APE 311 PRACTICAL MANUAL - Final

TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1
PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD
Dr. R.VISVANATHAN, Professor (APE)

Dr. N. ANANDARAJ, Associate Professor (SWC)
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE

KILLIKULAM – 628 252
2019
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE
KILLIKULAM – 628 252
Bonafide Certificate
This is to certify that this is the Bonafide record of work done by

Thiru / Selvi ………………………………………………. I.D.No. ………………….. for
the course APE 311 Protected Cultivation and Secondary Agriculture 1+1 during the year
2019-20 for the practical examination held on ………………..
External Examiner Course teacher

APE 311 Protected Cultivation and Secondary Agriculture 1+1
CONTENTS
Ex. Date Date of Initial

Exercise
No. submission
1. Study of different types of greenhouses based on
shape, etc.
2. Measurement of weather data in greenhouses
3. Computing the rate of air exchange in an active
summer and winter cooling systems
4. Experiment on determination of shape and size of
the cereal grains
5. Experiment on determination of bulk density and

porosity of biomaterials
6. Determination of moisture content of various grains
by direct method
7. Determination of moisture content of various grains
by indirect method
8. Experiment on determination of terminal velocity of
different grains
9. Performance evaluation of available screen cleaner
10. Performance evaluation of fluidized bed dryer

11. Performance evaluation of tray dryer
12. Determination of capacity of a belt conveyor and its
performance evaluation
13. Determination of capacity of a bucket conveyor and

its performance evaluation
14. Field visit to greenhouse
15. Visit to Horticulture Research Station,

Udhagamandalam
16. Visit to food modern rice mill
Ex No.: 01
Study of different types of greenhouses based on shape, etc
Date:
Protected cultivation is the technique of providing favourable environmental or
growth conditions to the plants. A greenhouse is a covered structure which protects plants
from vagaries of weather or environment, i.e. wind, precipitation, excess precipitation, excess
solar radiation, temperature extremes and considerable attack of pests and diseases.
In greenhouses, the growing environment is altered to suit the specific requirements
of plants. It is rather used to protect plants from the adverse climatic conditions by providing
optimum conditions of light, temperature, humidity, CO2 and air circulation for the best
growth of plants to achieve maximum yield and best quality. Greenhouse is the most practical
method of achieving the objectives of protected agriculture, where the natural environment is
modified by using sound engineering principles to achieve optimum plant growth and yields.
A greenhouse is a framed or an inflated structure covered with a transparent or
translucent material in which crops could be grown under the conditions of at least partially
controlled environment and which is large enough to permit persons to work within it to carry
out cultural operations.
The greenhouse is covered with a transparent material such as plastic, poly vinyl
chloride (PVC) sheet or glass. Based upon its transparency the greenhouse cover transmits
most of the sunlight. The crop, floor and other objects inside the greenhouse absorb the
sunlight admitted inside the greenhouse. These objects in turn emit long wave thermal
radiations for which the greenhouse covering material has lower transparency and as a result
of this the solar energy is trapped thus leading to increased temperature inside the
greenhouse. This is known as greenhouse effect.
Greenhouse structures of various types are used successfully for crop production.
Although there are advantages in each type for a particular application, in general there is no
single type greenhouse, which can be considered as the best. Different types of greenhouses
are designed to meet the specific needs.
Types of greenhouses
Greenhouses are classified based on shape or style, utility, construction and covering
materials. In the following sections, the details of the various types of greenhouses are
discussed.
1.1 Greenhouse types based on shape or style
Greenhouses can be classified based on their shape or style. For the purpose of
classification, the uniqueness of the cross section of the greenhouses can be considered as a
factor. As the longitudinal section tend to be approximately the same for all types, the
longitudinal section of the greenhouse cannot be used for classification. The cross sections
depict the width and height of the structure and the length is perpendicular to the plane of
cross section.
Also, the cross section provides information on the overall shape of the structural
members, such as truss or hoop, which will be repeated on every bay. The commonly
followed types of greenhouse based on shape are lean-to, even span, uneven span, ridge and
furrow, saw tooth and Quonset.
1.1.1 Lean-to type greenhouse
A lean-to design is used when a greenhouse is placed against the side of an existing
building. It is built against a building, using the existing structure for one or more of its sides
(Fig.1.1). It is usually attached to other buildings. The roof of the building is extended with
appropriate greenhouse covering material and the area is properly enclosed. It is typically
facing south side. The lean-to type greenhouse is limited to single or double-row plant
benches with a total width of 2 to 4 m. It can be as long as the building it is attached to.
Fig.1.1. Lean to type greenhouse

It should face the best direction for adequate sun exposure. The advantage of the lean-
to type greenhouse is that, it usually is close to available electricity, water and heat. It is a
least expensive structure. This design makes the best use of sunlight and minimizes the
requirement of roof supports. It has the following disadvantages: limited space, limited light,
limited ventilation and temperature control. The height of the supporting wall limits the
potential size of the design. Temperature control is more difficult because the wall that the
greenhouse is built on, may collect the sun's heat while the translucent cover of the
greenhouse may lose heat rapidly. It is a half greenhouse, split along the peak of the roof.
1.1.2 Even span type greenhouse
The even-span is the standard type and full-size structure, the two roof slopes are of
equal pitch and width (Fig.1.2). This design is used for the greenhouse of small size, and it is
constructed on level ground. It is attached to a house at one gable end. It can accommodate 2
or 3 rows of plant benches. The cost of an even-span greenhouse is more than the cost of a
lean-to type, but it has greater flexibility in design and provides for more plants. Because of
its size and greater amount of exposed glass area, the even-span will cost more to heat. The
design has a better shape than a lean-to type for air circulation to maintain uniform
temperatures during the winter heating season. A separate heating system is necessary unless
the structure is very close to a heated building. It will house 2 side benches, 2 walks, and a
wide center bench. Several single and multiple span types are available for use in various
regions of India. For single span type the span in general, varies from 5 to 9 m, whereas the
length is around 24 m. The height varies from 2.5 to 4.3 m.
Fig. 1.2. Even span type greenhouse
1.1.3 Uneven span type greenhouse
This type of greenhouse is constructed on hilly terrain. The roofs are of unequal
width; make the structure adaptable to the side slopes of hill (Fig.1.3). This type of
greenhouses is seldom used now-a-days as it is not adaptable for automation.
Fig.1.3. Uneven span type greenhouse

1.1.4 Ridge and furrow type greenhouse
Designs of this type use two or more A-frame greenhouses connected to one another
along the length of the eave (Fig.1.4). The eave serves as furrow or gutter to carry rain and
melted snow away. The side wall is eliminated between the greenhouses, which results in a
structure with a single large interior, consolidation of interior space reduces labour, lowers
the cost of automation, improves personal management and reduces fuel consumption as
there is less exposed wall area through which heat escapes. The snow loads must be taken
into the frame specifications of these greenhouses since the snow cannot slide off the roofs as
in case of individual free standing greenhouses, but melts away. In spite of snow loads, ridge
and furrow greenhouses are effectively used in Europe and Canada and as well suited to the
Indian conditions.
Fig.1.4. Ridge and furrow type greenhouse Fig.1.5. Saw tooth type greenhouse
1.1.5 Saw tooth type greenhouse
These are also similar to ridge and furrow type greenhouses, except that, there is
provision for natural ventilation in this type. Specific natural ventilation flow path (Fig. 1.5)
develops in a saw- tooth type greenhouse.
1.1.6 Quonset greenhouse
This is a greenhouse, where the pipe arches or trusses are supported by pipe purling
running along the length of the greenhouse (Fig.1.6). In general, the covering material used
for this type of greenhouses is polyethylene. Such greenhouses are typically less expensive
than the gutter connected greenhouses and are useful when a small isolated cultural area is
required.
These houses are connected either in free, standing style or arranged in an
interlocking ridge and furrow. In the interlocking type, truss members overlap sufficiently to
allow a bed of plants to grow between the overlapping portions of adjacent houses. A single
large cultural space thus exists for a set of houses in this type, an arrangement that is better
adapted to the automation and movement of labour.
Fig.1.6 Quonset greenhouse

1.2 Greenhouse type based on utility
Classification of greenhouses can be made depending on the functions or utilities. Of
the different utilities, artificial cooling and heating of the greenhouse are more expensive and
elaborate. Hence based on the artificial cooling and heating, greenhouses are classified as
greenhouses for active heating and active cooling system.
1.2.1 Greenhouses for active heating
During the night time, air temperature inside greenhouse decreases. To avoid the cold
bite to plants due to freezing, some amount of heat has to be supplied. The requirements for
heating greenhouse depend on the rate at which the heat is lost to the outside environment.
Various methods are adopted to reduce the heat losses, viz., using double layer polyethylene,
thermo pane glasses (Two layers of factory sealed glass with dead air space) or to use heating
systems, such as unit heaters, central heat, radiant heat and solar heating system.
1.2.2 Greenhouses for active cooling
During summer season, it is desirable to reduce the temperatures of greenhouse than
the ambient temperatures, for effective crop growth. Hence suitable modifications are made
in the greenhouse so that large volumes of cooled air is drawn into greenhouse. This type of
greenhouse either consists of evaporative cooling pad with fan or fog cooling. This
greenhouse is designed in such a way that it permits a roof opening of 40% and in some cases
nearly 100%.
Fig.1.7. Greenhouse with fan and pad type cooling arrangement

1.3 Greenhouse type based on construction
The type of construction is predominantly influenced by the structural material,
though the covering material also influences the type. Span of the house in turn dictates the
selection of structural members and their construction. Higher the span, stronger should be
the material and more structural members are used to make sturdy truss type frames. For
smaller spans, simpler designs like hoops can be followed. Therefore based on construction,
greenhouses can be broadly classified as wooden framed, pipe framed and truss framed
structures.
1.3.1 Wooden framed structures
In general, for the greenhouses with span less than 6 m, only wooden framed
structures are used. Side posts and columns are constructed of wood without the use of a
truss. Pine wood is commonly used as it is inexpensive and possesses the required strength.
Timber locally available, with good strength, durability and machinability also can be used
for the construction.
1.3.2 Pipe framed structures
Pipes are used for construction of greenhouses, when the clear span is around 12m
(Fig. 1.8). In general, the side posts, columns, cross ties and purlins are constructed using
pipes. In this type, the trusses are not used.
Fig. 1.8. Wooden framed structures Fig. 1.9. Pipe framed structures
1.3.3 Truss framed structures
If the greenhouse span is greater than or equal to 15 m, truss frames are used. Flat
steel, tubular steel or angular iron is welded together to form a truss encompassing rafters,
chords and struts (Fig.1.10). Struts are support members under compression and chords are
support members under tension. Angle iron purlins running throughout the length of
greenhouse are bolted to each truss. Columns are used only in very wide truss frame houses
of 21.3 m or more. Most of the glass houses are of truss frame type, as these frames are best
suited for pre-fabrication.
Fig. 1.10 Truss framed structures

1.4 Greenhouse type based on covering materials
Covering materials are the major and important component of the greenhouse
structure. Covering materials have direct influence on the greenhouse effect inside the
structure and they alter the air temperature inside the house. The types of frames and method
of fixing also varies with the covering material. Based on the type of covering materials, the
greenhouses are classified as glass, plastic film and rigid panel greenhouses.
1.4.1 Glass greenhouses
Only glass greenhouses with glass as the covering material existed prior to 1950.
Glass as covering material has the advantage of greater interior light intensity. These
greenhouses have higher air infiltration rate which leads to lower interior humidity and better
disease prevention. Lean-to type, even span, ridge and furrow type of designs are used for
construction of glass greenhouse.
1.4.2 Plastic film greenhouses
Flexible plastic films including polyethylene, polyester and polyvinyl chloride are
used as covering material in this type of greenhouses. Plastics as covering material for
greenhouses have become popular, as they are cheap and the cost of heating is less when
compared to become popular, as they are cheap and the cost of heating is less when compared
to glass greenhouses. The main disadvantage with plastic films is its short life. For example,
the best quality ultraviolet (UV) stabilized film can last for four years only. Quonset design as
well as gutter-connected design is suitable for using this covering material.
Fig. 1.11. Glass greenhouses
Fig. 1.12. Plastic film greenhouses

1.4.3 Rigid panel greenhouses
Polyvinyl chloride rigid panels, fibre glass-reinforced plastic, acrylic and
polycarbonate rigid panels are employed as the covering material in the quonset type frames
or ridge and furrow type frame. This material is more resistant to breakage and the light
intensity is uniform throughout the greenhouse when compared to glass or plastic. High grade
panels have long life even up to 20 years. The main disadvantage is that these panels tend to
collect dust as well as to harbour algae, which results in darkening of the panels and
subsequent reduction in the light transmission. There is significant danger of fire hazard.
1.5 Shading nets
There are a great number of types and varieties of plants that grow naturally in the
most diverse climate conditions that have been transferred by modern agriculture from their
natural habitats to controlled crop conditions. Therefore, conditions similar to the natural
ones must be created for each type and variety of plant. Each type of cultivated plant must be
given the specific type of shade required for the diverse phases of its development. The
shading nets fulfil the task of giving appropriate micro-climate conditions to the plants.
Fig. 1.13. Rigid panel greenhouses
Fig. 1.14. Shading nets

Shade nettings are designed to protect the crops and plants from UV radiation, but
they also provide protection from climate conditions, such as temperature variation, intensive
rain and winds. Better growth conditions can be achieved for the crop due to the controlled
micro-climate conditions “created” in the covered area, with shade netting, which results in
higher crop yields.
All nettings are UV stabilized to fulfil expected lifetime at the area of exposure. They
are characterized of high tear resistance, low weight for easy and quick installation with a
30-90% shade value range. A wide range of shading nets are available in the market which
are defined on the basis of the percentage of shade they deliver to the plant growing under
them.
Exercise:
Explain the construction and utilisation of the commonly followed greenhouse with a neat
sketch.
Ex No.: 02
Measurement of weather data in greenhouses
Date:
The productivity of a crop is influenced not only by its heredity but also by the
microclimate around it. The components of crop microclimate are light, temperature, air
compositions and the nature of the root medium. In open fields, only manipulation of nature
of the root medium by tillage, irrigation and fertilizer application is possible. The closed
boundaries in greenhouse permit control of any one or more of the components of the micro
climate.
2.1 Light
The visible light of the solar radiation is a source of energy for plants. Light energy,
carbon-dioxide (CO2) and water all enter in to the process of photosynthesis through which
carbohydrates are formed. The production of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water in
the presence of chlorophyll, using light energy is responsible for plant growth and
reproduction. The rate of photosynthesis is governed by available fertilizer elements, water,
carbon dioxide, light and temperature.
The photosynthesis reaction can be represented as follows:
Chlorophyll
CO2 + Water + light energy carbohydrates + oxygen
Plant nutrients
Considerable energy is required to reduce the carbon that is combined with oxygen in
CO2 gas to the state in which it exists in the carbohydrate. The light energy thus utilized is
trapped in the carbohydrate. If the light intensity is diminished, photosynthesis slows down
and hence the growth. If higher than optimal light intensities are provided, growth again
slows down because of the injury to the chloroplasts.
The light intensity is measured by the international unit known as lux. It is direct
illumination on the surrounding surface that is one meter from a uniform point source of 1
International candle. Greenhouse crops are subjected to light intensities varying from 129.6 k
lux on clear summer days to 3.2 k lux on cloudy winter days. For most crops, neither
condition is ideal. Many crops become light saturated, in other words, photosynthesis does
not increase at light intensities higher than 32.2 k lux. Rose and carnation plants will grow
well under summer light intensities. In general, for most other crops foliage is deeper green if
the greenhouse is shaded to the extent of about 40% from mid spring (May) to mid fall
(August and September). Thus, it is apparent that light intensity requirements of
photosynthesis are vary considerably from crop to crop.
Light is classified according to its wave length in nanometers (nm). Not all light
useful in photosynthesis process. UV light is available in the shorter wavelength range, i.e
less than 400 nm. Large of quantities of it is harmful to the plants. Glass screens are opaque
to the most UV light and light below the range of 325 nm. Visible and white light has
wavelength of 400 to 700 nm. Far red light (700 to 750 nm) affects plants, besides causing
photosynthesis. Infrared rays of longer wavelengths are not involved in the plant process. It is
primarily, the visible spectrum of light that is used in photosynthesis. In the blue and red
bands, the photosynthesis activity is higher, when the blue light (shorter wavelength) alone is
supplied to plants, the growth is retarded, and the plant becomes hard and dark in colour.
When the plants are grown under red light (longer wavelength), growth is soft and internodes
are long, resulting in tall plants. Visible light of all wavelengths is readily utilized in
photosynthesis.
Fig. 2.1. Hand a. Analog type b. Digital type c. Maxima- d. Non-contact

minima type laser beam type
held Lux meter
Fig. 2.2. Temperature measuring instruments
2.2 Temperature
Temperature is a measure of level of the heat present. All crops have temperature
range in which they can grow well. Below this range, the plant life process stop due to ice
formation within the tissue and cells are possibly punctured by ice crystals. At the upper
extreme, enzymes become inactive, and again process essential for life cease. Enzymes are
biological reaction catalyst and are heat sensitive. All biochemical reactions in the plant are
controlled by the enzymes. The rate of reactions controlled by the enzyme often double or
triple for each rise of temperature by 10C, until optimum temperature is reached. Further,
increase in temperature begins to suppress the reaction and finally stop it.
As a general rule, greenhouse crops are grown at a day temperature, which are 3 to
6C higher than the night temperature on cloudy days and 80C higher on clear days. The night
temperature of greenhouse crops is generally in the range of 7 to 21C. Primula, mathiola
incana and calceolaria grow best at 7C, carnation and cineraria at 10C, rose at 16C,
chrysanthemum and poinsettia at 17 to 18C and African violet at 21 to 22C.
2.3 Relative humidity
As the greenhouse is a closed space, the relative humidity of the greenhouse air will
be more when compared to the ambient air, due to the moisture added by the evapo-
transpiration process. Some of this moisture is taken away by the air leaving from the
greenhouse due to ventilation. Sensible heat inputs also lower the relative humidity of the air
to some extent. In order to maintain the desirable relative humidity levels in the greenhouses,
processes like humidification or dehumidification are carried out. For most crops, the
acceptable range of relative humidity is between 50 and 80%. However for plant propagation
work, relative humidity up to 90% may be desirable.
In summer, due to sensible heat addition in the daytime, and in winters for increasing
the night time temperatures of the greenhouse air, more sensible heat is added causing a
reduction in the relative humidity of the air. For this purpose, evaporative cooling pads and
fogging system of humidification are employed. When the relative humidity is on the higher
side, ventilators, chemical dehumidifiers and cooling coils are used for dehumidification.
Dial type hair hygrometer Temperature cum humidity indicator Whirling hygrometer
Fig. 2.3. Instruments used in greenhouses for measuring relative humidity
3.4 Ventilation
A greenhouse is ventilated for either reducing the temperature of the greenhouse air or
for replenishing carbon dioxide supply or for moderating the relative humidity of the air. Air
temperatures above 35C are generally not suited for the crops in greenhouse. It is quite
possible to bring the greenhouse air temperature below this upper limit during spring and
autumn seasons simply by providing adequate ventilation to the greenhouse. The ventilation
in a greenhouse can either be natural or forced. In case of small greenhouses (less than 6 m
wide) natural ventilation can be quite effective during spring and autumn seasons. However,
fan ventilation is essential to have precise control over the air temperature, humidity and
carbon dioxide levels.
a. Anemometer b. CO2 level indicator

Fig. 2.4. Instruments used in greenhouses for measuring wind velocity and CO2 level
3.5 Carbon dioxide
Carbon is an essential plant nutrient and is present in the plant in greater quantity than
any other nutrient. About 40% of the dry matter of the plant is composed of carbon. Under
normal conditions, carbon dioxide (CO2) exits as a gas in the atmosphere slightly above
0.03% or 345 ppm. During the day, when photosynthesis occurs under natural light, the
plants in a greenhouse draw down the level of Co2 to below 200 ppm. Under these
circumstances, infiltration or ventilation increases carbon dioxide levels, when the outside air
is brought in, to maintain the ambient levels of CO2. If the level of CO2 is less than ambient
levels, CO2 may retard the plant growth. In cold climates, maintaining ambient levels of CO2
by providing ventilation may be uneconomical, due to the necessity of heating the incoming
air in order to maintain proper growing temperatures. In such regions, enrichment of the
greenhouse with CO2 is followed. The exact CO2 level needed for a given crop will vary,
since it must be correlated with other variables in greenhouse production such as light,
temperature, nutrient levels, cultivar and degree of maturity. Most crops will respond
favourably to CO2 at 1000 to 1200 ppm.
Exercise:
1. Write a note on the importance of measurement of climate inside the greenhouse.
2. Write a note on the favour climatic conditions for the important crops cultivated under
greenhouse conditions.
EX No.: 03 Computing the rate of air exchange in an active summer
Date: and winter cooling systems
Greenhouse ventilation and cooling of greenhouse environment is essential during

summer and winter as well. While summer cooling is done using evaporative cooling
systems, the winter cooling uses convection-tube with pressuring fans and exhaust fans.
Greenhouse cooling requires that large volume of air to be brought into the greenhouse.
Recommendations for standard flow rates of ventilation per square area of greenhouse are
available. Correction factors from standard tables should be incorporated to the standard air
flow rate to account for site elevation, light intensity, temperature rise, distance between
cooling pads and temperature difference between the inside and outside of the greenhouse.
Selection of the fan, pad area, and convection-tube can also be obtained from the standard
tables after calculation of air requirement.
3.1 Design of active summer cooling system
The rate of air exchange is measured in cubic metres per minute (m3/min). The
National Greenhouse Manufacturers’ Association indicates in its 1993 standards for
ventilating and cooling greenhouses that a rate of removal of 2.5 m3/min/m2 of greenhouse
floor is sufficient. This applies to a greenhouse under 305 m (1,000ft) in elevation, with an
interior light intensity not exceeding 53.8 k lux and an air temperature rise of 4oC from the
pad to the fans. Standard tables of correction factors of the rate of air removal are available to
account for any deviation from these standard conditions. Since it is relatively tedious to
calculate the volume using this method, a direct value of 3.4 to 5.2 m3/min/m2 of floor area
can be used as recommended.
The rate of air removal from the greenhouse must increase as the elevation of the
greenhouse site increases. The density of air decreases and becomes lighter with increasing
elevation. The ability of air to remove solar heat from the greenhouse depends upon its
weight and not is volume. Thus larger volume of air must be drawn through the greenhouse at
high elevations then that is drawn through at low elevations in order to have an equivalent
cooling effect. Hence the value of elevation factor (Felev) is directly proportional to the
elevation. The values of elevation factors, used to correct the rate of air removal for a
particular elevation are listed in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1. Correction factors of the rate of air removal for elevations above sea level.
Elevation above
<300 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400
sea level (m)
Felev 1.00 1.04 1.08 1.12 1.16 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.3
(Source: National Greenhouse Manufacturers’ Association, 1993)
The rate of air removal is also dependent upon the light intensity in the greenhouse.
As light intensity increases, the heat input from the sun increases, requiring a greater rate of
air removal from the greenhouse. Hence, the value of light factor (Flight) varies directly with
the light intensity. The values of light factors used to adjust the rate of air removal are listed
in Table 3.2. An intensity of 53.8 k lux is accepted as a desirable level for crops in general
and is achieved with a coat of shading compound on the greenhouse covering or with a screen
material above the plants in the greenhouse.
Table 3.2. Correction factors of the rate of air removal for maximum light intensity in the
greenhouse
Light intensity
43.1 48.4 53.8 59.2 64.6 70.0 75.3 80.1 86.1
(k lux)
Flight 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60
(Source: National Greenhouse Manufacturers’ Association)

Solar energy warms the air as it passes from the pad to the exhaust fans. Usually, a
o
4 C rise in temperature is tolerated across the greenhouse. If it becomes important to have
uniform temperature across the greenhouse, it will be necessary to raise the velocity of the air
movement through the greenhouse. To maintain less temperature difference across the
greenhouse more air as to be circulated, hence the temperature factor (Ftemp) increases as the
difference in temperature decreases. The temperature factors used for various possible
temperature rises are given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3. Correction factors of the rate of air removal for a given pad-to-fan temperature rises
Temperature Rise 5.6 5.0 4.4 3.9 3.3 2.8 2.2

Ftemp 0.70 0.78 0.88 1.00 1.17 1.40 1.75
The pad and fans should be placed on opposite walls, either end walls or side walls of
the greenhouse and the distance between them is important .These may be the ends walls or
the side walls of the greenhouse. A distance of 30 to 61 m (100 to 200 ft) is the best. The size
of the exhaust fan should be selected to achieve proper temperature difference and good
circulation. If the pad to fan distance is less, then there is less opportunity time for the
flowing air to cool the surroundings. To achieve a given degree of cooling more amount of
air is required when pad to fan distance is less and vice versa. So, the velocity of incoming air
to be modified accordingly. The velocity factors (Fvel) used to compensate for pad to fan
distance are listed in Table 3.4
Table 3.4. Correction factors of the rate of air removal for a given pad -to- fan distances
Pad-to-fan
6.1 7.6 9.1 10.7 12.2 13.7 15.2 16.8 18.3
distance (m)
F vel 2.24 2.00 1.83 1.69 1.58 1.48 1.41 1.35 1.29
Pad-to-fan
19.8 21.3 22.9 24.4 25.9 27.4 29.0 >30.5
distance (m)
Fvel 1.24 1.20 1.16 1.12 1.08 1.05 1.02 1.00
The rate of air removal required for a specific greenhouse can be calculated using the
factors given in table 3.1 through 3.4. Firstly, the rate of air removal required for a
greenhouse is determined under standard conditions (Qstd) using the following equation:
Qstd = L × W × 2.5 …(3.1)
where, L and W represent the greenhouse length and width, respectively. Now the standard
rate of air removal is corrected by multiplying it by the larger of the following two factors:
Fhouse or Fvel is read directly from Table 3.4, whereas Fhouse is calculated from:
Fhouse = Felev × Flight × Ftemp … (3.2)
Thus, the final adjusted (Q adj) capacity of the exhaust fans must be
Qadj = Qstd × (Fhouse or Fvel) … (3.3)
The size and number of exhaust fans must be selected next. The collective capacity of
the fans should be at least equal to the rate of air removal at a required a static water pressure
of 30 pa (0.1inch). If slant – wall housing fans are used, which has the fan outside the louvers
the fans should be rated at 15 Pa (0.05 inch) static water pressure. The static pressure value
takes into account the resistance the fans meet in drawing air through the pad and fan itself.
Air –delivery rating for various sized of fans listed in Table 3.5. Fans should not be spaced
more than 7.6 m (25 ft) apart. The required capacity of each fan in this case can be
determined by dividing the Qadj by the number of fans required. These fans are selected for
their rated performance levels from the tables and are evenly spaced along the end of the
greenhouse, at plant height if possible, to guarantee a uniform flow of air through the plants.
The excelsior (wood fibre) pads of 2.5 to 4 cm (1 to 1.5 inch) thick are used. These
are replaced annually and they support an airflow rate of 45 m3/min/m2. Cross-fluted
cellulose pads come in units of 30 cm (1ft) wide and are 5, 10, 15 or 30 cm (2,4,6 or 12 in)
thick. They can last up to 10 years, and the commonly used 10 cm (4 in) thick pad can
accommodate an air intake of 75 m3/min/m2. The total area of pad required is determined by
dividing the volume of air that must be removed from the greenhouse in unit time by the
volume of air that can be moved through the square meter of pad or can directly be obtained
from Table 3.5. Water must be delivered to the top of a 10 cm thick pad at the rate of 6.2
l/min/m of pad. The sump volume should be 30.5 l/m2 for 10 cm thick pad and 40.7 l/m2 for
15 cm thick pad. These sump volumes are designed for an operating water level at half the
depth of the tank and will provide space to accommodate water returning from the pad when
system is turned off. Water should be delivered to the top of an excelsior pad at the rate of
13.6 l/min/m of pad, regardless of the height of the pad. Since all water will return to the
sump when the system is turned off, a sump capacity of 19 l/m of pad is required.
3.2 Design of active winter cooling system
Under standard conditions, a volume of 0.61 m3/min of air should be removed from
the greenhouse for each square meter of floor area. The air volume obtained multiplying the
floor area by this value would define the capacity of the exhaust fan. During winter, the
outside air temperature will be less than that is inside the greenhouse. Hence simple mixing
of the outside ambient air by convection tubes does the actual winter cooling, the winter
factor (Fwinter) based on temperature difference between inside and outside air, will be varying
inversely with the required temperature difference. The compensating factors to be used in
active winter cooling are given in Table 3.6.
Table 3.5. Correction factors of the rate of air removal for a given pad -to- fan distances
Fan size, HorseRate of air removal at Pad area per Fan in m2 (ft2)
inches power30 Pa static pressure, Excelsior 4’’ Excelsior 6’’ Excelsior
m3/min (ft3/min)
0.25 127 (4500) 2.8 (30) 4.5 (48) 1.2 (13)
24 0.33 161 (5700) 3.5 (38) 2.1 (23) 1.5 (16)
0.50 184 (6500) 4.0 (43) 2.4 (26) 1.8 (19)
0.75 215 (7600) 4.7 (51) 2.8 (30) 2.0 (22)
0.33 209 (7400) 4.6 (49) 2.8 (30) 2.0 (22)
30 0.50 249 (8800) 5.5 (59) 3.3 (35) 2.3 (25)
0.75 289 (10200) 6.3 (68) 3.8 (41) 2.7 (29)
0.33 249 (8800) 5.5 (59) 3.3 (35) 2.3 (25)
36 0.50 300 (10600) 6.6 (71) 4.0 (43) 2.9 (31)
0.75 359 (12700) 7.9 (85) 4.7 (51) 3.4 (37)
1.00 402 (14200) 8.8 (95) 5.3 (57) 3.8 (41)
0.50 354 (12500) 7.8 (84) 4.6 (50) 3.3 (36)
42 0.75 425 (15000) 9.3 (100) 5.6 (60) 4.0 (43)
1.00 475 (16800) 10.4 (112) 6.3 (68) 4.5 (48)
0.50 416 (14700) 9.1 (98) 5.5 (59) 3.9 (42)
48 0.75 504 (17800) 11.1 (119) 6.7 (72) 4.7 (51)
1.00 555 (19600) 12.2 (131) 7.2 (78) 5.2 (56)
1.00 648 (22900) 14.2 (153) 8.5 (92) 6.1 (66)
54 1.50 730 (25800) 16.0 (172) 9.7 (104) 6.9 (74)
Source: ACME Engineering and Manufacturing Corporation, Muskogee, OK (1993)
Table 3.6. Correction factors standard rate of air removal in a winter greenhouse cooling
system based on temperature difference
Temperature 10.0 9.4 8.9 8.3 7.8 7.2 6.7 6.1 5.6 5.0
difference (oC)
Fwinter 0.83 0.88 0.94 1.00 1.07 1.15 1.25 1.37 1.50 1.67
(Source: National Greenhouse Manufacturers’ Association
As in the case of the summer cooling system, standard conditions also specify an
elevation under 305 m and a maximum interior light intensity of 53.8 k lux. If other elevation
or light intensity specifications are desired, factors must be selected from Tables 3.1 and 3.2
are used to correct the rate of air entry. Convection tubes are conventionally oriented from the
end to end in the greenhouse. One convection tube placed down the center of the house will
cool houses up to 9.1 to 18.3 m wide are cooled by two tubes placed equidistantly across the
greenhouse. Holes along the tube exist in pairs on the opposite vertical sides. The holes vary
in size according to the volume of greenhouse to be cooled. The number and diameter of
tubes needed to cool a greenhouse can be determined from Table 3.7. If two or more tubes
are needed, they should be of equal size and should be spaced evenly across the greenhouse.
Recommendations in table 3.7 are based on an air flow rate approximately 518
m /min/m2 of cross sectional area in the tube. When the greenhouse is large and the required
3
number of 76 cm diameter tubes becomes cumbersome, tubes may be installed with air inlets
in both ends. These inlets double the amount of cool air that can be brought in through a
single tube.
Table 3.7. Number (N) and diameter (D) of air distribution tubes required for winter cooling
of greenhouse of various sizes.
Greenhouse Greenhouse Length

width, m 15 m 30 m 46 m 61 m 76 m
N D, cm N D, cm N D, cm N D, cm N D, cm
4.6 1 46 1 46 1 61 1 76 1 76
6.1 1 46 1 61 1 76 1 76 2 61
7.6 1 46 1 61 1 76 2 61 2 76
9.1 2 46 2 46 2 61 2 76 2 76
10.7 2 46 2 61 2 61 2 76 3 76
12.2 2 46 2 61 2 76 2 76 3 76
15.2 2 46 2 61 2 76 3 76 3 76
Note: Tubes run the length of the greenhouse and are spaced equidistantly across the
greenhouse. Tubes derive cold air from a louvered air inlet on one side only.
Exercises:
1. Design a summer evaporative cooling system for the greenhouse with the following
requirements. Consider a single greenhouse of 15 m wide and 30 m long located at an
elevation of 915 m. The greenhouse has a moderate coat of shading compound on it,
providing the maximum light intensity of 53.8 k lux. A rise in temperature of upto 4oC can be
tolerated from pad to fans. Use a 10 cm thick cross-fluted cellulose cooling system for the
greenhouse.
2. Design a winter convection tube cooling system for the greenhouse with the following
requirements. Consider a single greenhouse 15 m wide and 30 m long located at an elevation
of 915 m. The greenhouse has a moderate coat of shading compound on it, providing the
maximum light intensity of 53.8 k lux, and the desired interior-to-exterior temperature
difference of 8oC. Use a 10 cm thick cross-fluted cellulose cooling system for the greenhouse.
Ex No.: 04 Experiment on determination of shape and size of the
Date: cereal grains
AIM: To determine the shape and size of the given cereal grains by determining the
following parameters.
a. Size (length, breadth, thickness, diameter)
b. Sphericity
c. Roundness
d. Roundness ratio
e. Identifying the shape of the given specimens.
APPARATUS: Vernier caliper/screw gauge, travelling microscope, cereal grain samples,
etc.
THEORY: Size is measured in the form of diameter/ radius, length and breadth, and length,
breadth and thickness. For the circular or spherical objects, diameter is used. When the size
can be expressed in two or three dimensions, the major dimension is length and the
dimension perpendicular to length is breadth or width and the dimension perpendicular to
both length and breadth is called the thickness or height. The measurement is done using
vernier caliper, screw gauge, travelling microscope, etc., with a least count of 0.01 mm.
Normally a minimum number of 50 grains / samples are measured and the mean is reported
with the standard deviation. Measurement of size is useful in developing the packaging
system, selection of sieve perforation, selection of sieve size for grading, etc. The size of the
grains increases with moisture content at extreme conditions due to swelling.
Shape is an important property to specify the geometry of the crop. They are important for
the design of packaging system and sieve for grading/ separation. Following are some of the
important shapes and examples.
Shape Description Example(s)
Round approaching spheroid like. eg. Lemon, apple, etc.
Oblate flattened at stem end apex eg. Pomegranate, pumpkin
Oblong vertical diameter greater than the horizontal eg. Ashguard.

diameter.
Conic tapered towards the apex. eg. Radish, carrot.
Ovate egg shaped and broad at the stem end. eg. Mango, brinjal etc.
Obovate inverted ovate. eg. Cashew fruit
Elliptical approaching ellipsoid. eg. Guava etc.
Truncate having both ends flattened and squared. eg. Apple, orange etc.
Unequal one half portion larger than the another half Eg. Mango
portion.
Ribbed in cross-section, sides are more or less eg. Bitter gourd, ribbed
angular. gourd.
Regular horizontal section approaches to a circle. eg. Grapes.
Irregular horizontal cross-section departs from a Mango, ladies finger,

circle. capsicum, etc.
Roundness: It is the measure of sharpness of solid.

Sphericity: Sphericity is defined as the ratio of surface area of the sphere having the same
volume as that of the particle to the surface area of the particle. Sphericity is also defined as
the ratio of diameter of a sphere of the same volume as that of particle and diameter (De) of
the smallest circumscribing sphere or generally the largest diameter of the particle.
Largest projected area of the particle when it is in natural rest

position (AP)
Roundness =
Area of smallest circumscribing circle (AC)
Radius of curvature of the sharpest corner (r)

Roundness ratio =
Mean radius of the particle (R)
De
Sphericity=
Dc
Sphericity = [ vp/ vc] 1/3 = [π/6 (l b t)1/3] / π/6 l3
Where,
l - largest intercept
b - largest intercept perpendicular to l
t - largest intercept perpendicular to b & l
PROCEDURE:
Size: Take minimum 10 grains/seeds from each lot of particular moisture content. Place each
grain/seed on the platform of the travelling microscope and coincide the cross-hair line of
the microscope to the one end of the seed/grain and note down the main scale and the
vernier scale reading. Move the microscope with the hand wheel provided and coincide
the cross-hair line with the other end of the grain/seed and note down the scale readings
and tabulate the values. Vernier caliper / screw gauge can also be used for this measurement.
Repeat this for the breadth-wise also for the same grain/seed. To measure the thickness or
diameter of the grain/seed use a vernier caliper or screw gauge and measure the same and
enter the readings in Table.4.1. Repeat the measurement for atleast 25 grains/ seeds and also
of other moisture contents and tabulate the readings.
Shape: Closely observe the given grain samples and identify the shape of the specimen. Place
the given samples / specimens on a table and trace its projection as shown below. Measure
the area under the projection, diameter of the circles and the radius of the circles formed at
the corners.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Table 4.1. Size of the given seed/grain mass
Sample No. Replication Length, mm Breadth, mm Thickness, mm Diameter, mm
Mean
Largest projected area of the particle when it is in natural rest
position (AP)
Roundness =
Area of smallest circumscribing circle (AC)
Radius of curvature of the sharpest corner (r)

Roundness ratio =
Mean radius of the particle (R)
De
Sphericity=
Dc
Sphericity = [ vp/ vc] 1/3 = [π/6 (l b t)1/3] / π/6 l3
Record the observations like diameters, area, etc. of the projected and drawn circles and
calculate the roundness, roundness ratio and sphericity.
Report the values in tables.
RESULTS: The following are the results of the experiments conducted.
Grain/seed: (variety)
Sample / Size, mm Roundness Roundness Sphericity

specimen ratio
Length Breadth Thickness Diameter
Mean
(SD)
Ex No.: 05 Experiment on determination of bulk density and porosity
Date: of biomaterials
AIM: To determine the following physical properties of the given cereal grains /seed.
a. Bulk density
b. Porosity and
c. True density or particle density
APPARATUS: Porosity apparatus, containers of regular shape and dimensions, balance, etc.
THEORY: Bulk density, porosity and true density are the basic physical properties of
seed/grains required in the engineering design. The bulk density is the mass of the
grain/seed per unit volume along with voids or pore space and expressed as kg/m3 or g/cc.
Particle density or true density is also the mass of the seed / grain per unit volume but without
pore volume or voids. Porosity is the percent pore volume available in the grain/seed mass.
This is determined by expelling the air from the soil by adding water. But for the grains/seed
this cannot be practiced as they start floating or absorbing water and swell. Hence to
determine the porosity for the grain/seed mass, air is used to fill the void space. In the
porosity apparatus as shown in Fig.5.1, air filled in air tank is distributed to grain tank. By
gas law equation,
P1V1 = M R T
P1V1
M= ... (1)
RT
When a portion of the air from the air tank is allowed to occupy the pore space in the grain
tank, then,
M = M1 + M2 ... (2)
P2V1 P2V2 P1V1

M= + =
RT RT RT
i.e., P1V1 = P2V1 + P2V2

V1(P1 - P2) = P2V2
V2 (P1 - P2)
= x 100 is the percent pore volume or porosity
V1 P2
DESCRIPTION:
Porosity apparatus: The porosity apparatus shown in Fig.5.1 has two identical glass jars of
1000 ml capacity and closed with rubber cork. Glass tubes of 6-mm diameter are placed
into the jars through the corks and the tubes are connected through 3 numbers of valves
and water filled U-tube manometer mounted with a scale. By keeping the valves C and D
closed and the valve E opened, air can be blown into air tank (F) and the pressure is noted
from the manometer (G). By opening the valve D with the other two in closed condition, a
portion of the air can be transmitted into the grain/seed tank to fill the pore space or voids.
The new pressure or equilibrium pressure can be noted from the manometer. The
whole arrangement is clamped on a suitable stand and placed on a table.
Fig.5.1. Apparatus for the determination of porosity of grains
PROCEDURE:
Bulk density: Take the given regular shaped containers and measure their inner dimensions
and calculate their volume. Fill each container with the grain/seed lot of a particular
moisture content and shake the containers gently for uniform filling and packing of the
grain/seed. Weigh the content along with the container and also the empty container and
tabulate the values in Table.5.1. Repeat the same procedure for the other samples also and
enter the readings in Table.5.1.
Porosity: Fill the grain tank of the porosity apparatus with the given sample of seed/grain
with a gentle shake for uniform filling and packing and assemble in its position. Fill the air
tank to the maximum pressure level and note the pressure, P1 cm of water. Open the valve, 2
and allow the air to reach the grain tank and note the pressure, P2 cm of water and tabulate
the valves in Table.5.2.
True density/particle density: This is calculated from the values of bulk density and porosity
as given below:
Table 5.1. Bulk density of the given seed/grain
Sample Replication Volume of Mass of Mass of Bulk density

No. container, V, cc container + sample, m, g m/ V, g/cc
sample, g
Mean
Table.5.2. Porosity of the given seed/grain mass
Sample Replication P1 cm P2 cm Porosity,

No. P=[(P1-P2)/ P2] 100
Mean
Table 5.3. True density of the given seed/grain mass
Sample No. Average bulk density Average porosity, %, P True density,

kg/m3, b kg/m3, t
RESULTS: The average bulk density, porosity and true density of the given gains / seeds at
indicated moisture contents are given below.
Grain /seed Moisture content, Bulk density, Porosity, % True density,

% w.b kg/m 3 kg/m3
Ex No.: 06 Determination of Moisture content of various grains by direct
Date: method
AIM: To study the method of moisture content of the given sample by direct method.
APPARATUS: Hot air oven, vacuum oven, vacuum pump, desiccators, balance, grain
samples, etc.
THEORY: The amount of moisture in a product is expressed on the basis of water and
usually expressed in per cent. This per cent moisture content may be expressed on wet basis
and dry basis.
Let,
Ww = wet weight of the sample, g
Wd = dry weight of the sample, g
Wm = (Ww – Wd) = moisture weight of the sample, g
Wm
Moisture content, % on wet basis = M wb   100 … (1)
Ww
Wm
Moisture content, % on dry basis = M db   100 … (2)
Wd
Moisture content on wet weight basis is for commercial and dry basis is for research and
equation substitutions. The moisture content expressed at any time on dry basis is
proportional to the moisture weight.
Wm
M wb   100 … (3)
(Wm  Wd )
Wm
M db   100 … (4)
Wd
Wm
Wd   100
M db … (5)
Substituting Wd in the equation (3),
Wm
M wb   100
Wm
(Wm  )
M db
Wm

Wm M db  Wm
M db
M db Wm

Wm (1  M db )
M db
M wb 
(1  M db ) … (6)
Mdb = Mwb + Mwb.Mdb
Mdb (1- Mwb) = Mw

M wb
M db 
(1  M wb )
… (7)
Methods of determination of moisture content
Moisture content is determined by using primary or direct method and secondary or in-direct
method.
Direct Method: In this method the moisture content is estimated by directly weighing and
measurement of water or moisture present.
6.1. Oven method (hot air oven and vacuum oven)
Samples of known weight is placed in hot air oven and dried at specified temperature and
duration. From the reduction in the weight due to loss of moisture / water, the moisture
content is estimated. There are standards which prescribes the temperature and duration of
drying of samples.
ASCC – American Society of Cereal Chemists
ASTM – American Standards of Testing and Methods
ASAbE – American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers
ASTA – American Spice Traders Association
Material Standard Temperature, ºC Duration, h

Grains and nuts ASCC 130±1ºC 1 or 2 h
100±1ºC 24 h
Fruits and vegetables ASAE 70ºC at 600 mm Hg 6h
Spices ASTA 110±1ºC - distillation 1 to 3 h
6.2. Distillation method
a. Toluene distillation method (Dean-Stark apparatus)
Dean-Stark apparatus is used in the distillation method of moisture estimation. This apparatus
consists of a round bottom flask, condenser, and moisture collection tube. The moisture /
water collection tube is provided with or without graduation and a cock to drain the water.
Water out Condenser
Water in
Moisture
collection tube
Flask with sample
Fig.6.1. Dean-Stark Apparatus

The flask and Dean-Stark apparatus are connected to the condenser. The weighed and
ground samples (about 5 to 10 g) is placed in the flask and filled with toluene or zylone or
known volume of water to completely immerse the sample. Toluene and zylone are used in
the distillation process being they are fire proof. The apparatus is placed in a heating mantle
and heated at 82, 100 and 110ºC, for zylone, water and toluene, respectively. Cooling water is
circulated from a running source.
When the water / toluene / zylone is heated, the sample also will get heated and the
moisture present in the sample will evaporate and reach the condenser. With the cooling
water circulated in the condenser, the moisture vapour and the vapour of toluene / zylone will
get condensed and collected in the moisture collection tube. From the graduations provided,
the amount of water collected can be noted. If water is used for distillation, the same may be
deducted to estimate the moisture collected.
b. Toluene distillation method (Brown Dual apparatus)
Brown Dual apparatus used for moisture estimation is similar to Dean-Stark
apparatus. This apparatus consists of a round bottom flask, condenser, and moisture
collection tube. The moisture / water collection tube is provided with graduation.
The flask and apparatus are connected to the condenser. The weighed and ground
samples (about 5 to 10 g) is placed in the flask and filled with mineral oil of known volume
to completely immerse the sample. The apparatus is placed in a heating mantle and heated at
100ºC. Cooling water is circulated from a running source.
When the mineral oil is heated, the sample also will get heated and the moisture
present in the sample will evaporate and reach the condenser. With the cooling water
circulated in the condenser, the moisture in the vapour form will get condensed and collected
in the moisture collection tube. From the graduations provided, the amount of water collected
can be noted. Care should be taken to heat the sample below the boiling point of mineral oil.
Fig.6.2. Brown Dual apparatus
6.3. Direct measurement using Infra-Red moisture meter:
It is an instrument for measuring the moisture content of materials that do not change
in their chemical structure while losing water/ moisture under exposure to infra-red radiation
/ higher temperature.
This consists of an infra-red lamp to supply heat for drying the sample under infra-red
radiation. The input power to the lamp can be varied from 0- 250 Watts. As a result, greater
penetration of heat is possible than in conventional methods. The input voltage is varied by a
dimmerstat/ auto transformer. There are two aluminium discs mounted on bush bearings,
vertically and torsion wire is fixed between them and passes through pointer assembly. One
of the two discs is graduated from 0- 100% of moistures in 0.2 % divisions. By heating the
sample from the infra-red source, the loss in moisture is estimated. Nowadays, halogen lamps
are used in place of infra- red lamps.
Procedure:
a. Turn the scale-lamp ‘on’ by means of the toggle switch.
b. By turning the scale adjusting knob rotate the scale until the 100% mark coincides
with the index.
c. Move the pointer to the index by turning the pointer- adjusting knob in a direction
opposite to that in which the pointer must move to coincide with index.
d. Rotate the scale until the 0% mark coincides with the index. The pointer is now above
the index.
e. Raise the lamp housing and carefully distribute the test material on the sample pan
until the pointer returns to the index. Approximately 25 gms. of material is needed.
This weight of material then corresponds to 100 divisions of the scale.
f. Lower the lamp housing and turn on the infra-red lamp by means of the toggle switch.
g. Adjust the dimmerstat knob for required temperature (experience).
h. Due t o drying, the moisture will be lost and as a result the pointer will raise above the
index.
i. When the pointer comes to the stationary position, rotate the scale until the pointer
returns to the index.
j. Read the scale and it will give the moisture lost in percent of moisture content on wet
basis. This can be converted into dry basis.
Fig.6.3. Infra-red moisture meter
Table 6.1. Estimation of moisture content of given sample
Weight of (g) Weight of (g)

Weight Moisture Moisture
Sample wet dry
of empty Box + Box + Content, % Content, %
No. grain grain
box, g wet grain dry grain db wb
(Ww) (Wd)
Average Moisture Content =

Covert the following moisture contents into other basis
Sample No. Moisture Content, % db Moisture Content, % wb
RESULTS: The moisture content of the given sample by direct method (hot air oven
method) was found to be:
i. by wet weight basis - % (w.b.) and

ii. by dry weight basis - % (d.b.)
Ex No.: 07 Determination of Moisture content of various grains by indirect
Date: method
AIM: To study the determination of moisture content of the given samples by indirect
method with different moisture instruments.
APPARATUS: Different moisture meters, hot air oven, desiccators, balance, grain samples,
etc.
THEORY: The amount of moisture in a product is expressed on the basis of water and
usually expressed in per cent. This per cent moisture content may be expressed on wet basis
and dry basis.
Let,
Ww = wet weight of the sample, g
Wd = dry weight of the sample, g
Wm = (Ww – Wd) = moisture weight of the sample, g
Wm
Moisture content, % on wet basis = M wb   100 … (1)
Ww
Wm
Moisture content, % on dry basis = M db   100 … (2)
Wd
Moisture content on wet weight basis is for commercial and dry basis is for research and
equation substitutions. The moisture content expressed at any time on dry basis is
proportional to the moisture weight.
Wm
M wb   100 … (3)
(Wm  Wd )
Wm
M db   100 … (4)
Wd
Wm
Wd   100
M db … (5)
Substituting Wd in the equation (3),
Wm
M wb   100
Wm
(Wm  )
M db
Wm

Wm M db  Wm
M db
M db Wm

Wm (1  M db )
M db
M wb 
(1  M db ) … (6)
Mdb = Mwb + Mwb.Mdb
Mdb (1- Mwb) = Mw

M wb
M db 
(1  M wb )
… (7)
Methods of determination of moisture content
Moisture content is determined by using primary or direct method and secondary or
in-direct method.
Indirect Method: The electrical properties, like, resistance, capacitance and conductance
vary with the moisture content. Using the electrical measuring circuit, the moisture content is
indirectly measured. Accordingly they are calibrated to measure the moisture content. The
electronic circuit of a basic moisture meter is given below.
Fig.7.1. Basic circuit of a moisture meter

PSAW Digital Moisture Meter Method
PSAW digital moisture meter are designed for quick and accurate determination of
moisture content of a wide range of organic and many inorganic materials. The instrument is
specially designed for apparently dry granular substances, such as, food grains, seeds, pulses,
spices and dehydrated fruits.
The operation of PSAW digital moisture meter is based on the fact that the electrical
conductivity of a moist material is directly proportional to the amount of moisture contained
in it. Electrical conductivity also varies with the temperature. A built-in temperature sensor
along with microprocessor circuitry of the instrument compensate for these variations. For
uniformity, accuracy and reliability of results the materials under examination is compressed
to a particular thickness in order to annul the
porosity effect on the electrical conductivity.
The rugged mechanical construction of the
instrument to withstand high-applied pressure
coupled with latest electronic technique for
reliability and accuracy of results makes it
indispensable for grain and seed houses. For a
given temperature the percent moisture content in
the material is directly read from correlation dial
without making use of any chart or mathematical
calculations. PSAW digital moisture meters are,
therefore, best suited for quick and accurate
determination of percent moisture content in food
grains, pulses, oil seeds, vegetable seeds and other
granular materials such as, coffee beans, cotton
seeds, oats, water melon seeds, etc. Fig.7.2. Digital moisture meter
PROCEDURE:
i. The sample to be tested is taken from a representative sample of the entire lot and
thoroughly mixed before testing.
ii. A measuring cup of the proper volumes (A, B and C) is filled with the test material
up to its brim. The material need not be pressed in the measuring cup rather it should
be properly shaken and leveled to avoid superfluous empty spaces in between the
grains. The test material is then transferred into the test cup.
iii. Place the test cup containing the sample in its housing in such a manner that the guide
stems of the cup snuggly fits into the hole in the body base.
iv. Select the proper compression thickness required for the given test sample from the
thickness setting chart.
v. Rotate the smaller handle in anti-clockwise direction until the plunger is snuggly
compressed against the sample.
vi. Now fit the Ratchet handle into the open end of bevel pinion and compress the
sample until the reading on the main scale and the circular scale divisions together
give the correct thickness reading.
vii. Press the push type switch on the moisture meter to take the reading after count down
from 10 to 1 and temperature correction automatically. The three digits display will
give direct moisture percentage after count down.
viii. To remove the sample, release the pressure between the plunger and the test cup by
using ratchet handle in clockwise direction, till movement is free. Remove the rachet
handle. Use small handle till the pointer goes to the upper most position. Lift the test
cup upwards. Remove the test material from the test cup and clean the cup and
plunger with a soft piece of cloth. Replace the cup in its position.
Universal Moisture Meter
OSAW Universal moisture meter is for quick determination of percent moisture
content of a wide range of organic and many inorganic materials. This instrument is mostly
suitable for dry granular substances, such as food grains, seeds, pulses, spices, and
dehydrated fruits. For a given temperature, the percent moisture content in the material is
directly read from the correlator dial without making use of any chart or mathematical
calculations.
Scientific Principle:
The operation of OSAW Universal moisture meter is based on the fact that the
electrical conductivity of a moist material is directly proportional to the amount of moisture
contained in it. Electrical conductivity also varies with the temperature. A built- in
thermometer and a set of correlator dials on the front panel of the instrument compensates for
these variations.
For uniformity, accuracy and reliability of results the material under examination is
compressed to a particular thickness in order to annul porosity effect on the electrical
conductivity.
Procedure to determine the moisture content by oven method
Take three moisture estimation cups with lids. Mark with serial numbers or alphabet
codes. Weigh the empty cups with lids in an electronic balance of least count 0.01g and
record in the Table 7.1. Take about 5-10 g of grain samples, powdered or ground in the
moisture cups. Weigh the cups with lid and along the sample. Place the cups in open
condition and the lids placed at the bottom of the cups inside the hot air oven maintained at
130±2oC for 1 hour (As per No. 44-15 A, 1976 ASCC approved methods). Then the samples
are taken out from the oven and closed with the respective lids and placed in desiccators
filled with calcium chloride to cool the samples. After cooling, the sample are weighed in the
balance of 0.01 g least count and recorded in the Table 1. From the reduction in the weight of
the grains measured, the moisture content is estimated. If the moisture content of the sample
is assessed as above 15%, double stage method is followed by placing 25–30 g of whole
grain sample in an hot air-oven at 130±2o C for 14 –16 h so that its moisture content is
reduced to about 13 per cent. Then the same procedure is followed as in single-stage method.
Fig.7.3. Different makes of resistance type moisture meters
Fig.7.4. Different makes of capacitance type moisture meters
Table 7.1. Estimation of moisture content of given sample
Sample Weight Weight of (g) Weight of (g) Moisture Moisture

No. of empty Content, % Content, %
box, g Box + Box + wet dry db wb
wet grain dry grain grain grain
(Ww) (Wd)
Average Moisture Content =

Covert the following moisture contents into other basis
Sample No. Moisture Content, % db Moisture Content, % wb
RESULTS: The moisture content of the given sample by direct method (hot air oven
method) was found to be:
i. by wet weight basis - % (w.b.) and
ii. by dry weight basis - % (d.b.)
The moisture content of the given grain sample by indirect method using moisture meter is
% (w.b.) / % (d.b.)
Ex No.: 08 Experiment on determination of terminal velocity of different
Date: grains
AIM: To determine the terminal velocity of the given grain samples.

APPARATUS: Terminal velocity apparatus, anemometer, grain samples, etc.
THEORY: Aero and /or hydrodynamic properties are very important characters in hydraulic
transport and handling as well as hydraulic sorting of agricultural products. To provide basic
data for the development of equipment for sorting and sizing of agro commodities, several
properties such as: physical characteristics and terminal velocity are needed. The two
important aerodynamic characteristics of a body are its terminal velocity and aerodynamic
drag. Terminal velocity of the grains is the velocity at which the grain is kept under
suspension and against the gravity. By defining the terminal velocity of different threshed
materials, it is possible to determine and set the maximum possible air velocity in which
material out of grain can be removed without loss of grain or the principle can be applied to
classify grain into different size groups. In addition, agricultural materials and food products
are routinely conveyed using air. For such operations, the interaction between the solid
particles and the moving fluids determine the forces applied to the particles. The interaction
is affected by the density, shape, and size of the particle along with the density, viscosity, and
velocity of the fluid. This chapter discusses briefly with the different aerodynamic properties
and their methods of measurement.
In the handling and processing of agricultural products, air is often used as a carrier
for transport or for separating the desirable products from unwanted materials, therefore the
aerodynamic properties, such as terminal velocity and drag coefficient, are needed for air
conveying and pneumatic separation of materials. As the air velocity, greater than terminal
velocity, lifts the particles to allow greater fall of a particle, the air velocity could be adjusted
to a point just below the terminal velocity. The fluidization velocity for granular material and
settling velocity are also calculated for the body immersed in viscous fluid.
Most scientists and researchers employ air column to find out the terminal velocity of
grains. The set up usually consists of a vertical air column, which is blown from the bottom
and passes through the screen. The screen uniformly distributes the air velocity. The air
column is also attached with velocity measuring device. The blower maintains variable speed.
When grains are allowed to drop into the column, initially they attains acceleration, once the
velocity is adjusted they fall to the bottom with a constant velocity. This constant velocity is
termed as terminal velocity.
Factors affecting aerodynamic properties of biomaterials, are, frontal area and
particles size orientation (In turbulent region particles assumes position of maximum
resistance). Terminal velocity is applied in the separation of foreign materials from seeds,
grains, etc. and conveying and handling of grains, chopped forage, small and large fruits,
hydraulic handling of apples, cherries, mango and potatoes, etc.
DESCRIPTION: The apparatus used in the determination of terminal velocity of grains as
shown in Fig. 8.1, consists of an electric blower which discharge air blast into a transparent
tapered tube used as a cyclone which is fixed at the outlet side of the blower through an
elbow. A screen is fitted at the bottom of the transparent tapered tube of 8×4 cm cross section
and a cyclone is fitted at the top of it 15 cm square cross section. A chock valve is built at the
bottom of the cyclone to control the air flow rate. The chock valve is manually adjusted by
the control lever. Under steady state condition, where terminal velocity has been achieved, if
the particles density is greater than fluid density, the particles motion will be downward. If
particles density is smaller than the fluid density, the particle will be rise. Using a suitable
airflow measuring system, the velocity of air is measured when the particle is under floating
and against the gravity.
Fig. 8.1. Terminal velocity apparatus

PROCEDURE: Check the operation of the blower and the functioning of the choke valve.
Fit the vertical column in position and also place the mesh / screen. Take the given sample of
grains and open the vertical tunnel at the place of opening provided / near the mesh. Place
about 10 seeds / grains from the given lot of the grains/ seeds. Close the tunnel firmly and
keeping the choke valve closed, switch on the blower. The flow of the air from the blower
through the vertical duct / tunnel may be seen and also agitating the grains placed in the
vertical tunnel. Now slowly open the choke valve and release the air from the blower to the
vertical duct / tunnel. Slowly increase the air flow by further opening the valve start lifting
and slowly raising. Care should be taken to control the opening of the valve such that the
rains do not fly off from the tunnel. When the grain mass is under suspension and against the
gravity by the upward thrust of the air, place the anemometer and note the air velocity. This
air velocity in m/s is the terminal velocity of the given grain mass.
The determination may be repeated with different grains and at different moisture contents. E
The readings of the air velocity may be recorded in the tables.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALICATIONS:
Grain / seed (Variety) Moisture content, % d.b. Terminal velocity, m/s
Mean
Mean
Mean
RESULTS:
The terminal velocity of the given grain samples at the given moisture contents are,

Ex No.: 09
Performance evaluation of available screen cleaner
Date:
AIM: To determine the effectiveness of the given cleaner cum grader by evaluating the
efficiency of cleaning and separation.
APPARATUS: Table model ‘OSAW’ cleaner cum grader, grain sample, chaff and other
impurities, balance, sample divider, etc.
THEORY: Cleaning and grading are the most important post harvest operations undertaken
to remove foreign and undesirable materials from the threshed grains to separate the grains
into various fractions. Cleaning generally means the removal of foreign and undesirable
matters from the desired grains. This may accomplished by washing, screening, hand picking,
winnowing, etc. Grading refers to the classification of cleaned products into various quality
fractions depending upon the various commercial values and other usage, example – size,
mass, etc.
Generally a blower or aspirator is used to force air onto the grain to segregate chaffs
and fines. Effective cleaning of grains is affected by the airflow rate. The effectiveness of
cleaning is determined by analysing the fraction of good grains and chaff in the grain and
impurity outlets.
The effectiveness of cleaning / winnowing is the measure of the success of the air
stream to separate the light weight impurities. The performance / effectiveness of cleaning
depend on control of velocity of the air used. It is a measure of sharply separating material, B
& C from the feed, A. Under ideal conditions all of B will be in the good grain outlet C
being the chaff/ impurities.
Let,
X - the mass fraction of good grains in the feed (a/A)
Y - the mass fraction of good grains in the good grains outlet (b/B)
Z - the mass fraction of good grains in chaff / impurities outlet (c/C)
where a, b & c are the quantity of the good grains in the feed, good grain outlet and chaff
outlet, respectively, separated from the respective samples.
Fig.9.1. Mechanism of grading

According to material balance,
A=B+C ... (1)
B = A-C
C = A-B
AX = BY + CZ ... (2)
AX = BY + AZ-BZ ... (3)
A (X-Z) = B (Y-Z)
B (X-Z)
= ... (4)
A (Y-Z)
(3) can be rewritten as

A (1-X) = B (1-Y) + C (1-Z) ... (5)
A (1-X) = A (1-Y) – C (1-Y) + C (1-Z)
A (Y-X) = C (Y-Z)
C (Y-X)
= ... (6)
A (Y-Z)
Effectiveness with reference to good grains:
BY Y (X-Z)
Eg = = ... (7)
AX X (Y-Z)
Effectiveness with reference to chaff and impurities:
C (1-Z) (Y-X) (1-Z)

Ec = = ... (8)
A (1-X) (Y-Z) (1-X)
Therefore the overall effectiveness of cleaning is,
Y (X-Z) (Y-X) (1-Z)

Ecl = Eg x Ec =
X (Y-Z) (Y-Z) (1-X)
To find the mass fractions of the good grains in the feed, good grains outlet and
chaff outlet, manually separate the sample for the good grains and chaff. From the weight of
the sample and the separated good materials/ chaff, calculate the proportion of the each. The
effectiveness of grader is determined from the fraction of the desired size of the material
present in the feed and from the fraction of the material present in the over flow and
underflow.
In a binary mixture, A, if B and C are the materials of size, underflow and overflow, that
pass through the sieve and retained on the sieve, the effectiveness is determined as given
below.
Let,
X - the mass fraction of grains of desired size in the feed (a/A)
Y - the mass fraction of grains of desired size in the overflow (b/B)
Z - the mass fraction of good of desired size in the underflow (c/C)
Where a, b & c are the quantity of the grains of desired size in the feed, overflow and
underflow, respectively, separated from the respective samples.
According to material balance,
A=B+C ... (9)
B = A-C
C = A-B
AX = BY + CZ ... (10)
AX = BY + AZ-BZ ... (11)
A (X-Z) = B (Y-Z)
B (X-Z)
= ... (12)
A (Y-Z)
(3) can be rewritten as

A (1-X) = B (1-Y) + C (1-Z) ... (5)
A (1-X) = A (1-Y) – C (1-Y) + C (1-Z)
A (Y-X) = C (Y-Z)
C (Y-X)
= ... (13)
A (Y-Z)
Effectiveness with reference to overflow:

BY Y (X-Z)
Eo = = ... (14)
AX X (Y-Z)
Effectiveness with reference to underflow:
C (1-Z) (Y-X) (1-Z)

Eu = = ... (15)
A (1-X) (Y-Z) (1-X)
Therefore the overall effectiveness,
Y (X-Z) (Y-X) (1-Z)

Eg = Eo x Eu =
X (Y-Z) (Y-Z) (1-X)
Overall effectiveness of cleaning and grading, Eo = Ecl x Eg
DESCRIPTION: The cleaner cum grader works on the principle of vibration. A set of
sieves is oscillated by means of an eccentric mechanism. Depending on the sieve perforation
size, grains are graded and separated. Simultaneously cleaning is also done by means of a
blower. The table model cleaner cum grader consists of a feed hopper, sieve box blower and
outlets for graded grain. The blower is operated by 0.5 hp single-phase electric motor. The
sieve box reciprocates by means of an eccentric mechanism. Guides are provided in the box
to insert two numbers of sieves for cleaning cum grading. The feed hopper is placed above
the sieve box and the grain delivered from the hopper reaches the top sieve. Sieves are
selected based on the grain to be cleaned and graded. There are outlets to collect overflow
and underflow from the top and bottom sieves, respectively.
The overflow of bottom sieve is subjected to the stream of air provided from the
blower and the chaff or other impurities are moved. The cleaned grains are collected at the
bottom and the impurities and chaff are blown out.
PROCEDURE: Take 3 samples of about 50 g each from the given feed material and
manually separate into good grains and impurities, chaff etc. and find their fractions. Take a
sample of about 1 kg of the given grain mass mixed with different sizes for the experiment.
Measure the size of the perforation of the sieve in the grader and take a hand sieve of the
same size. Sieve the sample (1 kg) in the sieve and weigh the quantity of the sample retained
on the sieve. Mix the samples well and make the feed material ready for the experiment.
Grains are fed into the feed hopper and the machine is operated along with the sieve. The
feed material is exposed to the blast of air to separate the chaff and other impurities to get
cleaned grains. Also the cleaned grain mass is separated into overflow (size above the sieve
opening) and underflow ( size below the sieve opening). Take about 50 g of samples, each
from cleaned grain outlet and chaff outlet. Also one kg of sample from overflow and
underflow. Manually separate the chaff and other impurities, and cleaned grain. Using the
same sieve used earlier, sieve the overflow and underflow separately and weigh them.
Calculate the mass fraction of desired size of material in the feed, over flow and underflow
and substitute in the formula to calculate the effectiveness. Record all the weights in Table
9.1 and 9.2.
Fig.9.2. Cleaner cum grader
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Table 9.1. Determination of effectiveness of cleaning
Sample Sample Total Mass, g Mass of (g) Fraction
source No. Good grains Rejects
Feed 1
2
3
Mean
Good grains 1
2
3
Mean
Chaff and 1
other 2
impurities 3
Mean
X= ; Y= ; Z = .
Therefore the overall effectiveness of cleaning,
Y (X-Z) (Y-X) (1-Z)
Ecl =Eg x Ec =
X (Y-Z) (Y-Z) (1-X)
Table 9.2. Determination of effectiveness of grader
Sample Sample Mass of sample , g Mass of (g) grains in Fraction
source No. Overflow Underflow
Feed 1
2
3
Mean
Overflow 1
2
3
Mean
Underflow 1
2
3
Mean
X= ; Y= ; Z = .
Therefore the overall effectiveness of grading,
Y (X-Z) (Y-X) (1-Z)
Ecl =Eg x Ec =
X (Y-Z) (Y-Z) (1-X)
Fraction of desired size grain in feed (X) =
Fraction of desired size grain in the overflow (Y) =
Fraction of desired size grain in the underflow (Z) =
Capacity of the cleaner cum grader = (M/t) 60 = kg/h

Overall effectiveness of cleaning and grading, Eo = Ecl x Eg
RESULTS
1. The capacity of the given grader is = kg/h
2. The effectiveness of cleaning of the given cleaner cum grader is =
3. The effectiveness of grading of the given cleaner cum grader is =
4. The overall effectiveness of the given cleaner cum grader is =
Ex No.: 10
Performance evaluation of fluidized bed dryer
Date:
AIM: To draw the drying characteristic curve for the given grain / seed by fluidized bed
drying and evaluate the performance of the dryer by determining the efficiency of the drier.
APPARATUS: Laboratory model fluidized bed dryer, moist seeds / grains, balance,
thermometer, etc.
THEORY: Fluidised bed drying is the process of drying the material in a chamber by
keeping the materials under floating condition by the action of the air. In this method the
drying process is uniform as each particle of the material/seed/grain is subjected to the hot
air. The drying characteristic curve which is a relation between the drying time and moisture
content is useful information. The following are to various parameters to be evaluated for a
drier.
DESCRIPTION: The laboratory model fluidized bed drier consists of a blower, heater
assembly, fluidizing chamber, outlet and control panel as shown in Fig.10.1. The main
power supply to the equipment is through a timer switch. The blower operated by 240 V-
AC sends the air to the heater assembly. A butterfly valve is provided to regulate the flow
rate of air. In the heater assembly, electric heaters are provided and the power supply is made
through a thermostat. The hot air reaches the bottom of the fluidizing chamber where the
seed/grain is placed. The air dries the seed / grain and exit through the outlet at the top.
Temperature probes and other control switches are placed on the control panel.
Fig.10.1. Laboratory model fluidized bed dryer

PROCEEDURE: Take 3 samples of each about 5 g and keep in the oven at 1301C for
one hour and determine the moisture content. Take empty weight of the fluidizing chamber
and along the seed lot to be dried. Set the temperature of the hot air in the range of 50-60C
and adjust the airflow rate for better fluidization of the seed. At every 5 minutes interval,
take the weight of the seed and note the temperature of air at inlet, drying air and exhaust.
Tabulate the readings and calculate the other parameters.
Table 10.1. Determination of moisture content
Seed / Cup No. Mass of cup, g Wet weight Dry weight Moisture
grain Empty With wet With dry of sample, g of sample, g content, %
sample sample w.b.
Mean
Empty weight of chamber, E = kg
Initial weight of seed taken for drying, W = kg.
Moisture content of seed/ grain, M1 = % db
100 W
Probable dry weight of seed, W1 = kg
100 - M1
Area of drying surface, A = cm2
Table 10.2. Determination of moisture content, HUF and COP of dryer

Time, Mass Mass Loss toC t1C t2C HUF COP K Drying
min of of of rate,
cham- seed / moistu Kg/h
ber & grain, re, kg m2
grain / kg
seed
kg
RESULTS: The mean values of the performance factors of the fluidized bed drier and
process are found to be,
i. Heat utilisation factor =
ii. Coefficient of performance =
iii. Drying constant =
The drying characteristic curve for the given seed / grain material is drawn as shown in
Figure.10.2
Ex No.: 11
Performance evaluation of tray dryer
Date:
AIM: To draw the drying characteristic curve for the given seed / grain by tray drying and
evaluate the performance of the dryer interms of the efficiency of the drier.
APPARATUS: Laboratory model tray dryer, moist seeds / grains, balance, thermometer,
etc.
THEORY: Tray drying is the process of drying the material placed in trays and by keeping
them in a heated chamber. In this method the drying process, hot air is produced in the dryer
and circulated in the drying chamber. By both conduction and convection, the materials get
dried. The drying characteristic curve which is a relation between the drying time and
moisture content is an useful information. The following are to various parameters to be
evaluated for a drier.
Food materials may be loaded on trays or pans in comparatively thin layer upto a few
centimeters. Fresh air enters the cabinet is drawn by the pan through the heater coils and is
then blown across the food trays to exhaust. In this case the air is being heated by the indirect
method. Screens filter out any dust that may be in the air. The air passes across and between
the drays in this design. The air is exhausted to the atmosphere after one pass rather than
being circulated within the system. The moisture laden air, after evaporating water from the
food, would have to be dried before being recirculated, or else it would soon become
saturated and further drying of the food would stop.
Cabinet, tray and pan driers are usually for small scale operations. They are
comparatively inexpensive and easy to set in terms of drying conditions. They may run upto
25 trays high, and will operate with air temperatures of about 93ºC dry bulb, and air
velocities of about 2.5 to 5 m/s across the trays. They commonly are used to dry fruit and
vegetable pieces and depending upon the food and the desired final moisture, drying time
may be of the order of 10 or even 20 hour.
Fig. 11.1. Tray dryer

The drying chamber is an insulated cabinet fitted with trays. Many shallow trays are
kept one above the other with a gap in between, in the drying chamber. Tray dryer is
generally used for drying of vegetables and similar semi perishables. The trays may or may
not have perforated bottom. Perforated trays are used when the plenum chamber is at the
bottom of drying chamber. If the heated air is coming from the sides of drying chamber, the
trays may not have perforated bottom. The gap in between the group of trays permits air
ventilation. Products are kept in thin layers in the trays in which the drying takes place. Hot
air is blown to promote uniform air distribution through each tray. Additional heaters placed
above the trays to increase the rate of drying. Used for small scale production. Tray dryer
involves low capital and maintenance costs. This method has relatively poor control and
produce more variable product quality as food dries more rapidly on trays nearest to the heat
source.
Advantages of tray dryers
 Flexibility to accommodate various food products.
 Used for small scale production.
 Low capital and maintenance costs .
Disadvantages
 It is a batch system.
 Non uniform drying of products.
 Relatively poor control and produce more variable product quality as food dries more
rapidly on trays nearest to the heat source.
DESCRIPTION: The laboratory model tray drier consists of a blower, heater assembly,
drying chamber, holding arrangement for the trays, outlet and control panel as shown in
Fig. 11.1. The main power supply to the equipment is through a timer switch. The blower
operated by 240 V-AC sends the air to the heater assembly. A butterfly valve is provided to
regulate the flow rate of air. In the heater assembly, electric heaters are provided and the
power supply is made through a thermostat. The hot air reaches the bottom of the trays
and heats the tray in which the seed/grain is placed. The air dries the seed / grain and exit
through the outlet at the top. Temperature probes and other control switches are placed
on the control panel.
PROCEEDURE: Take 3 samples of the given grains or food materials, each about 5 g and
keep in the oven at 1301C for one hour and determine the moisture content. Take the
empty weight of the tray(s) used for drying studies and also along with the grains / seed /
food materials to be dried. Set the temperature of the hot air in the range of 50-60C and
adjust the airflow rate according to the material being dried. At every 5 minutes interval, take
the weight of the seed and note the temperature of air at inlet, drying air and exhaust.
Tabulate the readings and calculate the other parameters.

Table 11.1. Determination of moisture content
Seed / Cup No. Mass of cup, g Wet weight Dry weight Moisture
grain Empty With wet With dry of sample, g of sample, g content, %
sample sample w.b.
Mean
Empty weight of chamber, E = kg
Initial weight of seed taken for drying, W = kg.
Moisture content of seed/ grain, M1 = % db
100 W
Probable dry weight of seed, W1 = kg
100 - M1
Area of drying surface, A = cm2
Table 11.2. Determination of moisture content, HUF and COP of dryer

Time, Mass Mass Loss toC t1C t2C HUF COP K Drying
min of of of rate,
cham- seed / moistu Kg/h
ber & grain, re, kg m2
grain / kg
seed
kg
RESULTS: The mean values of the performance factors of the tray drier and process are
found to be,
i. Heat utilisation factor =
ii. Coefficient of performance =
iii. Drying constant =
The drying characteristic curve for the given seed material is drawn as shown in Figure.11.2
Ex.No.12
Determination of capacity of a belt conveyor and its
Date: performance evaluation
AIM: To study the working of the belt conveyor and evaluate its performance by determining
capacity and conveying efficiency.
APPARATUS: Laboratory model belt conveyor, raw material, stop watch, scale, balance,
etc.
THEORY: Belt conveyor is one of the important materials handling equipment used in the
grain /seed processing industries. Belt conveyor has an endless belt operating between two
pullies with its load supported on idlers. The belt may be flat for transporting bagging
material or V- shaped or some other enclosed shape for moving bulk grain. The belt conveyor
consists of a belt, drive mechanism and end pulleys, idlers and loading and discharge devices.
Belt conveyor have antifriction bearing, therefore these have a high mechanical
efficiency. Material carried by belt conveyor lie still on surface of belt or there is no relative
motion between product and belt. This result in generally and no damage to material. Belt
can be run at higher speeds, so large carrying capacity are possible. Horizontally the material
can be transported to longer distance but there is a limit to carry the material on elevation. A
properly designed and maintained belt conveyor has long service life and low operation costs.
Compare to other types of horizontal conveyor system, the initial cost of belt conveyor high
for short distances. But for longer distances, the initial cost of belt conveying system is
competitive or low. For these reasons belt conveyor are used to carry grain in processing
plants.
The design of belt conveyor system is based on available space, horizontal conveying
length and conveying lift, characteristics of the material to be conveyed and capacity
requirement. The selection of belt width will depend upon the capacity requirement, speed of
operation, and angle of inclination of belt conveyor, trough angle and depth.
A trough angle (B) of 20 is best suited for paddy and most other grains. Other
common trough angles are 30 and 45. Paddy forms a surcharge angle (A) of 20. Other
common surcharge angle ranges between 5 and 30.
The majority of belt conveyors for transporting bulk material use some type of
rubberized conveyor belt made up of carcass. The pull of load is taken by the longitudinal
strength of belt while the transverse strength supports the load. The belt is protected from
damage by a rubber cover. The thickness of top rubber cover varies with thickness and wear
resistance requirements.
The efficiency of belt conveyor is largely dependent on idlers. For higher efficiency
of belt conveying system, the idlers must be accurately made and provide a rigid
framework. This maintains a permanent, well-balanced smooth running alignment. These are,
in general, three kinds of belt carrying idlers, which are used in handling of bulk material.
The type idlers affected the cross- sectional load on the belt.
The flat belt idlers are used for granular material having an angle of repose of not less
than 35. Flat belt idlers are preferred for low capacity requirements where inexpensive or
low cost conveying is desired. It is mainly used for transporting of small particle light weight
material like grain cotton seed etc. it is also use for carrying heavier, medium size lumps like
crushed stones.
Let,
D diameter of pulley/ roller, cm
N speed of the roller /pulley, rpm
a bottom width of the trough, cm
b top width of the trough, cm
h depth of the materials conveyed, cm
 bulk density of the seed/grain conveyed, kg/m3
L length of the belt / distance conveyed, m
M Actual mass of material conveyed by the belt conveyor, kg
T Time taken in minutes to convey the material, min.
Volume of material held in one meter length of the belt, V = [(a+b)/2] h cm3/ m
Speed of belt, S = ( D N) / 100 m/min.
Capacity of conveying material by the belt conveyor, Q theo = ( S V 60) 10-6 kg/h
Determine the actual capacity by running an experiment, with quantity conveyed and time
taken as Q actual.
Thus the conveying efficiency,
Conveying = (Qactual / Qtheo) x 100%
The capacity of belt conveyor can be,

Q actual = (M / T) 60 kg/h.
DESCRIPTION: The belt conveyor consists of the important parts like, pullies/ drums,
endless rubber belt, idlers, inlet, outlets, other supports, etc. The pullies are made of cast iron
to 30 cm diameter and the belt placed along with the number of idlers. The distance between
the pullies / length of conveying is 3 m. The arrangement is placed on a suitable frame. The
belt is supported by the idlers placed below the belt. At one end of the belt assembly, a
hopper is provided with regulator to feed the material to be conveyed. On the other end an
outlet is provided to collect the discharge. A drive pulley of 20 cm diameter is fixed on
the drive pulley shaft and the power from a 1 hp motor is transmitted through V-belt
arrangement for operating the belt conveyor.
Fig.12.1. Belt conveyor
PROCEDURE: Clean the belt conveyor and load the feed hopper with the known quantity of
the given material. Place the collection boxes at the discharge outlet. Take three samples of
the given material to determine the bulk density. Start the belt conveyor and open the feed
regulator in the hopper and convey the material and note the time taken to convey all the
material. Also observe the bottom and top width of the material filled in the belt and the
depth during conveying the material. Record the observations to determine the capacity and
the conveying efficiency.
Diameter of pulley/ roller, D = 30 cm
Speed of the roller /pulley, N = 50 rpm
Bottom width of the trough, a = 15 cm
Top width of the trough, b = 45 cm
Depth of the materials conveyed, h = 20 cm
Bulk density of the seed/grain conveyed,  = kg/m3
Length of the belt / distance conveyed, L =3m
Mass of material conveyed by the belt conveyor, M = kg
Time taken in minutes to convey the material, T = min.
Table 12.1 Bulk density of the given seed/grain

No. container cc container + sample, g Mass/volume
sample, g (g) g/cc
Mean
Volume of material held in one meter length of the belt, V = [(a+b)/2] h cm3/ m
Speed of belt, S = ( D N) / 100 m/min.
Capacity of conveying material by the belt conveyor, Q theo = ( S V 60) 10-6 kg/h
The actual capacity of belt conveyor, Q actual = (M / T) 60 kg/h.
Thus the conveying efficiency,
Conveying = (Qactual / Qtheo) x 100%
RESULTS: The conveying capacity and the conveying efficiency of the belt conveyor are
determined as and .
Ex.No.13
Determination of Capacity of a bucket conveyor and its
Date: performance evaluation
AIM: To determine the capacity and evaluate the performance of the given bucket elevator
by determining the conveyance efficiency.
THEORY: Bucket elevator is the only equipment used in material handling to convey the
material in vertical direction. It consists of a series of buckets or cups arranged in an endless
that belt moving between two flat pullies. The cups will be filled with the grains during
upward movement from the hopper and discharged at the top due to centrifugal force. The
capacity of the elevator depends on the size of bucket/cup and speed of operation. For
proper discharge of the material, the weight of the material in each cup should be equal to the
centrifugal force created by the rotation as,
The quantity of material held in the cups for 1 metre length of belt,
100 v
W1m = x kg/m
s 106
If the belt moves at V m/minute speed, the theoretical capacity of the conveyor,
6 V v
Q theoretical = kg /h
3
s 10
DESCRIPTION: The lab model bucket elevator consists of a feed hopper, cup assembly,
cover, outlet etc. Cups of parabolic cross section with dimensions as shown in Fig.13.1. are
mounted on the endless flat belt at a spacing of 12 cm. The flat belt of width 14 cm is run
between the flat pullies of diameter, 6.5 cm, rotating at a speed of 95 rpm. The power to the
head pulley (top pulley) is transmitted by a V-belt from a 0.25 hp motor. Inspection doors
are provided to inspect the cups and belt periodically. The whole assembly mounted on a
frame.
PROCEDURE: Load the feed hopper of the bucket elevator with the given material and the
unit to the mains through Watt meter or Ammeter and Voltmeter. Place the collection box at
the discharge outlet. Take three samples of the given material for the determination of bulk
density. Run the bucket elevator without load and note the watt meter or ammeter and
voltmeter readings. Open the feed regulator in the feed hopper and convey the
material and note the time taken to convey all the material. Also note the power required
from the meters at load. From these observations, the efficiencies can be calculated.
Fig.13.1. Bucket elevator
Volume of each cup, v = cm3
Speed of belt, V = m/min
Spacing between cups, s = 12 cm
Table 13.1 Bulk density of the given seed/grain

No. container, cc container+ sample, g Mass / volume
sample, g g/cc
Mean
Quantity of material conveyed, W = Kg

Time taken to convey, W kg, T = min
Theoretical capacity of bucket elevator,

6 V v
Qtheoretical =
s 103
Actual capacity, Qactual = 60W/ T = kg/h
Qactual
Conveying = x 100%
Qtheo
RESULTS:
The conveying capacity and the conveying efficiency of the given bucket elevator are found
as and .
Ex.No.14
Field visit to greenhouse
Date:
Ex.No.15
Visit to Horticulture Research Station, Udhagamandalam
Date:
Ex.No.16
Visit to food modern rice mill
Date:

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TAMIL NADU AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

APE 311 PROTECTED CULTIVATION AND SECONDARY AGRICULTURE 1+1

PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

Dr. R.VISVANATHAN, Professor (APE)

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE

This is to certify that this is the Bonafide record of work done by

External Examiner Course teacher

Ex. Date Date of Initial

5. Experiment on determination of bulk density and

10. Performance evaluation of fluidized bed dryer

13. Determination of capacity of a bucket conveyor and

14. Field visit to greenhouse

15. Visit to Horticulture Research Station,

Fig.1.1. Lean to type greenhouse

Fig.1.3. Uneven span type greenhouse

Fig.1.6 Quonset greenhouse

Fig.1.7. Greenhouse with fan and pad type cooling arrangement

Fig. 1.10 Truss framed structures

Fig. 1.11. Glass greenhouses

Fig. 1.12. Plastic film greenhouses

Fig. 1.13. Rigid panel greenhouses

Fig. 1.14. Shading nets

Fig. 2.1. Hand a. Analog type b. Digital type c. Maxima- d. Non-contact

a. Anemometer b. CO2 level indicator

Greenhouse ventilation and cooling of greenhouse environment is essential during

(Source: National Greenhouse Manufacturers’ Association, 1993)

(Source: National Greenhouse Manufacturers’ Association)

Temperature Rise 5.6 5.0 4.4 3.9 3.3 2.8 2.2

Fhouse = Felev × Flight × Ftemp … (3.2)

Qadj = Qstd × (Fhouse or Fvel) … (3.3)

3.2 Design of active winter cooling system

(Source: National Greenhouse Manufacturers’ Association

Greenhouse Greenhouse Length

Shape Description Example(s)

Round approaching spheroid like. eg. Lemon, apple, etc.

Oblate flattened at stem end apex eg. Pomegranate, pumpkin

Oblong vertical diameter greater than the horizontal eg. Ashguard.

Conic tapered towards the apex. eg. Radish, carrot.

Obovate inverted ovate. eg. Cashew fruit

Elliptical approaching ellipsoid. eg. Guava etc.

Regular horizontal section approaches to a circle. eg. Grapes.

Irregular horizontal cross-section departs from a Mango, ladies finger,

Roundness: It is the measure of sharpness of solid.

Largest projected area of the particle when it is in natural rest

Radius of curvature of the sharpest corner (r)

Sphericity = [ vp/ vc] 1/3 = [π/6 (l b t)1/3] / π/6 l3

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Sample No. Replication Length, mm Breadth, mm Thickness, mm Diameter, mm

Radius of curvature of the sharpest corner (r)

Sphericity = [ vp/ vc] 1/3 = [π/6 (l b t)1/3] / π/6 l3

Sample / Size, mm Roundness Roundness Sphericity

P2V1 P2V2 P1V1

i.e., P1V1 = P2V1 + P2V2

Fig.5.1. Apparatus for the determination of porosity of grains

Sample Replication Volume of Mass of Mass of Bulk density

Table.5.2. Porosity of the given seed/grain mass

Sample Replication P1 cm P2 cm Porosity,

Table 5.3. True density of the given seed/grain mass

Sample No. Average bulk density Average porosity, %, P True density,