Figure 18.

1 Schematic Example of
Petroleum Distilling Plant
 distillate, such as diesel oil. They have lower Blown asphalt generally is not used as a paving
CHAPTER 18 viscosities than asphalt cement and are very slow material. However, it is very useful as a roofing
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS to harden. material, for automobile undercoating, and as a
These hydrocarbons are found in natural deposits Medium-Curing Cutback Asphalts (MC) joint filler for concrete pavements. The elasticity of
or are obtained as a product of the distillation of are produced by fluxing, or cutting back, the catalytically blown asphalt is similar to that of
crude petroleum. Either asphalts or tars are used in residual asphalt (usually 120 to 150 penetration) rubber, and it is used for canal lining.
highway construction. Consist primarily of bitumen with light fuel oil or kerosene. The term medium 18.2.5 Road Tars
and have strong adhesive properties with colors refers to the medium volatility of the kerosene- Tars are obtained from the destructive distillation
ranging from dark brown to black. They vary in type diluter used. Medium curing cutback asphalts of such organic materials as coal. In general, they
consistency from liquid to solid. harden faster than slow-curing liquid asphalts, are more susceptible to weather conditions than
although consistencies of the different grades are similar grades of asphalts, and they set more
18.1 SOURCES OF ASPHALT similar to those of the slow-curing asphalts. quickly when exposed to the atmosphere.
- obtained from seeps or pools of natural deposits Rapid-Curing Cutback Asphalts (RC) The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)
as a product of the distillation of crude petroleum. are produced by blending asphalt cement with a has classified road tars into three general
18.1.1 Natural Deposits petroleum distillate that will evaporate easily, categories based on the method of production.
thereby facilitating a quick change from the liquid 1. Gashouse coal tars are produced as a by-product
Native asphalt (after being softened with
form at the time of application to the consistency in gashouse retorts in the manufacture of
petroleum fluxes) used extensively as binders in
of the original asphalt cement. Gasoline or naphtha illuminating gas from bituminous coals.
highway construction. Its properties vary from one
generally is used as the solvent for this series of 2. Coke-oven tars are produced as a by-product in
deposit to another, particularly with respect to the
asphalts. The grade of rapid-curing asphalt required coke ovens in the manufacture of coke from
amount of insoluble material it contains.
dictates the amount of solvent to be added to the bituminous coal.
Rock asphalt is a natural deposit of sandstone or 3. Water-gas tars are produced by cracking oil
residual asphalt cement.
limestone rocks filled with asphalt. It can be used vapors at high temperatures in the manufacture of
to surface roads after the mined or quarried 18.2.3 Emulsified Asphalts
Emulsified asphalts are produced by breaking carbureted water gas.
material has been suitably processed which
includes adding suitable mineral aggregates, asphalt cement, usually of 100 to 250 penetration 18.3 PROPERTIES OF ASPHALT
asphalt binder, and oil, which facilitates the flowing range, into minute particles and dispersing them in MATERIALS
of the material water with an emulsifier. These minute particles four main categories:
have like-electrical charges and therefore do not
18.1.2 Petroleum Asphalt 18.3.1 Consistency
coalesce and an emulsifying agent, which in some
The asphalt materials obtained from the distillation The consistency properties of an asphalt material
cases also may contain a stabilizer.
of petroleum are in the form of different types of usually are considered under two conditions:
classified as;
asphalts. The quantity of asphalt obtained from Variation of Consistency with Temperature
anionic - have negative electrical charges
crude petroleum is dependent on the American The consistency of any asphalt material changes as
surrounding the particles highway maintenance
Petroleum Institute (API), gravity of the the temperature varies. Thus, the consistency of
and construction
petroleum. the blown asphalt is affected less by temperature
effective in treating aggregates containing
Refining Processes use to obtain this asphalt; changes than the consistency of regular paving-
electropositive charges (such as limestone),
Fractional Distillation - the separation of the grade asphalt. This property of asphalt materials is
cationic- have positive electrical charges
different materials in the crude petroleum without known as temperature susceptibility. The
surrounding the particles highway maintenance
significant changes in the chemical composition of temperature susceptibility of given asphalt
and construction
each material. It removes the different volatile depends on the crude oil from which the asphalt is
is identified by placing the letter “C” in front of the
materials in the crude oil at successively higher obtained.
emulsion type ex. CRS-2
temperatures until the petroleum asphalt is effective with electronegative aggregates (such as Consistency at a Specified Temperature
obtained as residue. those containing a high percentage the consistency of an asphalt material will vary
Steam Distillation - is a continuous flow process in of siliceous material). from solid to liquid depending on the temperature
which the crude petroleum is pumped through of the material. It is therefore essential that when
nonionic – neutral, may be used more frequently
tube stills or stored in batches, and the the consistency of an asphalt material is given, the
in the future as emulsion technology advances.
temperature is increased gradually to facilitate the associated temperature also should be given.
evaporation of different materials at different Each of these categories is further divided into 18.3.2 Aging and Temperature
temperatures. three subgroups based on how rapidly the asphalt Sustainability
The residue becomes harder the longer the emulsion returns to the state of the original asphalt asphaltic materials lose their plasticity and become
distillation process is continued. cement. rapid-setting (RS), medium-setting (MS), brittle caused primarily by chemical and physical
Destructive Distillation - processes that involves and slow-setting (SS) reactions. This natural deterioration of the asphalt
the application of high temperature and pressure, material is known as weathering. The ability of an
resulting in chemical changes. Cracking processes Emulsified asphalts are used in cold-laid plant asphalt material to resist weathering is described
are used when larger amounts of the light fractions mixes and road mixes (mixed in-place) for several as the durability of the material.
of materials (such as motor fuels) are required. purposes, including the construction of highway Factors that influence weathering;
Not used widely in paving, because it is more pavement surfaces and bases and in surface Oxidation is the chemical reaction that takes place
susceptible to weather changes than that produced treatments when the asphalt material is attacked by oxygen in
from fractional distillation. Also note that ordinary emulsions must be the air.
18.2 DESCRIPTION AND USES OF protected during very cold spells because they will Volatilization is the evaporation of the lighter
BITUMINOUS BINDERS break down if frozen. Three grades of high-float, hydrocarbons from the asphalt material
three general groups; medium-setting anionic emulsions designated as Temperature has a significant effect on the rate of
18.2.1 Asphalt Cements HFMS have been developed and are used mainly in oxidation and volatilization. The higher the
cold and hot plant mixes and coarse aggregate seal temperature, the higher the rates of oxidation and
obtained after separation of the lubricating oils.
coats. volatilization. The relationship between
They are semisolid hydrocarbons with certain
physiochemical characteristics that make them These high float emulsions have one significant temperature increase and increases in rates of
good cementing agents. They are also very viscous. property: They can be laid at relatively thicker films oxidation and volatilization is not linear; however;
Used mainly in the manufacture of hot-mix, hot- without a high probability of runoff. the percentage increase in rate of oxidation and
laid asphalt concrete. 18.2.4 Blown Asphalts volatilization is usually much greater than the
18.2.2 Asphalt Cutbacks obtained by blowing air through the semisolid percentage increase in temperature that causes
used mainly in cold-laid plant mixes, road mixes residue obtained during the latter stages of the the increase in oxidation and volatilization.
(mixed-in-place), and as surface treatments. distillation process. The process involves stopping Surface Area The exposed surface of the material
three types; the regular distillation while the residue is in the also influences its rate of oxidation and
liquid form and then transferring it into a tank volatilization.
Slow-Curing Asphalts (SC)
known as a converter. Blown asphalts are relatively There is a direct relationship between surface area
can be obtained directly as slow-curing straight
stiff compared to other types of asphalts and can and rate of oxygen absorption and loss due to
run asphalts through the distillation of crude maintain a firm consistency at the maximum evaporation in grams/cm3/minute. An inverse
petroleum or as slow-curing cutback asphalts by temperature normally experienced when exposed relationship, however, exists between volume and
“cutting back” asphalt cement with a heavy to the environment. rate of oxidation and volatilization. This means that
the rate of hardening is directly proportional to the 18.3.5 Temperature Effect on Volume of 18.4.2 Penetration Test
ratio of the surface area to the volume. Asphaltic Materials The penetration test gives an empirical
18.3.3 Rate of Curing The volume of asphalt is affected by changes in measurement of the consistency of a material in
defined as the process through which an asphalt temperature significantly. The volume increases terms of the distance a standard needle sinks into
material increases its consistency as it loses solvent with an increase in temperature and decreases that material under a prescribed loading and time.
by evaporation. with a decrease in temperature. 18.4.3 Float Test
The rate of change in volume is given as the The float test is used to determine the consistency
Rate of Curing of Cutbacks coefficient of expansion, which is the volume of semisolid asphalt materials that are more
the rate of curing of any cutback asphalt material change in a unit volume of the material for a unit viscous than grade 3000 or have penetration higher
depends on the distillate used in the cutting-back change in temperature. than 300, since these materials cannot be tested
process. Indicates the time that should elapse 18.4 TESTS FOR ASPHALT MATERIALS conveniently using either the Saybolt Furol viscosity
before a cutback will attain a consistency that is test or the penetration test. The bituminous plug
Several tests are conducted on asphalt materials to
thick enough for the binder to perform is the float-test value and is a measure of the
determine both their consistency and quality to
satisfactorily. The rate of curing is affected by both consistency. It is readily apparent that the higher
ascertain whether materials used in highway
inherent and external factors. the float-test value, the stiffer the material.
construction meet the prescribed specifications.
The inherent factors are 18.4.4 Ring-and-Ball Softening Point Test
• Volatility of the solvent 18.4.1 Consistency Tests
the consistency at a specified temperature will The ring-and-ball softening point test is used to
• Quantity of solvent in the cutback
indicate the grade of the material, since measure the susceptibility of blown asphalt to
• Consistency of the base material
temperature significantly affects consistency of temperature changes by determining the
The more volatile the solvent is, the faster it can
asphalt materials. The property used to describe temperature at which the material will be
evaporate from the asphalt material, and therefore,
the consistency of asphalt materials in the liquid adequately softened to allow a standard ball to sink
the higher the curing rate of the material. This is
state is the viscosity, which can be determined by through it, at which the asphalt material touches
why gasoline and naphtha are used for rapid-curing
the bottom of the bath is recorded as the softening
cutbacks, whereas light fuel oil and kerosene are conducting either the Saybolt Furol viscosity test
point.
used for medium-curing cutbacks. or the kinematic viscosity test. Tests used for
The resistance characteristic to temperature shear
For any given type of solvent, the smaller the asphalt materials in the semisolid and solid states
also can be evaluated using this test.
quantity used, the less time is required for it to include the penetration test and the float test.
evaporate, and therefore, the faster the asphalt 18.4.5 Durability Tests
The ring-and-ball softening point test, which is
material will cure. When asphalt materials are used in the
not used often in highway specifications, also may
Also, the higher the penetration of the base asphalt, construction of roadway pavements, they are
be used for blown asphalt.
the longer it takes for the asphalt cutback to cure. subjected to changes in temperature (freezing and
Saybolt Furol Viscosity Test thawing) and other weather conditions over a
The iexternal factors that affect curing rate are The principal part of the equipment is the standard
• Temperature period of time.
viscometer tube, which is 5 in. long and about 1in.
• Ratio of surface area to volume Thin-Film Oven Test (TFO)
in diameter. An orifice of specified shape and
• Wind velocity across exposed surface This actually is not a test but a procedure that
dimensions is provided at the bottom of the tube,
These three external forces are related directly to measures the changes that take place in asphalt
is closed with a stopper, and the tube is filled with a
the rate of curing in that the higher these factors during the hot-mix process by subjecting the
quantity of the material to be tested. it is apparent
are, the higher the rate of curing. The curing rates asphalt material to hardening conditions similar to
that the higher the viscosity of the material, the
of different asphalt materials usually are compared those in a normal hot-mix plant operation. The
longer it takes for a given quantity to flow through
with the assumption that the external factors are consistency of the material is determined before
the orifice.
held constant. and after the TFO procedure using either the
Kinematic Viscosity Test penetration test or a viscosity test to estimate the
Rate of Curing for Emulsified Asphalts used to determine the kinematic viscosity, which is
The curing and adhesion characteristics of amount of hardening that will take place in the
defined as the absolute viscosity divided by the material when used to produce plant hot-mix
emulsions (anionic and cationic) used for pavement density. The test uses a capillary viscometer tube to
construction depend on the rate at which the asphalt.
measure the time it takes the asphalt sample to The minimum allowable percent of penetration
water evaporates from the mixture. When weather flow at a specified temperature between timing
conditions are favorable, the water is displaced retained is usually specified for different grades of
marks on the tube. One of three types of asphalt cement.
relatively rapidly, and so curing progresses rapidly. viscometer tubes can be used. These are the
When weather conditions include high humidity, 18.4.6 Rate of Curing
Zeitfuch’s cross-arm viscometer (Flow between
low temperature, or rainfall immediately following Tests for curing rates of cutbacks are based on
the timing marks arm viscometer is induced by
the application of the emulsion, its ability to inherent factors which can be controlled.
gravitational forces), the Asphalt Institute These tests compare different asphalt materials on
properly cure is affected adversely. Although the
effect of surface and weather conditions on proper vacuum viscometer( partial vacuum) and the the assumption that the external factors are held
curing is more critical for anionic emulsions, Cannon Manning vacuum viscometer. (partial constant. Volatility and quantity of solvent are used
favorable weather conditions also are required to vacuum) commonly to indicate the rate of curing. The
obtain optimum results for cationic emulsions. A The kinematic viscosity of the material in units of volatility and quantity of solvent may be
major advantage of cationic emulsions is that they centistokes is obtained by multiplying the time in determined from the distillation test;
release their water more readily. seconds by a calibration factor for the viscometer Distillation Test for Cutbacks
18.3.4 Resistance to Water Action used. The calibration of each viscometer is carried The amount of condensate collected at the
out by using standard calibrating oils with known different specified temperatures gives an indication
When asphalt materials are used in pavement
viscosity characteristics. of the volatility characteristics of the solvent. The
construction, it is important that the asphalt
In this case, flow is induced by applying a residual in the flask is the base asphalt used in
continues to adhere to the aggregates even with
prescribed vacuum through a vacuum control preparing the cutback.
the presence of water. If this bond between the
device attached to a vacuum pump. The product of Distillation Test for Emulsions
asphalt and the aggregates is lost, the asphalt will
the time interval and the calibration factor in this The distillation test for emulsions is similar to that
strip from the aggregates, resulting in the
test gives the absolute viscosity of the material in described for cutbacks. A major difference,
deterioration of the pavement. The asphalt
poises. however, is that the glass flask and Bunsen burner
therefore must sustain its ability to adhere to the
aggregates even in the presence of water. In hot- Rotational Viscosity Test are replaced with an aluminum-alloy still and a ring
mix, hot-laid asphalt concrete, where the This test is used to determine the viscosity of burner. This equipment prevents potential
aggregates are thoroughly dried before mixing, asphalt binders at elevated temperatures of 60_C problems that may arise from the foaming of the
stripping does not normally occurs and so no to over 200_C. It is conducted in a rotational emulsified asphalt.
preventive action is usually taken. However, when viscometer that can measure the torque required Note, however, that the results may not always be
water is added to a hot-mix, cold-laid asphalt to rotate a cylinder submerged in a heated sample accurate because of significant changes in the
concrete, commercial antistrip additives usually are of the asphalt binder at a required speed. It is properties of the asphalt. These changes are due to
added to improve the asphalt’s ability to adhere to performed by submerging the cylindrical spindle of • Inorganic salts from an aqueous phase
the aggregates. the viscometer in a specified amount of asphalt concentrating in the asphalt residue
sample at the required temperature.
• Emulsifying agent and stabilizer concentrating
The viscometer speed is set at 20 rpm.
in the asphalt residue
The torque and speed are used to determine the
viscosity of the binder in Pascal seconds.
These changes, mainly due to an increase in breaking when tested on standard ductility test from washing away with rain that may occur soon
temperature, do not occur in field application of equipment at 25_C (77_F). The result of this test after application. A high degree of demulsibility is
the emulsion, since the temperature in the field is indicates the extent to which the material can be required for emulsionsused for surface treatments,
usually much less than that used in the distillation deformed without breaking. This is an important such as RS1 and RS2. A relatively low degree of
test. The emulsion in the field, therefore, breaks characteristic for asphalt materials, although the demulsibility is required for emulsions used for
either electrochemically or by evaporation of the exact value of ductility is not as important as the mixing coarse aggregates to avoid having the
water. An alternative method to determine the existence or nonexistence of the property in the materials peel off before placing, and a very low
properties of the asphalt after it is cured on the material. degree is required for materials produced for
pavement surface is to evaporate the water at sub The test is used mainly for semisolid or solid mixing fine aggregates. Since calcium chloride will
atmospheric pressure and lower temperatures. materials. coagulate minute particles of asphalt, it is used in
18.4.7 Rheological Tests Solubility Test the test for anionic rapid-setting (RS) emulsions;
The dynamic shear test and the bending creep test The solubility test is used to measure the amount however, dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate is used
are presented next. It should be noted that these of impurities in the asphalt material. Since asphalt instead of calcium chloride for testing cationic
tests do not lead to a full characterization of the is nearly 100 percent soluble in certain solvents, rapid-setting (CRS) emulsions.
viscoelastic properties of asphalt binders. the portion of any asphalt material that will be The strength of the test solution used and the
Dynamic Shear Test effective in cementing aggregates together can be minimum value of demulsibility required are
This test is used to determine the dynamic determined from the solubility test. Insoluble prescribed in the relevant specifications.
(oscillatory) shear modulus and phase angle of a materials include free carbon, salts, and other Sieve Test for Emulsions
sample of asphalt binder when tested in an inorganic impurities. This test is conducted by The sieve test is conducted on asphalt emulsions to
oscillatory mode. A Dynamic Shear Rheometer dissolving a known quantity of the material in a determine to what extent the material has
solvent (such as trichloroethylene) and then emulsified and the suitability of the material for
(DSR) test system is used to conduct the test. The
filtering it through a Gooch crucible. The material application through pressure distributors. This test
DSR test system consists of parallel metal plates, an
retained in the filter is dried and weighed. The test is conducted by passing a sample of the material
environmental chamber, a loading device, and a
results are given in terms of the percent of the through a No. 20 sieve and determining what
data acquisition unit. The test is conducted on test
asphalt material that dissolved in the solvent. percentage by weight of the material is retained in
specimens with dimensions of either 1 mm thick
Flash-Point Test the sieve. A maximum value of 0.1 percent usually
and 25 mm in diameter or 2 mm thick and 8 mm in
The flash point of an asphalt material is the is specified.
diameter.
This is done by pre-selecting the frequencies and temperature at which its vapors will ignite Particle-Charge Test for Emulsions
rotational deformation amplitudes which are instantaneously in the presence of an open flame. The particle-charge test is used to identify CRS and
dependent on the value of the complex shear Note that the flash point normally is lower than the CMS grades of emulsions. This test is conducted by
modulus of the asphalt binder being tested. temperature at which the material will burn. immersing an anode electrode and a cathode
The test can be conducted by using either the electrode in a sample of the material to be tested
Bending Creep Test
Tagliabue open-cup apparatus or the Cleveland and then passing an electric current through the
Indirect loading techniques are used in this test to
open-cup apparatus, system. The electrodes then are examined (after
determine the tensile creep compliance of hot-mix
The Cleveland open-cup test is more suitable for some time) to identify which one contains an
asphalt under different loading times, tensile
materials with higher flash points whereas the asphalt deposit. If a deposit occurs on the cathode
strength, and Poisson’s ratio. The test uses an
Tagliabue open-cup is more suitable for materials electrode, the emulsion is cationic.
indirect tensile test system consisting of several
components including an axial loading device, a with relatively low flash points, such as cutback 18.5 ASPHALT MIXTURES
load measuring device, devices for measuring asphalts. The test is conducted by partly filling the Asphalt mixtures are a uniformly mixed
specimen deformation, an environmental chamber, cup with the asphalt material and gradually combination of asphalt cement, coarse aggregate,
and a control and data acquisition system. increasing its temperature at a specified rate. fine aggregate and other materials, depending on
The horizontal and vertical deformations near the The minimum temperature at which this occurs is the type of asphalt mixture.
center of the system are recorded by the data the flash point. It can be seen that this temperature The degree to which an asphalt mixture achieves
acquisition system and then are used to determine gives an indication of the temperature limit at these characteristics mainly is dependent on the
the Poisson’s ratio and tensile creep compliance as which extreme care should be taken, particularly design of the mix used in producing the material.
a function of time. The tensile strength can be when heating is done over open flames in open Three categories of asphalt mixtures;
determined immediately after the creep test or containers. 18.5.1 Hot-Mix, Hot-Laid Asphalt Mixture
later by inducing a constant rate of vertical Loss-on-Heating Test Hot-mix, hot-laid asphalt mixture is produced by
deformation to failure. The loss-on-heating test is used to determine the properly blending asphalt cement, coarse
18.4.8 Other General Tests amount of material that evaporates from a sample aggregate, fine aggregate, and filler (dust) at
of asphalt under a specified temperature and time. temperatures ranging from about 175 to 325_F,
Several other tests are conducted routinely on
The result indicates whether asphalt material has depending on the type of asphalt cement used.
asphalt materials used for pavement construction
been contaminated with lighter materials. Hot-mix, hot-laid asphalt mixture normally is used
either to obtain specific characteristics for design
This loss in penetration may be used as an for high-type pavement construction, and the
purposes (for example, specific gravity) or to obtain
indication of the weathering characteristics of the mixture can be described as open graded, coarse-
additional information that aids in determining the
asphalt. graded, dense-graded, or fine-graded.
quality of the material. Some of the more common
routine tests are described briefly. Water Content Test Note that when designing a hot-mix asphalt
The presence of large amounts of water in asphalt mixture, a favorable balance must be found
Specific Gravity Test
materials used in pavement construction between a highly stable product and a durable one.
The specific gravity of asphalt materials is used
is undesirable, and to ensure that only a limited Aggregate Gradation
mainly to determine the weight of a given volume
quantity of water is present, specifications for Aggregates usually are categorized as crushed rock,
of material (or vice versa) to determine the amount
these materials usually include the maximum sand, and filler. The rock material is predominantly
of voids in compacted mixes and to correct
percentage of water by volume that is allowable. A coarse aggregate retained in a No. 8 sieve, sand is
volumes measured at high temperatures. Specific
quantity of the sample to be tested is mixed with predominantly fine aggregate passing the No. 8
gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight of a
an equal quantity of a suitable distillate in a sieve, and filler is predominantly mineral dust that
given volume of the material to the weight of the
distillation flask that is connected with a condenser passes the No. 200 sieve. It is customary for
same volume of water. The specific gravity of
and a trap for collecting the water. The sample gradations of the combined aggregate and the
bituminous materials, however, changes with
then is heated gradually in the flask, eventually individual fractions to be specified.
temperature which dictates that the temperature
causing all of the water to evaporate and be The first phase in any mix design is the selection
at which the test is conducted should be indicated.
collected. The quantity of water in the sample is and combination of aggregates to obtain a
The test normally is conducted with a pycnometer,
then expressed as a percentage of the total sample gradation within the limits prescribed. This
volume.
sometimes is referred to as mechanical
Demulsibility Test for Emulsion stabilization, aggregates is not more than two.
The demulsibility test is used to indicate the
Whent he number of aggregates is three or greater,
relative susceptibility of asphalt emulsions to
the trial-and-error method is preferable,
breaking down (coalescing) when in contact with
aggregates. Asphalt emulsions are expected to although the graphical methods also can be used.
Ductility Test
Ductility is the distance in centimeters a standard break immediately when they come in contact with Asphalt Content
sample of asphalt material will stretch before the aggregate, so that the material is prevented Having determined a suitable mix of aggregates,
the next step is to determine the optimum
percentage of asphalt that should be used in the Gsb =bulk specific gravity of aggregates in the aggregates (VMA), and the percent air voids in the
asphalt mixture. This percentage should be within paving mixture compacted mixture all can be determined.
the prescribed limits (of course). The gradation of Pca, Pfa, Pmf =percent by weight of coarse Asphalt absorption is the percent by weight of the
the aggregates determined earlier and the aggregate, fine aggregate, and mineral filler, asphalt that is absorbed by the aggregates based
optimum amount of asphalt cement determined respectively, in the paving mixture. on the total weight of the aggregates. This is given
combine to give the proportions of the different (Note that as
materials to be used in producing the hot-mix, hot- Pca, Pfa, and Pmf could be found either as a where
laid mixture for the project under consideration. percentage of the paving mixture or as a Pba =amount of asphalt absorbed as a percentage
These determined proportions usually are referred percentage of only the total aggregates. of the total weight of
to as the job-mix formula. The same results will be obtained for Gsb) aggregates
Two commonly used methods to determine the Gbca, Gbfa, Gbmf _ bulk specific gravities of coarse Gse= effective specific gravity of the aggregates
optimum asphalt content are the Marshall aggregate, fine aggregate, and mineral filler, Gsb = bulk specific gravity of the aggregates
method and the Hveem method. respectively Gb =specific gravity of asphalt
It is not easy to accurately determine the bulk Effective Asphalt Content. The effective asphalt
Marshall Method Procedure.
specific gravity of the mineral filler. The apparent content is the difference between the total amount
The original concepts of this method were
specific gravity may therefore be used with very of asphalt in the mixture and that absorbed into
developed by Bruce Marshall, a bituminous
little error. the aggregate particles. The effective asphalt
engineer with the Mississippi State Highway
Department. Apparent Specific Gravity of Aggregates. The content is therefore that which coats the outside of
Test specimens of 4 in. diameter and 21/2 in. apparent specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the aggregate particles and influences the
height are used in this method. They are prepared the weight in air of an impermeable material to the pavement performance.
by a specified procedure of heating, mixing, and weight of an equal volume of distilled water at a where
compacting the mixture of asphalt and aggregates specified temperature. The apparent specific Pbe = effective asphalt content in paving mixture
which is then subjected to a stability flow test and a gravity of the aggregate mix is therefore obtained (percent by weight)
as Pb = percent by weight of asphalt in paving mixture
density-voids analysis. The stability is defined as
where Ps =aggregate percent by weight of paving mixture
the maximum load resistance N in pounds that the
Gasb = apparent specific gravity of the aggregate Pba= amount of asphalt absorbed as a percentage
specimen will achieve at 140_F under specified
mixture of the total weight of aggregates
conditions.
Pca, Pfa, Pmf = percent by weight of coarse Percent Voids in Compacted Mineral
The flow is the total movement of the specimen in
aggregate, fine aggregate, and Aggregates. The percent voids in compacted
units of 0.01 in. during the stability test as the load
mineral filler, respectively, in the mixture mineral aggregates (VMA) is the percentage of void
is increased from zero to the maximum.
Gaca, Gafa, Gamf = apparent specific gravities of spaces between the granular particles in the
Test specimens for the Marshall method are
coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, compacted paving mixture, including the air voids
prepared for a range of asphalt contents within the
and mineral filler, respectively and the volume occupied by the effective asphalt
prescribed limits.
Effective Specific Gravity of Aggregate. The content. It usually is calculated as a percentage of
The bulk density of the sample usually is
effective specific gravity of the aggregates is the bulk volume of the compacted mixture based
determined by weighing the sample in air and in
normally based on the maximum specific gravity of on the bulk specific gravity of the aggregates.
water. It may be necessary to coat samples made
the paving mixture. It is therefore the specific where
from open-graded mixtures with paraffin before
gravity of the aggregates when all void spaces in VMA= percent voids incompactedmineral
determining the density. The bulk specific gravity
the aggregate particles are included, with the aggregates (percent of bulk volume)
Gmb of the sample—that is, the compacted
exception of those that are filled with asphalt Gmb =bulk specific gravity of compacted mixture
mixture—is given as
where Gsb =bulk specific gravity of aggregate
where
Gse =effective specific gravity of the aggregates Ps = aggregate percent by weight of total paving
Wa = weight of sample in air (g)
Gmm =maximum specific gravity of paving mixture mixture
Ww = weight of sample in water (g)
(no air voids) Percent Air Voids in Compacted Mixture. This is
Stability Test Pb =asphalt percent by total weight of paving
In conducting the stability test, the specimen is the ratio (expressed as a percentage) between the
mixture (thus 100 – Pb is the volume of the small air voids between the coated
immersed in a bath of water at a temperature of 60 percent by weight of the base mixture that is not
1_C (140 1.8_F) for a period of 30 to 40 minutes. particles and the total volume of the mixture. It can
asphalt) be obtained from
It is then placed in the Marshall stability testing Gb= specific gravity of the asphalt
machine and loaded data constant rate of where
Maximum Specific Gravity of the Paving Pa =percent air voids in compacted paving mixture
deformation of 2 in. (5 mm) per minute until failure
Mixture. The maximum specific gravity of the Gmm= maximum specific gravity of the compacted
occurs.
paving mixture Gmm assumes that there are no air paving mixture
The total load N in pounds that causes failure of the
voids in the asphalt concrete. Gmb = bulk specific gravity of the compacted
specimen at 60_C (140_F) is noted as the Marshall
Although the Gmm can be determined in the paving mixture
stability value of the specimen. The total amount of
laboratory by conducting the standard test (ASTM Four additional separate smooth curves are drawn:
deformation in units of 0.01 in. that occurs up to
Designation D2041), the best accuracy is attained percent voids in total mix versus percent of asphalt,
the point the load starts decreasing is recorded as
at mixtures near the optimum asphalt content. percent voids in mineral aggregate versus percent
the flow value.
Since it is necessary to determine the Gmm for all of asphalt, Marshall stability versus percent of
Analysis of Results from Marshall Test. samples, some of which contain much lower or asphalt, and flow versus percent of asphalt. These
The first step in the analysis of the results is the much higher quantities than the optimum asphalt graphs are used to select the asphalt contents for
determination of the average bulk specific gravity content, the following procedure can be used to maximum stability, maximum unit weight, and
for all test specimens having the same asphalt determine the Gmm for each sample. percent voids in the total mix within the limits
content. The effective specific gravity obtained then is used specified (usually the
These different measures of the specific gravity of to determine the maximum specific gravity of the Pa = 100
the aggregates take into consideration the variation paving mixtures with different asphalt cement Gmm= Gmb
with which mineral aggregates can absorb water contents using Gmm median of the limits). The average of the
and asphalt. where asphalt contents is the optimum asphalt content.
Bulk Specific Gravity of Aggregate. Gmm =maximum specific gravity of paving mixture The stability and flow for this optimum content
The bulk specific gravity is defined as the weight in (no air voids) then can be obtained from the appropriate graphs
air of a unit volume (including all normal voids) of a Ps= percent by weight of aggregates in paving to determine whether the required criteria are met.
permeable material at a selected temperature, mixture AASHTO suggested criteria for these test limits are
divided by the weight in air of the same volume of Pb =percent by weight of asphalt in paving mixture given in Table 18.7. It should be noted that
gas-free distilled water at the same selected Gse =effective specific gravity of the aggregates all criteria should be satisfied and not just the
temperature. (assumed to be constant for criterion for stability.
Since the aggregate mixture consists of different different asphalt cement contents) Evaluation and Adjustment of Mix Design
fractions of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, and Gb =specific gravity of asphalt As stated earlier, the overall objective of the mix
mineral fillers with different specific gravities, the Once these different specific gravities have been design is to determine an optimum blend of
bulk specific gravity of the total aggregate in the determined, the asphalt absorption, the effective different components that will satisfy the
paving mixture is given as asphalt content, the percent voids in mineral
where
requirements of the given specifications. The bins containing different specified sizes. One Slurry Seal
mixture should have important factor in the production of Slurry seal is a uniformly mixed combination of a
• An adequate amount of asphalt to ensure a this type of asphalt mixture is that the slow-setting asphalt emulsion (usually
durable pavement manufactured product should be discharged at SS-1), fine aggregate, mineral filler, and water.
• An adequate mix stability to prevent unacceptable a temperature of 170_F 10_. To achieve this, Mixing can be carried out in a conventional
distortion and displacement when traffic load is the aggregates are cooled to approximately plastic mixer or in a wheelbarrow if the quantity
applied 180_F after they are dried but before they are required is small. It usually
• Adequate voids in the total compacted mixture to placed into the mixer. Based on is applied with an average thickness of 1⁄16 to 1⁄8
permit a small amount of compaction when traffic the job-mix formula, the exact amount of the inches.
load is applied without loss of stability, blushing, aggregates from each bin is weighed and Slurry seal is used as a low-cost maintenance
and bleeding, but at the same time insufficient placed in the mixer. The different sizes of material for pavements carrying
voids to prevent harmful penetration of air and aggregates are thoroughly mixed together light traffic. Note, however, that although the
moisture into the compacted mixture. and dried. About 0.75 percent by weight of a application of a properly manufactured
• Adequate workability to facilitate placement of medium-curing cutback asphalt slurry seal coat will fill cracks of about 1⁄4 in. or
the mix without segregation. (MC-30), to which a wetting agent has been added, more and provide a fine-textured surface,
When the mix design for the optimum asphalt is mixed with the aggregates for existing cracks will appear through the slurry seal in
content does not satisfy all of the another 10 seconds. The high-penetration asphalt a short time.
requirements given in Table 18.7, it is necessary to cement and water then are added
adjust the original blend of aggregates. simultaneously to the mixture. The addition of Aggregate Seals
Trial mixes can be adjusted by using the following water is necessary to ensure that the Aggregate seals are obtained by spraying asphalt,
general guidelines. material remains workable after it has cooled down immediately covering it with aggregates,
Low Voids and Low Stability. In this situation, the to normal temperatures. The and then rolling the aggregates into the asphalt.
voids in the mineral aggregates amount of asphalt cement added is the optimum Asphalts used for aggregate
can be increased by adding more coarse aggregates. amount obtained from the mix seals are usually the softer grades of paving asphalt
Alternatively, the asphalt content design but the amount of water depends on and the heavier grades of liquid
can be reduced, but only if the asphalt content is whether the material is to be used within asphalts. Aggregate seals can be used to restore
higher than that normally used and a few days or stockpiled for periods up to several the surface of old pavementsPrime Coats
if the excess is not required as a replacement for months. When the material is to be Prime coats are obtained by spraying asphalt
the amount absorbed by the aggregates. used within a few days, 2 percent of water by binder materials onto nonasphalt base
Care should be taken when the asphalt content is weight is used; if it is to be stockpiled for courses. Prime coats are used mainly to
reduced because this can lead a long period, 3 percent of water is used. The • Provide a waterproof surface on the base
to both a decrease in durability and an increase in mixture then is mixed thoroughly for • Fill capillary voids in the base
permeability of the pavement. about 45 seconds to produce a uniform mix. • Facilitate the bonding of loose mineral particles
Low Voids and Satisfactory Stability. This mix can 18.5.3 Cold-Mix, Cold-Laid Asphalt Mixture • Facilitate the adhesion of the surface treatment
cause reorientation of particles Emulsified asphalts and low-viscosity cutback to the base
and additional compaction of the pavement with asphalts are used to produce cold-mix Medium-curing cutbacks normally are used for
time as continued traffic load is asphalt mixtures. They also can be used prime coating with MC-30 recommended
imposed on the pavement. This in turn may lead to immediately after production or stockpiled for priming a dense flexible base and MC-70 for
instability or flushing of the pavement. for use at a later date. The production process is more granular-type base
Mixes with low voids should be altered by adding similar to that of the hot-mix asphalts, materials. The rate of spray is usually between 0.2
more aggregates. except that the mixing is done at normal and 0.35 gal/yd2 for the MC-30 and
High Voids and Satisfactory Stability. When voids temperatures and it is not always necessary between 0.3 and 0.6 gal/yd2 for the MC-70. The
are high, it is likely that the permeability to dry the aggregates. However, saturated amount of asphalt binder used, however,
of the pavement also will be high, which will allow aggregates and aggregates with surface should be the maximum that can be absorbed
water and air to circulate moisture should be dried before mixing. The type completely by the base within
through the pavement and result in premature and grade of asphalt material used 24 hours of application under favorable weather
hardening of the asphalt. High voids depends on whether the material is to be conditions. The base course must
should be reduced to acceptable limits, even stockpiled for a long time, the use of the contain a nominal amount of water to facilitate the
though the stability is satisfactory. This material, and the gradation of the aggregates. For penetration of the asphalt material
can be achieved by increasing the amount of example, MS-1 and MS-2 emulsified into the base. It is therefore necessary to lightly
mineral dust filler in the mix. asphalts are used commonly in pavement bases spray the surface of the base
Satisfactory Voids and Low Stability. This condition and surfaces for open graded aggregates, course with water just before the application of the
suggests low quality aggregates; while CS-1 and CSH-1 are used commonly for well prime coat if its surface has
the quality should be improved. graded aggregates. become dry and dusty.
High Voids and Low Stability. It may be necessary to Seal Coats Tack Coats
carry out two steps in this Seal coats are usually single applications of asphalt A tack coat is a thin layer of asphalt material
case. The first step is to adjust the voids as material that may or may not contain sprayed over an old pavement to facilitate
discussed earlier. If this adjustment does aggregates. The three types of seal coats the bonding of the old pavement and a new course
not simultaneously improve the stability, the commonly used in pavement maintenance which is to be placed over the
second step is to consider the improvement are fog seals, slurry seals, and aggregate seals. old pavement. In this case, the rate of application
of the aggregate quality. Fog Seal of the asphalt material should be
18.5.2 Hot-Mix, Cold-Laid Asphalt Mixture Fog seal is a thin application of emulsified asphalt, limited, since none of this material is expected to
Asphalt mixtures in this category are manufactured usually with no aggregates added. penetrate the old pavement. Asphalt
hot and then shipped and laid Slow-setting emulsions, such as SS-1, SS-1H, CSS-1, emulsions such as SS-1, SS-1H, CSS-1, and CSS-1H
immediately or they can be stockpiled for use at a and CSS-1H, normally are used normally are used for tack coats
future date. Thus, they are suitable for fog seals. The emulsion is sprayed at a rate of after they have been thinned with an equal amount
for small jobs for which it may be uneconomical to 0.1 to 0.2 gal/yd2 after it has been of water. The rate of application
set up a plant. They are also a suitable diluted with clean water. Fog seals are used mainly varies from 0.05 to 0.15 gal/yd2 of the thinned
material for patching high-type pavements. The to material. Rapid-curing cutback asphalts
Marshall method of mix design • Reduce the infiltration of air and water into the such as RC-70 also may be used as tack coats.
can be used for this type of asphalt concrete, but pavement Sufficient time must elapse between the
high-penetration asphalt normally is • Prevent the progressive separation of aggregate application of the tack coat and the application
used. The most suitable asphalt cements have been particles from the surface downward of the new course to allow for adequate curing of
found to have penetrations within or from the edges inward (raveling) in a pavement the material through the evaporation
the lower limits of the 200 to 300 penetration (Raveling is mainly of most of the dilutent in the asphalt emulsion. This
grade. caused by insufficient compaction during curing process usually
Hot-mix, cold-laid asphalt mixtures are produced by construction carried out in wet or cold takes several hours in hot weather but can take
first thoroughly drying the weather conditions) more than 24 hrs in cooler weather.
different aggregates in a central hot-mix plant and • Bring the surface of the pavement to its original When the material is satisfactorily cured, it
then separating them into several state becomes a highly viscous, tacky film.
Surface Treatments • Satisfactory performance characteristics over the The average of the minimum one-day air
Asphalt surface treatments are obtained by service life of the pavement. temperature for each year was
applying a quantity of asphalt material A major difference between the Superpave mix selected as the minimum temperature. In addition,
and suitable aggregates on a properly constructed design and other design methods, the standard deviations of the
flexible base course to provide a such as the Marshal and Hveem methods, is that seven-day average maximum temperature and that
suitable wearing surface for traffic. Surface the Superpave mix design method for the one-day minimum air temperature
treatments are used to protect the base mainly uses performance-based and performance- for each year were determined. These standard
course and to eliminate the problem of dust on the related characteristics as the deviations are determined to
wearing surface. They can be selection criteria for the mix design. Figure 18.15 facilitate the use of reliability measurements in
applied as a single course with thicknesses varying illustrates the structure of the Superpave selecting the design pavement temperatures.
from 1⁄2 to 3⁄4 in. or a multiple course mix design system. An Associated Superpave For example, consider a location where the mean
with thicknesses varying from 7⁄8 to 2 inches. software is available for use by seven-day maximum
A single-course asphalt treatment is obtained by designers. temperature is 40_C with a standard deviation of
applying a single course of The Superpave system is unique in that it is 1_C. There is a 50 percent chance
asphalt material and a single course of aggregates. performance-based and engineering that during an average year, the seven-day
The rate of application of the principles can be used to relate the results maximum air temperature will exceed
asphalt material for a single course varies from 0.13 obtained from its tests and analyses to field 40_C, but only a 2 percent chance for it to exceed
to 0.42 gal/yd2 depending on the performance. 42_C (mean plus two standard deviations),
gradation of the aggregates used; the rate of The system consists of the following parts: assuming a normal temperature distribution.
application of the aggregates varies from • Selection of Materials Selecting a maximum air temperature
0.11 to 0.50 ft3/yd2. Multiple-course asphalt • Volumetric Trial Mixture Design of 42_C at this location will provide a reliability of
surface treatments can be obtained eitheras a • Selection of Final Mixture Design 98 percent that the maximum
double asphalt surface treatment consisting of two 18.6.1 Selection of Materials air temperature will not be exceeded. Table 18.12
courses of asphalt material and Selection of materials includes the selection of gives asphalt binder grades
aggregates or as a triple asphalt treatment asphalt binder and suitable mineral and reliability for selected cities.
consisting of three layers. The multiplecourse aggregates. The Superpave system also considers the fact that
surface treatments are constructed by first placing Selection of Asphalt Binder. The binder selected for the pavement temperature and
a uniform layer of coarse a given project is based on the not the air temperature should be used as the
aggregates over an initial application of the range of temperatures through which the design temperature. The system therefore
bituminous materials and then applying pavement will be exposed and the traffic to uses the expression given in Eq. 18.13 to convert
one or more layers of bituminous materials and be carried during its lifetime. The binders are the maximum air temperature
smaller aggregates, with each layer classified with respect to the range of to the maximum design pavement temperature.
having a thickness that is approximately equal to temperatures at which their physical property (18.13)
the nominal maximum size of the requirements must be met. For where
aggregates used for that layer. The maximum example, a binder that is classified as PG52-34 T20mm _ high-pavement design temperature at a
aggregate size of each layer subsequent must satisfy all the high-temperature depth of 20 mm
to the initial layer usually is taken as one-half that physical property requirements at temperatures up Tair _ seven-day average high air temperature (_C)
of the aggregates used in the preceding to at least 52_C and all the lowtemperature Lat _ the geographical latitude of the project
layer. The recommended rates of application of the physical requirements down to at least 34_C. The location (degrees)
asphalt material and the high-pavement designtemperature is defined at a T20mm _ 1Tair _ 0.00618Lat2 _ 0.2289Lat _
aggregates are shown in Table 18.10. depth of 20 mm below the pavement surface and 42.2210.95452 _ 17.78
18.6 SUPERPAVE SYSTEMS the lowpavement The low-pavement design temperature can be
As part of the Strategic Highway Research Program design temperature at the surface of the pavement. selected as either the low air temperature,
(SHRP), a new system for specifying Table 18.11 gives a which is rather conservative, or can be determined
the asphalt materials in asphalt concrete has been listing of the more commonly used asphalt binder from the low air temperature
developed. This system is grades with their associated physical using the expression
known as Superpave, which is a shortened form for properties. The selection can be made in one of (18.14)
superior performing asphaltpavements. The three ways. where
research leading to the development of this new 1. The designer may select a binder based on the Tpav _ low AC-pavement temperature below
system was initiated geographic location of the surface (_C)
because prior to Superpave, it was difficult to relate pavement. Tair _ low air temperature (_C)
the results obtained from laboratory 2. The designer may determine the design Lat _ latitude of the project location (degrees)
analysis in the existing systems to the performance pavement temperatures. H _ depth of pavement surface mm
of the pavement without field 3. The designer may determine the design air sair _ standard deviation of the mean low air
experience. For example, the old systems used the temperatures which are then converted temperature (_C)
results of tests performed at standard to design pavement temperatures. Z _ from the standard normal distribution table, Z _
test temperatures to determine whether the In the first method, the designer selects a binder 2.055 for 98 percent
materials satisfied the specifications. grade from a map that has been reliability
However, these tests are mainly empirical, and field prepared by her agency indicating the binder that Tpav _ 1.56 _ 0.72Tair _ 0.004Lat2 _ 6.26log101H _
experience is required to determine should be used for different locations. 252 _ Z14.4 _ 0.52s2
whether the results obtained have meaningful These maps usually are based onweather air 21>2
information. The Superpave characteristics and/or policy decisions. Adjusting Binder Grade for Traffic Speed and
system includes a method for specifying asphalt In the second method, the designer determines the Loading. The procedure described
binders and mineral aggregates, an design pavement temperatures above for selecting the asphalt binder is based on
asphalt mixing design, and a procedure for that should be used. In the third method, the an assumed traffic condition consisting
analyzing and predicting pavement performance. designer uses the information given in the of a designed number of fast transient loads. The
The material presented here is based on several Superpave system on the maximum and minimum selected binder should therefore
reports published by the air temperatures of the project location be adjusted for traffic conditions that are different
National Research Council on research conducted and then converts these temperatures to the from that assumed in the procedure,
under the Strategic Highway design pavement temperatures. as the speed of loading has an additional effect on
Research Program (SHRP) as noted in The The Superpave system makes use of a temperature the ability of the pavement
Superpave Mix Design Manual for New database consisting of data to resist permanent deformation at the high
Construction and Overlays. The objective of this mix from 6092 reporting weather stations in the United temperature condition. When the design
design is to obtain a mixture of States and Canada that have been loads are moving slowly, the selected asphalt
asphalt and aggregates that has the following in operation for 20 years or more. In determining binder based on the procedure described
characteristics: the maximum temperature, the earlier should be shifted higher one high-
• Sufficient asphalt binder hottest seven-day period for each year was temperature grade. For example, when the
• Sufficient voids in the mineral aggregates (VMA) identified, and the average of the maximum standard procedure gives a PG52-28, a PG58-28
and air voids air temperature during each of these periods was should be used for a slow-moving
• Sufficient workability, and selected as the maximum temperature.
load. Also, when the design load is stationary, the “Test Method for Uncompacted Void Content of equivalent value. Table 18.17 gives minimum
binder selected from the procedure Fine Aggregate (as Influenced by allowable values for the sand equivalent
should be shifted higher two high-temperature Particle, Shape, Surface Texture, and Grading) for different traffic loads.
grades. In addition to shifting the (Method A)” can be used to determine The other aggregate properties that were
selected binder grade for speed, the designer the angularity of fine aggregates. In this test, a considered critical by the developers of
should adjust the binder for the accumulated standard cylinder of known the Superpave system (for which critical values
traffic load. For equivalent single axle loads volume (V) is filled with a washed sample of fine were not determined by consensus)
(ESAL)—see Chapter 19 for aggregates by pouring the aggregates were classified as source aggregate properties.
definition of ESAL—of 10,000,000 to 30,000,000, through a standard funnel. The mass (W) of the These properties are toughness, soundness,
the engineer should consider shifting fine aggregates filling the standard and maximum allowable percentage of deleterious
the binder selected based on the procedure by one cylinder of volume V is then determined. The materials. These properties
high-temperature binder grade, but volume of the fine aggregates in the are discussed in Chapter 20.
for ESALs exceeding 30,000,000, a shift of one high- standard cylinder then is determined as (W/Gbfa), Gradation. The distribution of aggregate particle
temperature grade is required. and the void content is determined sizes for a given blend of aggregate
The steps used to determine a suitable asphalt as a percentage of the cylinder volume, as shown in mixture is known as the design aggregate structure.
binder grade can be summarized Eq. 18.15. The gradation system used
as follows: Uncompacted void _ (18.15) for Superpave is based on the 0.45 gradation plot.
Step 1. Identify a weather station that is in the V _ W>Gbfa This is a plot of the percent passing
vicinity of the project location. V a given sieve against the sieve size in mm raised to
If the project location is remote from the _ 100% the 0.45 power. That is, the vertical
established stations, identify Chapter 18 Bituminous Materials 1003 axis of the graph is percent passing and the
as many as three stations. Use the data at these Table 18.14 Coarse Aggregate Angularity Criteria horizontal axis is the size of the sieve in
stations to evaluate and Depth from Surface mm raised to the 0.45 power. In order to
estimate climate conditions at the project site. Traffic, Million ESALs _ 100 mm _ 100 mm understand the gradation system used, it is
Note that weather data _ 0.3 55/_ _/_ first necessary to define certain gradation terms
for a given site may be specified by a specific _1 65/_ _/_ that the Superpave system uses.
agency. _3 75/_ 50/_ These are maximum size, nominal maximum size,
Step 2. Select a degree of design reliability for high- _ 10 85/80 60/_ and maximum density gradation.
and low-temperature performance _ 30 95/90 80/75 Maximum size is defined as one sieve larger than
based on the agency’s policy or use engineering _ 100 100/100 95/90 the nominal maximum size, and
judgment _ 100 100/100 100/100 the nominal maximum size is one sieve larger than
based on maintenance and rehabilitation costs. Note: “85/80” indicates that 85% of the coarse the first sieve that retains more
Step 3. Using the selected design reliability, aggregate has one or more fractured faces and 80% than 10 percent of the aggregate. Five mixture
estimate the associated design two or more gradations are specified in the Superpave
pavement temperatures and associated risks. fractured faces. system, as shown in Table 18.18 on the following
Step 4. Determine the grade of asphalt binder that SOURCE: The Superpave Mix Design Manual for page.
will just satisfy the minimum New Construction and Overlays, Strategic Highway Maximum density gradation is obtained when the
and maximum design pavement temperatures Research aggregate particles fit together
obtained from Steps 2 Program, National Research Council, Washington, in their densest form. An important characteristic
and 3. D.C., 1994. of the 0.45 power plot is that the
Step 5. Select higher grades based on traffic where Gbfa _ bulk specific gravity of the fine maximum density gradation for a sample of soil is
characteristics, as shown in aggregate. Table 18.15 gives the criteria given by a straight line joining the
Table 18.13. for fine aggregate angularity. maximum size and the origin, as shown in Figure
Note that the Superpave software can be used to Aflat and elongated particle is defined as one that 18.16 on the following page.
conduct these steps. has its maximum dimension five An acceptable aggregate gradation is defined by
Selection of Mineral Aggregate. Based on the times greater than its minimum dimension. The specifying control points on themaximum density
results obtained from surveying pavement amount of fine and elongated particles gradation chart for the smallest sieve size (0.075
experts, two categories of aggregate properties in the coarse aggregate is obtained by conducting mm), the nominal
were identified by the developers ASTM D4791 designated test maximum size, and an intermediate size sieve (2.36
of Superpave for use in the system. These are “Flat or Elongated Particles in Coarse Aggregates” mm). An acceptable soil blend
referred to as consensus standards on coarse aggregates larger than therefore should have a maximum density
and source (agency) standards. In addition to the 4.75 mm. This test involves the use of a gradation line that lies within these control
consensus and source standards, proportional caliper device that automatically points.
Superpave uses a gradation system that is based on tells whether a particle is flat or elongated. The test In addition, a restricted zone, also shown in Figure
the 0.45 power gradation chart to is performed on a sample of the 18.16, is established along
determine the design aggregate structure. The coarse aggregate and the percentage by mass the maximum density curve between the 0.3 mm
aggregate characteristics that generally determined. The maximum percentage sieve and the intermediate sieve
were accepted by the experts as critical for good allowed is given in Table 18.16 for different traffic (2.36 mm). For a soil blend to be acceptable, its
performance of the hot mix asphalt loads. gradation must not pass within
(HMA) are classified as consensus properties. These The clay content is defined as the percentage of the restricted zone. Soils that have gradations that
properties include the angularity clayey material in the portion of go through the restricted zone
of the coarse aggregates, the angularity of the fine aggregate passing through the 4.75-mm sieve. It is have been found to create compaction problems
aggregates, the amount of flat and obtained by conducting the during construction and tend to
elongated particles in the coarse aggregates, and AASHTO T176 designated test “Plastic Fines in have inadequate VMA. Also, the Superpave system
the clay content. The angularity of Graded Aggregates and Soils byUse of Sand recommends that the gradation
the coarse aggregate is defined as the percent by Equivalent Test.” This test is conducted by first pass below the restricted zone although this is not
weight of coarse aggregates larger mixing a sample of fine a requirement. Table 18.19 gives
than 4.75 mm with one or more fractured faces. aggregate in a graduated cylinder with a control points (maximum and minimum limits) for
The angularity of coarse aggregates flocculating solution. The clayey fines coating different nominal sieve sizes.
can be determined by conducting the Pennsylvania the aggregates are loosened from the aggregates Aggregates that have maximum density gradation
Department of Transportation by shaking the cylinder. The mixture lying between the control points
Test No. 621, “Determining the Percentage of then is allowed to stand for a period during which and outside the restricted zones are considered as
Crushed Pavements in Gravel.” The time the clayey material is suspended having an acceptable design aggregate
criteria for angularity of coarse aggregates depend above the granular aggregates (sedimented sand). structure.
on the traffic level and are given The heights of the suspended 18.6.2 Volumetric Trial Mixture Design
in Table 18.14. clay and the sedimented sand are measured. The This consists of:
The angularity of fine aggregates is defined as the ratio (expressed in percentage • Selection of design aggregate structure
percent of air voids in loosely of the height of the sedimented sand to that of the • Determining trial percentage of asphalt binder for
compacted aggregates smaller than 2.36 mm. The suspended clay) is the sand each trial aggregate blend
AASHTO designated test TP33, • Evaluating trial mix designs
• Obtaining design asphalt binder content (18.16) • A loading system consisting of loading ram and
Selection of Design Aggregate Structure where pressure gauge
In selecting the design aggregate structure, the Gse _ effective specific gravity of the aggregate • A control and data acquisition system and a mold
designer must first ascertain that the blend and base plate
individual aggregate and asphalt materials meet Gsb _ bulk specific gravity of the aggregate blend The level of compaction in the Superpave system is
the criteria discussed above. Trial Gasb _ apparent specific gravity of the aggregate given with respect to a design
blends should then be prepared by varying the blend number of gyrations (Ndes). The Ndes depends on
percentages from the different available The designer may decide to change the implicit the average design high air temperature
stockpiles. The mathematical procedure described multiplication factor of and the design ESAL. Two other levels of gyrations
in a previous section of this 0.8, particularly when absorptive aggregates are (maximum and initial) are
chapter for determining the different proportions used, as values close to important. The maximum number of gyrations,
of different aggregates to obtain a 0.6 or 0.5 are more appropriate for these Nmax, is used to compact the test specimens;
required gradation may be used to determine trial aggregates. and the initial number of gyrations, Nini, is used to
blends that meet the control Step 3. The amount of asphalt binder absorbed by estimate the compactibility
requirements. Although no specific number of trial the aggregates is estimated of the mixture. Nmax and Nini are obtained from
blends is recommended, it is generally from Eq. 18.17 as Ndes as shown.
accepted that three trial blends that have a range (18.17) (18.21)
of gradation will be adequate. where (18.22)
The four consensus properties, the bulk and Vba _ volume of absorbed binder, cm3/cm3 of mix Table 18.21 shows the values of Ndes for different
apparent specific gravities of the aggregates, Pb _ percent of binder (assumed 0.05) ESALs and average design air
and any source aggregate properties should be Ps _ percent of aggregate (assumed 0.95) temperatures.
determined. At this stage, these Gb _ specific gravity of binder (assumed 1.02) Log Nini _ 0.45Log Ndes
properties can be determined by using Va _ volume of air voids (assumed 0.04 cm3/cm3 of Log Nmax _ 1.10Log Ndes
mathematical expressions, but actual tests mix) Ws _
should be carried out on the aggregate blend finally Step 4. Estimate the percent of effective asphalt Ps11 _ Va2
selected. The bulk specific gravity binder by volume using the Pb
may be obtained using Eq. 18.5, the apparent empirical expression given in Eq. 18.18. Gb
specific gravity using Eq. 18.6. (18.18) _
Determining Trial Percentage of Asphalt Binder where Ps
for each Trial Aggregate Blend Vbe_ the volume of effective binder content Gse
This selection is based on certain volumetric Sn_ the nominal maximum sieve size of the total Vbe _ 0.176 _ 0.0675log1Sn2
characteristics of the mixture which are aggregate in the compaction of the volumetric specimens is
dependent on the accumulated traffic load. The the trial aggregate gradation (mm) beyond the scope of this book.
Superpave volumetric mix design is Vbe _ 0.176 _ 10.06752log1Sn2 Interested readers will find this description in
proposed for three levels of traffic load. Level 1 is Vba _ Superpave Mix Design System Manual
for accumulated traffic less than 106 Ps11 _ Va2 of Specifications Test Methods and Practices. The
ESAL. Level 2 is for accumulated traffic between Pb theoretical maximum specific
106 and 107 ESAL, and Level 3 is for Gb gravity (Gmm) of the pavement mix is then
accumulated traffic greater than 107 ESAL. The _ determined using Eq. 18.8. Each trial
Level 1 design procedure primarily is Ps aggregate gradation then is evaluated with respect
based on the volumetric analysis of the mix while Gse to its VMA at Ndesign gyrations and
Levels 2 and 3 mix design procedures c the densities at Ninit and Nmax. This involves
incorporate performance tests that are used to 1 determining the volumetric properties at
measure fundamental properties Gsb the Ndesign gyration level of each paving mix and
and predict pavement performance. The difference _ estimating the VAM at 4 percent air
between Levels 2 and 3 is that a 1 voids. As it is very likely that the air voids content
more complete set of performance-based mixture Gse will not be at the required 4 percent,
properties are obtained and a more d the change in asphalt content to achieve a 4
comprehensive set of models set is used to Gse _ Gsb _ 0.81Gasb _ Gsb 2 percent air void content is obtained
determine fatigue and permanent deformation. Step 5. A trial percentage of asphalt binder then is by a procedure that involves shifting the
A brief discussion of the Level 1 procedure is given determined for each trial densification curves to determine the change
here. Interested readers aggregate blend using the following equation. in VMA that will occur as a result of this shift. This
may refer to the listed references for a more (18.19) shifting procedure is described
detailed description of the Level 1 procedure where fully in the Superpave Mix Design Manual for New
and the design procedures for Levels 2 and 3. Pbi _ percent of binder by mass of mix i Construction and Overlays.
The basic assumption made in the Level 1 mix Vbe _ volume of the effective binder and obtained The design parameters are estimated from the
design process is that properties of from Eq. 18.20 as shifted curve and compared with the
the mix (such as air voids and voids in mineral (18.20) Level 1 criteria. The VMA criteria are given in Table
aggregate) are suitable surrogates for Sn _ the nominal maximum sieve size of the 18.20, and the criteria for
mixture performance. It is suggested in the aggregate blend (mm) densities are that Cinit should be less than 89
procedure that the designer could change Vba _ volume of absorbed binder, cm3/cm3 of mix percent and Cmax should be less than
the level of 106 ESAL if the policy for her Gb _ specific gravity of binder assumed to be 1.02 98 percent—where C is a correction factor as
jurisdiction allows it. The volumetric properties Ws _ mass of aggregate, grams discussed later.
determined for the trial mixtures are the absorbed The Superpave software package can be used to The following physical properties of the compacted
asphalt volume (Vba), voids carry out these computations. specimens are determined as
in mineral aggregates (VMA), air voids (Va), asphalt These computations will provide an initial trial • Estimated bulk specific gravity [Gmbe (estimated)]
content (Pb), effective asphalt asphalt content for each trial aggregate • Corrected bulk specific gravity *Gmbc (corrected)]
volume (Vbe), and voids filled with asphalt (VFA). gradation. • Corrected percentage of maximum theoretical
The first task is the computation of an initial trial Evaluating Trial Mix Designs specific gravity
asphalt content for a trial aggregate Two specimens of each of the trial asphalt mixes The following equations are used to determine
gradation that will meet VMA requirements shown (using the computed trial asphalt these properties.
in Table 18.20 through the contents) then will be prepared and compacted at Gmbe _ (18.23)
following steps. the number of maximum gyrations Wm_Vmx
Step 1. Compute the bulk and apparent specific (Nmax) (see Table 18.21 on the following page) gw
gravities of the total aggregates using the Superpave gyrator where
in the trial aggregate mix using Eqs. 18.5 and 18.6, compactor. Wm _ mass of specimen (grams)
respectively. Figure 18.17 on page 1013 shows an example of a gw _ density of water _ 1g/cm
Step 2. Compute the effective specific gravity of the Superpave gyrator. The main Vmx _ volume of compaction mold (cm3)
total aggregate in the trial components of the compactor are (18.24)
gradation from Eq. 18.16. • A reaction frame, rotating base, and motor where
d _ diameter of mold (150 mm) asphalt content with a VMA of 4 percent using Eq. Gse _ Gsb
hx _ height of specimen in mold during compaction 18.30. b _ Pb,estimated
(mm) (18.30) Gmm,estimated at Nini _ Gmm,trial at Nini _ 14 _
Since the cylinder in which the mold is compacted where Pav2
is not smooth and Eq. 18.24 is based Pb,estimated _ estimated asphalt content, percent Obtaining Design Asphalt Binder Content
on this assumption, the actual volume of the by mass of mixture After the selection of the design aggregate
compacted mixture will be less than that Pbi _ initial (trial) asphalt content, percent by mass structure from the trial blends, a minimum
obtained from the equation. The estimated bulk of mixture of two specimens with an asphalt content of _0.5
specific gravity therefore is corrected Va _ percent air voids at Ndes (trial) and _5 percent of the estimated
using the corrected factor obtained as the ratio of The VMA and VFA at Ndes, Gmm at Nmax, and Nini asphalt content and at least two with an asphalt
the measured bulk specific gravity then are estimated for the design content of _1.0 percent are compacted.
to the estimated bulk specific gravity. asphalt content obtained using the following These specimens then are tested using the same
(18.25) equations. procedure described in the
where (18.31) section on select design aggregate structure. The
C _ correction factor where densification data at Nini, Ndes, and
Gmbm (measured) _ measured bulk specific after VMAinitial _ VMA from trial asphalt binder content Nmax are used to evaluate the properties of the
Nmax C1_ constant _ 0.1 if Va less than 4.0 percent selected aggregate blend for each of
Gmbe (estimated) _ estimated bulk specific after _ 0.2 if Pa is greater than 4.0 percent the asphalt binder contents. The volumetric
Nmax This value is compared with the corresponding properties (air voids, VAM, and VFA) at
The corrected bulk specific gravity [Gmbc value given in Table 18.20. the Ndes are calculated for each asphalt content
(corrected)] at any other gyration level can (18.32) and plotted against the asphalt content.
then be obtained using Eq. 18.26. This value is compared with the range of The asphalt binder content at 4 percent air void is
(18.26) acceptable values given in Table 18.22. selected as the design asphalt
where For Gmm (maximum specific gravity of paving binder content. The mixture with that asphalt
Gmbc (corrected) _ corrected bulk specific gravity mixture) at Nmax, binder content then is checked to ascertain
for the specimen for a given VFAestimated _ 100 that it meets all of the other mixture property
gyration level VMAestimated _ 4.0 criteria.
C _ correction factor VMAestimated Plots of Va,VMA, VFA, and Cdesign versus the
Gmbe (estimated) _ estimated bulk specific after VMAestimated _ VMAinitial _ C _ 14 _ Va2 percent asphalt content are drawn.
Nmax Pb,estimated _ Pb,i _ 30.4 _ 14 _ Pav2 4 The Superpave software can generate these plots
The percentage maximum theoretical specific VFA _ 100 a automatically. These plots are used
gravity Gmm for each desired gyration is VMA _ Pa to ascertain that the design mix meets all the
then computed as the ratio of Gmbc (corrected) to VMA Superpave criteria given in Table 18.23.
Gmm (measured). The average Gmm b The use of these plots to select the design asphalt
value for each gyration level is obtained using the VMA _ 100 _ a content is illustrated in Example 18.6,
Gmm values for the samples compacted GmbPs which also is given in the Superpave Design Manual.
at that level. Gsb Moisture Sensitivity. Finally, the moisture sensitivity
The values for the properties, percent air voids at b of the design mix may be
Ndesign (Pa), voids in mineral Gmm,estimated at Nmax _ Gmm,trial at Nmax _ 14 established by conducting the AASHTO designated
aggregate (VMA), and percent variation of VMA _ Va2Gmm,trial _ Gmm for the trial mixThe test T283 on specimens
from 4 percent (VFA) at Ndesign are maximum allowable mixture density at Nmax is 98 consisting of the selected aggregate blend and the
then determined using the following equations. percent of the maximum theoretical design asphalt content. This test
Pa _ 100 a (18.27) specific gravity (Gmm). determines the indirect tensile strength of the
Gmm _ Gmb For the percent Gmp at Nini, specimens. A total of six specimens are
Gmm (18.34) prepared, three of which are considered as
b The maximum allowable mixture density at Nini is controlled, and the other three as conditioned.
Gmbc 1corrected2 _ C _ Gmbe 1estimated2 89 percent of the maximum theoretical The conditioned specimens are first subjected to
C_ specific gravity (Gmm). partial vacuum saturation,
Gmbm 1measured2 The effective binder content (Pbe) then is followed by an optional freeze cycle, and then a 24-
Gmbe 1estimated2 determined from Eq. 18.35. hour thaw cycle at 60_C. The tensile
Vmx _ (18.35) tests of the specimens then are determined. The
pd2hx where moisture sensitivity is given as the
4 Gb _ specific gravity of the asphalt ratio of the average tensile strength of the
_ 0.01 cm3>mm3 Gse _ effective specific gravity of the aggregate conditioned specimens to that of the control
where Gsb _ bulk specific gravity of the aggregate specimens. The minimum acceptable value without
Pa _ air voids at Ndes percent of total volume Pb _ asphalt content, percent by total mass of the remedial action is 0.80.
Gmm _ maximum theoretical specific gravity at paving mixture This section has described briefly the Superpave
Ndes Obtaining Dust Percentage. The dust percentage is Level 1 mix design procedure as
Gmb_ bulk specific gravity of the compacted determined as the proportion given in the Superpave Mix Design Manual for New
mixture of the percentage by mass of the material passing Construction and Overlays.
(18.28) the 0.075-mm sieve to the effective It should be emphasized that this description does
where binder content by mass of the mix in percent as not comprehensively cover the procedure
VMA _ voids in mineral aggregate, percent in bulk shown in Eq. 18.36. but will enable the reader to have a good
volume (18.36) knowledge of it.
Gmb _ bulk specific gravity of the compacted where 18.7 SUMMARY
mixture DP _ dust percentage Asphalt pavement is becoming the most popular
Ps _ aggregate content cm3/cm3, by total mass of P0.75 _ aggregate content passing the 0.075-mm type of pavement used in highway
mixture sieve, percent by mass of construction. It is envisaged that the use of asphalt
Gsb _ bulk specific gravity of aggregates in the aggregate in highway construction
paving mixture Pbe _ effective asphalt content, percent by total will continue to increase, particularly with the
(18.29) mass of mixture additional knowledge that will be
If the percent of air voids is 4 percent, then the The range of acceptable dust proportion is from 0.6 obtained from research conducted over the next
values obtained for the volumetric criteria to 1.2. Based on these results, the few years. The engineering properties
are compared with the corresponding criteria designer will accept one or more of the trial blends of different asphalt materials is therefore of
values. For example, the values for that meet the desired criteria. significant importance in highway
VMA are shown in Table 18.20. If these criteria are DP _ engineering.
met, then the blend is acceptable. P0.75 This chapter has presented information on the
When the VMA is not 4 percent, it is necessary to Pbe different types of asphalt materials,
determine an estimated design Pbe _ _1Pb _ Gb2 _ a their physical characteristics, and some of the tests
Gse _ Gsb usually conducted on these
materials when used in the maintenance and/or
construction of highway pavements.
Two mix design methods for asphalt mixtures
(Marshall method and Superpave)
also have been provided, so the reader will
understand the principles involved in
determining the optimum mix for an asphalt
mixture. The chapter contains sufficient
material on the subject to enable the reader to
become familiar with the fundamental
engineering properties and characteristics of those
asphalt materials used in pavement
engineering.
Figure 18.2 Saybolt Furol Viscometer Figure 18.6 The RB36 5G Automated Ring-and-Ball Figure 18.11 Particle-Charge Test for Emulsions
Tester

Figure 18.12 Marshall Stability Equipment

Figure 18.3 Kinematic Viscosity Apparatus

Figure 18.7 Herzog HAD 620 Manual Distillation

Analyzer

Figure 18.13 Marshall Test Property Curves for

Example 18.2

Figure 18.4 Standard Penetration Test and

Equipment
Figure 18.8 Pycnometers for Determining Specific
Gravity of Asphalt Materials

Figure 18.5 Float Test

Figure 18.9 Apparatus for Ductility Test

Figure 18.14 Bulk, Effective, and Apparent Specific
Gravities; Air Voids; and Effective Asphalt
Content in Compacted Asphalt Paving Mixture

Figure 18.10 Apparatus for Cleveland Open-Cup

Test