WiFi.

  What is it?
Following are a few facts about WiFi:

History

Back in 1991 Wi-Fi was invented by NCR Corporation/AT&T (later on Lucent & Agere Systems)

in Nieuwegein, the Netherlands. Initially meant for cashier systems the first wireless products were
brought on the market under the name WaveLAN with speeds of 1Mbps/2Mbps. Vic Hayes who is the
inventor of Wi-Fi has been named 'father of Wi-Fi' and was with his team involved in designing standards
such as IEEE 802.11b, 802.11a and 802.11g. In 2003, Vic retired from Agere Systems. Agere Systems
suffered from strong competition in the market even though their products were cutting edge, as many
opted for cheaper Wi-Fi solutions. Agere's 802.11abg all-in-one chipset (code named: WARP) never hit
the market, Agere Systems decided to quit the Wi-Fi market in late 2004.

Wi-Fi: How it works

The typical Wi-Fi setup contains one or more Access Points (APs) and one or more clients. An AP
broadcasts its SSID (Service Set Identifier, Network name) via packets that are called beacons, which are
broadcasted every 100ms. The beacons are transmitted at 1Mbps, and are relatively short and therefore
are not of influence on performance. Since 1Mbps is the lowest rate of Wi-Fi it assures that the client who
receives the beacon can communicate at at least 1Mbps. Based on the settings (i.e. the SSID), the client
may decide whether to connect to an AP. Also the firmware running on the client Wi-Fi card is of
influence. Say two AP's of the same SSID are in range of the client, the firmware may decide based on
signal strength (Signal-to-noise ratio) to which of the two AP's it will connect. The Wi-Fi standard leaves
connection criteria and roaming totally open to the client. This is a strength of Wi-Fi, but also means that
one wireless adapter may perform substantially better than the other. Since Windows XP there is a
feature called zero configuration which makes the user show any network available and let the end user
connect to it on the fly. In the future wireless cards will be more and more controlled by the operating
system. Microsoft's newest feature called SoftMAC will take over from on-board firmware. Having said
this, roaming criteria will be totally controlled by the operating system. Wi-Fi transmits in the air, it has the
same properties as a non-switched ethernet network. Even collisions can therefore appear like in non-
switched ethernet LAN's.

Wi-Fi vs. cellular

Some argue that Wi-Fi and related consumer technologies hold the key to replacing cellular
telephone networks such as GSM. Some obstacles to this happening in the near future are
missing roaming and authenticationfeatures (see 802.1x, SIM cards and RADIUS), the narrowness of
the available spectrum and the limited range of Wi-Fi. It is more likely that WiMax could compete with
other cellular phone protocols such as GSM, UMTS orCDMA. However, Wi-Fi is ideal
for VoIP applications like in a corporate LAN or SOHO environment. Early adopters were already
available in the late '90s, though not until 2005 did the market explode. Companies such as Zyxell, UT
Starcomm, Samsung, Hitachi and many more are offering VoIP Wi-Fi phones for reasonable prices.

In 2005 ADSL ISP providers started to offer VoIP services to their customers (eg. the dutch ISP XS4All).
Since calling via VoIP is low-cost and more often being free, VoIP enabled ISPs have the potential to
open up the VoIP market. GSM phones with integrated Wi-Fi & VoIP capabilities are being introduced into
the market and have the potential to replace land line telephone services.

Currently it seems unlikely that Wi-Fi will directly compete against cellular. Wi-Fi-only phones have a very
limited range, and so setting up a covering network would be too expensive. Therefore these kinds of
phones may be best reserved for local use such as corporate networks. However, devices capable of
multiple standards may well compete in the market.
Advantages of Wi-Fi

 Unlike packet radio systems, Wi-Fi uses unlicensed radio spectrum and does not require
regulatory approval for individual deployers.
 Allows LANs to be deployed without cabling, potentially reducing the costs of network
deployment and expansion. Spaces where cables cannot be run, such as outdoor areas
and historical buildings, can host wireless LANs.
 Wi-Fi products are widely available in the market. Different brands of access points and
client network interfaces are interoperable at a basic level of service.
 Competition amongst vendors has lowered prices considerably since their inception.
 Wi-Fi networks support roaming, in which a mobile client station such as a laptop computer
can move from one access point to another as the user moves around a building or area.
 Many access points and network interfaces support various degrees of encryption to protect
traffic from interception.
 Wi-Fi is a global set of standards. Unlike cellular carriers, the same Wi-Fi client works
in different countries around the world.

Wi-Fi certification
See also:  Wi-Fi Alliance

Wi-Fi technology builds on IEEE 802.11 standards. The IEEE develops and publishes some these
standards, but does not test equipment for compliance with them. The non-profit Wi-Fi Alliance formed in
1999 to fill this void — to establish and enforce standards for interoperability and backward compatibility,
and to promote wireless local-area-network technology. As of 2010 the Wi-Fi Alliance consisted of more
than 375 companies from around the world.[1][2] Manufacturers with membership in the Wi-Fi Alliance,
whose products pass the certification process, gain the right to mark those products with the Wi-Fi logo.

Specifically, the certification process requires conformance to the IEEE 802.11 radio standards, the WPA
and WPA2 security standards, and the EAP authentication standard. Certification may optionally include
tests of IEEE 802.11 draft standards, interaction with cellular-phone technology in converged devices,
and features relating to security set-up, multimedia, and power-saving.[3]

Most recently, a new security standard, Wi-Fi Protected Setup, allows embedded devices with limited
graphical user interface to connect to the Internet with ease. Wi-Fi Protected Setup has 2 configurations:
The Push Button configuration and the PIN configuration. These embedded devices are also called The
Internet of Things and are low-power, battery-operated embedded systems. A number of WiFi
manufacturers design chips and modules for embedded Wi-Fi, such as GainSpan. [4]

[edit]The name Wi-Fi
The term Wi-Fi suggests Wireless Fidelity, resembling the long-established audio-equipment classification
term high fidelity (in use since the 1930s[5]) or Hi-Fi (used since 1950[5]). Even the Wi-Fi Alliance itself has
often used the phrase Wireless Fidelity in its press releases[6][7] and documents;[8][9] the term also appears
in a white paper on Wi-Fi from ITAA.[10] However, based on Phil Belanger's[note 1] statement, the term Wi-Fi
was never supposed to mean anything at all.[11][12]

The term Wi-Fi, first used commercially in August 1999,[13] was coined by a brand-consulting firm
called Interbrand Corporation that the Alliance had hired to determine a name that was "a little catchier
than 'IEEE 802.11b Direct Sequence'".[11][12][14] Belanger also stated that Interbrand invented Wi-Fi as
a play on words with Hi-Fi, and also created the yin-yang-style Wi-Fi logo.

The Wi-Fi Alliance initially used an advertising slogan for Wi-Fi, "The Standard for Wireless Fidelity",
[11]
 but later removed the phrase from their marketing. Despite this, some documents from the Alliance
dated 2003 and 2004 still contain the term Wireless Fidelity.[8][9] There was no official statement related to
the dropping of the term.

The yin-yang logo indicates the certification of a product for interoperability.[8]

[edit]Uses

[edit]Internet access

A roof-mounted Wi-Fi antenna

A Wi-Fi enabled device such as a personal computer, video game console, smartphone or digital audio
player can connect to the Internet when within range of a wireless network connected to the Internet. The
coverage of one or more (interconnected) access points — called hotspots — can comprise an area as
small as a few rooms or as large as many square miles. Coverage in the larger area may depend on a
group of access points with overlapping coverage. Wi-Fi technology has been used in wireless mesh
networks, for example, in London, UK.[15]

In addition to private use in homes and offices, Wi-Fi can provide public access at Wi-Fi hotspots
provided either free-of-charge or to subscribers to various commercial services. Organizations
andbusinesses - such as those running airports, hotels and restaurants - often provide free-use hotspots
to attract or assist clients. Enthusiasts or authorities who wish to provide services or even to promote
business in selected areas sometimes provide free Wi-Fi access. As of 2008more than 300 metropolitan-
wide Wi-Fi (Muni-Fi) projects had started.[16] As of 2010 the Czech Republic had 1150 Wi-Fi
based wireless Internet service providers.[17][18]

Routers that incorporate a digital subscriber line modem or a cable modem and a Wi-Fi access point,
often set up in homes and other premises, can provide Internet access and internetworkingto all devices
connected (wirelessly or by cable) to them. With the emergence of MiFi and WiBro(a portable Wi-Fi
router) people can easily create their own Wi-Fi hotspots that connect to Internet via cellular networks.
Now many mobile phones can also create wireless connections via tetheringon iPhone, Android,
Symbian, and WinMo.[19]

One can also connect Wi-Fi devices in ad-hoc mode for client-to-client connections without a router. Wi-Fi
also connects places that would traditionally not have network access, for example bathrooms, kitchens
and garden sheds.
[edit]City-wide Wi-Fi
Further information: Municipal wireless network

An outdoor Wi-Fi access point in Minneapolis

An outdoor Wi-Fi access point in Toronto

In the early 2000s, many cities around the world announced plans for city-wide Wi-Fi networks. This
proved to be much more difficult than their promoters initially envisioned with the result that most of these
projects were either canceled or placed on indefinite hold. A few were successful, for example in
2005, Sunnyvale, California became the first city in the United States to offer city-wide free Wi-Fi.[20]

In May, 2010, London, UK Mayor Boris Johnson pledged London-wide Wi-Fi by 2012.[21] Both the City of
London, UK[22] and Islington [23] already have extensive outdoor Wi-Fi coverage.
[edit]Campus-wide Wi-Fi

Carnegie Mellon University built the first wireless Internet network in the world at their Pittsburghcampus
in 1994,[24] long before Wi-Fi branding originated in 1999. Most campuses now have wireless Internet.
[citation needed]

Drexel University in Philadelphia made history by becoming the United State's first major university to
offer completely wireless Internet access across the entire campus in 2000. [25]

[edit]Direct computer-to-computer communications

Wi-Fi also allows communications directly from one computer to another without the involvement of an
access point. This is called the ad-hoc mode of Wi-Fi transmission. This wireless ad-hoc network mode
has proven popular with multiplayer handheld game consoles, such as the Nintendo DS, digital cameras,
and other consumer electronics devices.

Similarly, the Wi-Fi Alliance promotes a pending specification called Wi-Fi Direct for file transfers and
media sharing through a new discovery- and security-methodology.[26]

[edit]Future directions
As of 2010 Wi-Fi technology has spread widely within business and industrial sites. In business
environments, just like other environments, increasing the number of Wi-Fi access points provides
network redundancy, support for fast roaming and increased overall network-capacity by using more
channels or by defining smaller cells. Wi-Fi enables wireless voice-applications (VoWLAN or WVOIP).
Over the years, Wi-Fi implementations have moved toward "thin" access points, with more of the network
intelligence housed in a centralized network appliance, relegating individual access points to the role of
"dumb" transceivers. Outdoor applications may utilize mesh topologies.

[edit]Advantages and challenges

A keychain-size Wi-Fi detector

[edit]Operational advantages
Wi-Fi allows the deployment of local area networks (LANs) without wires for client devices, typically
reducing the costs of network deployment and expansion. Spaces where cables cannot be run, such as
outdoor areas and historical buildings, can host wireless LANs.

As of 2010 manufacturers are building wireless network adapters into most laptops. The price
ofchipsets for Wi-Fi continues to drop, making it an economical networking option included in even more
devices.[citation needed] Wi-Fi has become widespread in corporate infrastructures.[citation needed]

Different competitive brands of access points and client network-interfaces can inter-operate at a basic
level of service. Products designated as "Wi-Fi Certified" by the Wi-Fi Alliance are backwards compatible.
"Wi-Fi" designates a globally operative set of standards: unlike mobile phones, any standard Wi-Fi device
will work anywhere in the world.

Wi-Fi operates in more than 220,000 public hotspots and in tens of millions of homes and corporate and
university campuses worldwide.[27]The current version of Wi-Fi Protected Access encryption (WPA2) as of
2010 is considered[by whom?] secure, provided users employ a strongpassphrase. New protocols for quality-
of-service (WMM) make Wi-Fi more suitable for latency-sensitive applications (such as voice and video);
and power saving mechanisms (WMM Power Save) improve battery operation.
[edit]Limitations

Spectrum assignments and operational limitations do not operate consistently worldwide. Most of Europe
allows for an additional 2 channels beyond those permitted in the U.S. for the 2.4 GHz band. (1–13 vs. 1–
11); Japan has one more on top of that (1–14). Europe, as of 2007, was essentially homogeneous in this
respect. A very confusing aspect is the fact that a Wi-Fi signal actually occupies five channels in the
2.4 GHz band resulting in only three non-overlapped channels in the U.S.: 1, 6, 11, and three or four in
Europe: 1, 5, 9, 13. Equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP) in the EU is limited to
20 dBm (100 mW).

[edit]Reach
See also:  Long-range Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi networks have limited range. A typical wireless router using 802.11b or 802.11g with a stock

antenna might have a range of 32 m (120 ft) indoors and 95 m (300 ft) outdoors. The IEEE
802.11n however, can exceed that range by more than two times.[28] Range also varies with frequency
band. Wi-Fi in the 2.4 GHz frequency block has slightly better range than Wi-Fi in the 5 GHz frequency
block. Outdoor ranges - through use of directional antennas - can be improved with antennas located
several kilometres or more from their base. In general, the maximum amount of power that a Wi-Fi device
can transmit is limited by local regulations, such as FCC Part 15[29] in USA.

Due to reach requirements for wireless LAN applications, Wi-Fi has fairly high power consumption
compared to some other standards. Technologies such as Bluetooth (designed to support
wireless PAN applications) provide a much shorter propagation range of <10m[30] and so in general have
a lower power consumption. Other low-power technologies such as ZigBee have fairly long range, but
much lower data rate. The high power consumption of Wi-Fi makes battery life in mobile devices a
concern.

Researchers have developed a number of "no new wires" technologies to provide alternatives to Wi-Fi for
applications in which Wi-Fi's indoor range is not adequate and where installing new wires (such as CAT-
5) is not possible or cost-effective. For example, the ITU-T G.hn standard for high speed Local area
networks uses existing home wiring (coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines). Although G.hn does
not provide some of the advantages of Wi-Fi (such as mobility or outdoor use), it's designed[by whom?] for
applications (such as IPTV distribution) where indoor range is more important than mobility.

Due to the complex nature of radio propagation at typical Wi-Fi frequencies, particularly the effects of
signal reflection off trees and buildings, algorithms can only approximately predict Wi-Fi signal strength for
any given area in relation to a transmitter.[31] This effect does not apply equally to long-range Wi-Fi, since
longer links typically operate from towers that broadcast above the surrounding foliage.
[edit]Mobility

Speed vs. Mobility of wireless systems: Wi-Fi, HSPA, UMTS, GSM

The very limited practical range of Wi-Fi essentially confines mobile use to such applications as inventory-
taking machines in warehouses or in retail spaces, barcode-reading devices at check-out stands, or
receiving/shipping stations. Mobile use of Wi-Fi over wider ranges is limited, for instance, to uses such as
in an automobile moving from one hotspot to another (known asWardriving). Other wireless technologies
are more suitable as illustrated in the graphic.

[edit]Data security risks

The most common wireless encryption-standard, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), has beenshown to be
easily breakable even when correctly configured. Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA and WPA2) encryption,
which became available in devices in 2003, aimed to solve this problem. Wi-Fiaccess points typically
default to an encryption-free (open) mode. Novice users benefit from a zero-configuration device that
works out-of-the-box, but this default does not enable any wireless security, providing open wireless
access to a LAN. To turn security on requires the user to configure the device, usually via a
software graphical user interface (GUI). On unencrypted Wi-Fi networks connecting devices can monitor
and record data (including personal information), but such networks may use other means of protection,
such as a virtual private network or secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTPS) and Transport Layer
Security.

[edit]Population

Many 2.4 GHz 802.11b and 802.11g access-points default to the same channel on initial startup,

contributing to congestion on certain channels. To change the channel of operation for an access point
requires the user to configure the device.

[edit]Channel pollution
For more details on this topic, see  Electromagnetic interference at 2.4 GHz.
Market forces may drive a process of standardization. Interoperability issues between non-Wi-Fi brands
or proprietary deviations from the standard can still disrupt connections or lower throughput speeds on all
devices within range, including any non-Wi-Fi or proprietary product. Moreover, the usage of the ISM
band in the 2.45 GHz range is also common to Bluetooth, WPAN-CSS, ZigBee, and any new system will
take its share.

Wi-Fi pollution, or an excessive number of access points in the area, especially on the same or
neighboring channel, can prevent access and interfere with other devices' use of other access points,
caused by overlapping channels in the 802.11g/b spectrum, as well as with decreased signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) between access points. This can become a problem in high-density areas, such as large
apartment complexes or office buildings with many Wi-Fi access points. Additionally, other devices use
the 2.4 GHz band: microwave ovens, security cameras, ZigBee devices, Bluetooth devices and (in some
countries) Amateur radio, video senders, cordless phones and baby monitors, all of which can cause
significant additional interference. It is also an issue when municipalities[32] or other large entities (such as
universities) seek to provide large area coverage. This the wifi is also called wireless net

[edit]Hardware

[edit]Standard devices

An embedded RouterBoard 112 withU.FL-RSMA pigtail and R52 mini PCI Wi-Fi card widely used

by wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) in the Czech Republic
OSBRiDGE 3GN - 802.11n Access Point and UMTS/GSM Gateway in one device

USB wireless adapter

A wireless access point (WAP) connects a group of wireless devices to an adjacent wiredLAN. An access
point resembles a network hub, relaying data between connected wireless devices in addition to a
(usually) single connected wired device, most often an ethernet hub or switch, allowing wireless devices
to communicate with other wired devices.

Wireless adapters allow devices to connect to a wireless network. These adapters connect to devices
using various external or internal interconnects such as PCI, miniPCI, USB,ExpressCard, Cardbus
and PC Card. As of 2010, most newer laptop computers come equipped with internal adapters. Internal
cards are generally more difficult to install.

Wireless routers integrate a Wireless Access Point, ethernet switch, and internal router firmware

application that provides IP routing, NAT, and DNS forwarding through an integratedWAN-interface. A
wireless router allows wired and wireless ethernet LAN devices to connect to a (usually) single WAN
device such as a cable modem or a DSL modem. A wireless router allows all three devices, mainly the
access point and router, to be configured through one central utility. This utility is usually an
integrated web server that is accessible to wired and wireless LAN clients and often optionally to WAN
clients. This utility may also be an application that is run on a desktop computer such as Apple's AirPort.

Wireless network bridges connect a wired network to a wireless network. A bridge differs from an access
point: an access point connects wireless devices to a wired network at the data-link layer. Two wireless
bridges may be used to connect two wired networks over a wireless link, useful in situations where a
wired connection may be unavailable, such as between two separate homes.

Wireless range-extenders or wireless repeaters can extend the range of an existing wireless network.
Strategically placed range-extenders can elongate a signal area or allow for the signal area to reach
around barriers such as those pertaining in L-shaped corridors. Wireless devices connected through
repeaters will suffer from an increased latency for each hop. Additionally, a wireless device connected to
any of the repeaters in the chain will have a throughput limited by the "weakest link" between the two
nodes in the chain from which the connection originates to where the connection ends.
[edit]Distance records
Distance records (using non-standard devices) include 382 km (237 mi) in June 2007, held by Ermanno
Pietrosemoli and EsLaRed of Venezuela, transferring about 3 MB of data between the mountain-tops
of El Águila and Platillon.[33][34] The Swedish Space Agency transferred data 420 km (260 mi), using 6 watt
amplifiers to reach an overhead stratospheric balloon.[35]

[edit]Embedded systems

Embedded serial-to-Wi-Fi module

Increasingly in the last few years (particularly as of 2007), embedded Wi-Fi modules have become
available that incorporate a real-time operating system and provide a simple means of wirelessly enabling
any device which has and communicates via a serial port.[36] This allows the design of simple monitoring
devices. An example is a portable ECG device monitoring a patient at home. This Wi-Fi-enabled device
can communicate via the Internet.[37]

These Wi-Fi modules are designed[by whom?] so that implementers need only minimal Wi-Fi knowledge to
provide Wi-Fi connectivity for their products.

[edit]Network security
The main issue with wireless network security is its simplified access to the network compared to
traditional wired networks such as ethernet.[citation needed] With wired networking one must either gain access
to a building (physically connecting into the internal network) or break through an external firewall. Most
business networks protect sensitive data and systems by attempting to disallow external access. Enabling
wireless connectivity provides an attack vector, particularly if the network uses inadequate or no
encryption.[38]
An attacker who has gained access to a Wi-Fi network router can initiate a DNS spoofing attack against
any other user of the network by forging a response before the queried DNS server has a chance to reply.
[39]

[edit]Securing methods
A common but unproductive measure to deter unauthorized users involves suppressing the access
point's SSID broadcast. This is ineffective as a security method because the SSID is broadcast in the
clear in response to a client SSID query. Another unproductive method is to only allow computers with
known MAC addresses to join the network.[40] But intruders can defeat this method because they can
often (though not always) set MAC addresses with minimal effort (MAC spoofing). If eavesdroppers have
the ability to change their MAC address, then they may join the network by spoofing an authorized
address.

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) encryption was designed to protect against casual snooping, but is now
deprecated. Tools such as AirSnortor Aircrack-ng can quickly recover WEP encryption keys. Once it has
seen 5-10 million encrypted packets, AirSnort can determine the encryption password in under a second;
[41]
 newer tools such as aircrack-ptw can use Klein's attack to crack a WEP key with a 50% success rate
using only 40,000 packets.

To counteract this in 2002, the Wi-Fi Alliance approved Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) which

uses TKIP as a stopgap solution for legacy equipment. Though more secure than WEP, it has outlived its
designed lifetime and has known attack vectors.

In 2004, the IEEE ratified the full IEEE 802.11i (WPA2) encryption standards. If used with a 802.1X server
or in pre-shared key mode with astrong and uncommon passphrase WPA2 is still considered[by
whom?]
 secure, as of 2009.

[edit]Piggybacking
Main article:  Piggybacking (internet access)

Piggybacking refers to access to a wireless Internet connection by bringing one's own computer within the
range of another's wireless connection, and using that service without the subscriber's explicit permission
or knowledge.

During the early popular adoption of 802.11, providing open access points for anyone within range to use
was encouraged[by whom?] to cultivate wireless community networks,[42] particularly since people on average
use only a fraction of their downstream bandwidth at any given time.

Recreational logging and mapping of other people's access points has become known as wardriving.
Indeed, many access points are intentionally installed without security turned on so that they can be used
as a free service. Providing access to one's Internet connection in this fashion may breach the Terms of
Service or contract with the ISP. These activities do not result in sanctions in most jurisdictions; however,
legislation and case law differ considerably across the world. A proposal to leave graffiti describing
available services was calledwarchalking.[43] A Florida court case determined that owner laziness was not
to be a valid excuse.[44]

Piggybacking often occurs unintentionally, most access points are configured without encryption by
default, and operating systems can be configured to connect automatically to any available wireless
network. A user who happens to start up a laptop in the vicinity of an access point may find the computer
has joined the network without any visible indication. Moreover, a user intending to join one network may
instead end up on another one if the latter has a stronger signal. In combination with automatic discovery
of other network resources (see DHCP andZeroconf) this could possibly lead wireless users to send
sensitive data to the wrong middle-man when seeking a destination (see  Man-in-the-middle attack). For
example, a user could inadvertently use an insecure network to log in to a website, thereby making the
login credentials available to anyone listening, if the website uses an insecure protocol such as HTTP.

[edit]See also

 List of WLAN channels

 San Francisco Digital Inclusion Strategy
 Wi-Fi operating system support
 WiMAX
 Wireless electronic devices and health
 Super Wi-Fi

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