:

∂T
( ρC p ) eff ------- + ∇ ⋅ q = Q (6-1)
∂t

q = – ( k eff ∇T + L v δ p ∇( φp sat ) ) (6-2)

with the following material properties, fields, and source:

• (ρCp)eff (SI unit: J/(m3·K)) is the effective volumetric heat capacity at constant
pressure.
• keff (SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the effective thermal conductivity (a scalar or a tensor if
the thermal conductivity is anisotropic).
• Lv (SI unit: J/kg) is the latent heat of evaporation.
• δp (SI unit: s) is the vapor permeability.
• φ (dimensionless) is the relative humidity.
• psat (SI unit: Pa) is the vapor saturation pressure.
• Q (SI unit: W/m3) is the heat source (or sink). Add one or several heat sources as
separate physics features. See Heat Source node for example.

For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the first
term disappears.

MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Relative humidity
This section has an input for the definition of the relative humidity, used in the right
hand side of Equation 6-2.

The default Relative humidity φ is User defined. When additional physics interfaces are
added to the model, the relative humidity variables defined by these physics interfaces

356 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
can also be selected from the list. For example, if a Moisture Transport interface is
added, you can select Relative humidity (mt/pm1) from the list.

If the node was added automatically after selecting the predefined multiphysics
interface Heat and Moisture Transport, the relative humidity of the multiphysics node
Heat and Moisture is used by default and the section is not editable. To edit the Relative
humidity field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ).

HEAT CONDUCTION
This section provides two options for the definition of the effective thermal
conductivity keff:

• When Equivalent thermal conductivity is selected (the default), a value for the
Effective thermal conductivity keff should be specified directly. The default Effective
thermal conductivity is taken From material. For User defined, select Isotropic,
Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter another value or expression. For Isotropic enter a scalar
which will be used to define a diagonal tensor. For the other options, enter values
or expressions into the editable fields of the tensor.
• When Dry material thermal conductivity is selected, the effective thermal
conductivity is defined in function of the solid matrix and moisture properties:

k eff = k s  1 + --------
bw
 ρs 

This definition neglects the contribution due to the volume fraction change of the
moist air.
The Dry solid thermal conductivity ks (SI unit: W/(m·K)) and the Thermal
conductivity supplement b (dimensionless) should be specified. The default Dry solid
thermal conductivity and Thermal conductivity supplement are taken From material.
For User defined, enter values or expressions into the editable fields.
The Density ρs and the Moisture storage function w are specified in the
Thermodynamics, Dry Solid and Building Material Properties sections respectively.

THERMODYNAMICS, DRY SOLID

This section sets the thermodynamics properties of the dry solid.

The specific heat capacity describes the amount of heat energy required to produce a
unit temperature change in a unit mass of the dry solid material.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 357

 The Density ρs and the Specific heat capacity Cp,s should be specified. The default
Density and Specific heat capacity are taken From material. For User defined, enter values
or expressions into the editable fields.

The effective volumetric heat capacity at constant pressure is defined to account for
both solid matrix and moisture properties:

( ρC p ) eff = ρ s C p, s + wC p, w

where

• ρs (SI unit: kg/m3) is the dry solid density.

• Cp,s (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the dry solid specific heat capacity.
• w (SI unit: kg/m3) is the water content given by a moisture storage function.
• Cp,w (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the water heat capacity at constant pressure.

BUILDING MATERIAL PROPERTIES

This section sets the properties of the building material for moisture storage and vapor
diffusion.

The Moisture storage function w should be set to characterize the relationship between
the amount of accumulated water and the relative humidity in the material. The default
Moisture storage function is taken From material. For User defined, enter another value
or expression.

Two options are available for the specification of the building material properties for
vapor diffusion:

• Vapor permeability (default) to define directly the vapor permeability δp. The default
Vapor permeability is taken From material. For User defined, enter another value or
expression.
• Vapor resistance factor μ to define the vapor permeability δp as:

δ
δ p = ---
μ

where δ (SI unit: s) is the vapor permeability of still air. The default Vapor resistance
factor is taken From material. For User defined, enter another value or expression.

If the node was added automatically after selecting the predefined multiphysics
interface Heat and Moisture Transport, the building material properties of the
multiphysics node Heat and Moisture are used by default and the inputs are not editable.

358 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
To edit these fields, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ) in the Model Inputs
section.

The Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface

The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces

Heat and Moisture

See Building Materials Database in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for a description of materials containing the thermal and
hygroscopic properties required by the Building Material node.

The Building Material node is defined on the spatial frame. The material
properties should be entered in the spatial frame, and the coupling with
a moving frame interface is not supported. See Handling Frames in Heat
Transfer for more details.

When Surface-to-surface radiation is activated, the Opacity subnode is

automatically added to the entire selection, with Opaque option selected.
The domain selection can’t be edited. To set some part of the domain as
transparent, add a new Opacity subnode from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Building Material

More locations are available if the Heat transfer in porous media check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Building Material

DOMAIN FEATURES | 359

 Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Domains>interface>Building Material

Change Cross Section

Use this node with 1D components to model domains with another cross sectional
area or another cross sectional perimeter than the global one that is used in the Heat
Transfer interface Physical Model section. In 1D geometries, the temperature is
assumed to be constant in the radial direction, and the heat equation is modified to
account for that. See Equation 4-123 and Equation 4-124.

CHANGE CROSS SECTION

Enter values for the Cross sectional area Ac and the Cross sectional perimeter Pc to set
the cross section of the domain in the plane perpendicular to the 1D geometry.

Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Change Cross Section
Heat Transfer in Solids>Change Cross Section
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Change Cross Section
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Change Cross Section
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Change Cross Section
Bioheat Transfer>Change Cross Section
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Change Cross Section

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Bioheat Transfer, Heat Transfer with
Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media
selected:
Domains>interface>Change Cross Section

360 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Change Thickness
Use this node with 2D components to model domains with another thickness than the
overall thickness that is specified in the Heat Transfer interface Physical Model section.
In 2D geometries, the temperature is assumed to be constant in the out-of-plane
direction (z direction with default spatial coordinate names). The heat equation is
modified to account for that. See Equation 4-119 and Equation 4-120.

CHANGE THICKNESS
Specify a value for the Thickness dzof the domain in the out-of-plane direction. This
value replaces the overall thickness in the domains that are selected in the Domain
Selection section, and is used to multiply some terms into the heat equation.

Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Change Thickness
Heat Transfer in Solids>Change Thickness
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Change Thickness
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Change Thickness
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Change Thickness
Bioheat Transfer>Change Thickness
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Change Thickness
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Change Thickness

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Domains>interface >Change Thickness

Fluid
This node uses the following version of the heat equation to model heat transfer in
fluids:

DOMAIN FEATURES | 361

 ∂T
ρC p ------- + ρC p u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q (6-3)
∂t
q = – k∇ T

with the following material properties, fields, and sources:

• ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the fluid density.

• Cp (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the fluid heat capacity at constant pressure.
• k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the fluid thermal conductivity (a scalar or a tensor if the
thermal conductivity is anisotropic).
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the fluid velocity field, either an analytic expression or a velocity
field from a Fluid Flow interface.
• Q (SI unit: W/m3) is the heat source (or sink). Add one or several heat sources as
separate physics features. See Heat Source node, and Viscous Dissipation and
Pressure Work subnodes for example.
For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the first
term disappears.

MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when temperature-dependent material properties are used. By
default the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default) and all temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model. These physics interfaces have their own tags (the
Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the model, the
Temperature (ht) option is available.

Absolute Pressure
The absolute pressure is used in some predefined quantities that include the enthalpy
(the energy flux, for example).

It is also used if the ideal gas law is applied. See Thermodynamics, Fluid.

The default Absolute pressure pA is User defined. When additional physics interfaces are
added to the model, the absolute pressure variables defined by these physics interfaces

362 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
can also be selected from the list. For example, if a Laminar Flow interface is added you
can select Absolute pressure (spf) from the list.

Velocity Field
The default Velocity field u is User defined. For User defined enter values or expressions
for the components based on space dimensions. Or select an existing velocity field in
the component (for example, Velocity field (spf) from a Laminar Flow interface).

Concentration
From the Concentration c (SI unit: mol/m3 or kg/m3) list, select an existing
concentration variable from another physics interface, if any concentration variables
exist, or select User defined to enter a value or expression for the concentration. This
section can be edited anytime a material property is concentration dependent; for
example, when the Fluid type is set to Moist air with Input quantity set to Concentration.

FLUID MATERIAL
This section is available only when the Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium multiphysics
coupling is included in the component to model porous media. It makes it possible to
define different material properties for the fluid phase when the domain material
corresponds to the solid phase (porous matrix) material.

Select any material from the list to define the Fluid material. The default uses the
Domain material.

HEAT CONDUCTION, FLUID

The thermal conductivity k describes the relationship between the heat flux vector q
and the temperature gradient ∇T in q = −k∇T, which is Fourier’s law of heat
conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length and temperature.

The default Thermal conductivity k is taken From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter values or expressions for the thermal conductivity or its
components. For Isotropic enter a scalar which will be used to define a diagonal tensor.
For the other options, enter values or expressions into the editable fields of the tensor.

THERMODYNAMICS, FLUID
This section sets the thermodynamics properties of the fluid.

The heat capacity at constant pressure Cp describes the amount of heat energy required
to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 363

 The ratio of specific heats γ is the ratio of the heat capacity at constant pressure, Cp, to
the heat capacity at constant volume, Cv. When using the ideal gas law to describe a
fluid, specifying γ is sufficient to evaluate Cp. For common diatomic gases such as air,
γ = 1.4 is the standard value. Most liquids have γ = 1.1 while water has γ = 1.0. γ is used
in the streamline stabilization and in the variables for heat fluxes and total energy
fluxes. It is also used if the ideal gas law is applied.

The available Fluid type options are Gas/Liquid (default), Moist air, and Ideal gas. After
selecting a Fluid type from the list, further settings display underneath.

Gas/Liquid
This option specifies the Density, the Heat capacity at constant pressure, and the Ratio
of specific heats for a general gas or liquid.

Ideal Gas
This option uses the ideal gas law to describe the fluid. Only two properties are needed
to define the thermodynamics of the fluid:

• The gas constant, with two options for the Gas constant type: Specific gas constant
Rs or Mean molar mass Mn. If Mean molar mass is selected the software uses the
universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol·K), which is a built-in physical constant, to
compute the specific gas constant.
• Either the Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp or Ratio of specific heats γ by
selecting the option from the Specify Cp or γ list. For an ideal gas, it is sufficient to
specify either Cp or the ratio of specific heats, γ, as these properties are
interdependent.

Moist Air
If Moist air is selected, the thermodynamics properties are defined as a function of the
quantity of vapor in the moist air. The available Input quantity options to define the
amount of vapor in the moist air are the following:

• Vapor mass fraction to define the ratio of the vapor mass to the total mass. Enter a
value or expression for the Vapor mass fraction ω.
• Concentration to define the amount of water vapor in the total volume. If selected,
a Concentration model input is added in the Model Inputs section.
• Moisture content (the default), also called mixing ratio or humidity ratio, to define
the ratio of the water vapor mass to the dry air mass. For User defined, enter a value
or expression for the Moisture Content xvap. Else, select an Ambient moisture content
defined from the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in

364 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
 Shells interface.
• Relative humidity, by defining the Reference relative humidity at Reference
temperature and Reference pressure. The Reference relative humidity is a quantity
defined between 0 and 1, where 0 corresponds to dry air and 1 to a water
vapor-saturated air. For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Reference
relative humidity φref. Else, select an Ambient relative humidity defined in the
Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface. For
consistency, the Reference temperature and Reference pressure should also be taken
from ambient conditions.

DYNAMIC VISCOSITY
This section is only available when the Equivalent conductivity for convection check box
is selected in the Equivalent conductivity for convection section. The Dynamic viscosity μ
is then used to compute the Nusselt number.

EQUIVALENT CONDUCTIVITY FOR CONVECTION

When the Equivalent conductivity for convection check box is selected, the fluid thermal
conductivity is increased according to the Nusselt number to account for the
contribution of the convective heat flux. In addition the user-defined or predefined
velocity model input is ignored and the fluid velocity is set to zero. This check box is
not selected by default and requires the Heat Transfer Module.

The options in the Nusselt number correlation list are:

• Horizontal cavity heated from below, for which values for the Cavity height H and the
Temperature difference ΔT should be specified for the computation of the Nusselt
number.
• Vertical rectangular cavity, for which values for the Cavity height H, the Plate distance
L, and the Temperature difference ΔT should be specified for the computation of the
Nusselt number.
Select Automatic (default) or User defined to define the Temperature difference ΔT.
When Automatic is selected the temperature difference is evaluated as the difference

DOMAIN FEATURES | 365

 between the maximal and the minimal temperature on the exterior boundaries of
the feature selection.
• User defined, for which a value for Nu should be specified directly.

Moist Air Fluid Type

Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium

Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids

Equivalent Thermal Conductivity Correlations

With certain COMSOL products, the Viscous Dissipation (for heat

generated by viscous friction) and Pressure Work subnodes are available
from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics
toolbar, Attributes menu.

When Surface-to-surface radiation is activated, the Opacity subnode is

automatically added to the entire selection, with Transparent option
selected. The domain selection can’t be edited. To set some part of the
domain as opaque, add a new Opacity subnode from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Heat Sink: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/heat_sink

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Fluid
Heat Transfer in Solids>Fluid
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Fluid
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Fluid
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Fluid

366 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Bioheat Transfer>Fluid
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Fluid
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Fluid

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Domains>interface >Fluid

Geothermal Heating
Use this node to account for the contribution of geothermal heat production by
adding a source term Qgeo to the right-hand side of the heat equation:

Q geo = ρ geo q geo f ( z geo )

The predefined expression of the heat source uses the Geothermal Density, the
Radiogenic heating per unit mass, and a distribution function that can be set.

GEOTHERMAL HEAT PRODUCTION

Specify the Radiogenic heating per unit mass qgeo.

The two option buttons in the same group control the distribution function f(zgeo):

• If Uniform distribution is selected, f(zgeo) = 1 and the geothermal heat source is

assumed to be independent on depth.
• If Exponential distribution is selected, two additional input fields are displayed
underneath. The exponential distribution f(zgeo) = exp(zgeo ⁄ hgeo), is defined by the
constant Length scale: hgeo and the variable Depth zgeo. The depth can be, for
example, the vertical coordinate direction. The heat source achieves its maximum
value where zgeo = 0, typically the top surface of a model.

GEOTHERMAL DENSITY
Select the Geothermal density: Solids, Porous media, or User defined:

• If Solids is selected, it calculates the geothermal density based on the volume fraction
of solid material

DOMAIN FEATURES | 367

  θpi ρpi
i
ρ geo = -----------------------
-
 θ pi
i

• If Porous media is selected, it calculates the geothermal density based on all mobile
and immobile components of the porous medium:

ρ geo =  θpi ρpi +  θgi ρgi + θL ρL

i i

• If User defined is selected, enter a value for the Geothermal density ρgeo.

The Geothermal Heating subnode requires the Subsurface Flow Module.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
If the Porous matrix model is set to Extended under the Physical Model section:
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Geothermal Heating

More locations are available if the Heat transfer in porous media check box is selected
and Porous matrix model is set to Extended under the Physical Model section. For
example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Porous Medium>Geothermal Heating

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Porous Medium selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Porous Medium>Geothermal Heating

Heat Source
This node describes heat generation within the domain. You express heating and
cooling with positive and negative values, respectively. Add one or more nodes as
needed — all heat sources within a domain contribute to the total heat source.

The Heat Source node adds a source term Q to the right-hand side of the heat equation:

368 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
 Q = Q0

Specify Q0 as the heat per unit volume, as a linear heat source, or as a heat rate.

HEAT SOURCE
Click the General source (the default), Linear source, or Heat rate buttons.

• For General source enter a value for the distributed heat source Q0 when the default
option (User defined) is selected. See also Additional General Source Options to use
predefined heat sources available from other interfaces.
• For Linear source enter a value for the Production/absorption coefficient qs used in the
predefined linear expression. The advantage of writing the source on this form is
that it can be accounted for in the streamline diffusion stabilization. The
stabilization applies when qs is independent of the temperature, but some stability
can be gained as long as qs is only weakly dependent on the temperature.
• For Heat rate enter a value for the heat rate P0. In this case Q0 = P0 ⁄ V, where V is
the total volume of the selected domains.

Additional General Source Options

For the general heat source Q0 there are predefined heat sources available (in addition
to a User defined heat source) when simulating heat transfer together with electrical or
electromagnetic interfaces. Such sources represent, for example, ohmic heating and
induction heating. Depending on additional physics interfaces, the following are
available:

• With the addition of an Electric Currents interface, the Total power dissipation
density (ec) heat source is available from the General source list.
• With the addition of any version of the Electromagnetic Waves interface (which
requires the RF Module), the Total power dissipation density (emw) and
Electromagnetic power loss density (emw) heat sources are available from the General
source list.
• With the addition of a Magnetic Fields interface (a 3D component requires the
AC/DC Module), the Electromagnetic heating (mf) heat source is available from the
General source list.
• With the addition of a Magnetic and Electric Fields interface (which requires the
AC/DC Module), the Electromagnetic heating (mef) heat source is available from the
General source list.
• For the Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface, with the addition of interfaces
from the Batteries & Fuel Cells Module, Corrosion Module, or Electrodeposition

DOMAIN FEATURES | 369

 Module, heat sources from the electrochemical current distribution interfaces are
available.

FRAME SELECTION
To display this section, add both a Heat Transfer (ht) and a Moving Mesh (ale) interface
(found under the Mathematics>Deformed Mesh branch when adding a physics
interface). Then click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

When the model contains a moving mesh, the Enable conversions between material and
spatial frame check box is selected by default in the Heat Transfer interface, which in
turn enables further options. Use Frame Selection to select the frame where the input
variables are defined. If Spatial is selected, the variables take their values from the text
fields. If Material (the default) is selected, a conversion from the material to the spatial
frame is applied to the text field values.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• Stabilization Techniques in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

For the definition of a localized heat source, see Line Heat Source, Line
Heat Source and Point Heat Source.

For the definition of a heat on a boundary, see Boundary Heat Source.

Forced Convection Cooling of an Enclosure with Fan and Grille:

Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/electronic
_enclosure_cooling

370 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
 For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Solids>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Heat Source
Bioheat Transfer>Heat Source
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Heat Source
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Domains>interface >Heat Source

Immobile Fluids
This node should be used to model an unsaturated porous matrix for which the pore
space is not filled with liquid and contains one or more gas considered as immobile
fluids; or a porous matrix containing insulated enclosures.

It is possible to add and define up to five different immobile fluids and volume
fractions to the porous matrix.

IMMOBILE FLUIDS
In this section, the Number of fluids to define — 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 — is set. Depending on
the Number of fluids, further settings display underneath. For each fluid:

• The material must be set from the Fluid material list, which can point to any material
in the model.
• The Volume fraction of the immobile fluid θg {1,2,3,4,5} should be set.
The total volume fraction of immobile fluids is calculated from

DOMAIN FEATURES | 371

 θg =  θgi
i

The volume fraction available for mobile fluids (that is, the effective porosity) is then
calculated from

θL = 1 – θp – θg

where the total volume fraction of immobile solids is calculated from

θp =  θpi
i

HEAT CONDUCTION
For the same number of fluids selected under Immobile Fluids, the defaults for the
Thermal conductivity kg use values From material. For User defined select Isotropic,
Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity and other values or expressions in the fields or matrices.

The effective conductivity for the equivalent immobile fluid is calculated from

kg =  θgi kgi
i

When one or more than one solid is selected in the Immobile Solids section, the effective
conductivity of immobile solids and immobile fluids can be calculated in three different
ways:

• If Volume average is selected under Effective Thermal Conductivity, the effective

conductivity of the solid-fluid system is given by
k eff = θ p k p + θ g k g + θ L k L

where kp and kg are the effective conductivities of immobile solids and fluids.
• If Reciprocal average is selected under Effective Thermal Conductivity, the effective
conductivity is calculated from

372 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
 1- θp θg θL
-------- = ------ + ------ + ------
k eff kp kg kL

where kp and kg are the effective conductivities of immobile solids and fluids.
• If Power law is selected under Effective Thermal Conductivity, the effective
conductivity is calculated from

θ θ θ
k eff = k pp ⋅ k gg ⋅ k LL

where kp and kg are the effective conductivities of immobile solids and fluids.

THERMODYNAMICS
For the same number of fluids selected under Immobile Fluids, the following properties
should be set:

• Density ρg{1,2,3,4,5}
• Specific heat capacity Cp,g{1,2,3,4,5}
The effective volumetric heat capacity of the composite solid-fluid system is defined as

( ρC p ) eff =  θpi ρpi Cp, pi +  θgi ρgi Cp, gi + θL ρL Cp, L

i i

The Immobile Fluids node requires the Subsurface Flow Module. For a
detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
If the Porous matrix model is set to Extended under the Physical Model section:
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Immobile Fluids

More locations are available if the Heat transfer in porous media check box is selected
and Porous matrix model is set to Extended under the Physical Model section. For
example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Porous Medium>Immobile Fluids

DOMAIN FEATURES | 373

 Ribbon
Physics Tab with Porous Medium selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Porous Medium>Immobile Fluids

Initial Values
This node adds an initial value for the temperature that can serve as an initial condition
for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver. In addition to the
default Initial Values node always present in the interface, you can add more Initial
Values nodes if needed.

INITIAL VALUES
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Temperature T
(SI unit: K). The default value is approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20 ºC).
Else, select an Ambient temperature defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat
Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Initial Values
Heat Transfer in Solids>Initial Values
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Initial Values
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Initial Values
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Initial Values
Bioheat Transfer>Initial Values
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Initial Values
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Initial Values

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Domains>interface>Initial Values

Isothermal Domain
This node should be used when the temperature shows sufficiently small spatial
fluctuations to be considered homogeneous in space but not necessarily in time.

374 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
ISOTHERMAL DOMAIN
Two options are available for the Temperature definition into the Isothermal Domain:

• If From heat balance (the default) is selected, the temperature is computed as the
solution of a reduced form of the heat equation due to spatial homogeneity. See
Equation 4-32.
• If From prescribed temperature is selected, the temperature is set to the domain
Temperature T0 that needs to be specified. For User defined, enter a value or
expression for the Temperature T0. Else, select an Ambient temperature defined in
the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

THERMODYNAMICS
The thermodynamics properties of the Isothermal Domain are set in this section. Two
options are available for the Mass definition:

• If Density is selected, the Density ρ should be specified.

• If Total mass is selected, the Mass m should be specified.
Finally the Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp should be specified.

It is not possible to couple an Isothermal Domain with the Laminar Flow

interface through the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics condition.

The following conditions of heat exchange can be applied at isothermal

domain interfaces: thermal insulation, continuity, ventilation, convective
heat flux, and thermal contact. See Isothermal Domain Interface for more
details.

Also see Theory for Lumped Isothermal Domain.

When Surface-to-surface radiation is activated, the Opacity subnode is

automatically added to the entire selection, with Transparent option
selected. The domain selection can’t be edited. To set some part of the
domain as opaque, add a new Opacity subnode from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 375

 Natural Convection Cooling of a Vacuum Flask: Application Library
path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/vacuum_fl
ask

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
If the Isothermal domain check box is selected under the Physical Model section:
Heat Transfer>Isothermal Domain
Heat Transfer in Solids>Isothermal Domain
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Isothermal Domain
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Isothermal Domain
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Isothermal Domain
Bioheat Transfer>Isothermal Domain
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Isothermal Domain
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Isothermal Domain

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Domains>interface>Isothermal Domain

Moist Air
This node should be used to model heat transfer by convection and diffusion in moist
air, by using moisture-dependent thermodynamics properties. It solves Equation 6-3,
with the density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3), the heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit:
J/(kg·K)), and the thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) defined as a function of
the quantity of vapor in the moist air.

MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

376 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Absolute Pressure
The default Absolute pressure pA is User defined. When additional physics interfaces are
added to the model, the absolute pressure variables defined by these physics interfaces
can also be selected from the list. For example, if a Laminar Flow interface is added you
can select Absolute pressure (spf) from the list.

Velocity Field
The default Velocity field u is User defined. For User defined enter values or expressions
for the components based on space dimensions. Or select an existing velocity field in
the component (for example, Velocity field (spf) from a Laminar Flow interface).

Concentration
From the Concentration c (SI unit: mol/m3 or kg/m3) list, select an existing
concentration variable from another physics interface, if any concentration variables
exist, or select User defined to enter a value or expression for the concentration. This
section can be edited anytime a material property is concentration dependent; for
example, when the Input quantity is set to Concentration.

THERMODYNAMICS, FLUID
The available Input quantity options to define the amount of vapor in the moist air are
the following:

• Vapor mass fraction ω to define the ratio of the vapor mass to the total mass.
• Concentration to define the amount of water vapor in the total volume. If selected,
a Concentration model input is added in the Model Inputs section.
• Moisture content xvap, also called mixing ratio or humidity ratio, to define the ratio
of the water vapor mass to the dry air mass.
• Relative humidity φref (the default), a quantity defined between 0 and 1, where 0
corresponds to dry air and 1 to a water vapor-saturated air. The Reference
temperature and Reference pressure must be specified.

Depending on the selected Input quantity, enter values or expressions for the User
defined option, select an ambient value (for example, an Ambient relative humidity
defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells
interface), or select a value from a Moisture Transport interface.

EQUIVALENT CONDUCTIVITY FOR CONVECTION

When the Equivalent conductivity for convection check box is selected, the fluid thermal
conductivity is increased according to the Nusselt number to account for the
contribution of the convective heat flux. In addition the user-defined or predefined

DOMAIN FEATURES | 377

 velocity model input is ignored and the fluid velocity is set to zero. This check box is
not selected by default and requires the Heat Transfer Module. See Equivalent
Conductivity for Convection in Fluid node for details.

Moist Air Fluid Type

Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids

Equivalent Thermal Conductivity Correlations

With certain COMSOL products, the Viscous Dissipation (for heat

generated by viscous friction) and Pressure Work subnodes are available
from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics
toolbar, Attributes menu.

When Surface-to-surface radiation is activated, the Opacity subnode is

automatically added to the entire selection, with Transparent option
selected. The domain selection can’t be edited. To set some part of the
domain as opaque, add a new Opacity subnode from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Evaporative Cooling of Water: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Phase_Change/Evaporative_cooling

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Moist Air>Moist Air
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Moist Air

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Moist Air or Heat Transfer in Building Materials selected:
Domains>Moist Air

378 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Opacity
This subnode enables to define the surface-to-surface radiation direction on
boundaries surrounding the domains where it is defined. When several spectral bands
are defined, the opacity can be set for all or only a selection of wavelengths.

When the Radiation direction is defined by Opacity controlled in surface-to-surface

boundary features (Diffuse Mirror, Diffuse Surface, Prescribed Radiosity),
surface-to-surface radiation propagates in non-opaque domains. Alternatively the
Radiation direction can be defined using the normal orientation or on both sides of
boundaries. In this case the Opacity node is ignored.

OPACITY
Select Opaque or Transparent to set the domain’s opacity type. Depending on the
Wavelength dependence of emissivity defined in the Radiation Settings section of the
physics interface settings, different sections display underneath:

• When Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Constant in the physics interface

settings, set the opacity for all wavelengths.
• When Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple
spectral bands in the physics interface settings, set the opacity for each spectral band
by selecting the corresponding check box in Opacity on solar spectral band and
Opacity on ambient spectral band, or Opacity on spectral band i sections. By default
the opacity is set to the same type for all spectral bands.

The default opacity type depends on the parent node’s type. It is set to Opaque for
Solid, Porous Medium, Biological Tissue and Building Material domain features and
Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface; and to Transparent for Fluid, Phase Change
Material, and Isothermal Domain domain features.

• The Wavelength dependence of emissivity is defined in the physics

interface settings, in the Radiation Settings section.
• If this feature is combined with heat transfer in 2D and 1D, the
thickness is assumed to be infinite for the view factor computation. The
user-defined value for d is still used in the heat transfer equation.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 379

 Free Convection in a Light Bulb: Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/light_bulb

Thermo-Photo-Voltaic Cell: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/tpv_cell

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Solid>Opacity
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Fluid>Opacity
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Porous Medium>Opacity
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Phase Change Material>Opacity
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Biological Tissue>Opacity
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Building Material>Opacity
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Isothermal Domain>Opacity
Heat Transfer in Moist Air>Moist Air>Opacity
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Opacity
More locations are available if the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Solid>Opacity

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Solid, Fluid, Porous Medium, Phase Change Material, Biological Tissue,
Building Material, or Isothermal Domain selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Opacity

Physics Tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected in the model tree:

Domains>Opacity

Out-of-Plane Heat Flux

Out-of-plane heat transfer mechanism is used to reduce a model geometry to 2D or
even 1D when the temperature variation is small in one or more directions; for
example, when the object to model is thin or slender. For the obtained 1D and 2D
components, this node adds a heat flux q0, u for the upside heat flux and a heat flux
q0, d for the downward heat flux to the right-hand side of the heat equation.

For example, in 2D components, heat transfer in solids and heat transfer in fluids are
given by Equation 6-4 and Equation 6-5:

380 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
 ∂T
d z ρC p ------- – ∇ ⋅ q = d z Q + q 0 (6-4)
∂t

∂T
d z ρC p  ------- + u ⋅ ∇T = ∇ ⋅ q + d z Q + q 0 (6-5)
 ∂t 

q 0 = q 0, u + q 0, d

The convective heat flux adds the following contribution

q 0 = h u ( T ext, u – T ) + h d ( T ext, d – T )

UPSIDE INWARD HEAT FLUX

The available options are General inward heat flux and Convective heat flux. The settings
are the same as for the Heat Flux node.

DOWNSIDE INWARD HEAT FLUX

The available options are General inward heat flux and Convective heat flux. The settings
are the same as for the Heat Flux node.

See Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer for the formulation of out-of-plane heat

transfer in 1D, 1D axisymmetric, and 2D geometries.

See also Out-of-Plane Domain Fluxes.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer for a Thin Plate: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/thin_plate

DOMAIN FEATURES | 381

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Solids>Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
Bioheat Transfer>Out-of-Plane Heat Flux
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Out-of-Plane Heat Flux

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer
or Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media selected:
Domains>interface>Out-of-Plane Heat Flux

Out-of-Plane Radiation
Out-of-plane heat transfer mechanism is used to reduce a model geometry to 2D or
even 1D when the temperature variation is small in one or more directions; for
example, when the object to model is thin or slender. This node models
surface-to-ambient radiation on the upside and downside for the obtained 1D and 2D
components. It adds the following contribution to the right-hand side of Equation 6-4
or Equation 6-5:

ε u σ ( T amb
4
, u – T ) + ε d σ ( T amb, d – T )
4 4 4

UPSIDE PARAMETERS

Surface emissivity
The default Surface emissivity εu (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) is taken
From material. For User defined, it should be specified. An emissivity of 0 means that
the surface emits no radiation at all while an emissivity of 1 means that it is a perfect
blackbody. The default is 0.

Ambient temperature

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Ambient temperature Tamb, u. The
default value is approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20 ºC). Else, select an
Ambient temperature defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or
Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

382 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
DOWNSIDE PARAMETERS
Follow the instructions for the Upside Parameters section to define the downside
parameters εd and Tamb, d.

Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Out-of-Plane Heat Transfer for a Thin Plate: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/thin_plate

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Out-of-Plane Radiation
Heat Transfer in Solids>Out-of-Plane Radiation
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Out-of-Plane Radiation
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Out-of-Plane Radiation
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Out-of-Plane Radiation
Bioheat Transfer>Out-of-Plane Radiation
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Out-of-Plane Radiation

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer
or Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media selected:
Domains>interface >Out-of-Plane Radiation

DOMAIN FEATURES | 383

 Phase Change Material
This node should be used to solve the heat equation after specifying the properties of
a phase change material according to the apparent heat capacity formulation. This
formulation gets its name from the fact that the latent heat is included as an additional
term in the heat capacity. Up to five transitions in phase per material are supported.

N U M B E R O F TR A N S I T I O N S
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
The Number of phase transitions to model is set in this section. In most cases, only one
phase transition is needed to simulate solidification, melting, or evaporation. If you
want to model successive melting and evaporation, or any couple of successive phase
transformations, choose 2 in the Number of phase transitions list. The maximum value
is 5.

Depending on the Number of phase transitions, several parts display in the Phase Change
section, and several Phase sections display underneath.

PHASE CHANGE
The parameters for the definition of the transition temperature intervals are set in this
section.

Each transition is assumed to occur smoothly in a temperature interval between

Tpc, j → j + 1 − ΔTj → j + 1 ⁄ 2 and Tpc, j → j + 1 + ΔTj → j + 1 ⁄ 2, releasing a total heat per
unit volume equal to Lj →j + 1.

The Phase change temperature between phase 1 and phase 2 Tpc, 1 → 2 should be set to
define the center of the first transition interval. The default is 273.15 K. Enter any
additional phase change temperatures as per the Number of phase transitions.

The Transition interval between phase 1 and phase 2 ΔT1 → 2 should be set to define the
width of the first transition interval. The default is 10 K. Enter any additional transition
intervals as per the Number of phase transitions.

The value of ΔTj → j + 1 must be strictly positive. A value near 0 K corresponds to a

behavior close to a pure substance.

The Latent heat from phase 1 and phase 2 L1 → 2 should be set to define the total heat
per unit volume released during the first transition. Enter any additional latent heat
values as per the Number of phase transitions.

The value of Lj → j + 1 must be positive. The default is 333 kJ/kg, which corresponds
to the latent heat of fusion of water at a pressure of 1 atm.

384 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
About the Phases
The different phases are ordered according to the temperatures of fusion. Hence, the
material properties of phase 1 are valid when T < Tpc, 1 → 2 while the material
properties of phase 2 hold for T > Tpc, 1 → 2.

When more than one transition is modeled, the number of phases exceeds 2 and new
variables are created (for example, Tpc, 2 → 3, ΔT2 → 3 or L2 → 3). The phase change
temperatures Tpc, j → j + 1 are increasing and satisfy

T pc, 1 → 2 < T pc, 2 → 3 < …

This defines distinct domains of temperature bounded by Tpc, j − 1 → j and Tpc, j → j + 1

where the material properties of phase j only apply.

In addition, the values of ΔTj → j + 1 are chosen so that the ranges between
Tpc, j → j + 1 − ΔTj → j + 1 ⁄ 2 and Tpc, j → j + 1 + ΔTj → j + 1 ⁄ 2 do not overlap. If this
condition is not satisfied, unexpected behavior can occur because some phases would
never form completely. The values of ΔTj → j + 1 must all be strictly positive.

PHASE
In each Phase section (based on the Number of phase transitions), the thermal
conductivity and thermodynamics properties of each phase must be set. Then, within
the transition interval, there is a “mushy zone” with mixed material properties.

Select a Material, phase [1,2,...], which can point to any material in the model. The
default uses the Domain material.

The following material properties should be set:

• Thermal conductivity kphase[1,2,...]. The default uses the material values for phase i.
For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the
characteristics of the thermal conductivity, and enter another value or expression.
The default is 1 W/(m·K).
• Density ρphase[1,2,...]. The default is 1000 kg/m3.
• Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp, phase[1,2,...]. The default is 4200 J/(kg·K).
• Ratio of specific heats γ phase[1,2,...]. The default is 1.1

Theory for Heat Transfer with Phase Change

DOMAIN FEATURES | 385

 It is useful to choose three or more phase transitions to handle extra
changes of material properties such as in mixtures of compounds, metal
alloys, composite materials, or allotropic varieties of a substance. For
example, α, γ, and δ-iron are allotropes of solid iron that can be
considered as phases with distinct phase change temperatures.

When Surface-to-surface radiation is activated, the Opacity subnode is

automatically added to the entire selection, with Transparent option
selected. The domain selection can’t be edited. To set some part of the
domain as opaque, add a new Opacity subnode from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

To satisfy energy and mass conservation in phase change models,

particular attention should be paid to the density in time simulations.
When the material density is not constant over time — for example,
dependent on the temperature — volume change is expected. The
transport velocity field and the density must be defined so that mass is
conserved locally. A Moving Mesh Interface (described in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual) can be used to account for model
deformation.

Phase Change: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Phase_Change/phase_change

Continuous Casting: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Processing/continuous_casting

Cooling and Solidification of Metal: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Processing/cooling_solidification_metal

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Phase Change Material
Heat Transfer in Solids>Phase Change Material
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Phase Change Material
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Phase Change Material
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Phase Change Material

386 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Bioheat Transfer>Phase Change Material
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Phase Change Material
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Phase Change Material

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Domains>interface >Phase Change Material

Porous Medium
This node uses the following version of the heat equation to model heat transfer in a
porous matrix filled with a fluid:

∂T
( ρC p ) eff ------- + ρC p u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q (6-6)
∂t

q = – k eff ∇T (6-7)

with the following material properties, fields, and sources:

• ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the fluid density.

• Cp (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the fluid heat capacity at constant pressure.
• (ρCp)eff (SI unit: J/(m3·K)) is the effective volumetric heat capacity at constant
pressure defined by an averaging model to account for both solid matrix and fluid
properties.
• q is the conductive heat flux (SI unit: W/m2).
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the fluid velocity field, either an analytic expression or the
velocity field from a Fluid Flow interface. u should be interpreted as the Darcy
velocity, that is, the volume flow rate per unit cross sectional area. The average linear
velocity (the velocity within the pores) can be calculated as uL = u ⁄ θL, where θL is
the fluid’s volume fraction, or equivalently the porosity.
• keff (SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the effective thermal conductivity (a scalar or a tensor if
the thermal conductivity is anisotropic), defined by an averaging model to account
for both solid matrix and fluid properties.
• Q (SI unit: W/m3) is the heat source (or sink). Add one or several heat sources as
separate physics features. See Heat Source node and Viscous Dissipation subnode
for example.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 387

 For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the first
term disappears.

MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

Temperature
This section is available when temperature-dependent material properties are used. By
default the temperature of the parent interface is used and the section is not editable.
To edit the Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ). The available
options are User defined (default) and all the temperature variables from the physics
interfaces included in the model. These physics interfaces have their own tags (the
Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the model, the
Temperature (ht) option is available.

Absolute Pressure
The absolute pressure is used in some predefined quantities that include the enthalpy
(the energy flux, for example).

It is also used if the ideal gas law is applied. See Thermodynamics, Fluid.

The default Absolute pressure pA is User defined. When additional physics interfaces are
added to the model, the absolute pressure variables defined by these physics interfaces
can also be selected from the list. For example, if a Brinkman Equations interface is
added you can select Absolute pressure (br) from the list.

Velocity Field
The default Velocity field u is User defined. For User defined enter values or expressions
for the components based on space dimensions. Or select an existing velocity field in
the component (for example, Velocity field (br) from a Brinkman Equations interface).

Concentration
From the Concentration c (SI unit: mol/m3 or kg/m3) list, select an existing
concentration variable from another physics interface, if any concentration variables
exist, or select User defined to enter a value or expression for the concentration. This
section can be edited anytime a material property is concentration dependent; for
example, when the Fluid type is set to Moist air with Input quantity set to Concentration.

388 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
FLUID MATERIAL
Select any component material from the list to define the Fluid material. The default
uses the Domain material. It makes it possible to define different material properties for
the fluid phase when the domain material corresponds to the solid phase (porous
matrix) material.

HEAT CONDUCTION, FLUID

The thermal conductivity k describes the relationship between the heat flux vector q
and the temperature gradient ∇T in q = −k∇T, which is Fourier’s law of heat
conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length and temperature.

The default Thermal conductivity k is taken From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter another value or expression. For Isotropic enter a scalar which
will be used to define a diagonal tensor. For the other options, enter values or
expressions into the editable fields of the tensor.

THERMODYNAMICS, FLUID
This section sets the thermodynamics properties of the fluid.

The heat capacity at constant pressure Cp describes the amount of heat energy required
to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass.

The ratio of specific heats γ is the ratio of the heat capacity at constant pressure, Cp, to
the heat capacity at constant volume, Cv. When using the ideal gas law to describe a
fluid, specifying γ is sufficient to evaluate Cp. For common diatomic gases such as air,
γ = 1.4 is the standard value. Most liquids have γ = 1.1 while water has γ = 1.0. γ is used
in the streamline stabilization and in the variables for heat fluxes and total energy
fluxes. It is also used if the ideal gas law is applied.

The available Fluid type options are Gas/Liquid (default), Moist air, or Ideal gas. After
selecting a Fluid type from the list, further settings display underneath.

Gas/Liquid
This option specifies the Density, the Heat capacity at constant pressure, and the Ratio
of specific heats for a general gas or liquid.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 389

 Ideal Gas
This option uses the ideal gas law to describe the fluid. Only two properties are needed
to define the thermodynamics of the fluid:

• The gas constant, with two options for the Gas constant type: Specific gas constant
Rs or Mean molar mass Mn. If Mean molar mass is selected the software uses the
universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol·K), which is a built-in physical constant, to
compute the specific gas constant.
• Either the Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp or Ratio of specific heats γ by
selecting the option from the Specify Cp or γ list. For an ideal gas, it is sufficient to
specify either Cp or the ratio of specific heats, γ, as these properties are dependent.

Moist Air
If Moist air is selected, the thermodynamics properties are defined as a function of the
quantity of vapor in the moist air. The available Input quantity options to define the
amount of vapor in the moist air are the following:

• Vapor mass fraction (the default) to define the ratio of the vapor mass to the total
mass.
• Concentration to define the amount of water vapor in the total volume. If selected,
a Concentration model input is automatically added in the Model Inputs section.
• Moisture content (also called mixing ratio or humidity ratio) to define the ratio of
the water vapor mass to the dry air mass.
• Relative humidity, by defining the Reference relative humidity at Reference
temperature and Reference pressure. The Reference relative humidity is a quantity
defined between 0 and 1, where 0 corresponds to dry air and 1 to a water
vapor-saturated air.

IMMOBILE SOLIDS
This section sets the material and volume fraction of the porous matrix.

If the Standard porous matrix model is selected under Physical Model, select any
component material in the Solid material list. The Volume fraction θp for the solid
material should be specified.

If the Extended porous matrix model is selected under Physical Model (with the
Subsurface Flow Module), the Number of solids can be set from 1 to 5. Then for each
solid a Solid material list and a Volume fraction field display underneath.

The total volume fraction of solid material is given by

390 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
 θp =  θpi
i

and the available volume fraction for the mobile fluid is defined as

θL = 1 –  θpi
i

HEAT CO N DUCTION , PO RO US MAT RIX

The thermal conductivity kp describes the relationship between the heat flux vector q
and the temperature gradient ∇T in q = −kp∇T, which is Fourier’s law of heat
conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length and temperature.

The default Thermal conductivity kp is taken From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter another value or expression. For Isotropic enter a scalar which
will be used to define a diagonal tensor. For the other options, enter values or
expressions into the editable fields of the tensor.

When the Extended porous matrix model is selected under Physical Model (with the
Subsurface Flow Module), and more than one solid is selected in the Immobile Solids
section, the thermal conductivities kpi should be specified for each immobile solid. The
average property for the porous matrix is given by:

kp =  θpi kpi
i

THERMODYNAMICS, PO RO US MATRIX
This section sets the thermodynamics properties of the porous matrix.

The specific heat capacity describes the amount of heat energy required to produce a
unit temperature change in a unit mass of the solid material.

The Density ρp and the Specific heat capacity Cp, p should be specified. For From
Material option, see Material Density in Features Defined on the Material Frame if a
temperature-dependent density should be set.

The effective volumetric heat capacity of the solid-liquid system is calculated from

( ρC p ) eff = θ p ρ p C p, p + ( 1 – θ p )ρC p

DOMAIN FEATURES | 391

 When the Extended porous matrix model is selected under Physical Model (with the
Subsurface Flow Module), and more than one solid is selected in the Immobile Solids
section, the Density and Specific heat capacity should be specified for each immobile
solid.

The effective volumetric heat capacity of the composite solid-fluid system is defined as

 
( ρC p ) eff =  θpi ρpi Cp, pi +  1 –  θpi ρCp
i i

EFFECTIVE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

This section sets the averaging model for the computation of the Effective conductivity
by accounting for both solid matrix and fluid properties. The following options are
available with either the Subsurface Flow Module or the Heat Transfer Module:

• Volume average (default), which computes the effective conductivity of the

solid-fluid system as the weighted arithmetic mean of fluid and porous matrix
conductivities:
k eff = θ p k p + ( 1 – θ p )k

• Reciprocal average, which computes the effective conductivity of the solid-fluid

system as the weighted harmonic mean of fluid and porous matrix conductivities:

1- θp 1 – θp
-------- = ------ + ---------------
k eff kp k

• Power law, which computes the effective conductivity of the solid-fluid system as the
weighted geometric mean of fluid and porous matrix conductivities:

θ ( 1 – θp )
k eff = k pp ⋅ k

When the Extended porous matrix model is selected under Physical Model (with the
Subsurface Flow Module), and more than one solid is selected in the Immobile Solids
section, these averaging models are modified in the following way:

• Volume average:

 
k eff =  θpi kpi +  1 –  θpi k
i i

• Reciprocal average:

392 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
  θpi  1
1-
 θpi ------------------------ +  1 –  θpi --k-
-------- i
=
k eff
i  θpi kpi i
i

• Power law:

  θ pi


 
 θ pi k pi
 i 
i 1 –
  θ 
pi

k eff =  -----------------------
- ⋅k i

 θ pi 
 
 i 

Moist Air Fluid Type

Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium

Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media

With certain COMSOL products, the Thermal Dispersion, Viscous

Dissipation, Geothermal Heating and Immobile Fluids subnodes are
available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the
Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

When Surface-to-surface radiation is activated, the Opacity subnode is

automatically added to the entire selection, with Opaque option selected.
The domain selection can’t be edited. To set some part of the domain as
transparent, add a new Opacity subnode from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Evaporation in Porous Media with Small Evaporation Rates:

Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Phase_Change/
evaporation_porous_media_small_rate

DOMAIN FEATURES | 393

 For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium

More locations are available if the Heat transfer in porous media check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Porous Medium

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Domains>interface>Porous Medium

Pressure Work
This subnode adds the following contribution to the right-hand side of the Heat
Transfer in Fluids equation to model the result of heating under adiabatic compression
as well as some thermoacoustic effects:

∂p A
Q p = α p T  ---------- + u ⋅ ∇ p A (6-8)
∂t

where αp is the coefficient of thermal expansion defined as:

1 ∂ρ
α p = – ---  
ρ  ∂ T p

The pressure work is computed using the relative pressure, and is generally small for
low Mach number flows.

394 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
No settings are required.

When the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling node is added, the

effect of pressure work can be taken into account by selecting the Include
work done by pressure changes check box under the Flow Heating section.
In this case, the Pressure Work feature is overridden by the multiphysics
coupling node’s contribution.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Fluids

A similar term can be included to account for thermoelastic effects in

solids. See Thermoelastic Damping.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Fluid>Pressure Work

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Solids>Fluid>Pressure Work
Heat Transfer in Moist Air>Moist Air>Pressure Work

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Fluid selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Pressure Work

Radiation in Participating Media (Heat Transfer Interface)

This node should be used when radiation occurs in a medium not completely
transparent, in which the radiation rays interact with the medium. It computes and
adds in the heat transfer equation the radiative heat source term Qr (SI unit: W/m3),
defined by:

Qr = κ ( G – 4πI b ( T ) )

where

• κ is the absorption coefficient (SI unit: m–1).

DOMAIN FEATURES | 395

 • G is the incident radiation (SI unit: W/m2), defined by

G= 4π I ( Ω ) dΩ
• I(Ω) is the radiative intensity (SI unit: W/(m2·sr)) at a given position following the
Ω direction, that satisfies the radiative transfer equation

σs 4π
Ω ⋅ ∇I ( Ω ) = κ I b ( T ) – β I ( Ω ) + ------
4π 0 I ( Ω′ ) φ ( Ω′, Ω ) dΩ′

• Ib(T) is the blackbody radiative intensity (SI unit: W/(m2·sr)), defined as

2 4
nr σ T
I b ( T ) = --------------------
π

• nr is the refractive index (dimensionless).

• σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (SI unit: W/(m2·K4)).
• β = κ + σs is the extinction coefficient (SI unit: 1/m).
• σs is the scattering coefficient (SI unit: 1/m).
• φ(Ω′, Ω) is the scattering phase function (dimensionless).
• T is the temperature (SI unit: K).
It takes into account the absorbed and the emitted radiation, and depending on
approximation method, also the scattered radiation.

Three approximation methods are available for the radiation discretization method.
The characteristics of each of them are summarized in the following table.
TABLE 6-1: DISCRETIZATION METHODS FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA (HT INTERFACE)

OPTION DISCRETE ORDINATES P1 ROSSELAND

METHOD APPROXIMATION APPROXIMATION

Optical thickness All τ>>1 τ>>1

validity
Scattering Linear Linear No
modeling Polynomial

396 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
TABLE 6-1: DISCRETIZATION METHODS FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA (HT INTERFACE)

OPTION DISCRETE ORDINATES P1 ROSSELAND

METHOD APPROXIMATION APPROXIMATION

Computation of N ∇ ⋅ ( D P1 ∇G ) + G not computed.

κ ( G – 4πI b ) = 0 Thermal
 ωi Ii
G G≈
conductivity
i=1
modified with
16n r2 σT 3
k R = -------------------------
3β R

Computational High: up to 80 Medium: 1 Low: No

cost additional degrees additional degree additional degree
of freedom (Ii) of freedom (G) of freedom

MODELS INPUTS
There is one standard model input — the Temperature T. The default is to use the heat
transfer interface’s dependent variable.

RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA

This section sets the absorption and scattering properties of the participating medium.

It is available when Rosseland approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization

method for the physics interface. Depending on the available quantities, the extinction
coefficient βR can be specified directly or defined as the sum of the absorption and
scattering coefficients. Also see Rosseland Approximation Theory.

The following options are available from the Specify media properties list:

• Absorption and scattering coefficients (default): in this case βR is defined as

βR = κ + σs and the Absorption and Scattering sections display underneath.
• Extinction coefficient: the default Rosseland mean extinction coefficient βR should be
specified directly.

ABSORPTION
This section sets the absorption property of the participating medium, and is available
in the following cases:

• Discrete ordinates method is selected as the Radiation discretization method, or

• P1 approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization method, or
• Rosseland approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization method, and
Absorption and scattering coefficients is selected from the Specify media properties list.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 397

 The Absorption coefficient κ should be specified. It defines the amount of radiation,
κI(Ω), that is absorbed by the medium.

SCATTERING
This section sets the scattering property of the participating medium, and is available
in the following cases:

• Discrete ordinates method is selected as the Radiation discretization method, or

• P1 approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization method, or
• Rosseland approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization method, and
Absorption and scattering coefficients is selected from the Specify media properties list.
The Scattering coefficient σs should be specified.

When Discrete ordinates method or P1 approximation is selected as the Radiation

discretization method for the physics interface, choose in addition the Scattering type:
Isotropic, Linear anisotropic, or Polynomial anisotropic (only with Discrete ordinates
method). This provides options to approximate the scattering phase function using the
cosine of the scattering angle, μ0:

• Isotropic (the default) corresponds to the scattering phase function φ(μ0) = 1.

• For Linear anisotropic it defines the scattering phase function as φ(μ0) = 1 + a1μ0.
Enter the Legendre coefficient a1.
• For Polynomial anisotropic it defines the scattering phase function as

12

φ ( μ0 ) = 1 +  am Pm ( μ0 )
m=1

Enter each Legendre coefficient a1, …, a12 as required.

INITIAL VALUES
When Discrete ordinates method is selected as the Radiation discretization method for
the physics interface, the Initial radiative intensity I should be specified. The default is
ht.Ibinit, which is the blackbody radiative intensity at initial temperature.

When P1 approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization method for the physics
interface, the Initial incident radiation G should be specified. The default is
(4*pi)*ht.Ibinit, computed from the blackbody radiative intensity at initial
temperature.

398 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
This section is not available when Rosseland approximation is selected as the Radiation
discretization method for the physics interface.

Theory for Radiation in Participating Media

Discrete Ordinates Method (DOM)

Rosseland Approximation Theory

P1 Approximation Theory

Radiative Cooling of a Glass Plate: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/glass_plate

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Radiation in Participating Media

More locations are available if the Radiation in participating media check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Radiation in Participating Media

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Domains>interface >Radiation in Participating Media

Radiation in Participating Media (RPM Interface)

This node should be used when radiation occurs in a medium not completely
transparent, in which the radiation rays interact with the medium. It computes the
radiative heat source term Qr (SI unit: W/m3), defined by:

Qr = κ ( G – 4πI b ( T ) )

where

• κ is the absorption coefficient (SI unit: m-1).

DOMAIN FEATURES | 399

 • G is the incident radiation (SI unit: W/m2), defined by

G = 4π I ( Ω ) dΩ
• I(Ω) is the radiative intensity (SI unit: W/(m2·sr)) at a given position following the
Ω direction, that satisfies the radiative transfer equation
σs
Ω ⋅ ∇I ( Ω ) = κI b ( T ) – βI ( Ω ) + ------
4π 4π I ( Ω′ )φ ( Ω′, Ω ) dΩ′
• Ib(T) is the blackbody radiative intensity (SI unit: W/(m2·sr)), defined as
2 4
n r σT
I b ( T ) = --------------------
π

• nr is the refractive index (dimensionless).

• σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (SI unit: W/(m2·K4)).
• β = κ + σs is the extinction coefficient (SI unit: 1/m).
• σs is the scattering coefficient (SI unit: 1/m).
• φ(Ω′, Ω) is the scattering phase function (dimensionless).
• T is the temperature (SI unit: K).
It takes into account the absorbed, emitted, and scattered radiation of the participating
medium.

Two approximation methods are available for the radiation discretization method. The
characteristics of each of them are summarized in the following table.
TABLE 6-2: DISCRETIZATION METHODS FOR RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA (RPM INTERFACE)

OPTION DISCRETE ORDINATES METHOD P1 APPROXIMATION

Optical thickness All τ>>1

validity
Scattering Linear Linear
modeling Polynomial
Computation of N ∇ ⋅ ( D P1 ∇G ) + κ ( G – 4πI b ) = 0


G G≈ ωi Ii
i=1

Computational High: up to 80 additional Medium: 1 additional degree of freedom

cost degrees of freedom (Ii) (G)

400 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
MODELS INPUTS
There is one standard model input — the Temperature T. The default is 293.15 K and
is used in the blackbody radiative intensity expression.

ABSORPTION
The Absorption coefficient κ should be specified. It defines the amount of radiation,
κI(Ω), that is absorbed by the medium.

SCATTERING
This section sets the scattering property of the participating medium.

The Scattering coefficient σs should be specified.

Choose in addition the Scattering type: Isotropic, Linear anisotropic, or Polynomial

anisotropic (only with Discrete ordinates method). This setting provides options to
approximate the scattering phase function using the cosine of the scattering angle, μ0:

• Isotropic (the default) corresponds to the scattering phase function φ(μ0) = 1.

• For Linear anisotropic it defines the scattering phase function as φ(μ0) = 1 + a1μ0.
Enter the Legendre coefficient a1.
• For Polynomial anisotropic it defines the scattering phase function as

12

φ ( μ0 ) = 1 +  am Pm ( μ0 )
m=1

Enter each Legendre coefficient a1, …, a12 as required.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
When Discrete ordinates method is selected as the Radiation discretization method for
the physics interface, the Initial radiative intensity I should be specified. The default is
rpm.Ibinit, which is the blackbody radiative intensity at initial temperature.

When P1 approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization method for the physics
interface, the Initial incident radiation G should be specified. The default is

DOMAIN FEATURES | 401

 (4*pi)*rpm.Ibinit, computed from the blackbody radiative intensity at initial
temperature.

Theory for Radiation in Participating Media

Discrete Ordinates Method (DOM)

P1 Approximation Theory

Radiative Heat Transfer in a Utility Boiler: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/boiler

Radiative Heat Transfer in Finite Cylindrical Media: Application

Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/cylinder_participating_media

Radiative Heat Transfer in Finite Cylindrical Media—P1 Method:

Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/
cylinder_participating_media_p1

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Radiation in Participating Media>Radiation in Participating Media

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Radiation in Participating Media selected:
Domains>Radiation in Participating Media>Radiation in Participating Media

Solid
This node uses this version of the heat equation to model heat transfer in solids:

∂T
ρC p ------- + ρC p u ⋅ ∇T + ∇ ⋅ q = Q (6-9)
∂t
q = – k∇ T

with the following material properties, fields, and sources:

• ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the solid density.

• Cp (SI unit: J/(kg·K)) is the solid heat capacity at constant pressure.

402 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
• k (SI unit: W/(m·K)) is the solid thermal conductivity (a scalar or a tensor if the
thermal conductivity is anisotropic).
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the velocity field defined by the Translational Motion subnode
when parts of the model are moving in the material frame.
• Q (SI unit: W/m3) is the heat source (or sink). Add one or several heat sources as
separate physics features. See Heat Source node and Thermoelastic Damping
subnode for example.
For a steady-state problem the temperature does not change with time and the first
term disappears.

SOLID MATERIAL
This section is available only when the Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium multiphysics
coupling is included in the component to model porous media. It makes it possible to
define different material properties for the porous matrix and the fluid.

Select any material from the list to define the Solid material. The default uses the
Domain material. See Material Density in Features Defined on the Material Frame for
the setting of a temperature-dependent density.

HEAT CONDUCTION, SOLID

The thermal conductivity k describes the relationship between the heat flux vector q
and the temperature gradient ∇T in q = −k∇T, which is Fourier’s law of heat
conduction. Enter this quantity as power per length and temperature.

The default Thermal conductivity k is taken From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter another value or expression. For Isotropic enter a scalar which
will be used to define a diagonal tensor. For the other options, enter values or
expressions into the editable fields of the tensor.

The components of the thermal conductivity k when given on tensor form (kxx, kyy,
and so on, representing an anisotropic thermal conductivity) are available as ht.kxx,
ht.kyy, and so on (using the default name ht). The single scalar mean effective
thermal conductivity ht.kmean is the mean value of the diagonal elements kxx, kyy,
and kzz.

Fourier’s law assumes that the thermal conductivity tensor is symmetric.

A nonsymmetric tensor can lead to unphysical results.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 403

 THERMODYNAMICS, SOLID
This section sets the thermodynamics properties of the solid.

The heat capacity at constant pressure describes the amount of heat energy required to
produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass.

The Density ρ and Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp should be specified.

In addition, the thermal diffusivity α, defined as k ⁄ (ρCp) (SI unit: m2/s), is also a
predefined quantity. The thermal diffusivity can be interpreted as a measure of thermal
inertia (heat propagates slowly where the thermal diffusivity is low, for example). The
components of the thermal diffusivity α, when given on tensor form (αxx, αyy, and so
on, representing an anisotropic thermal diffusivity) are available as ht.alphaTdxx,
ht.alphaTdyy, and so on (using the default physics name ht). The single scalar mean
thermal diffusivity ht.alphaTdMean is the mean value of the diagonal elements αxx,
αyy, and αzz. The denominator ρCp is the effective volumetric heat capacity which is
also available as a predefined quantity, ht.C_eff.

Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium

Theory for Heat Transfer in Solids

The Thermoelastic Damping subnode is available from the context menu

(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

When Surface-to-surface radiation is activated, the Opacity subnode is

automatically added to the entire selection, with Opaque option selected.
The domain selection can’t be edited. To set some part of the domain as
transparent, add a new Opacity subnode from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Heat Generation in a Disc Brake: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/brake_disc

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

404 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Solid
Heat Transfer in Solids>Solid
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Solid
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Solid
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Solid
Bioheat Transfer>Solid
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Solid
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Solid

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Domains>interface >Solid

Irreversible Transformation
This subnode should be used to model thermally induced irreversible transformations
in solids.

IRREVERSIBLE TRANSFORMATION
Two models are available to define the material transformation depending on
temperature, both using integral forms over time.

Select the Transformation model—Temperature threshold (the default) or Energy

absorption, depending on the material properties you have access to.

For Temperature threshold, select the type of analysis—Overheating analysis (the

default) or Overcooling analysis, depending on the expected temperature variations.

Overheating Analysis
Enter values for:

• Transformation temperature Tit, h to define the (high) temperature that the solid
needs to reach to start getting transformed.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 405

 • Transformation time tit, h to define the time needed for the complete transformation
to happen while the temperature is above Tit, h.
• Enthalpy change Lit, h to define the enthalpy variation associated with transformation
due to overheating. The following heat source is added to the right-hand side of
Equation 6-9 in Solid node:

∂θ it
Q = – ρL it, h ---------- ( T > T it, h )
∂t

Overcooling Analysis
Enter values for:

• Transformation temperature Tit, c to define the (low) temperature that the solid
needs to reach to start getting transformed.
• Transformation time tit, c to define the time needed for the complete transformation
to happen while the temperature is below Tit, c.
• Enthalpy change Lit, c to define the enthalpy variation associated with transformation
due to overcooling. The following heat source is added to the right-hand side of
Equation 6-9 in Solid node:

∂θ it
Q = ρL it, c ---------- ( T < T it, c )
∂t

For Energy absorption, define the Frequency Factor and Activation Energy to compute
the degree of transformation with the Arrhenius equation.

Frequency Factor and Activation Energy

Enter values for:

• Frequency factor A in the Arrhenius equation. Default is taken From material. For
User defined enter a value or an expression.
• Activation energy ΔE in the Arrhenius equation. Default is taken From material. For
User defined enter a value or an expression.
• Enthalpy change L to define the enthalpy variation associated with the
transformation. The following heat source is added to the right-hand side of
Equation 6-9 in Solid node:

∂θ it
Q = – ρL ----------
∂t

406 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Specific thermodynamics properties before and after complete transformation may be
defined by selecting the check box Specify different material properties for the
transformed state.

Choose a Transformed material, which can point to any material in the model. The
default uses the Domain material. The properties before transformation are the ones
specified in the Heat Conduction, Solid and Thermodynamics, Solid sections of the parent
Solid node. The effective material properties are dynamically updated with the
transformation evolution.

HEAT CONDUCTION
This section is available when the Specify different material properties for the
transformed state check box is selected.

Select a Thermal conductivity kd —From material (the default) or User defined, to be

used for transformed solid. For User defined choose Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or
Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal conductivity and enter another
value or expression in the field or matrix.

THERMODYNAMICS
This section is available when the Specify different material properties for the
transformed state check box is selected.

Select a Density ρd and Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp, d —From material (the
default) or User defined, to be used for transformed solid. The heat capacity describes
the amount of heat energy required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit
mass.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Solid>Irreversible Transformation

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Solid>Irreversible Transformation

DOMAIN FEATURES | 407

 Ribbon
Physics Tab with Solid selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Irreversible Transformation

Thermal Dispersion
This subnode should be used to model the heat transfer due to hydrodynamic mixing
in a fluid flowing through a porous medium. It adds an extra term ∇ ⋅ (kdisp∇T) to the
right-hand side of the heat equation in porous media, through the modification of the
effective thermal conductivity keff with the dispersive thermal conductivity kdisp:

∂T
( ρC p ) eff ------- + ρC p u ⋅ ∇T = ∇ ⋅ ( k eff ∇T ) + Q
∂t

and specifies values for the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities.

DISPERSIVITIES
This section sets the Longitudinal dispersivity λlo and Transverse dispersivity λtr used for
the definition of the tensor of dispersive thermal conductivity:

( k disp ) ij = ρ L C p, L D ij

where Dij is the dispersion tensor

uk ul
D ij = λ ijkl ------------
u

and λijkl is the fourth-order dispersivity tensor

λ lo – λ tr
λ ijkl = λ tr δ ij δ kl + --------------------- ( δ ik δ jl + δ il δ jk )
2

If the Extended porous matrix model is selected under Physical Model (with the
Subsurface Flow Module), the Transverse horizontal dispersivity λtr, h and Transverse
vertical dispersivity λtr, v are defined instead of the Transverse dispersivity λtr.

In this case it is assumed that z is the vertical direction and it defines the dispersion
tensor as

408 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
 D ij =

λ lo u 2 + λ tr, h v 2 + λ tr, v w 2 ( λ lo – λ tr, h )uv ( λ lo – λ tr, v )uw

1-
------
u ( λ lo – λ tr, h )uv λ tr, h u2 + λ lo v2 + λ tr, v w2 ( λ lo – λ tr, v )vw
( λ lo – λ tr, v )uw ( λ lo – λ tr, v )vw λ tr, v u 2 + λ tr, v v 2 + λ lo w 2

The former formulation corresponds to the general formulation when

λtr, h = λtr, v.

Porous Medium

The Thermal Dispersion node is only available with certain COMSOL

products. For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each
product, visit http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Porous Medium>Thermal Dispersion

More locations are available if the Heat transfer in porous media check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Porous Medium>Thermal Dispersion

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Porous Medium selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Thermal Dispersion

DOMAIN FEATURES | 409

 Thermoelastic Damping
This subnode should be used to model heat generation due to changes in stress, which
may be important in small structures vibrating at high frequencies.

THERMOELASTIC DAMPING
The Thermoelastic damping Qted should be specified either as a User defined value, or as
the thermoelastic damping contribution straight from the solid mechanics interfaces,
when you add a Thermal Expansion subnode (with the Structural Mechanics Module).
In the latter case it is defined by

∂S
Q ted = – αT: -------
∂t

where S is the second Piola-Kirchhoff tensor and α is the coefficient of thermal

expansion.

Solid

Thermal Expansion (for materials) in the Structural Mechanics Module

User’s Guide

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Solid>Thermoelastic Damping

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Solid>Thermoelastic Damping

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Solid selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Thermoelastic Damping

Translational Motion
This subnode provides movement by translation to the model for heat transfer in
solids. It adds the following contribution to the right-hand side of Equation 6-9,
defined in the parent node:

– ρ C p u trans ⋅ ∇T

410 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
The contribution describes the effect of a moving coordinate system, which is required
to model, for example, a moving heat source.

Special care must be taken on boundaries where n ⋅ utrans ≠ 0. The Heat

Flux boundary condition does not, for example, work on boundaries
where n ⋅ utrans < 0.

DOMAIN SELECTION
By default, the selection is the same as for the Solid node that it is attached to, but it is
possible to use more than one Translational Motion subnode, each covering a subset of
the Solid node’s selection.

TR A N S L A T I O N A L M O T I O N
The x, y, and z (in 3D) components of the Velocity field utrans should be specified in
this section.

Solid

Heat Generation in a Disc Brake: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/brake_disc

Friction Stir Welding of an Aluminum Plate: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/friction_stir_welding

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Solid>Translational Motion
Bioheat Transfer>Biological Tissue>Translational Motion

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Solid>Translational Motion

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Solid or Biological Tissue selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Translational Motion

DOMAIN FEATURES | 411

 Viscous Dissipation
This subnode should be used to account for the heat source coming from the
transformation of kinetic energy into internal energy due to viscous stresses. Such
effect is expected in fluid regions with large velocity gradients or with high turbulence
levels.

VISCOUS DISSIPATION
The Qvd input should be specified either as a User defined value, or as the viscous
dissipation term contribution straight from the fluid flow interfaces.

For laminar flows, it is defined by

Q vd = τ: ∇u

where τ is the viscous tensor.

When the Nonisothermal Flow multiphysics coupling node is added, the

effect of viscous dissipation can be taken into account by selecting the
Include viscous dissipation check box under the Flow Heating section. In this
case, the Viscous Dissipation feature is overriden by the multiphysics
coupling node’s contribution.

Fluid

Porous Medium

Phase Change Material

This feature was previously called Viscous Heating.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Fluid>Viscous Dissipation
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Phase Change Material>Viscous Dissipation
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Porous Medium>Viscous Dissipation

412 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
More locations are available. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Fluid>Viscous Dissipation
Heat Transfer in Solids>Phase Change Material>Viscous Dissipation
Heat Transfer in Solids>Porous Medium>Viscous Dissipation
Heat Transfer in Moist Air>Moist Air>Viscous Dissipation

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Fluid, Phase Change Material, Moist Air, or Porous Medium selected in
the model tree:
Attributes>Viscous Dissipation

DOMAIN FEATURES | 413

 Bo unda r y Fe a t u res
The Heat Transfer interfaces have the following boundary nodes and subnodes
available:

• Boundary Heat Source • Inflow Heat Flux

• Change Thickness (Heat Transfer in • Initial Values (Heat Transfer in Thin
Thin Shells Interface) Shells Interface)
• Continuity • Isothermal Domain Interface
• Continuity on Interior Boundary • Layer Heat Source
• Deposited Beam Power • Line Heat Source on Axis
• Diffuse Mirror • Opaque Surface
• Diffuse Surface • Open Boundary
• External Temperature (Thin Layer, • Outflow
Thin Film) • Periodic Condition
• External Temperature (Thin • Prescribed Radiosity
Layered Shell, Thin Film)
• Radiation Group
• Fracture
• Symmetry
• Harmonic Perturbation
• Temperature
• Heat Flux
• Thermal Contact
• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin
• Thermal Insulation
Shells Interface)
• Thin Conductive Layer (Heat
• Heat Source (Fracture)
Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin
• Thin Film
Shells Interface)
• Thin Layer
• Heat Source (Thin Film)
• Thin Layered Shell (Heat Transfer in
• Heat Source (Thin Layered Shell)
Thin Shells Interface)
• Incident Intensity

414 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
 For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial
symmetry boundaries into account and automatically adds an Axial
Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Boundary Heat Source

This node models a heat source (or heat sink) that is embedded in the boundary. When
selected as a Pair Boundary Heat Source, it also prescribes that the temperature field is
continuous across the pair. Note that in this case the source term is applied on the
source side.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

BOUNDARY HEAT SOURCE

Click the General source (the default) or Heat rate button.

• For General source enter a value for the boundary heat source Qb when the default
option, User defined, is selected.
A positive Qb corresponds to heating and a negative Qb corresponds to cooling. For
the general boundary heat source Qb, there are predefined heat sources available
when simulating heat transfer together with electrical or electromagnetic interfaces.
Such sources represent, for example, ohmic heating and induction heating.
• For Heat rate enter the heat rate Pb. In this case Qb = Pb ⁄ A, where A is the total
area of the selected boundaries.

FRAME SELECTION
The settings are the same as for the Heat Source node and are described under Frame
Selection.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 415

 SOURCE POSITION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

Select a Source position to define a side where the heat source is defined: Layer (the
default), Upside, or Downside. This setting has no effect unless the temperature differs
from one side of the boundary to the other. Typically when Boundary Heat Source
contributes with a Thin Layer feature.

To define the boundary heat source Qb as a function of the temperature,

use the local temperature variable on the selected boundary,
ht.bhs1.Tvar, that corresponds to the appropriate variable (upside,
downside, or average temperature of a layer, wall temperature with
turbulence modeling), depending on the model configurations. See
Boundary Wall Temperature for a thorough description of the boundary
temperature variables.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• About the Heat Transfer Interfaces

416 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Solids>Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Boundary Heat Source
Bioheat Transfer>Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Solids>Pairs>Pair Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Pairs>Pair Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Pairs>Pair Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Building Materials>Pairs>Pair Boundary Heat Source
Bioheat Transfer>Pairs>Pair Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Pairs>Pair Boundary Heat Source
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Pair Boundary Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface>Boundary Heat Source
Pairs>interface >Pair Boundary Heat Source

Change Thickness (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

Use this node to give parts of the shell a different thickness than that what is specified
on the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface Shell Thickness section.

CHANGE THICKNESS
Specify a value for the Shell thickness ds. The default value is 0.01 m. This value
replaces the overall thickness for the boundaries that are selected.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Change Thickness

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 417

 Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Thin Shells selected:
Boundaries>Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Change Thickness

Continuity
This node can be added to pairs. It prescribes that the temperature field is continuous
across the pair. Continuity is only suitable for pairs where the boundaries match.

PAIR SELECTION
Choose the pair on which to apply this condition. A pair has to be created first. See
Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more
details.

Thermo-Mechanical Analysis of a Surface-Mounted Resistor:

Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Stress/surface_resistor

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Pairs>Continuity
Heat Transfer in Solids>Pairs>Continuity
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Pairs>Continuity
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Pairs>Continuity
Bioheat Transfer>Pairs>Continuity
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Pairs>Continuity
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Pairs>Continuity
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Continuity
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Pairs>Continuity
Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Continuity

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells, Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat
Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media, Radiation in Participating Media or
Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:
Pairs>interface>Continuity

418 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Continuity on Interior Boundary
When Discrete ordinates method is selected, this node enables intensity conservation
across internal boundaries. It is the default boundary condition for all interior
boundaries. For P1 approximation and Rosseland approximation this boundary
condition is not available since it is not needed.

Radiative Heat Transfer in a Utility Boiler: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/boiler

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Radiation in Participating
Media>Continuity on Interior Boundary
Radiation in Participating Media>Continuity on Interior Boundary
More locations are available if the Radiation in participating media check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Radiation in Participating Media>Continuity on Interior Boundary

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat
Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer, Heat
Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation, Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating
Media or Radiation in Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>Radiation in Participating Media>Continuity on Interior Boundary

Deposited Beam Power

This node models heat sources brought by narrow beams, such as laser or electron
beams, to a given boundary. This feature is only available in 3D components.

DEPOSITED BEA M POWER

Enter a value for the Deposited beam power Pl, the Beam origin point O, and the Beam
orientation e. The orientation vector needs not to be normalized.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 419

 BEAM PROFILE
Select a Distribution type: Gaussian (the default) or Top-hat disk.

• For Gaussian, enter the Standard deviation σ.

• For Top-hat disk, enter the Beam radius R. Smoothing can be applied by entering a
positive Size of transition zone ΔR. The default value of 0 m corresponds to an ideal
discontinuous top-hat profile.

SOURCE POSITION
To display this section click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

Select a Source position to define a side where the heat source is defined: Layer (the
default), Upside, or Downside. This setting has no effect unless the temperature differs
from one side of the boundary to the other.

The standard deviation of the Gaussian distribution and the radius of the
top-hat distribution can take values smaller than the mesh element size.
For more accurate results, it is important to refine the mesh enough at the
deposited heat source location. Otherwise, an automatic substitution
replaces the standard deviation σ or the beam radius R by the minimum
length to get acceptable results which depends on the mesh element size.

Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global

normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Deposited Beam Power
Heat Transfer in Solids>Deposited Beam Power
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Deposited Beam Power
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Deposited Beam Power
Bioheat Transfer>Deposited Beam Power
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Deposited Beam Power
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Deposited Beam Power

420 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface>Deposited Beam Power

Diffuse Mirror
This node is a variant of the Diffuse Surface node with a surface emissivity equal to
zero. Diffuse mirror surfaces are common as approximations of a surface that is well
insulated on one side and for which convection effects can be neglected on the
opposite (radiating) side. It resembles a mirror that absorbs all irradiation and then
radiates it back in all directions. The node adds radiosity shape function for each
spectral band to its selection and uses it as surface radiosity.

The radiative heat flux on a diffuse mirror boundary is zero.

MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups have been added, the model inputs
are included here.

There is one standard model input — the Temperature T. The default is the
temperature variable in the Heat Transfer interface or 293.15 K in the
Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface. It is used in the blackbody radiation intensity
expression.

RADIATION SETTINGS
Select the Radiation direction: Opacity controlled (the default), Negative normal
direction, Positive normal direction, or Both sides. For information about these options,
see Diffuse Surface.

AMBIENT
These settings are the same as for the Diffuse Surface node.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 421

 INITIAL VALUES
These settings are the same as for the Diffuse Surface node.

If this feature is combined with heat transfer in 2D and 1D, the thickness
is assumed to be infinite for the view factor computation. The
user-defined value for d is still used in the heat transfer equation.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Radiation>Diffuse Mirror
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Diffuse Mirror

More locations are available if the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Radiation>Diffuse Mirror

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:
Boundaries>Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Diffuse Mirror

Physics Tab with Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat
Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer, Heat
Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating
Media selected:
Boundaries>Radiation>Diffuse Mirror

Diffuse Surface
Diffuse surfaces reflect radiative intensity uniformly in all directions. This node handles
radiation with a view factor calculation. The feature adds one radiosity shape function
per spectral interval to its selection and uses it as surface radiosity.

It adds a radiative heat source contribution

q = ε ( G – eb ( T ) )

on the side of the boundary where the radiation is defined, where ε is the surface
emissivity, G is the irradiation, and eb(T) is the blackbody hemispherical total emissive
power. Where the radiation is defined on both sides, the radiative heat source is defined
on both sides too.

422 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups have been added, the model inputs
are included here.

There is one standard model input — the Temperature T. The default is the
temperature variable in the Heat Transfer interface or 293.15 K in the
Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface. This model input is used in the expression for
the blackbody radiation intensity and, when multiple wavelength intervals are used, for
the fractional emissive power. The temperature model input is also used to determine
the variable that receives the radiative heat source. When the model input does not
contain a dependent variable, the radiative heat source is ignored.

RADIATION SETTINGS
When Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Constant in the Radiation Settings
section of the physics interface (available when the Surface-to-surface radiation check
box is selected), select a Radiation direction based on the geometric normal
(nx, ny, nz): Opacity controlled, Negative normal direction, Positive normal direction, or
Both sides.

• Opacity controlled requires that each boundary is adjacent to exactly one opaque
domain. Opacity is controlled by the Opacity domain subfeature. For external
boundaries, the exterior side opacity is controlled by the Exterior radiation setting at
the interface level. This is the default option when the node is added from any
version of the Heat Transfer interface with the Surface-to-surface radiation check box
is selected.
• Select Negative normal direction to specify that the surface radiates in the negative
normal direction. An arrow indicates the negative normal direction that corresponds
to the direction of the radiation emitted by the surface.
• Select Positive normal direction if the surface radiates in the positive normal
direction. An arrow indicates the positive normal direction that corresponds to the
direction of the radiation emitted by the surface.
• Select Both sides if the surface radiates on both sides. This is the default option when
the node is added from the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface or the
Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface.

When Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple

spectral bands in the Radiation Settings section of the physics interface (available when
the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected), select a Radiation direction for

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 423

 each spectral band: Opacity controlled, Negative normal direction, Positive normal
direction, Both sides, or None. The Radiation direction defines the radiation direction for
each spectral band similarly as when Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Constant.
Defining a radiation direction for each spectral band makes it possible to build models
where the transparency or opacity properties defers between spectral bands.

This is useful for example to represent glass opaque to radiation outside

of the 0.3–2.5 µm wavelength range.

None is used when adjacent domains are either both transparent or both opaque for a
given spectral band.

When the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is not selected or not available, the
Radiation Settings section can be displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and
selecting Advanced Physics Options. Select a Radiation direction between Negative normal
direction and Positive normal direction.

The Thin Layer boundary also defines the layer opacity that determines the
side of the layer where the radiation occurs, depending on radiation
direction. When the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is not selected
or not available, the thin layer is set opaque.

AMBIENT
If the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected, select Define ambient
temperature on each side when the ambient temperature differs between the sides of a
boundary. This is needed to define ambient temperature for a surface that radiates on
both sides and that is exposed to a hot temperature on one side (for example, fire) and
to a cold temperature on the other side (for example, external temperature). By
default, Define ambient temperature on each side is not selected when the node is added
from any version of the Heat Transfer interface; but it is selected when the node is
added from the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface or the Surface-to-Surface
Radiation interface.

Set the Ambient temperature Tamb. For User defined, enter a value or expression. Else,
select an Ambient temperature defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat
Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface. When Define ambient temperature on each
side is selected, define the Ambient temperature Tamb, u and Tamb, d on the up and

424 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
down side, respectively. The geometric normal points from the down side to the up
side.

Set Tamb to the far-away temperature in directions where no other

boundaries obstruct the view. Inside a closed cavity, the ambient view
factor, Famb, is theoretically zero and the value of Tamb therefore should
not matter. It is, however, good practice to set Tamb to T or to a typical
temperature value for the cavity surfaces in such cases because that
minimizes errors introduced by the finite resolution of the view factor
evaluation.

By default, a diffuse irradiation contribution Idiff is included into the external

irradiation. For User defined, enter a value or expression. When considering solar
irradiation, it accounts for the irradiation from the sun, scattered by the atmosphere,
and supposed to be isotropic. Else, select a Clear sky noon diffuse horizontal irradiance
defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells
interface.

To consider only the direct irradiation defined in the External Radiation Source
feature, clear the Include diffuse irradiance check box.

SURFACE FRACTIONAL EMISSIVE POWER

This section is only available when the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected.

This section is available when the Wavelength dependence of emissivity is defined as Solar
and ambient or Multiple spectral bands for the physics interface (see Radiation Settings).

When the Fractional emissive power is Blackbody/Graybody, the fractional emissive

power is automatically computed for each spectral band as a function of the band
endpoints and surface temperature.

When the Fractional emissive power is User defined, define the Fractional emissive power,
FEPBi for each spectral band. All fractional emissive powers are expected to be in [0,1]
and their sum is expected to be equal to 1.

SURFACE EMISSIVITY

In diffuse gray and diffuse spectral radiation models, the surface emissivity
and the absorptivity must be equal. For this reason it is equivalent to
define the surface emissivity or the absorptivity.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 425

 The surface emissivity settings are defined per spectral interval.

When the Radiation direction is Opacity controlled, Negative normal direction, or Positive
normal direction for a spectral band, by default, the Surface emissivity ε (dimensionless)
uses values From material. This is a property of the material surface that depends both
on the material itself and the structure of the surface. Make sure that a material is
defined at the boundary level (by default materials are defined at the domain level).

When the Radiation direction is set to Both sides for a spectral band, define the Material
on upside and Material on downside:

• The defaults for both Material on upside and Material on downside use Boundary
material. The list has options based on the materials defined in the model.
• Define the Surface emissivity on the upside and downside, respectively. The
geometric normal points from the down side to the up side. Set the surface
emissivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 0 represents diffuse mirror and 1 is
appropriate for a perfect blackbody. The proper value for a physical material lies
somewhere in-between and can be found from tables or measurements.

When the Radiation direction is set to None for a spectral band, no information is
needed for this spectral band in the Surface Emissivity section.

INITIAL VALUES
This section is only available when the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected.

The surface radiosity initial values are defined per spectral interval.

When the Radiation direction is Opacity controlled, Negative normal direction, or Positive
normal direction for a spectral band Bi, the default Surface radiosity JBi, init is defined as

J Bi, init = ε Bi e b ( T init ) + ( 1 – ε Bi )e b ( T amb )

When Both sides is selected as the Radiation direction,

Enter initial values for the Surface radiosity JBi, init, u and JBi, init, d. The default Surface
radiosity is ht.JBiinitU and ht.JBiinitD.

J Bi, init, u = ε Bi, u e b ( T init ) + ( 1 – ε Bi, u )e b ( T amb, u )

J Bi, init, d = ε Bi, d e b ( T init ) + ( 1 – ε Bi, d )e b ( T amb, d )

426 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
When None is selected as the Radiation direction, no surface radiosity is defined; hence
no initial value is needed.

• In the notation used here, Bi stands for B1, B2,... up to the maximum
number of spectral intervals.
• When the model contains one spectral interval, JBi, init, JBi, init, u and
JBi, init, d are named, respectively, Jinit, Jinit, u and Jinit, d.
• If this feature is combined with heat transfer in 2D and 1D, the
thickness is assumed to be infinite for the view factor computation. The
user-defined value for d is still used in the heat transfer equation.

To define temperature dependencies for the user inputs (surface

emissivity for example), use the temperature variable ht.T, that
corresponds to the appropriate variable (upside, downside, or average
temperature of a layer, wall temperature with turbulence modeling),
depending on the model configurations. See Boundary Wall Temperature
for a thorough description of the boundary temperature variables.

Several settings for this node depend on the Wavelength dependence of

emissivity setting, which is defined for the physics interface when the
Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected.

In addition, the Transparent media refractive index is equal to 1 by default,

and can be set when the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected.

See Radiation Settings.

Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 427

 Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global
normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Heat Generation in a Disc Brake: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/brake_disc

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Radiation>Diffuse Surface
Heat Transfer in Solids>Radiation>Diffuse Surface
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Radiation>Diffuse Surface
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Radiation>Diffuse Surface
Bioheat Transfer>Radiation>Diffuse Surface
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Radiation>Diffuse Surface
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Diffuse Surface
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Radiation>Diffuse Surface
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Radiation>Diffuse Surface

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:
Boundaries>Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Diffuse Surface

Physics Tab with Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat
Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer, Heat
Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation, Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating
Media, or Heat Transfer in Thin Shells selected:
Boundaries>Radiation>Diffuse Surface

External Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin Film)

Use this subnode to specify the temperature on the exterior side of a thin layer or a
thin film. As a subfeature of Thin Layer, it is only applicable when Layer type is set to
Thermally thick approximation or General, on exterior boundaries. As a subfeature of
Thin Film, it is only applicable when Thin film model is set to General, on exterior

428 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
boundaries.

TE M P E R A T U R E
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Temperature T0. Else, select an
Ambient temperature defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or
Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

The equation for this condition is T = T0 where T0 is the external temperature to be

prescribed.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

You can specify a harmonic variation of the temperature value in a

frequency domain analysis of perturbation type, by adding a Harmonic
Perturbation subnode. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for more
details.

Thin Layer

Thin Film

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>External Temperature
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Film>External Temperature

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Layer>External Temperature

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Thin Layer or Thin Film selected in the model tree:
Attributes>External Temperature

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 429

 External Temperature (Thin Layered Shell, Thin Film)
Use this subnode to specify the temperature on the exterior of a thin layered shell or a
thin film (downside and/or upside). As a subfeature of Thin Film, it is only applicable
when Thin Film model is set to General, on exterior boundaries.

TE M P E R A T U RE
By default, the temperature is specified on downside and upside. Unselect the Downside
or Upside check boxes to apply the constraint on one side only.

For each side, select an Ambient temperature defined in the Ambient Settings section
of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface. For User defined, enter values
or expressions for T0,d and T0,u.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

Thin Layered Shell (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

Thin Film

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Thin Layered Shell>External Temperature
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Thin Film>External Temperature

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Thin Film>Thin Layered Shell>External Temperature

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Thin Layered Shell or Thin Film selected in the model tree:
Attributes>External Temperature

Fracture
Use this node to allow heat transfer in fractures inside domains. It can also be used to
allow heat transfer in films.

430 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

FRACTURE PROPERTIES
This section is only available when the node is added from one of the versions of the
Heat Transfer interface (ht). Specify a value for the Fracture thickness dfr. The default
is 0.01 m.

FLUID MATERIAL
By default, the Boundary material is used.

PO RO US MATERIAL
By default, the Boundary material is used. The Volume fraction θfr should be specified.
The default is 0.

HEAT CONDUCTION, FRACTURE

The default Thermal conductivity kfr is taken From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity, and enter another value or expression. Select an Effective conductivity:
Volume average (the default) or Power law.

THERMODYNAMICS, FRACTURE
The default Density ρfr and Specific heat capacity Cp, fr are taken From material. See
Material Density in Features Defined on the Material Frame if a
temperature-dependent density should be set. For User defined enter other values or
expressions.

The settings for the Model Inputs, Heat Conduction, Fluid, and
Thermodynamics, Fluid sections are the same as for Fluid.

When the Fracture node is added from a Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
interface, only in-plane anisotropy is supported for the thermal
conductivity of the fracture material.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 431

 Fracture in Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Fracture
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Pairs>Fracture
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Fracture
More locations are available if the Heat transfer in porous media check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Fracture
Heat Transfer in Solids>Pairs>Fracture
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Fracture

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface >Fracture
Pairs>interface>Fracture

Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Thin Shells, Heat Transfer in Thin Films or
Heat Transfer in Fractures selected:
Boundaries>interface >Fracture

Harmonic Perturbation
Use this subnode to specify the harmonic variation of a prescribed temperature value.
It is used only in a study step of type Frequency-Domain Perturbation.

Enter a value or expression for the Temperature perturbation ΔT0 to be added to the
equilibrium temperature T0 defined in the parent node.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Temperature>Harmonic Perturbation

432 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
More locations are available. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Rod>Temperature>Harmonic Perturbation
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>Temperature>Harmonic Perturbation
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Film>Temperature>Harmonic Perturbation
Heat Transfer in Solids>Fracture>Temperature>Harmonic Perturbation
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>External Temperature>Harmonic Perturbation
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Temperature>Harmonic Perturbation

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Temperature or External Temperature selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Harmonic Perturbation

Heat Flux
Use this node to add heat flux across boundaries. A positive heat flux adds heat to the
domain. This feature is not applicable to inlet boundaries, use the Inflow Heat Flux
condition instead.

HEAT FLUX
Click to select the General inward heat flux (the default), Convective heat flux, or Heat
rate button.

General Inward Heat Flux

It adds q0 to the total flux across the selected boundaries. Enter a value for q0 to
represent a heat flux that enters the domain. For example, any electric heater is well
represented by this condition, and its geometry can be omitted.

Convective Heat Flux

The default option is to enter a User defined value for the Heat transfer coefficient h. In
addition, the following options are also available to control the type of convective heat
flux to model: External natural convection, Internal natural convection, External forced
convection, or Internal forced convection.

For all options except User defined, select a Fluid: Air (the default), Transformer oil, or
Water.

For Air, also set the Absolute pressure, pA. For User Defined, enter a value or expression.
The default is 1 atm. Else, select an Ambient absolute pressure defined in the Ambient
Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

Depending of the selected option, different parameters are needed. You can refer to
the Sketch section to get an illustration of the configuration.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 433

 External Natural Convection

For External natural convection select Vertical wall, Inclined wall, Horizontal plate, upside,
Horizontal plate, downside, Long horizontal cylinder, Sphere, or Vertical Thin Cylinder
from the list under Heat transfer coefficient. Then enter the applicable information:

• Wall height L.
• Wall height L and the Tilt angle φ. The tilt angle is the angle between the wall and
the vertical direction, φ = 0 for vertical walls.
• Characteristic length (area/perimeter) L. The characteristic length is the ratio
between the surface area and its perimeter.
• Cylinder diameter D.
• Sphere diameter D.
• Cylinder height H.

Internal Natural Convection

For Internal natural convection select Narrow chimney, parallel plates or Narrow chimney,
circular tube from the list under Heat transfer coefficient. Then enter the applicable
information:

• Plate distance L and a Chimney height H.

• Tube diameter D and a Chimney height H.

External Forced Convection

For External forced convection select Plate, averaged transfer coefficient, Plate, local
transfer coefficient, Cylinder in cross flow, or Sphere from the list under Heat transfer
coefficient. Then enter the applicable information:

• Plate length L and Velocity, fluid U.

• Position along the plate xpl and Velocity, fluid U.
• Cylinder Diameter D and Velocity, fluid U.
• Sphere Diameter D and Velocity, fluid U.

Internal Forced Convection

For Internal forced convection the only option is Isothermal tube. Enter a Tube diameter
D and a Velocity, fluid U.

434 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
If Velocity, fluid U is User defined, enter a value or expression. Else, select a Wind velocity
defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells
interface.

Finally, enter an External temperature, Text. The value depends on the geometry and
the ambient flow conditions. Convective heat flux is defined by q0 = h(Text − T).

For User defined, enter a value or expression. Else, select an Ambient temperature
defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells
interface.

Heat Rate
For Heat rate enter the heat rate P0 across the boundaries where the Heat Flux node is
active. In this case q0 = P0 ⁄ A, where A is the total area of the selected boundaries.

FRAME SELECTION
The settings are the same as for the Heat Source node and are described under Frame
Selection.

The detailed definition of the predefined heat transfer coefficients is given

in The Heat Transfer Coefficients.

For a thorough introduction about how to calculate heat transfer

coefficients, see Incropera and DeWitt in Ref. 18.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• About the Heat Transfer Interfaces

• Power Transistor: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/power_
transistor
• Free Convection in a Water Glass: Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/
cold_water_glass

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 435

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Solids>Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Heat Flux
Bioheat Transfer>Heat Flux
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Heat Flux
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Heat Flux

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface >Heat Flux

Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

This node adds a heat flux q0, u for the upside heat flux and a heat flux q0, d for the
downward heat flux to the right-hand side of Equation 6-4

∂T
d s ρC p ------- – ∇ ⋅ ( d s k∇T ) = d s Q + d s q 0 (6-10)
∂t

where

q 0 = q 0, u + q 0, d

For the convective heat flux, q0 is defined as:

q 0 = h u ( T ext, u – T ) + h d ( T ext, d – T )

FRAME SELECTION
To display this section add both a Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh) and Moving
Mesh (ale) interface (found under the Mathematics>Deformed Mesh branch when adding
a physics interface). Then click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics
Options.

The rest of the settings are the same as for the Out-of-Plane Heat Flux node as
described under Frame Selection for About the Heat Transfer Interfaces.

436 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
UPSIDE CONVECTIVE HEAT FLUX
Select between specifying the upside convective heat flux directly or as a convective
term using a heat transfer coefficient.

General Inward Heat Flux

General inward heat flux is selected by default. Enter a value or expression for the inward
(or outward, if the quantity is negative) heat flux through the upside in the q0, u field.

Convective Heat Flux

Click the Convective heat flux button to specify an inward (or outward, if the quantity
is negative) heat flux through the upside as hu ⋅ (Text, u − T).

Select a Heat transfer coefficient hu to control the type of convective heat flux to model:
User defined (the default), External natural convection, Internal natural convection,
External forced convection, or Internal forced convection. If convective flux is only
required on the downside, use the default, which sets hu = 0.

For all of the options, enter an External temperature, Text, u. For User defined, enter a
value or expression. Else, select an Ambient temperature defined in the Ambient
Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

The rest of the settings are the same for the Out-of-Plane Heat Flux node, as described
for the Heat Transfer interface under Convective Heat Flux.

DOWNSIDE INWARD HEAT FLUX

The options in the Downside Inward Heat Flux section are the same as in the Upside
Inward Heat Flux section except it applies to the downside instead of the upside.

In 2D the heat flux contribution is multiplied by dz to account for the

out-of-plane thickness.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

The Heat Transfer Coefficients

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 437

 Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global
normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Disk-Stack Heat Sink: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/disk_stack_heat_sink

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Heat Flux

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Thin Shells selected:
Boundaries>Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Heat Flux

Heat Source (Fracture)

Use this subnode to add an internal heat source Qfr within the fracture. Add one or
more heat sources. If this subnode is applied on a pair, note that the source term is
applied on the source side.

HEAT SOURCE
Select the General source (the default) or Heat rate button to define Qfr.

• For General source enter a value or expression for Qfr as a heat source per volume.
• For Heat rate define the heat rate Pfr. In this case Qfr = Pfr ⁄ V where V = Adfr with
A equal to the area of the boundary selection.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

438 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
 Fracture in Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Fracture>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Pairs>Fracture>Heat Source

More locations are available if the Heat transfer in porous media check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Fracture>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Solids>Pairs>Fracture>Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Fracture selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Heat Source

Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

This node describes heat generation within the shell through a dsQ contribution to the
right-hand side of Equation 4-50. If it is applied on a pair, note that the source term
is applied on the source side.

Express heating and cooling with positive and negative values, respectively. Add one or
more nodes as needed; all heat sources within a boundary contribute to the total heat
source. Specify the heat source as the heat per volume in the domain, as a linear heat
source, or as a heat rate.

HEAT SOURCE
These settings are the same as for the Heat Source node available for the other
interfaces.

FRAME SELECTION
The settings are the same as for the Heat Source node Frame Selection section

In 2D components the heat source is multiplied by dz to account for the

out-of-plane thickness.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 439

 You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency
domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Thin Shells selected:
Boundaries>Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Heat Source

Heat Source (Thin Film)

Use this subnode to add an internal heat source Qf within the thin film. Add one or
more heat sources. If this subnode is applied on a pair, note that the source term is
applied on the source side.

HEAT SOURCE
Select the General source (the default) or Heat rate button to define Qf.

• For General source enter a value or expression for Qf as a heat source per volume.
• For Heat rate define the heat rate Pf. In this case Qf = Pf ⁄ V where V = Adf with A
equal to the area of the boundary selection.

Thin Film

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

440 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
 You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency
domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Film>Heat Source

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Film>Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Thin Film selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Heat Source

Heat Source (Thin Layered Shell)

Use this subnode to add an internal heat source Qs,i within each layer of a thin layered
shell. Add one or more heat sources.

HEAT SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the source input Qs,i for each layer as a heat source per
volume. The layers are numbered from the upside to the downside.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

Thin Layered Shell (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 441

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Thin Layered Shell>Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Thin Layered Shell selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Heat Source

Incident Intensity
Use this node to specify the radiative intensity along incident directions on a boundary.
This intensity is a power per unit solid angle and unit surface area projected onto the
plane normal to the radiation direction.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

INCIDENT INTENSITY
The Boundary radiation intensity I should be specified. This represents the value of
radiative intensity along incoming discrete directions. Values of radiative intensity on
outgoing discrete directions are not prescribed.

When Discrete ordinates method is selected, the components of each

discrete ordinate vector can be used in this expression. The syntax is
name.sx, name.sy, and name.sz, where name is the physics interface
node name. By default, the Heat Transfer interface is ht so ht.sx, ht.sy,
and ht.sz correspond to the components of discrete ordinate vectors.

When P1 approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization method

for the physics interface, there is additional theory, equations, and
variables described in P1 Approximation Theory.

Radiation in Participating Media (RPM Interface)

Theory for Radiation in Participating Media

442 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Radiation in Participating
Media>Incident Intensity
Radiation in Participating Media>Incident Intensity

Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Incident Intensity

Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Incident Intensity

More locations are available if the Radiation in participating media check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Radiation in Participating Media>Incident Intensity

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation, Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media or Radiation in Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>Radiation in Participating Media>Incident Intensity
Pairs>interface >Incident Intensity

Inflow Heat Flux

Use this node to model inflow of heat through a virtual domain with a heat source.
The temperature at the outer boundary of the virtual domain is known. This boundary
condition estimates the heat flux through the system boundary

A(u ⋅ n)
– n ⋅ q = – q 0 ----------------------------- + ρ ( h in – h ext )u ⋅ n (6-11)
S u ⋅ n ds

where A is the total area of the selected boundaries and

T in pA
1
h in – h ext = T ext
C p dT + p ext
--- ( 1 – α p ) dp
ρ
(6-12)

A positive heat flux adds heat to the domain. This feature is applicable to inlet
boundaries of non-solid domains.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 443

 INFLOW HEAT FLUX
Select the Inward heat flux (the default) or Heat rate buttons.

• For Inward heat flux define q0 to add to the total flux across the selected boundaries.
• For Heat rate define the heat rate P0. In this case q0 = P0 ⁄ A.

For either selection, the External temperature Text and the External absolute pressure
pext should be specified. For User Defined, enter values or expressions. Else, select an
Ambient temperature and an Ambient absolute pressure defined in the Ambient Settings
section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Inflow Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Solids>Inflow Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Inflow Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Inflow Heat Flux
Bioheat Transfer>Inflow Heat Flux
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Inflow Heat Flux
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Inflow Heat Flux

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface >Inflow Heat Flux

Initial Values (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

This node adds an initial value for the temperature that can serve as an initial condition
for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver. If more than one
set of initial values is needed, add an Initial Values node from the Physics toolbar.

INITIAL VALUES
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Temperature T.
The default is approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20º C). Else, select an

444 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Ambient temperature defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or
Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Disk-Stack Heat Sink: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/disk_stack_heat_sink

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Initial Values

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Thin Shells selected:
Boundaries>Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Initial Values

Isothermal Domain Interface

This node adds several conditions for temperature exchange at the interfaces of an
isothermal domain. It can be applied on interior and exterior boundaries of the
computational domain, except on the boundaries found inside a single isothermal
domain.

In addition to the default Isothermal domain Interface node always present when the
Isothermal domain check box is selected under Physical Model section, you can add more
Isothermal domain Interface nodes if needed.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

ISOTHERMAL DOMAIN INTERFACE

The available Interface type options are Thermal insulation (the default), Continuity,
Ventilation, Convective heat flux, and Thermal contact. Depending on the Interface type
selected from the list, further settings are required.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 445

 The description of all the available options is summarized in the following table:
TABLE 6-3: ISOTHERMAL DOMAIN INTERFACE OPTIONS

OPTION ISOTHERMAL DOMAIN ADJACENT DOMAIN DESCRIPTION

Thermal Insulation Any Any No flux

Continuity Any Any Temperature
continuity
Ventilation Fluid Fluid Mass flux
Convective Heat Flux Solid Fluid Heat flux
(convective)
Thermal Contact Solid Solid Heat flux
(conductive)

Thermal Insulation
This condition should be used if no heat exchange occurs between the isothermal
domain and the adjacent domain.

Continuity
With this condition, the temperatures of each side of the boundary are forced to be
equal.

Ventilation
This condition specifies the mass flux at the interface between an isothermal domain
and another domain containing the same fluid.

The available Flow direction options are Positive normal direction (the default), Negative
normal direction, and Both sides. For each option, either the Mass flux or the Mass flow
rate should be specified:

• ϕd → u is the mass flux in the positive direction and ϕu → d is the mass flux in the
negative direction.
• Φd → u is the mass flow rate in the positive direction and Φu → d is the mass flow rate
in the negative direction.
The External temperature found under the section of the same name must be set when
the isothermal domain interface is also an exterior boundary.

Convective Heat Flux

This condition specifies the convective heat flux at the interface of a solid isothermal
domain adjacent to a fluid.

Either the Heat transfer coefficient h or the Thermal conductance hth should be
specified.

446 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
The External temperature found under the section of the same name must be set when
the isothermal domain interface is also an exterior boundary.

Thermal Contact
This condition specifies the conductive heat flux at the interface of a solid isothermal
domain adjacent to a solid.

Either the Thermal resistance, Rt or the Absolute thermal resistance, Rt, th should be
specified.

The External temperature found under the section of the same name must be set when
the isothermal domain interface is also an exterior boundary.

E X T E R N A L TE M P E R A T U RE
This section is not available if the Interface type is set to Thermal Insulation or Continuity.
Else, the External temperature, Text should be specified. It is used to compute the heat
exchange with the exterior by the Ventilation, Convective heat flux, and Thermal contact
options on isothermal domain interfaces that are also exterior boundaries. The value is
ignored on interior boundaries.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Temperature Text. Else, select an
Ambient temperature defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or
Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

INTERFACE OPACITY
This section is only available when the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected
under the Physical Model section on the parent physics interface.

Select Opaque (the default) or Transparent to set the interface’s opacity type.

This is needed when the interface contributes with any boundary condition from the
Radiation menu. It picks the side where irradiation starts from.

Isothermal Domain

Theory for Lumped Isothermal Domain

Natural Convection Cooling of a Vacuum Flask: Application Library

path Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/
vacuum_flask

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 447

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
If the Isothermal domain check box is selected under the Physical Model section:
Heat Transfer>Isothermal Domain Interface
Heat Transfer in Solids>Isothermal Domain Interface
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Isothermal Domain Interface
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Isothermal Domain Interface
Bioheat Transfer>Isothermal Domain Interface
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Isothermal Domain Interface
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Isothermal Domain Interface

Heat Transfer in Solids>Pairs>Isothermal Domain Interface

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Pairs>Isothermal Domain Interface
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Pairs>Isothermal Domain Interface
Bioheat Transfer>Pairs>Isothermal Domain Interface
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Pairs>Isothermal Domain Interface
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Isothermal Domain Interface

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface >Isothermal Domain Interface
Pairs>interface>Isothermal Domain Interface

Layer Heat Source

Use this subnode to add an internal heat source Qs within a thin layer. Add one or
more heat sources. If this subnode is applied on a pair, note that the source term is
applied on the source side.

448 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
LAYER HEAT SOURCE
Select the General source (the default) or Heat rate button to define Qs.

• For General source enter a value or expression for Qs as a heat source per volume.
• For Heat rate define the heat rate Ps. In this case Qs = Ps ⁄ V where V = Ads with A
equal to the area of the boundary selection.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

Thin Layer

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

The Heat rate option is only available when the Layer type is Thermally thin
approximation or Thermally thick approximation in the Thin Layer parent
node.

With General layer type, a general source user input, Qs,i, is available for
each layer. In this case the layers are numbered from the upside (Layer 1)
to the downside.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>Layer Heat Source

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Layer>Layer Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Thin Layer selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Layer Heat Source

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 449

 Line Heat Source on Axis
This node, available for 2D axisymmetric components, models a heat source (or sink)
that is so thin that it has no thickness in the model geometry. The settings are the same
as for the Line Heat Source node.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Line Heat Source on Axis
Heat Transfer in Solids>Line Heat Source on Axis
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Line Heat Source on Axis
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Line Heat Source on Axis
Bioheat Transfer>Line Heat Source on Axis
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Line Heat Source on Axis
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Line Heat Source on Axis

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface >Line Heat Source on Axis

Opaque Surface
This node defines a boundary opaque to radiation. It prescribes incident intensities on
a boundary and accounts for the net radiative heat flux, qw, that is absorbed by the
surface.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

450 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
MODELS INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined materials are added, the model inputs appear here.

There is one standard model input — the Temperature T, which is used in the
blackbody radiative intensity expression.

The boundary temperature definition can differ from that of the

temperature in the adjacent domain.

WAL L S ET TIN G S
Select a Wall type to define the behavior of the wall: Gray wall or Black wall.

Gray Wall
If Gray wall is selected the default Surface emissivity ε value is taken From material (a
material defined on the boundaries). For User defined enter another value or
expression.

An emissivity of 0 means that the surface emits no radiation at all and that all outgoing
radiation is diffusely reflected by this boundary. An emissivity of 1 means that the
surface is a perfect blackbody: outgoing radiation is fully absorbed on this boundary.
The radiative intensity along incoming discrete directions on this boundary is defined
by

1–ε
I i, bnd = εI b ( T ) + ----------- q out
π

Black Wall
If Black wall is selected, no user input is required, and the radiative intensity along the
incoming discrete directions on this boundary is defined by

I i, bnd = I b ( T )

Values of radiative intensity along outgoing discrete directions are not prescribed.

When P1 approximation is selected as the Radiation discretization method

for the physics interface, there is additional theory, equations, and
variables described in P1 Approximation Theory.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 451

 Radiation in Participating Media (RPM Interface)

Theory for Radiation in Participating Media

Radiative Heat Transfer in a Utility Boiler: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/boiler

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Radiation in Participating
Media>Opaque Surface
Radiation in Participating Media>Opaque Surface

Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Opaque Surface

Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Opaque Surface
More locations are available if the Radiation in participating media check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Radiation in Participating Media>Opaque Surface
Heat Transfer in Solids>Pairs>Opaque Surface

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation, Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media or Radiation in Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>Radiation in Participating Media>Opaque Surface
Pairs>interface>Opaque Surface

Open Boundary
This node adds a boundary condition for modeling heat flux across an open boundary;
the heat can flow out of the domain or into the domain with a specified exterior
temperature. Use this node to limit a modeling domain that extends in an open
fashion.

452 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
OPEN BOUNDARY
Enter the exterior Temperature T0 outside the open boundary.

Natural Convection Cooling of a Vacuum Flask: Application Library

path Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/
vacuum_flask

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Open Boundary
Heat Transfer in Solids>Open Boundary
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Open Boundary
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Open Boundary
Bioheat Transfer>Open Boundary
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Open Boundary
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Open Boundary

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface>Open Boundary

Outflow
This node provides a suitable boundary condition for convection-dominated heat
transfer at outlet boundaries. In a model with convective heat transfer, this condition
states that the only heat transfer occurring across the boundary is by convection. The
temperature gradient in the normal direction is zero, and there is no radiation. This is
usually a good approximation of the conditions at an outlet boundary in a heat transfer
model with fluid flow.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 453

 BOUNDARY SELECTION
In most cases, the Outflow node does not require any user input. If required, select
the boundaries that are convection-dominated outlet boundaries.

Heat Sink: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/heat_sink

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Outflow
Heat Transfer in Solids>Outflow
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Outflow
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Outflow
Bioheat Transfer>Outflow
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Outflow
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Outflow

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface >Outflow

Periodic Condition
Use this node to add periodic temperature conditions to boundary pairs. The
Destination Selection subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the parent
node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

For information about the Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

454 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
PERIODIC CO ND ITIO N
Enter a Temperature offset ΔT to the temperature periodicity. The default value is 0 K,
so that the source and destination temperatures are equal.

Convection Cooling of Circuit Boards—3D Forced Convection:

Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/circuit_bo
ard_forced_3d

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Periodic Condition
Heat Transfer in Solids>Periodic Condition
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Periodic Condition
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Periodic Condition
Bioheat Transfer>Periodic Condition
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Periodic Condition
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Periodic Condition

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface>Periodic Condition

Prescribed Radiosity
Use this node to specify radiosity on the boundary for each spectral band. Radiosity
can be defined as blackbody or graybody radiation. A user-defined surface radiosity
expression can also be defined.

MODEL INPUTS
These settings are the same as for Diffuse Mirror.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 455

 RADIATION DIRECTION
When Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Constant select a Radiation direction
based on the geometric normal (nx, ny, nz): Opacity controlled (the default), Negative
normal direction, Positive normal direction, or Both sides.

• Opacity controlled requires that each boundary is adjacent to exactly one opaque
domain. Opacity is controlled by the Opacity condition.
• Select Negative normal direction to specify that the surface radiates in the negative
normal direction.
• Select Positive normal direction if the surface radiates in the positive normal
direction.
• Select Both sides if the surface radiates on both sides.

When Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple

spectral bands select a Radiation direction for each spectral band: Opacity controlled (the
default), Negative normal direction, Positive normal direction, or Both sides, or None. The
Radiation direction defines the radiation direction for each spectral band similarly as
when Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Constant.

If this feature is combined with heat transfer in 2D and 1D, the thickness
is assumed to be infinite for the view factor computation. The
user-defined value for d is still used in the heat transfer equation.

RADIOSITY

Radiosity does not directly affect the boundary condition on the boundary
where it is specified, but rather defines how that boundary affects others
through radiation.

Select a Radiosity expression: Graybody radiation (the default), Blackbody radiation, or

User defined.

456 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Blackbody Radiation
When Blackbody radiation is selected it sets the surface radiosity expression
corresponding to a blackbody.

• When Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Constant it defines J = eb(T)

when radiation is defined on one side or Ju = eb(Tu) and Jd = eb(Td) when radiation
is defined on both sides.
• When Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple
spectral bands, it defines for each spectral band JBi = FEPBi(T)eb(T) when radiation
is defined on one side or JBi, d = FEPBi, d(Td)eb(Td) and Ju = FEPBi, u(Tu)eb(Tu)
when radiation is defined on both sides.

• When the temperature varies across a pair (for example when a Thin
Layer condition is active on the same boundary), the temperature used
to define the radiosity is evaluated on the side where the surface
radiation is defined.
• The blackbody hemispherical total emissive power is defined by
eb(T) = n2σT4

Graybody Radiation
When Graybody radiation is selected it sets the surface radiosity expression
corresponding to a graybody.

By default, the Surface emissivity ε is defined From material. In this case, make sure that
a material is defined at the boundary level (materials are defined by default at the
domain level). If User defined is selected for the Surface emissivity, enter another value
for ε.

If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Constant:

• When radiation is defined on one side, define the Surface emissivity ε to set
J = εeb(T), or
• When radiation is defined on both sides, define the Material on upside, the Surface
emissivity εu, Material on downside and the Surface emissivity εd on the upside and
downside, respectively. The surface radiosity on upside and downside is then defined
by Ju = εueb(Tu) and Jd = εdeb(Td) respectively.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 457

 If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral
bands, for all spectral bands:

• When radiation is defined on one side for Bi spectral band, define the Surface
emissivity εBi to set JBi = FEPBiεBieb(T), or
• When radiation is defined on both sides for Bi spectral band, define the Material on
upside, the Surface emissivity εBi, u, Material on downside and the Surface emissivity
εBi, d on the upside and downside, respectively. The surface radiosity on upside and
downside is then defined by Ju = FEPBi(Tu)εBi, ueb(Tu) and
Jd = FEPBi(Td)εBi, deb(Td), respectively.

Set the surface emissivity to a number between 0 and 1, where 0

represents diffuse mirror and 1 is appropriate for a perfect blackbody. The
proper value for a physical material lies somewhere in-between and can be
found from tables or measurements.

User Defined
If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Constant and Radiosity expression is set
to User defined, it sets the surface radiosity expression to J = J0, which specifies how
the radiosity of a boundary is evaluated when that boundary is visible in the calculation
of the irradiation onto another boundary in the model. Enter a Surface radiosity
expression, J0.

When the Radiation direction is set to Both sides (under Radiation Settings) also define
the surface Radiosity expression J0i, u and J0i, d on the upside and downside,
respectively. The geometric normal points from the downside to the upside.

If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral bands,

similar settings are available for each spectral band.

Several settings for this node depend on the Wavelength dependence of

emissivity setting, which is defined for the physics interface. See Radiation
Settings.

458 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
 Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global
normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

To define temperature dependencies for the user inputs (surface

emissivity for example), use the temperature variable ht.T, that
corresponds to the appropriate variable (upside, downside, or average
temperature of a layer, wall temperature with turbulence modeling),
depending on the model configurations. See Boundary Wall Temperature
for a thorough description of the boundary temperature variables.

Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Radiation>Prescribed Radiosity
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Prescribed Radiosity

More locations are available if the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Radiation>Prescribed Radiosity

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:
Boundaries>Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Prescribed Radiosity

Physics Tab with Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat
Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer, Heat
Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating
Media selected:
Boundaries>Radiation>Prescribed Radiosity

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 459

 Radiation Group
This node enables you to specify radiation groups to speed up the radiation
calculations and gather boundaries in a radiation problem that can see one another.

By default, all radiative boundaries (selected in a Diffuse Surface, Diffuse Mirror, or

Prescribed Radiosity node) belong to the same radiation group.

To change this, select the Use radiation groups check box under Radiation Settings to
add a Radiation Group to a Surface-to-Surface Radiation (rad) interface or any version
of a Heat Transfer (ht) interface with the Surface-to-surface radiation check box
selected.

When a node is added to another radiation group, it is overridden in the default group.
Then this boundary can be added to other radiation groups without being overridden
by the manually added radiation groups.

Be careful when grouping boundaries in axisymmetric geometries. The

grouping cannot be based on which boundaries have a free view toward
each other in the 2D geometry. Instead, consider the full 3D geometry,
obtained by revolving the model geometry about the z axis, when
defining groups.

For example, parallel vertical boundaries must typically belong to the

same group in 2D axisymmetric components, but to different groups in a
planar model using the same 2D geometry.

The figure below shows four examples of possible boundary groupings. On boundaries
that have no number, the user has NOT set a node among the Diffuse Surface, Diffuse
Mirror, and Prescribed Radiosity nodes. These boundaries do not irradiate other
boundaries, neither do other boundaries irradiate them.

460 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
On boundaries that belong to one or more radiation group, the user has set a node
among the Diffuse Surface, Diffuse Mirror, and Prescribed Radiosity nodes. The
numbers on each boundary specify different groups to which the boundary belongs.
A B
1 1 1 2
2 123

12 1 2
3 3

C 1
D Inefficient boundary grouping
1 1
1 1
1 1
2 2

1 1
2 2 1 1

Figure 6-1: Examples of radiation group boundaries.

To obtain optimal computational performance, it is good practice to specify as many

groups as possible as opposed to specifying few but large groups. For example, case B
is more efficient than case D.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
This section should contain any boundary that is selected in a Diffuse Surface, Diffuse
Mirror, or Prescribed Radiosity node and that has a chance to see one of the boundary
that is already selected in the Radiation Group.

RADIATION GROUP
When the Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Constant, the radiation group is valid
for all wavelengths, and all this section is then empty.

When the Wavelength dependence of emissivity is set to Solar and ambient or Multiple
spectral bands, the radiation group is defined for all spectral bands by default. Clear

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 461

 Radiation group defined on spectral band i check boxes to remove the Bi spectral bands
from these radiation groups.

Several settings for this node depend on the Wavelength dependence of

emissivity setting, which is defined for the physics interface. See Radiation
Settings.

If this node is combined with heat transfer in 2D and 1D, the thickness is
assumed to be infinite for the view factor computation. The user-defined
value for d is still used in the heat transfer equation.

Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
If the Use radiation groups check box is selected under the Radiation Settings section:

Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Radiation>Radiation Group

Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Radiation Group

More locations are available if the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected
under the Physical Model section and the Use radiation groups check box is selected
under the Radiation Settings section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Radiation>Radiation Group

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Surface-to-Surface Radiation selected:
Boundaries>Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Radiation Group

Physics Tab with Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat
Transfer in Porous Media,Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer, Heat
Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating
Media selected:
Boundaries>Radiation>Radiation Group

462 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Symmetry
This node provides a boundary condition for symmetry boundaries. This boundary
condition is similar to a Thermal Insulation condition, and it means that there is no
heat flux across the boundary.

The symmetry condition only applies to the temperature field. It has no

effect on the radiosity (surface-to-surface radiation) and on the radiative
intensity (radiation in participating media). Use Symmetry for
Surface-to-Surface Radiation to account for the symmetry in the
computation of the view factors.

Heat Generation in a Disc Brake: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/brake_disc

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Symmetry
Heat Transfer in Solids>Symmetry
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Symmetry
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Symmetry
Bioheat Transfer>Symmetry
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Symmetry
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Symmetry

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface>Symmetry

Temperature
Use this node to specify the temperature somewhere in the geometry, for example, on
boundaries.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 463

 PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

TE M P E R A T U RE
The equation for this condition is T = T0, where T0 is the prescribed temperature on
the boundary. For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Temperature T0.
Else, select an Ambient temperature defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat
Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
By default Classic constraints is selected. Select the Use weak constraints check box to
replace the standard constraints with a weak implementation. Select the Discontinuous
Galerkin constraints button when Classic constraints do not work satisfactorily.

The Discontinuous Galerkin constraints option is especially useful to

prevent oscillations on inlet boundaries where convection dominates.
Unlike the Classic constraints, these constraints do not enforce the
temperature on the boundary extremities. This is relevant on fluid inlets
where the temperature condition should not be enforced on the walls at
the inlet extremities. Note that Discontinuous Galerkin contraints are not
supported for resistive thin layers or with turbulent wall functions.

You can specify a harmonic variation of the temperature value in a

frequency domain analysis of perturbation type, by adding a Harmonic
Perturbation subnode. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for more
details.

Steady-State 2D Axisymmetric Heat Transfer with Conduction:

Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Conduction/cylinder_conduction

464 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Solids>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Temperature
Bioheat Transfer>Temperature
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Temperature
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Solids>Pairs>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Pairs>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Pairs>Temperature
Bioheat Transfer>Pairs>Temperature
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Pairs>Temperature
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Temperature

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface>Temperature
Pairs>interface >Temperature

Thermal Contact
This node defines correlations for the conductance h at the interface of two bodies in
contact. It can be added to pairs by selecting Pair Thermal Contact from the Pairs menu.
Note that in this case the source term is applied on the destination side.

The conductance h is involved in the heat flux across the surfaces in contact according
to:

– n d ⋅ q d = – h ( T u – T d ) + rQb

– n u ⋅ q u = – h ( T d – T u ) + ( 1 – r )Q b

where u and d subscripts refer to the upside and downside of the slit, respectively. Pair
Thermal Contact should be activated on a Identity Pair or on a Contact Pair where a
structural mechanics physics interface defines a contact pair feature.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 465

 PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

THERMAL CONTACT

Constriction Conductance
Select a Constriction conductance: Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation (the default),
Mikic elastic correlation, or User defined. For User defined enter a value or expression for
hc.

Gap Conductance
Select the Gap conductance: User defined (the default) or Parallel-plate gap gas
conductance (available if Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation or Mikic elastic correlation
is selected as the Constriction conductance). For User defined enter a value for hg.

Radiative Conductance
When the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected under the Physical Model
section on a physics interface, choose the Radiative conductance: User defined (the
default) or Gray-diffuse parallel surfaces.

For User defined enter a value for hr.

CONTACT SURFACE PROPERTIES

This section is available if Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation or Mikic elastic correlation
are chosen as the Constriction conductance correlation under Contact. Enter values for
the:

• Surface roughness, asperities average height σasp

• Surface roughness, asperities average slope masp
• Contact pressure p

For Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich correlation select a Hardness definition: Microhardness (the

default), Vickers hardness, or Brinell hardness.

• For Microhardness enter a value for Hc.

• For Vickers hardness enter a value for the Vickers correlation coefficient c1 and Vickers
size index c2.
• For Brinell hardness enter a value for HB. It should be between 1.30 and 7.60 GPa.

466 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
For Mikic elastic correlation select Contact interface Young’s modulus Econtact: Weighted
harmonic mean (the default) or User defined.

• For Weighted harmonic mean enter values or expressions for the Young’s modulus E
and Poisson’s ratio ν.
• For User defined enter another value or expression for Econtact.

GAP PROPERTIES
This section is available when Parallel-plate gap gas conductance is selected as the Gap
conductance correlation under Thermal Contact.

The default Gas thermal conductivity kgap is taken From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the gas
thermal conductivity, and enter another value or expression.

Also enter the following:

• Gas pressure pgap

• Gas thermal accommodation parameter α
• Gas fluid parameter β
• Gas particles diameter D

RADIATIVE CONDUCTANCE
This section is available when Gray-diffuse parallel surfaces is selected as the Radiative
conductance correlation under Thermal Contact.

By default the Surface emissivity ε is taken From material. For User defined enter another
value or expression.

THERMAL FRICTION
Select a Heat partition coefficient r: Charron’s relation (the default) or User defined. For
User defined enter a value for r.

Select either the General source (the default) or Heat rate.

• For General source enter a frictional heat source Qb.

• For Heat rate enter the heat rate Pb.

Theory for Thermal Contact

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 467

 Upside and downside settings can be visualized by plotting the global
normal vector (nx, ny, nz), that always points from downside to upside.
Note that the normal vector (ht.nx, ht.ny, ht.nz) may be oriented
differently.

See Tangent and Normal Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Thermal Contact Resistance Between an Electronic Package and a

Heat Sink: Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/
thermal_contact_electronic_package_heat_sink

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Thermal Contact
Bioheat Transfer>Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer in Solids>Pairs>Pair Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Pairs>Pair Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Pairs>Pair Thermal Contact
Bioheat Transfer>Pairs>Pair Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Pairs>Pair Thermal Contact
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Pair Thermal Contact

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Pairs>interface>Pair Thermal Contact

468 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Thermal Insulation
This node is the default boundary condition for all Heat Transfer interfaces. This
boundary condition means that there is no heat flux across the boundary:

–n ⋅ q = 0

and hence specifies where the domain is well insulated. Intuitively, this equation says
that the temperature gradient across the boundary is zero. For this to be true, the
temperature on one side of the boundary must equal the temperature on the other
side. Because there is no temperature difference across the boundary, heat cannot
transfer across it.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Thermal Insulation
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thermal Insulation
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thermal Insulation
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Thermal Insulation
Bioheat Transfer>Thermal Insulation
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Thermal Insulation
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Thermal Insulation

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface>Thermal Insulation

Thin Conductive Layer (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

This node adds the heat equation for conductive heat transfer in shells (see
Equation 4-50).

HEAT CONDUCTION, SOLID

By default the Thermal conductivity k uses values From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic based on the characteristics of the thermal
conductivity and enter other values or expressions in the field or matrix.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 469

 THERMODYNAMICS, SOLID
Specify the Density ρ and the Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp to describe the
amount of heat energy required to produce a unit temperature change in a unit mass.
The default settings use values From material for both. See Material Density in Features
Defined on the Material Frame if a temperature-dependent density should be set. For
User defined enter other values or expressions.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

Only in-plane anisotropy is supported for the thermal conductivity of the

thin conductive layer material.

Disk-Stack Heat Sink: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/disk_stack_heat_sink

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Thin Conductive Layer

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Thin Shells selected:
Boundaries>Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Thin Conductive Layer

Thin Film
This node behaves like Fluid but is applicable on boundaries.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

THIN FILM
The available options for Thin film model are Thermally thin approximation and General.
The former is a lumped model that accounts only for tangential temperature gradients

470 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
(along the film), whereas the latter uses the Extra Dimension tool to account also for
the normal gradients of temperature (through the film’s thickness). The second model
may be used for the modeling of bearings for example.

FILM PROPERTIES
This section is only available when the node is added from one of the versions of the
Heat Transfer interface (ht). Enter a Film thickness df.

When the node is added from one of the versions of the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
interface (htsh), the shell’s thickness is used instead.

LAYER DISCRETIZATION
This section is only available when the Thin film model is set to General.

Define the Number of elements used for the discretization of the film’s thickness

The settings for the Model Inputs, Heat Conduction, Fluid, and
Thermodynamics, Fluid sections are the same as for Fluid.

The thermal conductivity of the thin film is supposed to be isotropic, even

if an anisotropic property is defined for the material.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Thin Film
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Film
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Film
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Thin Film
Bioheat Transfer>Thin Film
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Thin Film
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Thin Film
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Thin Film
Heat Transfer in Thin Films>Thin Film
Heat Transfer in Fractures>Thin Film
Heat Transfer>Pairs>Thin Film
Heat Transfer in Solids>Pairs>Thin Film
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Pairs>Thin Film
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Pairs>Thin Film
Bioheat Transfer>Pairs>Thin Film

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 471

 Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Pairs>Thin Film
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Thin Film

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface >Thin Film
Pairs>interface>Thin Film

Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer in Thin Shells, Heat Transfer in Thin Films or
Heat Transfer in Fractures selected:
Boundaries>interface >Thin Film

Thin Layer
This node defines the thickness and thermal conductivity of a material located on
internal or external boundaries. This material can be formed of one or more layers, and
different conductive behaviors can be modeled through the setting of the Layer type:

• Select Thermally thick approximation to model a layer that is a bad thermal conductor
compared to the adjacent geometry. In this case, the tangential heat flux is neglected
and only the heat flux across the layer’s thickness is considered. The layer can be
constituted of multiple sub-layers with specific thickness and conductivity. The up
and down sides can be distinguished when a heat source is applied to the layer. This
option may also be used to enforce consistent initial conditions.
• Select Thermally thin approximation to model a layer that is a good thermal
conductor compared to the adjacent geometry. In this case, the temperature
difference and heat flux across the layer’s thickness are neglected. Only the
tangential heat flux is considered. The up and down sides are not distinguished
when a heat source is applied to the layer.
• Select General to model a layer in which both the normal and tangential heat fluxes
should be considered. The layer can be constituted of multiple sub-layers with
specific thickness and conductivity, and heat sources can be applied on a sub-layer
selection, and on up and down sides of the layer.

472 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

THIN LAYER
The available options for Layer type are Thermally thin approximation, Thermally thick
approximation, and General.

Thermally thin approximation

For Thermally thin approximation enter a value or expression for the Layer thickness ds.

Thermally thick approximation

From the Specify list select Layer properties (the default) or Thermal resistance.

• For Layer properties enter a value or expression for the Layer thickness ds.
• For Thermal resistance enter a value or expression for the Thermal resistance Rs.
• By default the Multiple layers check box is not selected. For Layer properties click to
select the check box to define multiple sandwiched thin layers with different thermal
conductivities.

General
For General no additional setting is required in this section.

HEAT CONDUCTION
This section is not available when Layer type is set to Thermally thick approximation and
Specify is set to Thermal Resistance in the Thin Layer settings.

Thermally thin approximation (Layer Type)

For Thermally thin approximation the default Layer thermal conductivity ks is taken From
material. For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic to enter
another value or expression. If the thickness is zero, the thin layer does not take effect.

Thermally thick approximation (Layer Type)

The default Layer thermal conductivity ks is taken From material. For User defined select
Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic to enter another value or expression.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 473

 General (Layer Type)
Select the Number of layers to define (1 to 5) and set the properties for each layer
selected.

• Select an option from the Layer (1, 2, 3, 4, or 5) list to assign a material to each layer.
The default Boundary material takes the material from the boundary.
• For each layer, enter the Layer thickness ds.
• The default Thermal conductivity ks is taken From material, which is then taken from
the material selected in Layer (1, 2, ...). For User defined enter another value or
expression.

THERMODYNAMICS
Set the following properties for each Layer:

By default the Layer density ρs and Layer heat capacity Cp, s values are taken From
material. See Material Density in Features Defined on the Material Frame if a
temperature-dependent density should be set. For User defined enter other values or
expressions.

When Layer type is Thermally thick approximation, these properties are only used in
time-dependent studies, but must be set in all cases.

THIN LAYER OPACITY

This section is only available when the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected
under the Physical Model section on the parent physics interface.

Select Opaque (the default) or Transparent to set the layer’s opacity type.

This is needed when the thin layer (with Layer type as Thermally thick approximation or
General) contributes with any boundary condition from the Radiation menu. It picks
the side where irradiation starts from.

LAYER DISCRETIZATION
This section is only available when the Layer type is set to General.

474 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Define the Number of elements used for discretizing the layer thickness.

These subnodes are available for Thin Layer node:

• Layer Heat Source — to add a layer internal heat source, Qs, within the
layer.
• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture) — to add a heat flux
through a specified set of boundaries.
• Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
Thin Shells) — to set a prescribed temperature condition on a specified
set of boundaries.
• Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture) — to
add a surface-to-ambient radiation for the layer end.

When multiple layers are defined they are numbered from the upside
(Layer 1) to the downside.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Boundary Wall Temperature

Plotting Results in Thin Layers Extra Dimensions

• Heat Transfer in a Surface-Mount Package for a Silicon Chip:

Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/
surface_mount_package
• Silica Glass Block Coated with a Copper Layer: Application Library
path Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/copper_layer

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Thin Layer
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Layer
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Thin Layer

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 475

 Bioheat Transfer>Thin Layer
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Thin Layer
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Thin Layer
Heat Transfer>Pairs>Thin Layer
Heat Transfer in Solids>Pairs>Thin Layer
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Pairs>Thin Layer
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Pairs>Thin Layer
Bioheat Transfer>Pairs>Thin Layer
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Pairs>Thin Layer
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Pairs>Thin Layer

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in
Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer,
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in
Participating Media selected:
Boundaries>interface >Thin Layer
Pairs>interface>Thin Layer

Thin Layered Shell (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

Use this node on the boundary of a thin shell. This overrides Thin Conductive Layer
(Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) to enable modeling multiple sandwich layers
in the shell interface.

HEAT CONDUCTION
Select the Number of layers to define (1 to 5) and set the properties for each layer.

• Select an option from the Layer (1, 2, 3, 4, or 5) list to assign a material to each layer.
The default setting, Boundary material, takes the material from the boundary.
• For each layer, enter the Layer thickness ds.
• The default Thermal conductivity ks is taken From material, which is then taken from
the material selected in Layer (1, 2, ...). For User defined enter another value or
expression.

THERMODYNAMICS
Set the following properties for each Layer.

By default the Layer density ρs and Layer heat capacity Cp, s values are taken From
material. See Material Density in Features Defined on the Material Frame if a

476 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
temperature-dependent density should be set. For User defined enter other values or
expressions.

LAYER DISCRETIZATION
This section is available when the Layer type is set to General. Define the Number of
elements per layer used for the discretization of the thickness for each layer (the default
is 2).

When multiple layers are defined they are numbered from the upside
(Layer 1) to the downside.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Plotting Results in Thin Layers Extra Dimensions

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Thin Layered Shell

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Thin Shells selected:
Boundaries>Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Thin Layered Shell

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 477

 E dg e Fe a t ur e s
The Heat Transfer interfaces have the following edge nodes and subnodes available:

• Change Effective Thickness (Heat • Line Heat Source

Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
Shells Interface) Interface)
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin
Shells Interface) Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
• Insulation/Continuity (Heat • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
• Line Heat Source (Thin Rod) Thin Shells)

• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin • Thin Rod

Film, Fracture)

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Change Effective Thickness (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

This node models edges (3D components) or point (2D and 2D axisymmetric
components) with another thickness than the overall thickness that is specified in the
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface Shell Thickness section (0.01 m by default). It
defines the height of the part of the edge that is exposed to the ambient surroundings.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

478 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
CHANGE EFFECTIVE THICKNESS
Enter a value for the Effective thickness ds. This value replaces the overall thickness in
the selection.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Change Effective Thickness
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Pairs>Change Effective Thickness

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Thin Shells selected:
Support >Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Change Effective Thickness
Pairs>Change Effective Thickness

with Support as Egdes in 3D and Points in 2D.

Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

Use this node to add heat flux across boundaries of a thin shell. A positive heat flux
adds heat to the domain. This feature adds a heat source (or sink) to edges. It adds a
heat flux q = dsq0.

FRAME SELECTION
To display this section add both a Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh) and Moving
Mesh (ale) interface (found under the Mathematics>Deformed Mesh branch when adding
a physics interface). Then click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics
Options. The rest of the settings are the same for the Heat Flux node as described under
Frame Selection.

HEAT FLUX
These settings are the same as for the Heat Flux node available for the other interfaces.

In 2D, q = dsdzq0 to account for the out-of-plane thickness.

EDGE FEATURES | 479

 Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

Shell Conduction: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/shell_conduction

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Heat Flux

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Thin Shells selected:
Support>Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Heat Flux

with Support as Egdes in 3D and Points in 2D.

Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

This node models a linear heat source (or sink). It adds a heat source q = Ql, q = dsQb,
or q = Pb ⁄ L. A positive q is heating and a negative q is cooling.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

HEAT SOURCE
Click the General source (the default) or Heat rate button.

For General source, from the Edge heat source type list, select Heat source defined per
unit of length (the default) or Heat source defined per unit of area.

• For Heat source defined per unit of length enter a value for the distributed heat
source, Ql in unit power per unit length. Positive Ql is heating and a negative Ql is
cooling.
• For Heat source defined per unit of area enter the boundary heat source Qb. A
positive Qb is heating and a negative Qb is cooling.

480 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
For Heat rate enter the heat rate Pb. In this case Ql = Pb ⁄ L, where L is the total length
of the selected edges.

FRAME SELECTION
The settings are the same for the Heat Source node Frame Selection section.

In 2D components, the equation contains an additional factor, dz, to

account for the out-of-plane thickness. This is because the selected points
correspond to edges in a 3D geometry.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Pairs>Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Thin Shells selected:
Support >Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Heat Source
Pairs>Heat Source

with Support as Egdes in 3D and Points in 2D.

Insulation/Continuity (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

This node is the default edge condition on thin shells. On external edges, this
condition means that there is no heat flux across the edge:

–n ⋅ q = 0

EDGE FEATURES | 481

 On internal edges, this condition means that the temperature field and its flux is
continuous across the edge.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Shell Conduction: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/shell_conduction

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Insulation/Continuity
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Pairs>Insulation/Continuity

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Thin Shells selected:
Support>Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Insulation/Continuity
Pairs>Insulation/Continuity

with Support as Egdes in 3D and Points in 2D.

Line Heat Source (Thin Rod)

Use this subnode to add an internal heat source, Ql, within the rod. Add one or more
heat sources.

482 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
LINE HEAT SOURCE
Select the General source (the default) or Heat rate button to define Ql.

• For General source enter a value or expression for Ql as a heat source per volume.
• For Heat rate define the heat rate Pl. In this case Ql = Pl ⁄ V.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

Thin Rod

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Edges>Thin Rod>Line Heat Source

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Edges>Thin Rod>Line Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Thin Rod selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Line Heat Source

Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)

Use this subnode to add heat flux across boundaries of a thin layer, a thin film or a
fracture. A positive heat flux adds heat to the layer.

HEAT FLUX
Click the General inward heat flux (the default), Convective heat flux, or Heat rate (3D
components only) button.

• If General inward heat flux is selected, it adds q0 to the total flux across the selected
edges. Enter a value for q0 to represent a heat flux that enters the layer. For example,

EDGE FEATURES | 483

 any electric heater is well represented by this condition and its geometry can be
omitted.
• If Convective heat flux is selected, it adds q0 in the form q0 = h ⋅ (Text − T). Enter the
Heat transfer coefficient h and the External temperature Text. This latter value
depends on the geometry and the ambient flow conditions. For User defined, enter
a value or expression. Else, select an Ambient temperature defined in the Ambient
Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface.
• 3D Components: If Heat rate is selected, it adds q0 in the form q0 = P0 ⁄ A where
A = Lds (for Thin Layer), A = Ldf (for Thin Film), or A = Ldfr (for Fracture), and L is
equal to the length of the edge selection. Enter the heat rate P0.

FRAME SELECTION
This section is available with 3D components. The settings are the same for the Heat
Source node and described under Frame Selection.

When Line Heat Flux is applied on a pair, the flux is only applied on the
edge adjacent to the source boundary which is in contact with the
destination boundary. Consider adding another pair with opposite source
and destination boundaries to apply a flux on the edge adjacent to the
destination boundary and in contact with the source boundary.

See Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for more details.

Thin Layer

Thin Film

Fracture

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>Line Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Film>Line Heat Flux
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Fracture>Line Heat Flux

484 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Ribbon
Physics Tab with Thin Layer, Thin Film, or Fracture selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Line Heat Flux

Line Heat Source

This node models a heat source (or sink) that is so thin that it has no thickness in the
model geometry. It is available in 3D on edges. In 2D and 2D axisymmetric, it is
available on points.

In theory, the temperature in a line source in 3D is plus or minus infinity (to

compensate for the fact that the heat source does not have any volume). The finite
element discretization used in COMSOL Multiphysics returns a finite temperature
distribution along the line, but that distribution must be interpreted in a weak sense.

LINE HEAT SOURCE

Click the General source (the default) or Heat rate button.

• If General source is selected, enter a value for the distributed heat source, Ql in unit
power per unit length. A positive Ql corresponds to heating while a negative Ql
corresponds to cooling.
• If Heat rate is selected, enter the heat rate Pl.

HEAT SOURCE RADIUS

With the Heat Transfer Module, you can model the heat source explicitly and apply it
on a cylinder around the line.

Select the Specify heat source radius check box to define the Heat source radius R. This
averages the source on a cylinder of given radius around the line. This option avoids
obtaining an increasing temperature value at the line when meshing finer than this
radius. It makes use of the diskavg operator for averaging around the source.

FRAME SELECTION
The settings are the same as for the Heat Source node and are described under Frame
Selection.

See Built-In Operators in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

for additional information about the diskavg operator.

EDGE FEATURES | 485

 You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency
domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• About the Heat Transfer Interfaces

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>support>Line Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Solids>support >Line Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Fluids>support>Line Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>support >Line Heat Source
Bioheat Transfer>support >Line Heat Source
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>support>Line Heat Source
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>support>Line Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat
Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer, Heat
Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating
Media selected:
Support>Line Heat Source

with Support as Egdes in 3D and Points in 2D.

Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells

Interface)
Use this node to add surface-to-ambient radiation to edges of a thin shell. The net
inward heat flux from surface-to-ambient radiation is

4 4
– n ⋅ q = d s εσ ( T amb – T )

486 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
where ε is the surface emissivity, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (a predefined
physical constant), and Tamb is the ambient temperature.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT RADIATION

Surface emissivity
The default Surface emissivity ε (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) is taken
From material. For User defined, it should be specified. An emissivity of 0 means that
the surface emits no radiation at all while an emissivity of 1 means that it is a perfect
blackbody.

Ambient temperature
For User defined, enter an Ambient temperature Tamb. Else, select an Ambient
temperature defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat
Transfer in Shells interface.

In 2D, the equation has an additional factor, dz, to account for the
out-of-plane thickness.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Pairs>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Thin Shells selected:
Support >Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Pairs>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

with Support as Egdes in 3D and Points in 2D.

EDGE FEATURES | 487

 Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
Use this subnode to add surface-to-ambient radiation to lines (geometrical edges in
3D or geometrical points in 2D and 2D axisymmetric) that represent thin boundaries
of a thin layer, a thin film, or a fracture.

The net inward heat flux from surface-to-ambient radiation is


4 4
lim Q ds = d s εσ ( T amb – T )
∂S → 0 ∂S

where ds is the layer thickness (replaced by df for a thin film, and by dfr for a fracture),
ε is the surface emissivity, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (a predefined physical
constant), and Tamb is the ambient temperature.

SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT RADIATION

Ambient temperature
For User defined, enter an Ambient temperature Tamb. The default value is
approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20 ºC). Else, select an Ambient
temperature defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat
Transfer in Shells interface.

Surface emissivity
The default Surface emissivity ε (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) is taken
From material. For User defined, it should be specified. An emissivity of 0 means that
the surface emits no radiation at all while an emissivity of 1 means that it is a perfect
blackbody.

Thin Layer

Thin Film

Fracture

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Film>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Fracture>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

488 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Ribbon
Physics Tab with Thin Layer, Thin Film, or Fracture selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in

Thin Shells)
Use this subnode to specify the temperature on a set of lines (geometrical edges in 3D
or geometrical points in 2D and 2D axisymmetric) that represent the boundaries of a
thin domain (layer, film, fracture, or shell). Only edges (3D) or points (2D and 2D
axisymmetric) adjacent to the boundaries can be selected in the parent node.

TE M P E R A T U R E
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Temperature T0. Else, select an
Ambient temperature defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or
Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

The equation for this condition is T = T0 where T0 is the prescribed temperature.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

You can specify a harmonic variation of the temperature value in a

frequency domain analysis of perturbation type, by adding a Harmonic
Perturbation subnode. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for more
details.

Thin Layer

Thin Film

Fracture

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Layer>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Film>Temperature

EDGE FEATURES | 489

 Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Fracture>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Temperature
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Pairs>Temperature

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Thin Layer, Thin Film, or Fracture selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Temperature

Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Thin Shells selected in the model tree:
Support>Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Temperature
Pairs>Temperature
with Support as Egdes in 3D and Points in 2D.

Shell Conduction: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/shell_conduction

Thin Rod
Use this node to define the thermal and radius properties of conductive rods located
on edges in a 3D component.

THIN ROD
The Rod radius rl should be specified.

HEAT CONDUCTION
The Thermal conductivity kl should be specified. By default it is taken From material.
For User defined select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Anisotropic to enter another
value or expression.

THERMODYNAMICS
By default the Density ρl and the Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp, l values are taken
From material. See Material Density in Features Defined on the Material Frame if a

490 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
temperature-dependent density should be set. For User defined enter other values or
expressions.

These additional subnodes are available for the Thin Rod node:

• Line Heat Source (Thin Rod) — to add an internal heat source, Ql,
within the rod.
• Temperature (Thin Rod) — to set a prescribed temperature condition
on a specified set of points.
• Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod) — to add a heat flux through a specified
set of points.
• Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Rod) — to add
surface-to-ambient radiation at the rod end points.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer>Edges>Thin Rod
Heat Transfer in Solids>Edges>Thin Rod
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Edges>Thin Rod
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Edges>Thin Rod
Bioheat Transfer>Edges>Thin Rod
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Edges>Thin Rod
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Edges>Thin Rod

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer, Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat
Transfer in Porous Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer, Heat
Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating
Media selected:
Edges>Thin Rod

EDGE FEATURES | 491

 P o i nt Fe a tur e s
The Heat Transfer interfaces have the following point nodes and subnodes available:

• Change Effective Thickness (Heat • Point Heat Source on Axis

Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation
• Heat Flux (Heat Transfer in Thin (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells
Shells Interface) Interface)
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin
Shells Interface) Layer, Thin Film, Fracture)
• Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin • Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin
Shells Interface) Rod)
• Insulation/Continuity (Heat • Temperature (Thin Layer, Thin
Transfer in Thin Shells Interface) Film, Fracture, and Heat Transfer in
• Line Heat Flux (Thin Layer, Thin Thin Shells)
Film, Fracture) • Temperature (Thin Rod)
• Line Heat Source
• Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod)
• Point Heat Source

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Heat Source (Heat Transfer in Thin Shells Interface)

This node, available in 3D and 2D axisymmetric components only, models a point heat
source (or sink).

POINT HEAT SOURCE

Enter the Point heat source Qp in unit power. A positive Qp is heating and a negative
Qp is cooling.

492 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
HEAT SOURCE RADIUS
Select the Specify heat source radius check box to define the Heat source radius R. This
setting averages the source on a cylinder of a given radius around the line, and avoids
getting an increasing temperature value at the line when meshing finer than this radius.
It makes use of the diskavg operator for averaging around the source.

FRAME SELECTION
This section is not available if the Specify heat source radius option is disabled. The
settings are the same for the Heat Source node Frame Selection section

See Built-In Operators in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

for additional information about the diskavg operator.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Thin Shells>Points>Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Thin Shells selected:
Points>Heat Source

Point Heat Flux (Thin Rod)

Use this subnode to add heat flux at points of a thin rod. A positive heat flux adds heat
to the rod.

POINT FEATURES | 493

 HEAT FLUX
Select either the General inward heat flux (the default) or Convective heat flux buttons.

• If General inward heat flux is selected, it adds q0 to the total flux across the selected
points. Enter a value for q0 to represent a heat flux that enters the rod.
• If Convective heat flux is selected, it adds q0 in the form q0 = h ⋅ (Text − T). Enter the
Heat transfer coefficient h and the External temperature Text. The value depends on
the geometry and the ambient flow conditions.

Thin Rod

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Rod>Point Heat Flux

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Rod>Point Heat Flux

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Thin Rod selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Point Heat Flux

Point Heat Source

This node, available for 3D components, models a heat source (or sink) that is so small
that it can be considered to have no spatial extension.

In theory, the temperature in a point source in 3D is plus infinity (to compensate for
the fact that the heat source does not have a spatial extension). The finite element
discretization used in COMSOL Multiphysics returns a finite value, but that value
must be interpreted in a weak sense.

POINT HEAT SOURCE

Enter the Point heat source Qp in unit power. A positive Qp corresponds to heating
while a negative Qp corresponds to cooling.

494 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
HEAT SOURCE RADIUS
With the Heat Transfer Module, you can model the heat source explicitly and apply it
on a ball or disk around the point.

Select the Specify heat source radius check box to define the Heat source radius R. This
setting averages the source on a ball or disk of given radius around the point, and
avoids obtaining an increasing temperature shift at the point when meshing finer than
this radius. It makes use of the ballavg or diskavg operator for averaging around the
source.

FRAME SELECTION
This section is not available if the Specify heat source radius option is disabled. The
settings are the same as for the Heat Source node and are described under Frame
Selection.

See Built-In Operators in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

for additional information about the ballavg and diskavg operators.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer

• About the Heat Transfer Interfaces

Heat Conduction with a Localized Heat Source on a Disk: Application

Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/localized_heat_source

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Points>Point Heat Source
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Points>Point Heat Source

POINT FEATURES | 495

 Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Points>Point Heat Source
Bioheat Transfer>Points>Point Heat Source
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Points>Point Heat Source
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Points>Point Heat Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous
Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer, Heat Transfer with
Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media
selected:
Points>Point Heat Source

Point Heat Source on Axis

This node, available for 2D axisymmetric components, models a heat source (or sink)
that is so small that it can be considered to have no spatial extension.

The settings are the same as for the Point Heat Source node.

You can specify the source to be a harmonic perturbation in a frequency

domain analysis. To mark the source as being a harmonic perturbation,
right-click the node and choose Harmonic Perturbation. Note that this
updates the node’s icon. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for
more details.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Points>Point Heat Source on Axis
Heat Transfer in Fluids>Points>Point Heat Source on Axis
Heat Transfer in Porous Media>Points>Point Heat Source on Axis
Bioheat Transfer>Points>Point Heat Source on Axis
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Points>Point Heat Source on Axis
Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media>Points>Point Heat Source on Axis

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous
Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer, Heat Transfer with
Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation in Participating Media

496 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
selected:
Points>Point Heat Source on Axis

Surface-to-Ambient Radiation (Thin Rod)

Use this subnode to add surface-to-ambient radiation to points that represent
boundaries of a thin rod.

The net inward heat flux from surface-to-ambient radiation is


4 4
lim Q ds = d s εσ ( T amb – T )
∂S → 0 ∂S

where ε is the surface emissivity, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (a predefined

physical constant), and Tamb is the ambient temperature.

SURFACE-TO-AMBIENT RADIATION

Ambient temperature
For User defined, enter an Ambient temperature Tamb. The default value is
approximately room temperature, 293.15 K (20 ºC). Else, select an Ambient
temperature defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat
Transfer in Shells interface.

Surface emissivity
The default Surface emissivity ε (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) is taken
From material. For User defined, it should be specified. An emissivity of 0 means that
the surface emits no radiation at all while an emissivity of 1 means that it is a perfect
blackbody.

Thin Rod

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Rod>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Rod>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

POINT FEATURES | 497

 Ribbon
Physics Tab with Thin Rod selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Surface-to-Ambient Radiation

Temperature (Thin Rod)

Use this subnode to specify the temperature on a set of points that represent
boundaries of a rod. Only points adjacent to the boundaries can be selected in the
parent node.

TE M P E R A T U RE
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Temperature T0. Else, select an
Ambient temperature defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or
Heat Transfer in Shells interface. The equation for this condition is T = T0 where T0
is the prescribed temperature on the points.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

Thin Rod

You can specify a harmonic variation of the temperature value in a

frequency domain analysis of perturbation type, by adding a Harmonic
Perturbation subnode. See Theory for Harmonic Heat Transfer for more
details.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer in Solids>Thin Rod>Temperature

More locations are available. For example:

Heat Transfer in Fluids>Thin Rod>Temperature

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Thin Rod selected in the model tree:
Attributes>Temperature

498 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
Global Features
The Heat Transfer interfaces have the following global nodes available:

• External Radiation Source

• Symmetry for Surface-to-Surface
Radiation

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

External Radiation Source

Use this node in 2D and 3D components to define an external radiation source as a
point or directional radiation source with view factor calculation. Each External
Radiation Source node contributes to the incident radiative heat flux on all spectral
bands, GBi on all the boundaries where a Diffuse Surface or Diffuse Mirror boundary
condition is active. The source contribution, GextDir, Bi, is equal to the product of the
view factor of the source by the source radiosity. For radiation sources located on a
point, GextDir, Bi=Fext, Bi Ps, Bi. For directional radiative source, GextDir, Bi =Fext, Bi
q0, s.

Only direct irradiation from the source is accounted for. Diffuse irradiation inclusion
is controlled through the Include diffuse radiation check box in Ambient section of
Diffuse Surface and Diffuse Mirror features.

• The external radiation sources are ignored on the boundaries when

neither Diffuse Surface nor Diffuse Mirror is active.
• If this feature is combined with heat transfer in 2D and 1D, the
thickness is assumed to be infinite for the view factor computation. The
user-defined value for d is still used in the heat transfer equation.

DIRECT IRRADIATION SOURCE

Select a Source position: Point coordinate (the default) or Infinite distance. In 3D, Solar
position is also available.

GLOBAL FEATURES | 499

 Point Coordinate
For Point coordinate define the Source location xs and the Source power Ps. The source
radiates uniformly in all directions.

If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral bands,

set the Source power definition to Blackbody or User defined. When Blackbody is selected,
enter the Source temperature, Ts, to define the source power on the spectral band Bi
as Ps, Bi = FEPBi(Ts)Ps where FEPBi(Ts) is the fractional blackbody emissive power
over Bi interval at Ts. When User defined is selected, enter an expression to define the
source power on each spectral band Bi, Ps, Bi.

xs should not belong to any surface where a Diffuse Surface or Diffuse

Mirror boundary condition is active.

Infinite Distance
For Infinite distance define the Incident radiation direction is and the Source heat flux
q0,s.

If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral bands,

set the Source heat flux definition to Blackbody or User defined.

• When Blackbody is selected, enter the Source temperature, Ts, to define the source
heat flux on the spectral band Bi as q0, s, Bi = q0, sFEPBi(Ts)q0, s where FEPBi(Ts)
is the fractional blackbody emissive power over Bi interval at Ts.
• When User defined is selected, enter an expression to define the source heat flux on
each spectral band Bi, q0, s, Bi.

Solar Position

Solar position is available for 3D components. When this option is

selected, use it to estimate the external radiative heat source due to the
direct striking of the Sun rays.

North, west, and the up directions correspond to the x, y, and z

directions, respectively. Azimuth angle is measured from true north,
hence x direction corresponds to true north as well.

Depending on the type of Ambient data selected in the Ambient Settings section of the
parent physics interface, further parameters should be set for the definition of the
location on earth.

500 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
If the type of Ambient data is Meteorological data (ASHRAE 2013), the location is set to
the Weather station selected in the Ambient Settings section. Click to select the Include
daylight saving time (Time zone + 1) check box to add one hour to the default setting
for the station selected.

Else, when Ambient data is User defined, the following parameters should be set.

Select an option from the Location defined by list: Coordinates (the default) or City.

For City select a predefined city and country combination from the list. Click to select
the Include daylight saving time (Time zone + 1) check box to add one hour to the
default setting for the city selected. For example, if New York City, USA is selected and
the default standard time zone is UTC–5 hours, when the check box is selected, the
daylight saving time is used instead (UTC–4 hours).

If Coordinates is selected, or your city is not listed in the Location defined by table, define
the following parameters:

• Latitude, a decimal value, positive in the northern hemisphere (the default is

Greenwich UK latitude, 51.477). Enter a value without a unit to avoid double
conversion. This is because the latitude value is expected to represent degrees but
the model’s unit for angles may be different (for example, the SI unit for the angle
is radians).
• Longitude, a decimal value, positive at the east of the Prime Meridian (the default is
Greenwich UK longitude, −0.0005). Enter a value without a unit to avoid double
conversion. This is because the latitude value is expected to represent degrees but
the model’s unit for angles may be different (for example, the SI unit for the angle
is radians).
• Time zone, the number of hours to add to UTC to get local time (the default is
Greenwich UK time zone, 0). For example in New York City, USA the time zone is
UTC–5 hours (standard time zone) or UTC–4 hours (with daylight saving time).

For either selection (City or Coordinates), in the Date table enter the:

• Day, the default is 01. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion. This
is because the value is expected to represent days but the model’s unit for time may
be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds).

GLOBAL FEATURES | 501

 • Month, the default is 6 (June). Enter a value without a unit to avoid double
conversion. This is because the value is expected to represent months but the
model’s unit for time may be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds).
• Year, the default is 2012. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion.
This is because the value is expected to represent years but the model’s unit for time
may be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds). The solar position is
accurate for a date between 2000 and 2199.

For either selection (City or Coordinates), in the Local time table enter the:

• Hour, the default is 12. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion. This
is because the value is expected to represent hours but the model’s unit for time may
be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds).
• Minute, the default is 0. Enter a value without a unit to avoid double conversion.
This is because the value is expected to represent minutes but the model’s unit for
time may be different (for example, the SI unit for time is seconds).
• Second, the default is 0.

For temporal studies, these inputs define the starting time of the simulation. By
default, the Update time from solver check box is selected, and the time is then
automatically updated with the time from the solver. Unselect this check box to
manually set the time update.

For either selection of Ambient data type in the Ambient Settings section, define the
Solar irradiance field Is as the incident radiative intensity coming directly from the sun.
Is represents the heat flux received from the sun by a surface perpendicular to the sun
rays. When surfaces are not perpendicular to the sun rays the heat flux received from
the sun depends on the incident angle.

For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Solar irradiance Is. Else, select a
Clear sky noon beam normal irradiance defined in the Ambient Settings section of a Heat
Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

If Wavelength dependence of emissivity is Solar and ambient or Multiple spectral bands,

the solar irradiance is divided among all spectral bands Bi as

502 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
q0, s, Bi = q0,sFEPBi(Tsun)q0, s where FEPBi(Tsun) is the fractional blackbody
emissive power over Bi interval at Tsun = 5780 K.

The Wavelength dependence of emissivity is defined in the physics interface

settings, in the Radiation Settings section. When only one spectral band
is defined, the Bi subscript in variable names is removed.

The sun position is updated if the location, date, or local time changes
during a simulation. In particular for transient analysis, if the unit system
for the time is in seconds (the default), the time change can be taken into
account by adding t to the Second field in the Local time table. Note that
no validity range is prescribed on the time inputs. It is possible to enter
values that exceed the expected boundary. For example, entering 5h 2min
81s is equivalent to 5h 3min 21s. This makes it possible to enter t in the
second field, even if the solution is computed for more than 60s.

The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

Sun’s Radiation Effect on Two Coolers Placed Under a Parasol:

Application Library path Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/parasol

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Global>External Radiation Source
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Global>External Radiation Source

More locations are available if the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Global>External Radiation Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous
Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer, Heat Transfer with
Surface-to-Surface Radiation, Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation

GLOBAL FEATURES | 503

 in Participating Media selected:
Global>External Radiation Source

Symmetry for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

Use this node to compute view factors on only a part of a symmetric geometry to
improve efficiency, by defining either one symmetry plane in 2D, 2D axisymmetric,
and 3D components, multiple perpendicular symmetry planes in 2D and 3D
components; or sectors of symmetry in 2D and 3D components. In addition, a
reflection plane can be defined inside each sector of symmetry. Table 6-4 summarizes
the available options for each dimension.
TABLE 6-4: OPTIONS FOR SYMMETRY DEFINITION, EXAMPLE WITH 5 SECTORS

SYMMETRY 2D 2D AXISYMMETRIC 3D
TYPE

One Plane

Two Not applicable

Planes

Three Not applicable Not applicable

Planes

504 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
TABLE 6-4: OPTIONS FOR SYMMETRY DEFINITION, EXAMPLE WITH 5 SECTORS

SYMMETRY 2D 2D AXISYMMETRIC 3D
TYPE

Sectors Not applicable

Sectors Not applicable

and
Reflection

SYMMETRY FOR SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION

Depending on component’s dimension, select the Type of symmetry to be defined:

• In 2D components, select between Plane of symmetry (the default), Two

perpendicular planes of symmetry, or Sectors of symmetry.
• In 2D axisymmetric components, only the Plane of symmetry option is available.
• In 3D components, select between Plane of symmetry (the default), Two
perpendicular planes of symmetry, Three perpendicular planes of symmetry, or Sectors
of symmetry.
Depending on the Type of symmetry selected from the list and on the dimension,
further settings are required.

Plane of symmetry
The coordinates of the points defining the plane should be set:

• In 2D components, the symmetry plane is defined by two points. Set the x and y
coordinates of the First point on plane of reflection and of the Second point on plane
of reflection.
• In 2D axisymmetric components, the symmetry plane is parallel to the z=0 plane.
Set the z coordinate of plane of reflection, zsym.

GLOBAL FEATURES | 505

 • In 3D components, the symmetry plane is defined by three points. Set the x, y, and
z coordinates of the First point on plane of reflection, the Second point on plane of
reflection, and the Third point on plane of reflection.
The Show the plane of symmetry check box is selected by default. Clear it to hide the
plane in the Graphics window.

Two perpendicular planes of symmetry

• In 2D components, the planes intersection line is along the out-of-plane direction.
The Point at the intersection of symmetry planes and the Rotation angle from
Cartesian axis, θ, should be defined.
• In 3D components, the Planes intersection line can be set Along the x-axis, Along the
y-axis, or Along the z-axis. A Point at the intersection of symmetry planes and the
Rotation angle from Cartesian axis, θ, should be defined. The position of the point
along the intersection line can be arbitrary as it does not change the planes
definition. The direction of the angle θ can be checked on the figure displayed below
the settings, for each case of alignment of the intersection line.
The Show the planes of symmetry check box is selected by default. Clear it to hide the
planes in the Graphics window.

Three perpendicular planes of symmetry

The planes are parallel to the Cartesian axis. Only the Point at the intersection of
symmetry planes should be defined.

The Show the planes of symmetry check box is selected by default. Clear it to hide the
planes in the Graphics window.

Sectors of symmetry
The coordinates of the points defining the symmetry axis should be set:

• In 2D components, the symmetry axis is the out-of-plane vector, and the center of
the symmetry must be defined. Set the x and y coordinates of the Point of central
symmetry.
• In 3D components, the symmetry axis is defined by two points. Set the x, y, and z
coordinates of the First point defining sector symmetry axis and the Second point
defining sector symmetry axis.

Enter a value for the Number of sectors. This should be a numerical value greater or
equal to 2.

506 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
If the Reflection for symmetrical sector check box is selected, set the coordinates of the
Radial direction of reflection plane, u. This option may be used when each sector has
itself a plane of symmetry.

The Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation Interface

Theory for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Global>
Symmetry for Surface-to-Surface Radiation
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Global>Symmetry for Surface-to-Surface Radiation
More locations are available if the Surface-to-surface radiation check box is selected
under the Physical Model section. For example:
Heat Transfer in Solids>Global>Symmetry for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids, Heat Transfer in Porous
Media, Heat Transfer in Building Materials, Bioheat Transfer, Heat Transfer with
Surface-to-Surface Radiation, Surface-to-Surface Radiation or Heat Transfer with Radiation
in Participating Media selected:
Global>Symmetry for Surface-to-Surface Radiation

GLOBAL FEATURES | 507

508 | C H A P T E R 6 : T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R F E A T U R E S
 7

The Moisture Transport Features

The Moisture Transport Interface has domain, boundary, and pair nodes available.
These nodes, listed in alphabetical order in this section, are available from the
Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), from the Physics context menu (Mac or
Linux users), or by right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

In this section:

• Domain Features
• Boundary Features

509
 Domain Features
The Moisture Transport interface has the following domain nodes available:

• Building Material • Moisture Source

• Initial Values • Turbulent Mixing
• Moist Air

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Building Material
Use this node to model moisture transfer in a building material through vapor
diffusion and capillary moisture flows. The moisture content variation is expressed
through the transfer of relative humidity

∂φ
ξ ------ + ∇ ⋅ g = G (7-1)
∂t

g = – ( ξD w ∇φ + δ p ∇( φp sat ) ) (7-2)

with the following material properties, fields, and source:

• ξ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the moisture storage capacity.

• δp (SI unit: s) is the vapor permeability.
• φ (dimensionless) is the relative humidity.
• psat (SI unit: Pa) is the vapor saturation pressure.
• T (SI unit: K) is the temperature.
• Dw (SI unit: m2/s) is the moisture diffusivity.
• G (SI unit: kg/(m3⋅s)) is the moisture source (or sink). See Moisture Source node.

For a steady-state problem, the relative humidity does not change with time and the
first term disappears.

510 | C H A P T E R 7 : T H E M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T F E A T U R E S
The transfer equation above, specifically designed for building materials under various
assumptions, should be used carefully for some other type of porous media.

MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

The default Temperature Τ and Absolute pressure pA are User defined. When additional
physics interfaces are added to the model, the temperature and absolute pressure
variables defined by these physics interfaces can also be selected from the list. For
example, if a Heat Transfer in Building Materials interface is added, you can select
Temperature (ht) from the list. If a Laminar Flow interface is added, you can select
Absolute pressure (spf) from the list.

If the node was added automatically after selecting the Heat and Moisture Transport
predefined multiphysics interface, the temperature of the Heat and Moisture
multiphysics node is used by default and the input field is not editable. To edit the
Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ).

BUILDING MATERIAL
This section sets the material properties for moisture diffusivity, moisture storage, and
vapor diffusion.

The default Moisture diffusivity Dw is taken From material. For User defined, set a value
to characterize the liquid transport in function of the moisture content.

The default Moisture storage function w is taken From material. For User defined, set a
value to characterize the relationship between the amount of accumulated water and
the relative humidity in the material.

Two options are available for the specification of the material properties for vapor
diffusion:

• Vapor permeability (default) to define the vapor permeability δp directly. The default
is taken From material. For User defined, set a value.
• Vapor resistance factor μ to define the vapor permeability δp as:

δ
δ p = ---
μ

DOMAIN FEATURES | 511

 where δ (SI unit: s) is the vapor permeability of still air. The default Vapor resistance
factor is taken From material. For User defined, set a value.

The Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface

The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces

Heat and Moisture

See Building Materials Database in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for a description of materials containing the thermal and
hygroscopic properties required by the Building Material node.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Building Material
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Building Material

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air or Moisture Transport in Building
Materials selected:
Domains>Building Material

Initial Values
This node adds an initial value for the relative humidity that can serve as an initial
condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver. In
addition to the default Initial Values node always present in the interface, you can add
more Initial Values nodes if needed.

INITIAL VALUES
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Relative humidity
φ. The default value is 0.5. Else, select an Ambient relative humidity defined in the
Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

512 | C H A P T E R 7 : T H E M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T F E A T U R E S
LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Initial Values
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Initial Values

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air or Moisture Transport in Building
Materials selected:
Domains>Initial Values

Moist Air
Use this node to model moisture transfer in moist air through vapor diffusion and
convection. The moisture content variation is expressed through the transport of vapor
concentration, which itself can be expressed as the product of molar mass of water,
relative humidity, and vapor saturation concentration:

c v = M v φc sat (7-3)

∂ ( M v φc sat )
- + ∇ ⋅ ( – D ∇( M φc
v sat ) ) + u ⋅ ∇( M v φc sat ) = G
-------------------------------- (7-4)
∂t

with the following material properties, fields, and source:

• Μv (SI unit: kg/mol) is the molar mass of water vapor.

• φ (dimensionless) is the relative humidity.
• csat (SI unit: mol/m3) is the vapor saturation concentration.
• D (SI unit: m2/s) is the vapor diffusion coefficient in air.
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the air velocity field.
• G (SI unit: kg/(m3⋅s)) is the moisture source (or sink). See Moisture Source node.
For a steady-state problem, the relative humidity does not change with time and the
first term disappears.

MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions used in Equation 7-3
and Equation 7-4. The temperature is used for the definition of the saturation
conditions, whereas the velocity field is used in the convection term.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 513

 The default Temperature Τ and Velocity field u are User defined. When additional
physics interfaces are added to the model, the temperature and velocity field variables
defined by these physics interfaces can also be selected from the list. For example, if a
Heat Transfer in Building Materials interface is added, you can select Temperature (ht)
from the list. If a Laminar Flow interface is added, you can select Velocity field (spf) from
the list.

If the node was added automatically after selecting the Heat and Moisture Transport
predefined multiphysics interface, the temperature of the Heat and Moisture
multiphysics node is used by default and the input field is not editable. To edit the
Temperature field, click Make All Model Inputs Editable ( ).

The Moisture Transport in Building Materials Interface

The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces

Heat and Moisture

See Turbulent Mixing to account for eddy diffusivity in moisture

convection by turbulent flows.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Moist Air
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Moist Air

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air or Moisture Transport in Building
Materials selected:
Domains>Moist Air

Moisture Source
This node describes moisture generation within the domain. You express addition and
removal of moisture content with positive and negative values, respectively. Add one

514 | C H A P T E R 7 : T H E M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T F E A T U R E S
or more nodes as needed — all moisture sources within a domain contribute with each
other.

The Moisture Source node adds a source term G to the right-hand side of the moisture
transport equation:

G = G0

MOISTURE SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Moisture Source G0 per unit volume.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Moisture Source
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Moisture Source

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air or Moisture Transport in Building
Materials selected:
Domains>Moisture Source

Turbulent Mixing
This subnode should be used to account for the turbulent mixing caused by the eddy
diffusivity in moisture convection, for example when the specified velocity field
corresponds to a RANS solution.

The Turbulent Mixing node adds the following contribution to the diffusion coefficient
D of Equation 7-4 of Moist Air node:

νT
D T = ----------
Sc T

where νT is the turbulent kinematic viscosity (SI unit: m2/s) and ScT is the turbulent
Schmidt number (dimensionless).

TU R B U L E N T M I X I N G P A R A M E T E R S
Enter a value or expression for the Turbulent kinematic viscosity νT and the Turbulent
Schmidt number ScT. If a turbulent fluid flow interface is active, the Turbulent kinematic
viscosity can be taken directly from this interface.

DOMAIN FEATURES | 515

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Moist Air>Turbulent Mixing
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Moist Air>Turbulent Mixing

Ribbon
Physics Tab with Moist Air selected in the model tree:
Domains>Turbulent Mixing

516 | C H A P T E R 7 : T H E M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T F E A T U R E S
Boundary Features
The Moisture Transport interface has the following boundary nodes available:

• Continuity • Outflow
• Insulation • Symmetry
• Moist Surface • Thin Moisture Barrier
• Moisture Content • Wet Surface
• Moisture Flux

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries into account and automatically adds an Axial
Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Continuity
This node can be added to pairs. It prescribes that the relative humidity is continuous
across the pair. Continuity is only suitable for pairs where the boundaries match.

PAIR SELECTION
Choose the pair on which to apply this condition. A pair has to be created first. See
Identity and Contact Pairs in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more
details.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Pairs>Continuity
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Pairs>Continuity

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 517

 Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air or Moisture Transport in Building
Materials selected:
Pairs>Continuity

Insulation
This node is the default boundary condition for the Moisture Transport interface. This
boundary condition means that there is no moisture flux across the boundary:

–n ⋅ g = 0

and hence specifies where the domain is insulated. Intuitively, this equation says that
the relative humidity gradient across the boundary is zero. For this to be true, the
relative humidity on one side of the boundary must equal the relative humidity on the
other side. Because there is no relative humidity difference across the boundary,
moisture cannot transfer across it. It can be applied on exterior boundaries only.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Insulation
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Insulation

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air or Moisture Transport in Building
Materials selected:
Boundaries>Thermal Insulation

Moist Surface
This node should be used to model evaporation from and condensation to a solid
surface partially covered with liquid water. It adds the evaporation flux to the boundary
conditions of Equation 7-4 of Moist Air node, and computes the corresponding latent
heat source to be used from a Heat Transfer interface. In addition, it computes the
liquid water concentration accumulated on the surface, during evaporation and
condensation processes.

It can be applied on the exterior boundaries of a domain where the Moist Air node is
active.

518 | C H A P T E R 7 : T H E M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T F E A T U R E S
In time-dependent studies, the evaporation flux gevap (SI unit: kg/(m2⋅s)) is defined
as:


 M K ( c sat – c v ) if c v > c sat or c l > 0
g evap =  v
 0 otherwise


where Mv is the molar mass of water vapor (SI unit: kg/mol), K is the evaporation rate
(SI unit: m/s), csat is the saturation concentration of vapor (SI unit: mol/m3), cv is
the vapor concentration (SI unit: mol/m3), and cl is the liquid water concentration on
surface (SI unit: mol/m2).

The liquid water concentration on surface is computed by solving the following

equation:

∂c l
M v ------- = – g evap
∂t

with the initial condition:

c l ( 0 ) = c l, init

In stationary studies, the initial liquid concentration is used in the definition of the
evaporation flux:


 M K ( c sat – c v ) if c v > c sat or c l, init > 0
g evap =  v
 0 otherwise


The latent heat source qevap (SI unit: W/m2) is obtained by multiplying the
evaporation flux by the latent heat of evaporation Lv (SI unit: J/kg):

q evap = L v g evap

With these definitions, gevap is negative when condensation occurs, and positive
during evaporation. Whereas the condensation process doesn’t depend on the liquid
concentration on the surface, the evaporation process only happens when the (initial
or time-dependent) liquid concentration on surface is positive.

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 519

 MOIST SURFACE SETTINGS
Enter values or expressions for the Evaporation rate K and the Initial liquid water
concentration on moist surface cl,init.

See Wet Surface node for the modeling of evaporation and condensation
on a solid surface completely covered with liquid water.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Moist Surface
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Moist Surface

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air or Moisture Transport in Building
Materials selected:
Boundaries>Moist Surface

Moisture Content
Use this node to specify the relative humidity on interior and exterior boundaries.

PAIR SELECTION
If this node is selected from the Pairs menu, choose the pair on which to apply this
condition. A pair has to be created first. See Identity and Contact Pairs in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

MOISTURE CONTENT
The equation for this condition is φ = φ0, where φ0 is the prescribed relative humidity
on the boundary. For User defined, enter a value or expression for the Relative humidity
φ0. The default value is 0.5. Else, select an Ambient relative humidity defined in the
Ambient Settings section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select the Use weak constraints check box to replace the standard constraints with a
weak implementation.

520 | C H A P T E R 7 : T H E M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T F E A T U R E S
LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Moisture Content
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Moisture Content
Moisture Transport in Air>Pairs>Moisture Content
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Pairs>Moisture Content

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air or Moisture Transport in Building
Materials selected:
Boundaries>Moisture Content
Pairs>Moisture Content

Moisture Flux
Use this node to add moisture flux across exterior boundaries. A positive moisture flux
adds moisture to the domain.

MOISTURE FLUX
Click to select the General moisture flux (the default) or Convective moisture flux button.

General Moisture Flux

It adds g0 to the total flux across the selected boundaries. Enter a positive value for g0
to represent a moisture flux that enters the domain.

Convective Moisture Flux

Enter a value for the Moisture transfer coefficient β. In addition, two options are
available to specify the external conditions:

• If Relative humidity is selected (the default), set the External relative humidity, φext
and the External temperature, Text (used for the computation of the vapor saturation
pressure). For User defined, enter values or expressions. Else, select an Ambient
relative humidity and an Ambient temperature defined in the Ambient Settings
section of a Heat Transfer or Heat Transfer in Shells interface. Convective moisture
flux is defined by g0 = β(φextpsat(Text) − φpsat(T)).
• If Partial vapor pressure is selected, enter an External partial vapor pressure, pv,ext.
Convective moisture flux is defined by g0 = β(pv,ext − φpsat(T)).

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 521

 LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Moisture Flux
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Moisture Flux

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air or Moisture Transport in Building
Materials selected:
Boundaries>Moisture Flux

Outflow
This node provides a boundary condition at outlets where the vapor is transported out
of the air domain. It is assumed that convection is the dominating transport
mechanism across outflow boundaries, and therefore that diffusive transport can be
ignored, that is:

– n ⋅ D ∇( M v φc sat ) = 0

This node can be applied on the exterior boundaries of a computational domain in

which a Moist Air node is active.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Outflow
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Outflow

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air or Moisture Transport in Building
Materials selected:
Boundaries>Outflow

Symmetry
This node provides a boundary condition for symmetry boundaries. This boundary
condition is similar to an Insulation condition, and it means that there is no moisture
flux across the boundary. It can be applied on exterior boundaries only.

522 | C H A P T E R 7 : T H E M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T F E A T U R E S
LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Symmetry
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Symmetry

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air or Moisture Transport in Building
Materials selected:
Boundaries>Symmetry

Thin Moisture Barrier

Use this node to model a discontinuous moisture content across interior boundaries.
By default it models a vapor barrier, with the moisture transfer coefficient β accounting
for vapor diffusion only. A more general moisture barrier can be defined through the
specification of a user-defined moisture transfer coefficient.

The upside and downside moisture fluxes are defined by β(φd − φu) and β(φu − φd),
respectively.

MODEL INPUTS
This section has fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties for vapor permeability, vapor resistance factor, and saturation pressure of
water vapor. If such user-defined property groups are added, the model inputs appear
here.

THIN MOISTURE BARRIER

Two options are available to define the moisture flux:

• If Vapor barrier material properties is selected (the default), the moisture transfer
coefficient β is defined as

δp sat δ p p sat δp sat

β = -------------- = ----------------- = --------------
μd s ds sd

where δ is the vapor permeability of still air (SI unit: s), psat is the saturation pressure
of water vapor (SI unit: Pa), μ is the vapor resistance factor (dimensionless), δp is the

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 523

 vapor permeability (SI unit: s), sd is the vapor diffusion equivalent air layer thickness
(SI unit: m), and ds is the layer thickness (SI unit: m).
Depending on the option selected in Specify—Vapor resistance factor (the default),
Vapor permeability, or Vapor diffusion equivalent air layer thickness, enter values or
expressions for the needed properties, or use properties From material.
• If Moisture transfer coefficient is selected, enter a value or expression for the Moisture
transfer coefficient β.

See Building Materials Database in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for a description of materials containing the thermal and
hygroscopic properties required by the Thin Moisture Barrier node.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Thin Moisture Barrier
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Thin Moisture Barrier

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air or Moisture Transport in Building
Materials selected:
Boundaries>Thin Moisture Barrier

Wet Surface
This node should be used to model evaporation from and condensation to a solid
surface completely covered with liquid water. It adds the evaporation flux to the
boundary conditions of Equation 7-4 of Moist Air node, and computes the
corresponding latent heat source to be used from a Heat Transfer interface.

It can be applied on the exterior boundaries of a domain where the Moist Air node is
active.

The evaporation flux gevap (SI unit: kg/(m2⋅s)) is defined as:

g evap = M v K ( c sat – c v )

where Mv is the molar mass of water vapor (SI unit: kg/mol), K is the evaporation rate
(SI unit: m/s), csat is the saturation concentration of vapor (SI unit: mol/m3), and cv
is the vapor concentration (SI unit: mol/m3).

524 | C H A P T E R 7 : T H E M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T F E A T U R E S
The latent heat source qevap (SI unit: W/m2) is obtained by multiplying the
evaporation flux by the latent heat of evaporation Lv (SI unit: J/kg):

q evap = L v g evap

WE T S U RFA CE S ET TI NG S
Enter a value or expression for the Evaporation rate K.

See Moist Surface node for the computation of the amount of liquid
water accumulated on a solid surface partially covered with liquid water,
due to evaporation and condensation.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Moisture Transport in Air>Wet Surface
Moisture Transport in Building Materials>Wet Surface

Ribbon
Physics Tab with interface as Moisture Transport in Air or Moisture Transport in Building
Materials selected:
Boundaries>Wet Surface

BOUNDARY FEATURES | 525

526 | C H A P T E R 7 : T H E M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T F E A T U R E S
 8

Multiphysics Interfaces

The Heat Transfer Module includes predefined multiphysics interfaces for

conjugate heat transfer, thermoelectric effect, and local thermal non-equilibrium
modeling.

All these interfaces except the Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium interface and the
Heat and Moisture Transport interfaces couple an interface of the Heat Transfer
Module with an interface of another module (CFD Module, AC/DC Module).

The multiphysics interfaces are found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ), and
their availability depends on the COMSOL products available.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each

product, visit
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

The multiphysics interfaces add Domain Multiphysics Couplings and Boundary

Multiphysics Couplings. They predefine the couplings through specific settings in

527
 the multiphysics couplings and in the constituent interfaces to facilitate easy set up of
models. These settings are detailed in the following sections:

• The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces

• The Thermoelectric Effect Interface
• The Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium Interface
• The Heat and Moisture Transport Interfaces
A brief description of other multiphysics interfaces coupling an interface of the Heat
Transfer Module with other interfaces is given in the following sections:

• The Joule Heating Interface

• The Laser Heating Interface
• The Induction Heating Interface
• The Microwave Heating Interface
Links to thorough information about these interfaces are given in the corresponding
sections.

Also:

• See The Thermal Stress Interface and The Joule Heating and Thermal Expansion
Interface in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide for other multiphysics
interfaces having The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface as a constituent interface.
These two multiphysics interfaces (found under the Structural Mechanics
branch ( )) add in particular the Thermal Expansion multiphysics coupling.
• See each constituent interface documentation for more details about the common
settings (in The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces for the Heat Transfer Module
interfaces, and in the other modules documentation for the other interfaces).
• See The Heat Transfer Features for details about the features available with the Heat
Transfer Module constituent interfaces.
• See Multiphysics Couplings for details about the multiphysics couplings added with
the Heat Transfer Module predefined multiphysics interfaces.
The predefined interfaces are found under the branches of the Model Wizard or Add
Physics windows. They add the constituent interfaces and the Multiphysics node
containing one or more multiphysics couplings.

On the figure below, the predefined interface Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow is
found under the Heat Transfer branch. It adds the constituent interfaces Heat Transfer

528 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

and Laminar Flow, and the Multiphysics node containing the Nonisothermal Flow
multiphysics coupling.

| 529
 T he No ni s o the rmal Fl ow an d
Conjugate Heat Transfer Interfaces
In this section:

• Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces

• The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
• The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow Interfaces
• Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features
• Coupling Features
• Physics Interface Features
See The Laminar Flow Interface, The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface, The
Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface, The Turbulent Flow, k-e Interface, and The
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-e Interface in the CFD Module User’s Guide for a
description of the laminar and turbulent single-phase flow interfaces.

See Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow in the CFD
Module User’s Guide for a description of the nodes associated to these interfaces.

Advantages of Using the Multiphysics Interfaces

The Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces combine the heat
equation with either laminar flow or turbulent flow and use either a Fluid, Porous
Medium, or Phase Change Material domain model. The advantage of using the
multiphysics interfaces is that predefined couplings are available in both directions. In
particular, physics interfaces use the same definition of the density, which can therefore
be a function of both pressure and temperature. Solving this coupled system of

530 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

equations usually requires numerical stabilization accounting for the couplings, which
the predefined multiphysics interfaces also set up.

When the flow Compressibility is set to Incompressible flow, the

Nonisothermal Flow coupling follows the Boussinesq approximation and
evaluates the thermal material properties at the reference temperature.
Hence, the Phase Change Material domain model—which requires the
temperature dependency of the heat capacity—should be used only with
the Weakly compressible flow and Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) options.

When the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat Transfer interfaces

couple a turbulent flow with a Phase Change Material domain model, it
must be noted that only the geometry boundaries are considered for the
definition of the wall functions and of the wall distance. For example, at
the moving melting front between the solid and the liquid phase, no wall
functions are used by the k-ε and k-ω turbulence models.

See also Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling for more information.

The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Interfaces
When a multiphysics interface is added from the Fluid Flow>Nonisothermal Flow branch
of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, one of the Single-Phase Flow interfaces
(laminar or turbulent flow) and Heat Transfer are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which includes the multiphysics coupling
feature Nonisothermal Flow.

The Multiphysics Node in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

• The Laminar Flow interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface with
a Laminar Flow interface.

T H E N O N I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S | 531
 • The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in
Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface. The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface
( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface with a Turbulent Flow, k-ε
interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer in Fluids
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface.

The Conjugate Heat Transfer, Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Interfaces
When a multiphysics interface is added from the Heat Transfer>Conjugate Heat Transfer
branch of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, Heat Transfer and one of the
Single-Phase Flow interfaces (laminar or turbulent flow) are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which includes the multiphysics coupling
feature Nonisothermal Flow.

The Multiphysics Node in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

• The Laminar Flow interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer interface with a Laminar
Flow interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer
interface with a Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer interface with a
Turbulent Flow, L-VEL interface. The Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface ( ) combines
a Heat Transfer interface with a Turbulent Flow, k-ε interface.
• The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface ( ) combines a Heat Transfer interface
with a Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-ε interface.

Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, specific settings are
included with the physics interfaces and the coupling features.

532 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if single Heat Transfer in Fluids and Laminar Flow interfaces are added,
COMSOL adds an empty Multiphysics node. When you right-click this node, you can
choose from the available coupling features — Nonisothermal Flow, Temperature
Coupling, and Flow Coupling — but the modified settings are not included.

TABLE 8-1: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR THE NONISOTHERMAL FLOW INTERFACES

PHYSICS OR COUPLING INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS (IF ANY)

Heat Transfer in Solids Discretization order from temperature Lagrange

shape function is 1.
A Fluid feature is added with a empty default
editable selection.
Heat Transfer in Fluids none
Nonisothermal Flow The Fluid flow and Heat transfer interfaces are
preselected

Coupling Features
See Nonisothermal Flow, Flow Coupling, and Temperature Coupling for a description
of the multiphysics couplings.

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using.

T H E N O N I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S | 533
 H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F L U I D S ( N O N I S O T H E R M A L F L OW )
The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface. Also see Fluid for details
about that feature.

H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S ( C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R )
The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Solids Interface. Also see Solid for details about
that feature.

LAMINAR FLOW
The available physics features for The Laminar Flow Interface are listed in the section
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TU R B U L E N T F L O W, A L G E B R A I C Y P L U S
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus Interface are
listed in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

TU R B U L E N T F L O W, L - V E L
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, L-VEL Interface are listed in
the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, k-e Interface are listed in the
section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

T U R B U L E N T F L O W , L O W R E k-ε
The available physics features for The Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-e Interface are listed
in the section Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow.

Preset studies
The Stationary, One-Way Coupled, NITF and Time Dependent, One-Way Coupled,
NITF preset studies are available with the Nonisothermal Flow and Conjugate Heat
Transfer interfaces. They solve for the fluid flow and heat transfer variables in two
separated steps, Stationary for the former preset study, and Time Dependent for the
latter.

534 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

For a fully-coupled approach, use the Stationary, Time Dependent, Stationary with
Initialization, or Transient with Initialization studies. See Studies and Solvers in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for more details.

T H E N O N I S O T H E R M A L F L O W A N D C O N J U G A T E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T E R F A C E S | 535
 The Thermoelectric Effect Interface
The Thermoelectric Effect Interface
When the predefined Thermoelectric Effect ( ) interface is added (found under the
Heat Transfer branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows), it combines
the Electric Currents and the Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces for modeling
Peltier-Seebeck-Thomson effects. In addition, the Electromagnetic Heat Source,
Thermoelectric Effect, and Boundary Thermoelectric Effect multiphysics couplings are
added automatically.

The multiphysics couplings add the thermoelectric effect, the electromagnetic power
dissipation, and the electromagnetic material properties, which can depend on the
temperature.

Depending on the product license, stationary, time-domain, and frequency-domain

modeling are supported in all space dimensions. In addition, combinations of
frequency-domain modeling for the Electric Currents interface and stationary
modeling for the Heat Transfer in Solids interface, called frequency-stationary and
frequency-transient modeling, are supported.

ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES

As a predefined multiphysics coupling, Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in Solids
interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a Multiphysics node is added,
which includes the multiphysics coupling features Thermoelectric Effect,
Electromagnetic Heat Source, Boundary Thermoelectric Effect, Boundary Electromagnetic
Heat Source, and Temperature Coupling.

The Electric Currents interface calculates the electric field, current, and potential
distributions in conducting media under conditions where inductive effects are
negligible; that is, when the skin depth is much larger than the studied device.
Depending on the licensed products, time and frequency domain formulations that
account for capacitive effects are also provided. The Electric Currents interface solves
a current conservation equation based on Ohm’s law using the scalar electric potential
as the dependent variable.

The Heat Transfer in Solids interface provides features for modeling heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation. A Solid model is active by default on all
domains. All functionality for including other domain types, like a fluid domain, is also

536 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

available. The temperature equation defined in solid domains corresponds to the
differential form of the Fourier’s law that may contain additional contributions like
heat sources.

AS AN ADD-ON MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING

The Thermoelectric Effect multiphysics coupling is also available when there is at least
one compatible Heat Transfer interface and one compatible AC/DC interface.

The compatible Heat Transfer interfaces are:

• Heat Transfer in Solids and Heat Transfer in Fluids

• Heat Transfer in Biological Tissue
• Heat Transfer in Porous Media
• Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation and Heat Transfer with Radiation
in Participating Media
• Heat Transfer in Thin Shells

The compatible AC/DC interfaces are:

• Electric Currents and Electric Currents, Shell

• Magnetic Fields, Magnetic Field Formulation, and Magnetic and Electric Fields
• Rotating Machinery, Magnetic

Settings for Physics Interfaces and Coupling Features

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings — for example,
Thermoelectric Effect — specific settings are included with the physics interfaces and the
coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if single Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in Solids interfaces are added,
COMSOL adds an empty Multiphysics node. You can choose from the following
available coupling features: Thermoelectric Effect, Electromagnetic Heat Source, Boundary

THE THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT INTERFACE | 537

 Thermoelectric Effect, Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source, and Temperature Coupling,
but the modified settings are not included.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics menu.

TABLE 8-2: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT INTERFACE

PHYSICS INTERFACE MODIFIED SETTINGS

Electric Currents No changes.

Heat Transfer in Solids No changes.
Thermoelectric Effect The Domain Selection is the same as that of the
participating physics interfaces. The corresponding
Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in Solids
interfaces are preselected in the Thermoelectric
Effect section.
Electromagnetic Heat Source The Domain Selection is the same as that of the
participating physics interfaces. The corresponding
Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in Solids
interfaces are preselected in the Electromagnetic
Heat Source section.
Boundary Thermoelectric The Boundary Selection is the same as the exterior
Effect and interior boundaries of the Domain Selection of the
participating physics interfaces. The corresponding
Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in Solids
interfaces are preselected in the Boundary
Thermoelectric Effect section.
Boundary Electromagnetic The Boundary Selection contains all the boundaries of
Heat Source the participating interfaces. The corresponding
Electric Currents and Heat Transfer in Solids
interfaces are preselected in the Boundary
Electromagnetic Heat Source section.
Temperature Coupling The corresponding Electric Currents and Heat
Transfer in Solids interfaces are preselected in the
Temperature Coupling section.

538 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

Coupling Features
See Thermoelectric Effect, Boundary Thermoelectric Effect, Electromagnetic Heat
Source, and Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source for a description of the
multiphysics couplings.

Use the online help in COMSOL Multiphysics to locate and search all the
documentation. All these links also work directly in COMSOL
Multiphysics when using the Help system.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S
The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Solids Interface.

ELECTRIC CURRENTS
The available physics features for The Electric Currents Interface are listed in Domain,
Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Electric Currents Interface in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT INTERFACE | 539

 The Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium
Interface
The Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium Interface
When the predefined Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium( ) interface is added (found
under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows), it
combines the Heat Transfer in Solids and the Heat Transfer in Fluids interfaces to
model heat transfer in porous media for which the solid and fluid temperatures are not
in equilibrium.

Stationary, time-domain, and frequency-domain modeling are supported in all space

dimensions.

ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES

As a predefined multiphysics coupling, Heat Transfer in Solids and Heat Transfer in Fluids
interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a Multiphysics node is added,
which automatically includes the multiphysics coupling feature Local Thermal
Non-Equilibrium.

The Heat Transfer in Solids interface provides features for modeling heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation. A Solid model is active by default on all
domains.

The Heat Transfer in Fluids interface provides features for modeling heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation. A Fluid model is active by default on all
domains.

AS AN ADD-ON MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING

The Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium multiphysics coupling is also available when
there is at least one of each of the following interfaces with the default model activated:

• Heat Transfer in Solids, with Solid model

• Heat Transfer in Fluids, with Fluid model

540 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

Coupling Feature
See Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium for details about the multiphysics coupling
feature.

Physics Interface Features

Physics nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics
context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all
users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S
The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Solids Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Solids Interface.

H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F L U I D S
The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface.

Heat sources
In the heat source features available for the constituent interfaces (Heat Source,
Geothermal Heating, and Bioheat), the user input corresponds to the heat production
per total unit volume. It is multiplied by the volume fraction of each phase and added
into the corresponding heat equation.

Heat fluxes
In the heat flux features available for the constituent interfaces (Heat Flux, Inflow
Heat Flux), the user input corresponds to the heat flux per total unit surface. It is
multiplied by the volume fraction of each phase and added into the corresponding heat
equation. The surface fraction is approximated by the volume fraction.

THE LOCAL THERMAL NON-EQUILIBRIUM INTERFACE | 541

 T he He a t a nd Moi st u re Tran sp ort
Interfaces
The Heat and Moisture Transport multiphysics Interfaces
The versions of the Heat and Moisture Transport multiphysics interface are:

• The Building Materials version of the Heat and Moisture Transport multiphysics
Interface
• The Moist Air version of the Heat and Moisture Transport multiphysics Interface

The Building Materials version of the Heat and Moisture Transport

multiphysics Interface
When the Building Materials version of the predefined Heat and Moisture Transport ( )
interface is added (found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or
Add Physics windows), it combines the Heat Transfer in Building Materials and the
Moisture Transport in Building Materials interfaces to model coupled heat and
moisture transport in building materials, by taking into account heat and moisture
storage, latent heat effects, and liquid and convective transport of moisture.

Stationary, time-domain, and frequency-domain modeling are supported in all space

dimensions.

ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES

As a predefined multiphysics coupling, Heat Transfer in Building Materials and Moisture
Transport in Building Materials interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition,
a Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the Heat and Moisture
multiphysics coupling feature.

The Heat Transfer in Building Materials interface provides features for modeling heat
transfer by conduction, convection, and radiation. The Building Material model, active
by default in all domains, provides in addition the functionality for moisture content
dependency of thermodynamics properties and latent heat effects.

The Moisture Transport in Building Materials interface provides features for modeling
moisture transfer by liquid transport (capillary flow) and vapor diffusion. A Building
Material model is active by default on all domains.

542 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

AS AN ADD-ON MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING
The Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling is also available when there is at least one
of each of the following interfaces with the specified model activated:

• Any version of the Heat Transfer interface, with Building Material model
• Any version of the Moisture Transport interface, with Building Material model

See Building Materials Database in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for a description of materials containing the thermal and
hygroscopic properties to be used with the The Building Materials version
of the Heat and Moisture Transport multiphysics Interface.

Physics Interface Features in the Building Materials version

H E A T TR A N S F E R I N B U I L D I N G M A T E R I A L S
The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface are
listed in Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Building Materials Interface.

M O I S T U RE TR A N S P O R T I N B U I L D I N G M A T E R I A L S
The available physics features for The Moisture Transport in Building Materials
Interface are listed in Feature Nodes for the Moisture Transport in Building Materials
Interface.

The Moist Air version of the Heat and Moisture Transport

multiphysics Interface
When the Moist Air version of the predefined Heat and Moisture Transport ( ) interface
is added (found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add
Physics windows), it combines the Heat Transfer in Moist Air and the Moisture
Transport in Air interfaces to model coupled heat and moisture transport in moist air,
by modeling moisture transport by vapor diffusion and convection, and heat transfer
by conduction and convection with moisture-dependent thermodynamics properties.

Stationary, time-domain, and frequency-domain modeling are supported in all space

dimensions.

T H E H E A T A N D M O I S T U R E TR A N S P O R T I N T E R F A C E S | 543
 ON THE CONSTITUENT PHYSICS INTERFACES
As a predefined multiphysics coupling, Heat Transfer in Moist Air and Moisture Transport
in Air interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition, a Multiphysics node is
added, which automatically includes the Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling
feature.

The Heat Transfer in Moist Air interface provides features for modeling heat transfer
by conduction, convection, and radiation. The Moist Air model, active by default in all
domains, provides in addition the functionality for moisture content dependency of
thermodynamics properties.

The Moisture Transport in Air interface provides features for modeling moisture
transfer by vapor convection and diffusion. A Moist Air model is active by default on all
domains.

AS AN ADD-ON MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING

The Heat and Moisture multiphysics coupling is also available when there is at least one
of each of the following interfaces with the specified model activated:

• Any version of the Heat Transfer interface, with Fluid or Moist Air model
• Any version of the Moisture Transport interface, with Moist Air model

Physics Interface Features in the Moist Air version

H E A T TR A N S F E R I N M O I S T A I R
The available physics features for The Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Heat Transfer in Moist Air Interface.

M O I S T U RE TR A N S P O R T I N A I R
The available physics features for The Moisture Transport in Air Interface are listed in
Feature Nodes for the Moisture Transport in Air Interface.

Coupling Feature
See Heat and Moisture for details about the multiphysics coupling feature.

544 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Joule Heating Interface
In this section:

• The Joule Heating Interface

• Coupling Features

The Joule Heating Interface

The Joule Heating ( ) interface is used to model resistive heating and, depending on
additional licensed products, dielectric heating in devices where inductive effects are
negligible; that is, when the skin depth is much larger than the studied device. This
multiphysics interface adds an Electric Currents interface and a Heat Transfer in Solids
interface. The multiphysics couplings add the electromagnetic power dissipation as a
heat source, and the electromagnetic material properties can depend on the
temperature.

See The Joule Heating Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for
more details about this multiphysics interface.

Coupling Features
See Electromagnetic Heat Source, Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source, and
Temperature Coupling for a description of the multiphysics couplings.

THE JOULE HEATING INTERFACE | 545

 The Laser Heating Interface
In this section:

• The Laser Heating Interface

• Coupling Features

The Laser Heating Interface

The Laser Heating ( ) interface is used to model electromagnetic heating for systems
and devices where the electric field amplitude varies slowly on a wavelength scale. This
multiphysics interface adds an Electromagnetic Waves, Beam Envelopes interface and
a Heat Transfer in Solids interface. The multiphysics couplings add the
electromagnetic losses from the electromagnetic waves as a heat source, and the
electromagnetic material properties can depend on the temperature. The modeling
approach is based on the assumption that the electromagnetic cycle time is short
compared to the thermal time scale.

See The Laser Heating Interface in the Wave Optics Module User’s Guide for more
details about this multiphysics interface.

Coupling Features
See Electromagnetic Heat Source, Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source, and
Temperature Coupling for a description of the multiphysics couplings.

546 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

The Induction Heating Interface
In this section:

• The Induction Heating Interface

• Coupling Features

The Induction Heating Interface

The Induction Heating interface ( ) is used to model induction heating and eddy
current heating. This multiphysics interface adds a Magnetic Fields interface and a
Heat Transfer in Solids interface. The multiphysics couplings add the electromagnetic
power dissipation as a heat source, and the electromagnetic material properties can
depend on the temperature.

See The Induction Heating Interface in the AC/DC Module User’s Guide for more
details about this multiphysics interface.

Coupling Features
See Electromagnetic Heat Source, Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source, and
Temperature Coupling for a description of the multiphysics couplings.

THE INDUCTION HEATING INTERFACE | 547

 The Microwave Heating Interface
In this section:

• The Microwave Heating Interface

• Coupling Features

The Microwave Heating Interface

The Microwave Heating interface ( ) is used to model electromagnetic heating for
systems and devices that are on a scale ranging from 1/10 of a wavelength up to,
depending on available computer memory, about 10 wavelengths. This multiphysics
interface adds an Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain interface and a Heat
Transfer in Solids interface. The multiphysics couplings add the electromagnetic losses
from the electromagnetic waves as a heat source, and the electromagnetic material
properties can depend on the temperature. The modeling approach is based on the
assumption that the electromagnetic cycle time is short compared to the thermal time
scale.

See The Microwave Heating Interface in the RF Module User’s Guide for more details
about this multiphysics interface.

Coupling Features
See Electromagnetic Heat Source, Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source, and
Temperature Coupling for a description of the multiphysics couplings.

548 | CHAPTER 8: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES

 9

Multiphysics Couplings

The Heat Transfer Module has multiphysics couplings available under certain
conditions.

When a predefined multiphysics interface is added from the Model Wizard or Add
Physics windows, it adds the constituent interfaces and the Multiphysics node, which
automatically includes one or more multiphysics couplings.

If the constituent physics interfaces are added one at a time, then it adds an empty
Multiphysics node. When you right-click this node, you can choose from the
available multiphysics couplings.

The Multiphysics Node in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual.

The default settings of the couplings depend on the way the Multiphysics node was
created.

In this chapter, the following multiphysics couplings are described:

• Domain Multiphysics Couplings

• Boundary Multiphysics Couplings

549
 See The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces for details about the Heat Transfer Module
interfaces.

See Multiphysics Interfaces for details about the predefined multiphysics interfaces of
the Heat Transfer Module.

550 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

Domain Multiphysics Couplings
The Heat Transfer Module has the following domain multiphysics couplings
available:

• Electromagnetic Heat Source • Nonisothermal Flow

• Flow Coupling • Temperature Coupling
• Heat and Moisture • Thermal Expansion
• Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium • Thermoelectric Effect

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Electromagnetic Heat Source

Use this multiphysics coupling ( ) to account for electromagnetic volumetric and
surface losses in the heat equation.

See Electromagnetic Heat Source in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

for a description of this multiphysics coupling in the context of Joule heating and laser
heating modeling.

See Electromagnetic Heat Source in the AC/DC Module User’s Guide for a
description of this multiphysics coupling in the context of induction heating modeling.

See Electromagnetic Heat Source in the RF Module User’s Guide for a description of
this multiphysics coupling in the context of microwave heating modeling.

Hepatic Tumor Ablation: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/tumor_ablation

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Multiphysics>Electromagnetic Heat Source

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 551

 when any of the following interface is added together with Heat Transfer in Solids (or
another version of the Heat Transfer interface):
Electric Currents
Electric Currents, Shells
Magnetic Field Formulation
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic and Electric Fields
Rotating Machinery, Magnetic

Flow Coupling
This multiphysics coupling ( ) defines u and p variables in order to set the model
inputs in the Heat Transfer interface (or when applicable, a chemical species transport
interface). In addition it provides all the fluids quantities that may be needed by the
Heat Transfer interface (for example, viscosity, turbulence parameters).

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is fc1.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. By default, the
applicable physics interface is selected in the Source list to apply the Destination to its
physics interface to establish the coupling.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder — for example, Heat Transfer

552 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

in Solids is deleted — then the Destination list defaults to None as there is nothing to
couple to.

Whenever the Destination interface is a heat transfer interface, the

Nonisothermal Flow coupling node should be preferred to Flow Coupling.
Indeed, Nonisothermal Flow brings an optimized stabilization; supports
natural convection, including Boussinesq approximation; supports
turbulent flow (wall functions, effective thermal conductivity); and
handles work due to the pressure forces and viscous dissipation.

When the Destination interface is a chemical species transport interface, a

Reacting Flow coupling node should be used instead of Flow Coupling. See
The Reacting Flow Multiphysics Interfaces in the CFD Module User’s
Guide for more details.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, and in
order to re-establish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the lists. This is applicable to all multiphysics
coupling nodes that would normally default to the once present physics
interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Approaches in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Multiphysics>Flow Coupling

when any of the following interface is added together with Heat Transfer in Solids (or
another version of the Heat Transfer Interface):
Single-Phase Flow (any version)
Porous Media and Subsurface Flow, Brinkman Equations

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 553

 Heat and Moisture
Use this multiphysics coupling ( ) to model coupled heat and moisture transfer in
two kinds of media:

• In building materials, by taking into account heat and moisture storage, latent heat
effects, and liquid and convective transport of moisture. This coupling is available
when a Building Material feature of the Heat Transfer interface and a Building Material
feature of the Moisture transport interface are active on the same domain. It can be
applied to the computation of different moisture variations phenomena in building
components, such as drying of initial construction moisture, condensation due to
migration of moisture from outside to inside in summer, and moisture accumulation
by interstitial condensation due to diffusion in the winter. The thermodynamics
properties of the building material depend both on the dry solid properties and on
the moisture content, and the evaporation of liquid water adds a latent heat source
in the diffusion equation for temperature. Reversely, the variations of moisture
content due to liquid transport (capillary flow) and vapor diffusion are temperature
dependent.
• In moist air, by modeling moisture transport by vapor diffusion and convection, and
heat transfer by conduction and convection. The thermodynamics properties of
moist air depend on the moisture content, whereas the temperature is used to define
the saturation conditions for vapor concentration. This coupling is available when a
Fluid or Moist Air feature of the Heat Transfer interface and a Moist Air feature of the
Moisture transport interface are active on the same domain. The Fluid type should
be set to Moist air if the Fluid feature is used, to take fully advantage of the coupling.
The Heat and Moisture coupling synchronizes the features from the Heat Transfer and
Moisture transport interfaces:

• It defines the relative humidity φ (with corresponding reference temperature and

pressure) in order to set the corresponding inputs in the Moist Air feature of the Heat
Transfer interface.
• It defines the moisture storage function w and the vapor permeability δp (or vapor
resistance factor μ) in order to set the corresponding inputs in the Building Material
feature of the Heat Transfer interface.
• It defines the temperature T in order to set the model inputs in the features of the
Moisture transport interface.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

554 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is ham1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the domains with heat and
moisture transport, or select All domains as needed.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling.

Select the Heat Transfer interface associated to the temperature dependent variable.
Select the Moisture transport interface associated to the relative humidity variable.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder — for example, Heat Transfer
in Building Materials is deleted — then the Heat transfer list defaults to None as there is
nothing to couple to.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Multiphysics>Heat and Moisture

when a heat transfer interface with Building Material feature is active together with a
moisture transport interface with Building Material feature; or when a heat transfer
interface with Fluid or Moist Air feature is active together with a moisture transport
interface with Moist Air feature.

Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium

Use this multiphysics coupling ( ) to account for heat transfer in porous domains
where the solid and fluid temperatures are not in equilibrium. This is achieved by
coupling the heat equations in the solid and fluid subdomains through a transfer term
proportional to the temperature difference between the fluid and the solid. The
corresponding heat equations in the solid and in the fluid subdomains read

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 555

 ∂T s
θ p ρ s C p, s + θ p ρ s C p, s u s ⋅ ∇T s = ∇ ⋅ ( θ p k s ∇T s ) + q sf ( T f – T s )
∂t

∂T f
( 1 – θ p )ρ f C p, f + ( 1 – θ p )ρ f C p, f u f ⋅ ∇T f = ∇ ⋅ ( ( 1 – θ p )k f ∇T f ) + q sf ( T s – T f )
∂t

with the following material properties:

• θp is the solid volume fraction.

• ρs and ρf are the solid and fluid densities.
• Cp, s and Cp, f are the solid and fluid heat capacities at constant pressure.
• ks and kf are the solid and fluid thermal conductivities.
• qsf is the interstitial convective heat transfer coefficient.
• us and uf are the solid and fluid velocity vectors.
The fluid velocity is deduced from a porous velocity up, coming, for example, from the
Darcy’s law or the Brinkmann equations, according to:

up
u f = ---------------
1 – θp

See also Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium in Theory for Heat Transfer in

Porous Media.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is ltne1.

LOCAL THERMAL NON-EQUILIBRIUM SETTINGS

Enter a Solid volume fraction θp (dimensionless). The default value is 0.5.

Select an Interstitial convective heat transfer coefficient: Spherical pellet bed, General
configuration, or User defined (the default).

556 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

Spherical Pellet Bed
In this particular configuration, the interstitial convective heat transfer coefficient can
be directly expressed as a function of the average pellet radius rp and the fluid-to-solid
Nusselt number for which the fluid dynamic viscosity μ is needed.

Enter a value for the Average pellet radius rp (SI unit: m). Default value is 5e-4 m.

The default Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) is used From material. In the list, choose
User defined to enter another value or expression. When the dynamic viscosity is set in
the Heat Transfer in Fluids interface, it also appears in the list.

The Heat Transfer in Fluids interface defines the dynamic viscosity if

either Moist air is selected as Fluid type in the Thermodynamics, Fluid
section, or the Equivalent conductivity for convection check box is selected
in the Equivalent Conductivity for Convection section.

General Configuration
The interstitial convective heat transfer coefficient is expressed as the product of the
specific surface area asf and the interstitial heat transfer coefficient hsf.

Enter a value for the Specific surface area asf (SI unit: 1/m). Default value is 0 1/m.

Enter a value for the Interstitial heat transfer coefficient hsf (SI unit: W/(m2·K)).
Default value is 0 W/(m2·K).

User Defined
Enter a custom value for qsf (SI unit: W/(m3·K)). Default value is 0 W/(m3·K).

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium
multiphysics coupling.

Select the Heat transfer in solids interface associated to the solid temperature
dependent variable. Select the Heat transfer in fluids interface associated to the fluid
temperature dependent variable.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Multiphysics>Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 557

 when the Heat Transfer in Solids interface with Solid feature is added together with the
Heat Transfer in Fluids interface with Heat Transfer in Fluids feature.

Nonisothermal Flow
Use this multiphysics coupling to simulate fluid flows where the fluid properties
depend on temperature. Models can also include heat transfer in solids or in porous
media as well as surface-to-surface radiation and radiation in participating media, with
the Heat Transfer Module. The physics interface supports low Mach numbers
(typically less than 0.3).

The Nonisothermal Flow, Laminar Flow interface solves for conservation of energy,
mass and momentum in fluids and porous media and for conservation of energy in
solids. It synchronizes the features from the Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow interfaces
when a turbulent flow regime is defined. It also complements the Screen and Interior
Fan feature from the flow interface to account for thermal effects.

When the Nonisothermal Flow is used, there is no need to add Flow

Coupling or Temperature Coupling. Indeed, Nonisothermal Flow combines
the effects of both of them. In addition, it also accounts for the
multiphysics stabilization terms, for the heat transfer changes in the
turbulent regime (for example, thermal wall functions), for work due to
pressure forces and viscous dissipation, and for natural convection,
including Boussinesq approximation.

The multiphysics stabilizations (streamline diffusion and crosswind

diffusion) are controlled by the Fluid Flow interface. For example, the
multiphysics streamline diffusion can be disabled in a Laminar Flow physics
node, in the Stabilization section. The stabilization selected in the Heat
Transfer physics interface has no effect if the multiphysics coupling
stabilization is active, but remains active if not. However, the isotropic
diffusion is not a multiphysics stabilization and is controlled by each
physics interface.

Finally, when one of the physics interfaces or the multiphysics coupling is

not solved in a study step, then the stabilization of each solved physics is
used instead of the coupled stabilization, and the solver suggestions are
uncoupled.

558 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is nitf1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the nonisothermal flow, or
select All domains as needed.

H E A T TR A N S F E R TU R B U L E N C E M O D E L
Select an option from the Heat transport turbulence model list: Kays-Crawford (the
default), Extended Kays-Crawford, or User-defined turbulent Prandtl number.

For Extended Kays-Crawford, enter a Reynolds number at infinity Reinf (dimensionless).

For User-defined turbulent Prandtl number, enter a Turbulent Prandtl number prT
(dimensionless).

When the flow interface uses a RANS turbulence model, the conductive heat flux is
defined as

q = – ( k + k T ) ∇T

with the turbulent thermal conductivity defined as

μT Cp
k T = --------------
Pr T

where μT is defined by the flow interface, and PrT depends on the Heat transport
turbulence model. See Turbulent Conductivity for details.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Select an option from the Specify density list: From heat transfer interface (the default),
From fluid flow interface, Custom, linearized density, or Custom.

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 559

 For Custom, linearized density, enter the Reference density ρref (SI unit: kg/m3) and the
Coefficient of thermal expansion αp(SI unit:1/K), or select From material, or select a
variable in the list if available. When Custom, linearized density is selected, regardless
how the properties are defined they should be constant. If material properties are not
constant you should consider using any of the other options to define the density.

For Custom, enter a Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3), or select a density in the list if available.

The density definition in the Nonisothermal Flow node ensure that the same definition
of the density is used on the fluid flow and heat transfer interfaces. When the fluid flow
compressibility setting is set to Incompressible then the thermal conductivity and the
heat capacity are evaluated at the Reference temperature defined in the fluid flow
interface. When Include gravity is selected and the Compressibility is set to
Incompressible flow in the fluid interface properties, the gravity forces are defined using
the coefficient of thermal expansion. Along with the fact that the material properties
are evaluated for a constant temperature and pressure, this gravity force definition
corresponds to Boussinesq approximation. Unless the density is defined as Custom,
linearized density the coefficient of thermal expansion is evaluated from the fluid
density.

FLOW HEATING
Select the Include work done by pressure changes check box to account for the heat
source due to pressure changes:

∂p
Q p = α p  ------ + u ⋅ ∇p
 ∂t 

By default this option is not selected; however, it should be selected for compressible
fluids as soon as significant pressure gradients occur.

Select the Include viscous dissipation check box to account for the heat source
corresponding to viscous heating. This option is not selected by default. Because it may
induce an extra computational cost it should be only selected in application where such
effect is expected. If no information on this is available, selecting the option ensures
that the energy balance for the heat and the flow equation is respected.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Fluid flow
and Heat transfer lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

560 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

The default values depend on how this coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is chosen in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder — for example, Heat Transfer
in Fluids is deleted — then the Heat transfer list defaults to None as there is nothing to
couple to.

When an interface is selected from the Heat transfer list, some of its model
inputs are forced with values from the Nonisothermal Flow node. In
addition, it defines how the turbulence has to be accounted for,
depending on the Fluid flow interface’s turbulence settings. Therefore,
each heat transfer or fluid flow interface should be used in at most one
Nonisothermal Flow node. In cases where multiple fluid flow interfaces are
used, an equal number of heat transfer interfaces and Nonisothermal Flow
nodes are needed to define proper multiphysics couplings.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to re-establish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Fluid flow or Heat transfer lists. This behavior is
applicable to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default
to the once present interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Approaches in
the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Heat Sink: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/heat_sink

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Multiphysics>Nonisothermal Flow

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 561

 when any of the following interface is added together with Heat Transfer in Solids (or
another version of the Heat Transfer Interface):
Single-Phase Flow (any version)
Porous Media and Subsurface Flow, Brinkman Equations

Temperature Coupling
Use this multiphysics coupling to add the temperature as the default model input for
a standalone physics interface.

COUPLED INTERFACES

The Temperature Coupling feature is generic and specifies a Heat Transfer interface as
Source and a second interface as Destination. When Temperature Coupling feature is
used, the temperature from the Source is used to evaluate material properties in any
feature from the Destination interface. The coupling can be added wherever the Heat
Transfer interface is active.

The Source interface can be any interface defining a temperature, which includes all
versions of heat transfer and multiphysics, except the pure radiation interfaces.

The Destination interface can be any interface providing multiphysics feature in the
Multiphysics node — for example, Electric Current or Solid Mechanics.

See Temperature Coupling in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual for

more details about this multiphysics coupling.

Contact Switch: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/contact_switch

Thermal Expansion
Use this multiphysics coupling ( ) to add an internal thermal strain caused by
changes in temperature.

562 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

See Thermal Expansion (Multiphysics Coupling) in the Structural Mechanics Module
User’s Guide for more details about this multiphysics coupling.

Heating Circuit: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Circuit/heating_cir
cuit

Thermoelectric Effect
Use this multiphysics coupling ( ) to account for a Peltier heat source or sink in
domains where electrical and thermal models are defined. This modeling is achieved
by adding PJ contribution to the heat flux. The corresponding heat equation in an
immobile solid reads

∂T
ρC p + ∇ ⋅ ( – k∇T + PJ ) = Q
∂t

A Thermoelectric Effect node also adds the term −σS∇T to the current density, which
is then defined as:

J = – σ ( ∇V + S∇T )

The contribution to the heat flux affects all boundary conditions where
the conductive flux, −k∇T, is involved. In particular the thermal
insulation condition becomes (−k∇T + PJ) ⋅ n = 0 (instead of
(−k∇T) ⋅ n = 0 when thermoelectric effect is not active).

In 2D, the thickness used in the multiphysics contributions is the one

defined in the electromagnetic interface.

Theory for the Thermoelectric Effect Interface

Thermoelectric Leg: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/thermoelectric_leg

DOMAIN MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 563

 SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is tee.

THERMOELECTRIC PROPERTIES
The default Seebeck coefficient S (SI unit: V/K) is taken From material. For User
defined enter other values or expressions.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the thermoelectric effect multiphysics
coupling.

Select the Heat Transfer interface associated to the temperature dependent variable.
Select the Electromagnetic interface associated to the electric potential dependent
variable.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Multiphysics>Thermoelectric Effect

when any of the following interface is added together with Heat Transfer in Solids (or
another version of the Heat Transfer Interface):
Electric Currents
Magnetic Field Formulation
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic and Electric Fields
Rotating Machinery, Magnetic

564 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

Boundary Multiphysics Couplings
The Heat Transfer Module has the following boundary multiphysics couplings
available:

• Boundary Thermoelectric Effect • Marangoni Effect

• Boundary Electromagnetic Heat
Source

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

Boundary Thermoelectric Effect

Use this multiphysics coupling ( ) to account for a Peltier heat source or sink on
boundaries where electric and thermal shells are defined. This modeling is achieved by
adding PsJs contribution to the heat flux. The corresponding heat equation in an
immobile solid reads:

∂T
ds ρs Cs + ∇t ⋅ ds ( – ks ∇t T + Ps Js ) = ds Qs
∂t

A Boundary Thermoelectric Effect node also contributes the term −dsσsSs∇tT to the
current density, which is then defined as:

Js = –ds σs ( ∇t V + S s ∇t T )

In 2D, the thickness used the multiphysics contributions is the one

defined in the electromagnetic interface.

Theory for the Thermoelectric Effect Interface

BOUNDARY MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 565

 Thermoelectric Leg: Application Library path
Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/thermoelectric_leg

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is btee.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries where boundary thermoelectric effect is
defined. Only boundaries where both Thin Layer and Electric Shielding are active can be
selected.

The weak contribution in only added when Layer type in Thin Layer is set to Conductive.
If Layer type is set to either Resistive or General, the weak contribution evaluates to 0.

THERMOELECTRIC PROPERTIES
The default Seebeck coefficient S (SI unit: V/K) is taken From material. For User
defined enter other values or expressions.

BOUNDARY THERMOELECTRIC EFFECT

This section defines the physics involved in the thermoelectric effect multiphysics
coupling.

Select the Heat transfer interface associated to the temperature dependent variable.
Select the Electromagnetic interface associated to the electric potential dependent
variable.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Multiphysics>Boundary Thermoelectric Effect

when any of the following interface is added together with Heat Transfer in Solids (or
another version of the Heat Transfer Interface):

566 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

Electric Currents
Electric Currents, Shells
Magnetic Field Formulation
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic and Electric Fields
Rotating Machinery, Magnetic

Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source

This multiphysics coupling ( ) maps the electromagnetic surface losses as a heat
source on the boundary in the heat transfer part of the model. It is a default node.

See Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual for a description of this multiphysics coupling.

Contact Switch: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/contact_switch

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Multiphysics>Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source

when any of the following interface is added together with Heat Transfer in Shells (or
another version of the Heat Transfer in Thin Structures interface):
Electric Currents
Electric Currents, Shells
Magnetic Field Formulation
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic and Electric Fields
Rotating Machinery, Magnetic

Marangoni Effect
This multiphysics coupling ( ) accounts for Marangoni convection. Marangoni
convection occurs when the surface tension of an interface (generally liquid-air)
depends on the concentration of a species or on the temperature distribution. In the
case of temperature dependence, the Marangoni effect is also called thermo-capillary

BOUNDARY MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 567

 convection. It is of primary importance in the fields of welding, crystal growth, and
electron beam melting of metals.

The Marangoni effect is a shear stress which depends on the tangential temperature
gradient and should be implemented as such. It has the following contribution
described by forces induced on the fluid/fluid interface:

T 2
– pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = γ∇ t T
3

where γ is the temperature derivative of the surface tension σ (N/(m·K)). Note that
this formulation is intended for laminar flow regimes only.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is me1.

S U R F A C E TE N S I O N
Select a Surface tension coefficient type: Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface or User
defined (the default).

• For Library coefficient, liquid/gas interface choose an option from the Library surface
tension coefficient list.
• For User defined enter a Surface tension coefficient σ (SI unit: N/m).

MARANGONI EFFECT
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Fluid flow
and Heat transfer lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

568 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS

The default values depend on how this coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is chosen in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the node from a physics interface.
If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder — for example, Heat Transfer
in Fluids is deleted — then the Heat transfer list defaults to None as there is nothing to
couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to re-establish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Fluid flow or Heat transfer lists. This is applicable
to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally default to the
once present interface. See Multiphysics Modeling Approaches in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Marangoni Effect: Application Library path

Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/marangon
i_effect

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Context menus
Multiphysics>Marangoni Effect

when any of the following interface is added together with Heat Transfer in Solids (or
another version of the Heat Transfer Interface):
Single-Phase Flow (any version)
Porous Media and Subsurface Flow, Brinkman Equations

BOUNDARY MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS | 569

570 | CHAPTER 9: MULTIPHYSICS COUPLINGS
I n d e x
A absolute pressure 43, 157, 362, 377, 388, marangoni effect 569
433 moist air 378
acceleration of gravity 40, 242 nonisothermal flow 561
activation energy 39, 148, 353, 406 opaque 380
apparent heat capacity 156 opaque surface 452
Application Libraries window 30 open boundary 453
application library examples outflow 454
ambient settings 119, 283 out-of-plane heat flux 381
bioheat 351 out-of-plane radiation 383
bioheat transfer interface 307 periodic condition 455
biological tissue 355 phase change material 386
boundary electromagnetic heat source point heat source 495
567 porous medium 393
boundary thermoelectric effect 566 radiation in participating media 339
consistent stabilization 88 radiation in participating media (heat
continuity 418 transfer interface) 399
continuity on interior boundary 419 radiation in participating media (rpm
diffuse surface 428 interface) 402
electromagnetic heat source 551 solid 404
external radiation source 503 symmetry 463
fluid 366 temperature (heat transfer in thin
heat flux 435 shells interface) 490
heat flux (heat transfer in thin shells in- temperature (heat transfer interface)
terface) 438, 480 464
heat source 370 temperature coupling 562
heat transfer in porous media 299 thermal contact 229, 468
heat transfer in thin shells 322 thermal expansion 563
heat transfer with surface-to-surface thermoelectric effect 563
radiation 311 thin conductive layer (heat transfer in
highly conductive layers 177 thin shells interface) 470
initial values (heat transfer in thin thin layer 475
shells interface) 445 translational motion 411
insulation/continuity (heat transfer in arterial blood temperature 46, 351
thin shells interface) 482 average gas particle diameter 39, 227
isothermal domain 376 average particle diameter 39, 151
isothermal domain interface 447 axisymmetric geometries 196, 335, 460

INDEX| 571
 azimuth 50, 196 heat transfer in thin shells interface
azimuthal sectors 196 417
heat transfer interface 361
B beam orientation 39, 419
characteristic length 242
bioheat (node) 84, 350, 352
Charron’s relation 228, 467
bioheat transfer interface 274, 306
coefficient of thermal expansion 47, 135,
theory 146
242, 394
biological tissue (node) 84, 306, 352
common settings 24
black walls 451
concentration 38, 231, 363, 377, 388
blackbody radiation 456
conduction, definition 137
blackbody radiation intensity 41, 198, 396
conductive heat flux variable 61, 65
boundary conditions
conductive heat flux vector 78
heat equation, and 78
conjugate heat transfer (multiphysics in-
heat transfer coefficients, and 240
terface) 532
boundary electromagnetic heat source
conjugate heat transfer (settings) 297
(multiphysics coupling) 539, 545–548,
consistent stabilization (settings) 283,
567
287, 343, 345
boundary flux variables (heat transfer in
consistent stabilization method 88
thin shells interface) 65
constraints, Galerkin 464
boundary flux variables (heat transfer in-
continuity (moisture transport interface)
terface) 63
517
boundary heat source (node) 415
continuity (node) 418
boundary heat source variable 69
continuity on interior boundary (node)
boundary multiphysics nodes 527, 565
315–316, 339, 419
boundary nodes 414, 517
convection, definition 138
boundary thermoelectric effect (multi-
convection, natural and forced 241
physics coupling) 539, 565
convective heat flux variable 64
Boussinesq approximation 214
convective heat flux variable, cflux 62, 65
Brinell hardness 41, 226–227
Cooper-Mikic-Yovanovich (CMY) corre-
building material (moisture transport in-
lation 226, 466
terface) 342
cross sectional area 38, 279, 342, 345
building material (node) 84
cross sectional perimeter 43, 279, 342,
heat transfer interface 303, 305, 356,
345
555
crosswind diffusion
moisture transport interface 510, 555
definition 88
bulk velocity 242
heat transfer, and 88
C change cross-section (node) 84, 360
crosswind diffusion, consistent stabiliza-
change effective thickness (node) 478
tion method 88
change thickness (node) 84

572 | I N D E X
D Dalton’s law 230 electric currents interface 539
damage integral analysis discretization electromagnetic heat source 44
(settings) 306 electromagnetic heat source (multiphys-
Darcy number 39, 151 ics coupling) 539, 545–548, 551
density, blood 49, 351 elevation 196
dependent variables (settings) 285, 288 emailing COMSOL 30
deposited beam power (node) 419 emission, radiation and 198
diffuse gray radiation model 286, 334 energy rates 260
diffuse mirror (node) 421 evaluating view factors 193
diffuse spectral radiation model 286, 334 external radiation source (node) 499
diffuse surface (node) 422 external temperature (node) 428, 430
diffuse-gray surfaces 186, 189
F Favre average 213
diffuse-spectral surface 191
film thickness 179
Dirac pulse 157
flow coupling (multiphysics coupling) 91,
direct area integration, axisymmetric ge-
533, 552
ometry and 196
fluid (node) 84, 361, 555
direct area integration, radiation settings
Fourier’s law 363, 389, 391, 403
286, 334
fracture (node) 329, 430
discontinuous Galerkin constraints 464
frames, conversions between 262
discrete ordinates method (DOM) 202,
frames, moving 82
315–317, 339, 396, 400
frequency factor 38, 148, 353, 406
discretization (settings) 284, 288–289,
293, 306, 311, 316, 322, 326, 330, 343, G Galerkin constraints, heat transfer 464

346 gap conductance 40, 227, 465

dispersion tensor 39, 408 geothermal heating (node) 84, 367

dispersivities, porous media 49, 408 global nodes 499

domain flux variables 61 Grashof number 40, 242

domain heat source variables 68 gravity 40, 242

domain multiphysics nodes 527, 551 gray walls 451

domain nodes 350, 510 graybody radiation 191, 456

dry solid density 159, 358 gray-diffuse parallel plate model 228

dry solid specific heat capacity 159, 358 guidelines, solving surface-to-surface ra-

dry solid thermal conductivity 159, 357 diation problems 105

E edge nodes 478 H harmonic perturbation (node)

effective thermal conductivity 42, 152, heat transfer interface 432

159, 223, 356, 387, 392, 408 heat and moisture (multiphysics cou-

effective volumetric heat capacity 47, pling) 544, 554

152, 159, 223, 391, 404 heat and moisture transport (multiphys-

INDEX| 573
 ics interface) 303, 305, 542–543 face 315
heat balance 138 heat transfer in porous media (settings)
heat capacity at constant pressure 38, 280, 286, 298
135 heat transfer in porous media interface
heat flux (node) 274, 298, 303, 305
heat transfer in thin shells interface theory 151
436, 479 heat transfer in solids (node) 297, 315
heat transfer interface 433 heat transfer in solids interface 274, 289,
heat flux, theory 257 539, 541, 543–544
heat rate 369, 415, 433, 435, 467 theory 143
heat source (node) 84, 438, 440–441 heat transfer in thin films interface 276,
heat transfer 368 325
heat transfer in thin shells interface heat transfer in thin shells interface 276,
439, 492 321
heat transfer in thin shells, point or heat transfer in thin shells interfaces 276
edge condition 480 heat transfer interface 274, 297, 303, 305
heat sources heat transfer interfaces 274
defining as heat rate 369 Heat Transfer Module 58
line and point 485 heat transfer with radiation in participat-
local thermal non-equilibrium 541 ing media interface 274
thin film 438, 440 heat transfer with surface-to-surface ra-
thin layer 448 diation interface 274, 310
thin layered shell 441 heat transfer, and streamline diffusion 88
thin rod 482 Heaviside function 157
heat transfer coefficients hemicubes, axisymmetric geometry and
out-of-plane heat transfer 437 196
theory 241 hemicubes, radiation settings 286, 334
heat transfer in biological tissue (set- htsh_tf_etemp 430
tings) 280
I immobile fluids (node) 84, 371
heat transfer in building materials inter-
incident intensity (node) 316, 339, 442
face 274
inconsistent stabilization (settings) 284,
heat transfer in fluids (node) 293, 297
287, 343, 346
heat transfer in fluids interface 274, 293,
inconsistent stabilization methods 89
297, 541, 543–544
induction heating (multiphysics interface)
theory 144
547
heat transfer in fractures interface 276,
infinite elements (node) 84
329
inflow heat flux (node) 443
heat transfer in participating media inter-
initial values (node) 289, 293, 298, 303,

574 | I N D E X
 305–306, 310, 315, 321, 325, 329 thin film subnode 483
heat transfer in thin shells interface thin layer subnode 483
444 line heat source (node) 450
heat transfer interface 374 heat transfer interface 485
moisture transport interface 512 thin rod subnode 482
in-plane conductive heat flux variable 66 line heat source on axis (node) 450
in-plane convective heat flux variable 66 heat transfer 450
in-plane total energy flux variable 66 line heat source variable 69
in-plane total heat flux variable 66 local thermal non-equilibrium (multi-
insulation (node) 518 physics coupling) 541, 555
insulation/continuity (node) 321, 325, local thermal non-equilibrium (multi-
329, 481 physics interface) 298, 540
internal boundary heat flux variables 66 local thermal non-equilibrium interface
internal energy 39, 257 theory 153
Internet resources 28 longitude 196, 501
inward heat flux 78
M Marangoni effect (multiphysics coupling)
irreversible transformation (node) 405
567
isothermal domain (node) 291, 374
mean effective thermal conductivity 403
isothermal domain (settings) 280, 291
mean effective thermal diffusivity 404
isothermal domain interface (node) 291,
mechanisms of heat transfer 137
445
metabolic heat source 44, 351
isotropic diffusion 89, 343, 346
microwave heating (multiphysics inter-
J Joule heating (multiphysics interface) 545 face) 548
Mikic elastic correlation 227, 466
K Karman constant 218
moist air 364, 390
Kays-Crawford models 217
moist air (moisture transport interface)
knowledge base, COMSOL 31
345
L laminar flow interface 531
moist air (node) 376, 555
laser heating (multiphysics interface) 546
moist surface (node) 518
latent heat of evaporation 43, 160, 223,
moisture content 47, 230, 364, 377, 390
356
moisture content (node) 520
latitude 196, 501
moisture diffusivity 39, 209, 224, 510
layer heat source (node) 448
moisture flux (node) 521
layer thickness 39, 171–172, 176
moisture source (node)
Legendre coefficient 38, 206, 398, 401
moisture transport interface 514
line and point heat source variables 69
moisture storage capacity 51, 209, 223,
line heat flux (node)
510
fracture subnode 483
moisture storage function 47

INDEX| 575
 moisture transfer coefficient 48 normal translational heat flux variable 64
moisture transport in air interface 277, Nusselt number 43, 155, 241, 365, 557
345
O opacity (node) 310
moisture transport in building materials
opaque (node) 379
interface 277, 342
opaque surface (node) 315–316, 339, 450
moisture transport interface 555
open boundary (node) 452
moisture transport interfaces 277
outflow (moisture transport interface)
moving frames 82
522
moving mesh, heat transfer, and 158, 386
outflow (node) 453
MPH-files 30
out-of-plane flux variables 63
multiphysics couplings
out-of-plane heat flux (node) 380
boundary electromagnetic heat source
out-of-plane heat transfer
(node) 567
theory 237
boundary thermoelectric effect (node)
thin shells theory 175
565
out-of-plane inward heat flux variable 63
electromagnetic heat source (node)
out-of-plane radiation (node) 382
551
out-of-plane thickness 39, 171–172, 176,
flow coupling (node) 552
179, 285, 437
heat and moisture (node) 554
P P1 approximation 205, 315–316, 339, 396,
local thermal non-equilibrium (node)
400
555
pair boundary heat source (node) 415
Marangoni effect (node) 567
pair thermal contact (node) 465
nonisothermal flow (node) 558
participating media, radiative heat trans-
temperature coupling (node) 562
fer 198
thermal expansion (node) 562
Peltier effect 219, 563
thermoelectric effect (node) 563
Pennes’ approximation 146, 352
mutual irradiation 40, 190
performance index 43, 316, 339
N natural and forced convection 241
perfusion rate, blood 51, 351
nodes, common settings 24
periodic condition (node) 454
nonisothermal flow (multiphysics cou-
phase change material (node) 84, 384
pling) 91–92, 533, 558
phase transitions 384
nonisothermal flow (multiphysics inter-
physical model (settings) 279, 285, 289,
face) 531
293, 298, 306, 310, 342, 345
nonisothermal flow interface
physics interfaces, common settings 24
theory 211
point heat flux (node)
normal conductive heat flux variable 64
thin rod subnode 493
normal convective heat flux variable 64
point heat source (node)
normal total energy flux variable 64
heat transfer 494

576 | I N D E X
 point heat source on axis (node) 496 radiative transfer equation 199
point heat source variable 69 radiogenic heating per mass 44, 367
point nodes 492 radiosity 41, 182, 189, 192, 421–422, 455,
points 463, 499
heat flux 493 radiosity expressions 456
surface-to-ambient radiation 497 radiosity method 183, 189
temperature 498 ratio of specific heats 48, 364, 385, 389–
porous matrix model, extended (set- 390
tings) 299 Rayleigh number 45, 242
porous medium (moisture transport in- reflectivity 49, 182, 201
terface) 510 refractive index 43, 184–185, 199, 201,
porous medium (node) 84, 298 205, 316, 339
Prandtl number 44, 155, 217, 242 relative humidity 50, 160, 209–210, 223,
prescribed radiosity (node) 455 230, 356, 365, 377, 390, 510, 513
pressure work (node) 394 Reynolds number 45, 241, 559
extended Kays-Crawford 217
R radiation
Rodriguez formula 200
axisymmetric geometries, and 196,
Rosseland approximation 204, 315–316,
335, 460
396
participating media 198
radiation branch (settings) 310, 315, 333 S scattering, radiation and 198
radiation group (node) 460 sectors, azimuthal 196
radiation in participating media (node) Seebeck coefficient 46, 220, 564
heat transfer interface 395 Seebeck effect 219
rpm interface 399 sensible enthalpy 137
radiation in participating media (settings) shell thickness 171–172, 176, 179, 285,
279, 315 417
radiation in participating media interface solar position 196, 499
315, 338 solid (node) 84, 289, 402
theory 198 solver settings 98
radiation intensity, blackbody 41, 198, solving surface-to-surface radiation
396 problems 105
radiation settings (settings) 310 source terms, bioheat 350, 352
radiation, definition 138 spatial frames 284, 288
radiative conductance 41, 225, 228, 466 specific heat capacity
radiative heat flux variable 64 biological tissue 352
radiative heat, theory 182 blood 38
radiative out-of-plane heat flux variable damaged tissue 38, 354, 407
63 definition 135

INDEX| 577
 fluid 38, 362 temperature (node)
fracture 38, 431 heat transfer in thin shells interface
phase change 385 489
porous media 38, 387 heat transfer interface 463
solid 38, 470 thin rod subnode 498
solids 402 temperature coupling (multiphysics cou-
thin rod 490 pling) 533, 545–548, 562
specific heat, blood 351 theory
specific surface area 38, 155, 557 bioheat transfer interface 146
spectral band 38, 185, 379, 421, 455, 499 conjugate heat transfer multiphysics
stabilization techniques interface 211
crosswind diffusion 88, 283, 287, 343, heat flux and balance 257
345 heat transfer coefficients 240–241
isotropic diffusion 284, 287, 343, 346 heat transfer in fluids interface 144
streamline diffusion 283, 287, 343, 345 heat transfer in porous media interface
standard settings 24 151
stationary study 273 heat transfer in solids interface 143
Subsurface Flow Module 368, 373, 392 isothermal domain feature 163
sun position 503 local thermal non-equilibrium inter-
surface emissivity 48, 189, 382, 421, 426, face 153
451, 457, 467, 487–488, 497 material and spatial frames 261
surface reflectivity 49 moist air fluid type 230
surface-to-ambient radiation (node) nonisothermal flow 211
fracture subnode 488 out-of-plane heat transfer 237
heat transfer in thin shells interface radiation in participating media inter-
486 face 198
thin film subnode 488 radiative heat transfer in transparent
thin layer subnode 488 media 182
thin rod subnode 497 surface tension coefficients 256
surface-to-surface radiation (settings) surface-to-surface radiation interface
279, 286, 310 182
surface-to-surface radiation interface thermal contact 225
310, 333 thermoelectric effect interface 219
theory 182 thin rod feature 181
symmetry (moisture transport interface) thermal conductivity 41, 137
522 thermal conductivity components, thin
symmetry (node) 463 shells 169
thermal conductivity supplement 38, 159,
T technical support, COMSOL 30

578 | I N D E X
 357 total boundaries area 38, 443
thermal conductivity, frames and 264 total energy flux variable 62, 65
thermal conductivity, mean effective 403 total heat flux variable 61, 65
thermal contact (node) 465 total internal energy 39
thermal diffusivity 48, 243, 404 total normal heat flux variable 63
thermal dispersion (node) 408 translational heat flux variable 62
thermal expansion (multiphysics cou- translational motion (node) 410
pling) 562 transparent media refractive index 43,
thermal expansion coefficient 47–48, 135 287
thermal friction 228 turbulence modeling constant 38, 217
thermal insulation 78 turbulent conjugate heat transfer
thermal insulation (node) 289, 293, 298, theory 213
303, 305–306, 310, 315, 469 turbulent flow, algebraic yPlus interface
thermoelastic damping (node) 410 532
thermoelectric effect (multiphysics cou- turbulent flow, low Re k-e interface 532
pling) 539, 563 turbulent flow, L-VEL interface 532
thermoelectric effect (multiphysics inter- turbulent heat flux variable 62
face) 536 turbulent mixing (node)
thermoelectric effect interface moisture transport interface 515
theory 219 turbulent nonisothermal flow interfaces
thickness 279, 342, 345 theory 213
fracture 431 turbulent Prandtl number 44, 217, 559
out-of-plane 39, 361, 437, 479, 481, 487
V Vapor diffusion coefficient in air 39
shell 39
vapor diffusion coefficient in air 210, 513
thin film 39, 471
vapor mass fraction 48, 364, 377, 390
thin layer 39
vapor permeability 48, 160, 209, 223, 356,
thin shell 417, 478
510
thin conductive layer (node) 321, 469
vapor permeability of still air 48
thin conductive layers, definition 176
vapor resistance factor 49
thin film (node) 325, 470
vapor saturation concentration 39, 210,
thin layer (node) 472
513
thin layer, general 167
vapor saturation pressure 160, 209, 223,
thin layered shell (node) 86, 476
356, 510
thin moisture barrier (node) 523
Vickers correlation coefficient 226, 466
thin rod (node) 490
Vickers size index 226, 466
Thomson effect 219
view factors 40, 193, 379, 422, 499
time zone 196, 501
viscous dissipation (node) 412
time-dependent study 273
volumetric heat capacity 47, 404

INDEX| 579
 W water content 159, 358
wavelength dependence of emissivity 286
websites, COMSOL 31
wet surface (node) 524

Y Young’s modulus 39, 227

Z zenith 49, 196

580 | I N D E X