Name: Mera, Rikki C.

Date: January 23, 2020

Grade & Section: 11 ABM-C Teacher: Ivy Geronimo

According to Glen, S. (2020) The main purpose of statistics is to test a hypothesis. For
example, you might run an experiment and find that a certain drug is effective at treating
headaches. But if you can’t repeat that experiment, no one will take your results seriously. A good
example of this was the cold fusion discovery, which petered into obscurity because no one was
able to duplicate the results.

What is a Hypothesis?
A hypothesis is an educated guess about something in the world around you. It should be
testable, either by experiment or observation. For example:
 A new medicine you think might work.
 A way of teaching you think might be better.
 A possible location of new species.
 A fairer way to administer standardized tests.
It can really be anything at all as long as you can put it to the test.

Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing in statistics is a way for you to test the results of a survey or experiment
to see if you have meaningful results. You are basically testing whether your results are valid by
figuring out the odds that your results have happened by chance. If your results may have happened
by chance, the experiment won’t be repeatable and so has little use.
Hypothesis testing can be one of the most confusing aspects for students, mostly because before
you can even perform a test, you have to know what your null hypothesis is. Often, those tricky
word problems that you are faced with can be difficult to decipher. But it is easier than you think;
all you need to do is:
1. Figure out your null hypothesis,
2. State your null hypothesis,
3. Choose what kind of test you need to perform,
4. Either support or reject the null hypothesis.

Null Hypothesis

As claimed by Hayes, A. (2019) A null hypothesis is a type of hypothesis used in statistics

that proposes that no statistical significance exists in a set of given observations. The null
hypothesis attempts to show that no variation exists between variables or that a single variable is
no different than its mean. It is presumed to be true until statistical evidence nullifies it for an
alternative hypothesis. Usually, the null hypothesis is a statement of 'no effect' or 'no difference'."
It is often symbolized as H0.
Alternative Hypothesis

According to Lani, J. (2019) The alternative hypothesis is generally denoted as H1. It makes
a statement that suggests or advises a potential result or an outcome that an investigator or the
researcher may expect. It has been categorized into two categories: directional alternative
hypothesis and non directional alternative hypothesis.

The directional hypothesis is a kind that explains the direction of the expected findings.
Sometimes this type of alternative hypothesis is developed to examine the relationship among the
variables rather than a comparison between the groups.

The non directional hypothesis is a kind that has no definite direction of the expected
findings being specified.

Steps in Hypothesis Testing

Step 1: State the Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis can be thought of as the opposite of the "guess" the research made (in this
example the biologist thinks the plant height will be different for the fertilizers). So the null would
be that there will be no difference among the groups of plants. Specifically in more statistical
language the null for an ANOVA is that the means are the same. We state the Null hypothesis as:

for k levels of an experimental treatment.

Note! As stated by Popper, K. (2018) we can’t conclusively confirm a hypothesis, but we

can conclusively negate one. So we set up a Null hypothesis which is effectively the opposite of
the working hypothesis. The hope is that based on the strength of the data we will be able to negate
or Reject the Null hypothesis and accept an alternative hypothesis. In other words, we usually see
the working hypothesis in HA.

Step 2: State the Alternative Hypothesis

HA: treatment level means not all equal
The reason we state the alternative hypothesis this way is that if the Null is rejected, there
are many possibilities. For example, μ1≠μ2=⋯=μk is one possibility, as is μ1=μ2≠μ3=⋯=μk.
Many people make the mistake of stating the Alternative Hypothesis as: μ1≠μ2≠⋯≠μk which says
that every mean differs from every other mean. This is a possibility, but only one of many
possibilities. To cover all alternative outcomes, we resort to a verbal statement of ‘not all equal’
and then follow up with mean comparisons to find out where differences among means exist. In
our example, this means that fertilizer 1 may result in plants that are really tall, but fertilizers 2, 3
and the plants with no fertilizers don't differ from one another. A simpler way of thinking about
this is that at least one mean is different from all others.
 Step 3: Set α (Alpha level)
If we look at what can happen in a hypothesis test, we can construct the following
contingency table:

You should be familiar with type I and type II errors from your introductory course. It is
important to note that we want to set before the experiment (a-priori) because the Type I error is
the more ‘grevious’ error to make. The typical value of is 0.05, establishing a 95% confidence
level. For this course we will assume =0.05.

Step 4: Collect Data

Remember the importance of recognizing whether data is collected through experimental
design or observational.

Step 5: Calculate a test statistic

For categorical treatment level means, we use an F statistic, named after R.A. Fisher. We
will explore the mechanics of computing the F statistic beginning in Lesson 2. The F value we get
from the data is labeled FCalculated.. Use this formula.

Step 6: Construct Acceptance / Rejection regions

As with all other test statistics, a threshold (critical) value of F is established. This F value
can be obtained from statistical tables and is referred to as Fcritical or Fα. As a reminder, this critical
value is the minimum value for the test statistic (in this case the F test) for us to be able to reject
the null.

The F distribution, Fα, and the location of Acceptance / Rejection regions are shown in the
graph below:

Step 7: Based on steps 5 and 6, draw a conclusion about

If the Fcalculated from the data is larger than the Fα, then you are in the Rejection region and you can
reject the Null Hypothesis with (1−α) level of confidence.
 Note that modern statistical software condenses step 6 and 7 by providing a p-value. The p-value
here is the probability of getting an F calculated even greater than what you observe. If by chance, the
Fcalculated=Fα, then the p-value would exactly equal to α. With larger Fcalculated values, we move further into
the rejection region and the p-value becomes less than α. So the decision rule is as follows:

If the p-value obtained from the ANOVA is less than α, then Reject H0 and Accept HA.

Examples of Hypothesis Testing

In Research

Peppermint Essential Oil

Essential oils are becoming more and more popular. Chamomile, lavender, and ylang-ylang are commonly
touted as anxiety remedies. Perhaps you'd like to test the healing powers of peppermint essential oil. Your
hypothesis might go something like this:

Null hypothesis - Peppermint essential oil has no effect on the pangs of anxiety.

Alternative hypothesis - Peppermint essential oil alleviates the pangs of anxiety.

Significance level - The significance level is 0.25 (allowing for a better shot at proving your alternative
hypothesis).

P-value - The p-value is calculated as 0.05.

Conclusion - After providing one group with peppermint oil and the other with a placebo, you gauge the
difference between the two based on self-reported levels of anxiety. Based on your calculations, the
difference between the two groups is statistically significant with a p-value of 0.05, well below the defined
alpha of 0.25. You conclude that your study supports the alternative hypothesis that peppermint essential
oil can alleviate the pangs of anxiety.

In Statistics

A principal at a certain school claims that the students in his school are above average intelligence. A
random sample of thirty students IQ scores have a mean score of 112. Is there sufficient evidence to support
the principal’s claim? The mean population IQ is 100 with a standard deviation of 15.

Null hypothesis - The accepted fact is that the population mean is 100, so: H0: μ=100.
 Alternate Hypothesis - The claim is that the students have above average IQ scores, so: H1: μ > 100.

The fact that we are looking for scores “greater than” a certain point means that this is a one-tailed test.

A picture to help you visualize the problem

Alpha level - If you aren’t given an alpha level, use 5% (0.05).

The rejection region area (given by your alpha level above) from the z-table. An area of .05 is equal to a
z-score of 1.645.

Find the test statistic using this formula: z score formula

*For this set of data: z= (112.5-100) / (15/√30)=4.56.

Conclusion - If Step 6 is greater than Step 5, reject the null hypothesis. If it’s less than Step 5, you cannot
reject the null hypothesis. In this case, it is greater (4.56 > 1.645), so you can reject the null.

References:

Glen, S. (2020). Hypothesis testing. Retrived from https://www.statisticshowto.datasciencecentral.com/ probability-and-

statistics/hypothesis-testing/.
Hayes, A. (2019, November 21). Null Hypothesis. Retrieved from https://www.investopedia.com/ terms/n/null_hypothesis.asp.
Lani, J. (2019). Null hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis. Retrieved from https://www. statisticssolutions.com/null-
hypothesis-and-alternative-hypothesis/.
1.2 - The 7 Step Process of Statistical Hypothesis Testing (https://online.stat.psu.edu/stat502 /lesson/1/1.2#toggleShortcuts).
Your Dictionary. (https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-hypothesis-testing.html)