CDC 3D153

RF Transmission Systems
Journeyman

Volume 3. Wideband and Satellite

Communications

___________

Air Force Career Development Academy
The Air University
Air Education and Training Command

3D153 03 1208, Edit Code 02

AFSC 3D153
 Author: MSgt Charles A. (Tony) Sargent
338th Training Squadron
RF Transmission Systems Training Flight (AETC)
338 TRS/VEAA
809 Hercules St, Room 114
Keesler Air Force Base, Mississippi 39534–2025
DSN: 597–3870
E-mail address: [email protected]

Instructional Systems
Specialist: Hozell Odom

Editor: Elizabeth Melton

Air Force Career Development Academy (AFCDA)

Air University (AETC)
Maxwell-Gunter Air Force Base, Alabama 36118–5643

Material in this volume is reviewed annually for technical accuracy, adequacy, and currency. For SKT purposes
the examinee should check the Weighted Airman Promotion System Catalog to determine the correct references
to study.
Preface ___________________________________________________________________ i

WELCOME TO THIRD VOLUME of the 3D153, RF Transmission systems, career development

course (CDC). This volume, Wideband and Satellite Communications, covers line-of-sight radio
transmission. Here, the Radio Frequency Transmission Systems technician is exposed to the
fundamentals of wideband and satellite communications, types of satellite systems, and establishment
of links.
Unit 1 covers Wideband Communications. This unit provides you information on AN/TRC-170 radio
terminal and tropo/satellite support radio microwave systems that you may maintain as a technician.
Unit 2 contains Satellite Communications Fundamentals. This unit introduces satellite
communications to the technician. It comprises basic concepts of satellite communications, timing,
and multiplexing.
Unit 3 encompasses Multi-channel Satellite Principles. This unit describes the different segments of
the satellite systems. Also, we introduce the AN/GSC-52 satellite earth terminal in depicting its
functional description.
Unit 4 describes Satellite Systems. In this unit, we illustrate each system that an RF Transmission
Systems technician may maintain in his career. Here, we illustrate the global positioning system,
MILSTAR, Defense Satellite Communication Systems, and iridium; just to name a few.
Unit 5, our last unit, focuses our attentions to Network Bandwidth Management. This unit comprises
circuit request, satellite access, and link assessment. Lastly, we introduce the Promina, a system
which interfaces our communications requirement to a broad range of carriers.
A glossary of abbreviations and acronyms is included for your use.
Code numbers on figures are for preparing agency identification only.
The use of a name of any specific manufacturer, commercial product, commodity, or service in this
publication does not imply endorsement by the Air Force.
To get a response to your questions concerning subject matter in this course, or to point out technical
errors in the text, unit review exercises, or course examination, call or write the author using the
contact information on the inside front cover of this volume.
NOTE: Do not use the IDEA Program to submit corrections for printing or typographical errors.
Consult your education officer, training officer, or NCOIC if you have questions on course
enrollment, administration, or irregularities (possible scoring errors, printing errors, etc.) on unit
review exercises or course examination. For these and other administrative issues, you may email the
Air University e-Campus Support (helpdesk) at [email protected]. You will receive
a response in four days or less.
This volume is valued at 24 hours and 8 points.
ii __________________________________________________________________ Preface

Acknowledgement
GRATEFUL acknowledgement is made to members of the 338 TRS RF Transmission Systems
Training Flight. The development of this CDC was made possible with the support of many members,
both civilian and military.
Again, thank you all for your cooperation!

NOTE:
In this volume, the subject matter is divided into self-contained units. A unit menu begins each unit,
identifying the lesson headings and numbers. After reading the unit menu page and unit introduction,
study the section, answer the self-test questions, and compare your answers with those given at the
end of the unit. Then complete the unit review exercises.
Contents _________________________________________________________________ iii

Page
Unit 1. Wideband Communications ...................................................................................1–1 
1–1. Line of Sight and Tropospheric Scatter Radio Systems ............................................. 1–1 
Unit 2. Satellite Communications Fundamentals..............................................................2–1 
2-1. Satellite Communications Fundamentals .................................................................... 2–1 
2-2. Timing and Frequency Standards ............................................................................. 2–14 
2–3. Data Processing ........................................................................................................ 2–25 
Unit 3. Multichannel Satellite Principles ...........................................................................3–1 
3–1. Satellite System Segments ......................................................................................... 3–1 
3–2. Earth Terminal Equipment ....................................................................................... 3–12 
Unit 4. Satellite Systems ......................................................................................................4–1 
4-1. Space Systems ............................................................................................................ 4–1 
4-2. Satellite Communication Systems ............................................................................ 4–28 
4-3. Commercial Satellite Communication Systems........................................................ 4–55 
Unit 5. Network Bandwidth Management .........................................................................5–1 
5–1. Operations .................................................................................................................. 5–1 
5-2. Promina System ........................................................................................................ 5–13 

Glossary............................................................................................................................................. G–1
Unit 1. Wideband Communications
1–1. Line of Sight and Tropospheric Scatter Radio Systems........................................................ 1–1 
401. Transportable wideband radio ........................................................................................................... 1–1 
402. Tropo/satellite support radio ............................................................................................................ 1–12 

A
BOVE 30 MHZ, THE IONOSPHERE is no longer the dominant factor in setting up radio
communications. As frequency increases and wavelength decreases, antennas become more
and more directive. Most of the transmitted power is confined to a progressively narrowing
beam. At this point propagation is normally line-of-sight (LOS) [antennas have to “see” each other].
When the length of the link exceeds 30 to 40 miles or terrain limits its distance, a repeater becomes
necessary. Given the large bandwidth availability at frequencies above 1 GHz, very high capacity
(over 1000 telephone channels) links may be established. Communications in this medium are usually
either line-of-sight or tropospheric scatter. In this unit we will introduce you to microwave
transmission equipment, such as the AN/TRC–170 and the tropo/satellite support radio (TSSR)
systems.

1–1. Line of Sight and Tropospheric Scatter Radio Systems

LOS and tropospheric scatter systems provide reliable, multichannel, relatively noise-free
communications that do not use limited and expensive satellite channel allocations. The AN/TRC–
170 and the TSSR systems were developed to fulfill a variety of communications requirements.
Whether your mission requires a 300-foot line-of-sight shot between buildings or a long-haul 300-
mile tropospheric scatter link between command centers, these wideband communication systems can
do the job.
The radio terminal sets AN/TRC–170 V2 and V3 are air- or ground-transportable troposcatter
microwave radio terminals. They provide secure digital trunking between major nodes of a
communication network. They can also be used stand-alone as a transmission link, not associated
with a technical control facility. AN/TRC–170 links might carry dedicated traffic such as analog and
digital channels, point-to-point circuits, facsimile circuits, and teletype circuits.

401. Transportable wideband radio

The radio terminal sets AN/TRC–170 V2 and V3 are air or ground-transportable troposcatter
microwave radio terminals. They provide secure digital trunking between major nodes of a
communication network. They can also be used stand-alone as a transmission link not associated with
a technical control facility. AN/TRC–170 links might carry dedicated traffic such as analog and
digital channels, point-to-point circuits, facsimile circuits and teletype circuits.
Terminal overview
The AN/TRC–170s are complete tropospheric scatter or LOS terminals that include antennas, radio
transmitting and receiving equipment and digital multiplexing equipment. Also included are voice
and data orderwire facilities. Built-in test equipment provides fault reporting and confidence testing
of subsystems and major components. Communications security equipment is supplied as required for
encryption of mission and orderwire traffic. Primary power comes from sources outside the terminal
set.
The V2 and V3 terminals are operationally compatible. They have the same traffic handling
capability. All major components are interchangeable except the IF test panel. In the following table
are the most significant differences between the two terminals.
1–2

Differences Between V2 and V3 Terminals

Size and weight (V3 is smaller and lighter).
Nominal transmission ranges (150 miles for V2 and 100 miles for V3).
Setup and teardown times (V3 can be set up and torn down more rapidly
by fewer technicians).
RF sections. The V2 uses quadruple diversity, while the V3 uses dual
diversity.
The V2 terminal uses a second power amplifier and two additional
receivers to use frequency or polarization diversity.

The V3 AN/TRC–170 passes traffic in a full-duplex mode and enhances transmission by using two
antennas and two receivers to provide space diversity reception. The V2 AN/TRC–170 uses two
antennas and four receivers, thus, providing quadruple diversity. The following is a brief description
of signal flow through the terminal:
 The transmit path starts once the digital group multiplex equipment multiplexes the various
channels and groups. The group and/or supergroup can be patched into the tropospheric
scatter modem. The tropospheric scatter modem contains circuitry where the digital data
modulates a nominal 70 MHz IF in the modulator. It processes mission traffic at data rates of
128 through 4,096 Kbps in the 512 data rate family and 72 through 4,608 Kbps in the 576
data rate family.
 After the signal is phase modulated by binary phase shift keying or quadrature phase shift
keying, the transmit amplifier converter upconverts it by mixing it with a local oscillator
input from the synthesizers. The difference in frequency is selected as the final transmit
frequency of 4.4 to 5.0 GHz.
 The output of the upconverter is now in the RF frequency range. It goes to the high power
amplifier (HPA) for amplification needed to transmit in the tropospheric scatter mode (1
kilowatt [kW], 60 dBm). It is also possible to transmit in LOS mode by not using the
klystron. Then, the output is 29 dBm, equaling 800 milliwatts (mW). Finally, the signal goes
to the antenna system by way of a waveguide.
 The receive path is the inverse of the transmit path. It recovers the mission data, digital voice
orderwire and data orderwire from the received antenna signal. The received radio signals are
filtered, amplified and then down converted to IF by the four receive amplifier converters (in
the V2). The IF signals then go to the IF test panel and are applied to the tropospheric scatter
modem demodulator. The data-received timing is also recovered for use in mission timing.
Types of diversity
If propagation phenomenon becomes severe enough, fading can cause the received signal to fall
below an acceptable level. There are several methods of overcoming the effects of fading. One
method is to increase the transmit power. The objection to this method is that it may interfere with
other stations using the same frequency. Another method of overcoming the effects of fading are
shorter distances between relay stations and larger antennas. Each method has merit, but can be
costly. A more practical approach to the problem of fading is to use some form of diversity operation.
Space diversity
Space diversity takes advantage of the fact that simultaneous fading is not likely over two well
separated propagation paths. A space diversity system transmits a signal on only one antenna, but two
or more antennas receive it. The receiving antennas should be spaced a minimum of 50 wavelengths
apart, generally in a vertical direction. However, common receive antenna spacing is 100 or more
wavelengths. In diversity reception, the outputs of the two or more receivers are automatically
combined or selected to obtain a single signal.
 1–3

Frequency diversity
Frequency diversity uses the principle that two different microwave frequencies fade independently
of each other even though they travel the same propagation path. A frequency diversity system
transmits and receives two different microwave frequencies, modulated by the same intelligence.
Consequently, this type of diversity requires a minimum of two transmitters and two receivers at each
station. As in the case of space diversity, the output of the two receivers is automatically combined.
Some systems may select the stronger signal and reject the faded transmission.
Most frequency diversity systems use frequencies that are separated by 2 to 3 percent. A separation of
5 percent is ideal but difficult to obtain because of frequency allocations. A 6 GHz signal would
require a second signal 300 MHz above or below the 6 GHz signal.
Polarization diversity
In polarization diversity, the same frequency radiates simultaneously in two different planes:
horizontal and vertical. Remember from basic electronic theory that horizontal polarization has the E
field parallel to the earth and vertical polarization perpendicular to the earth. This type of diversity
requires two antennas, two receivers, and two transmitters.
Quadruple diversity
Quadruple diversity is a technique that employs a combination of two or more of the diversity types: a
combination of frequency and space diversity or space and polarization diversity. Sometimes, it is not
possible to obtain two frequency allocations; therefore, it uses a combination of space and
polarization diversity. In this configuration, the quadruple diversity has four reception paths.
Quadruple diversity achieves a 6 dB improvement in signal-to-noise ratio over a nondiversity system.
Tropospheric scatter systems subject to severe and frequent fades are the main users of this diversity
type.
Major components
The V2 and V3 configurations use the following major components. Use the functional block
diagrams shown in figures 1–1 and 1–2 to get a better understanding of how each component
interacts.
Baseband multiplexing equipment
These units are components of the digital group multiplexer. The units connect in various
configurations to support the mission traffic requirements. They operate in a full-duplex mode and a
central patch panel provides interconnection. The quantity of digital group multiplex units supplied
and their application are identical in the V2 and V3 systems.The following paragraphs describe the
baseband multiplexing equipment.
The loop group multiplexer multiplexes up to 16 four-wire, 16 or 32 Kbps conditioned diphase
(having two phases) digital, or 16 voice-frequency analog inputs on the line side into one balanced
non-return-to-zero (NRZ) digital group on the equipment side. The loop group multiplexer can supply
power to subscriber digital equipment operating in the common battery mode. It accepts and transmits
voice-frequency analog signals, if the analog appliqué unit circuit card assemblies are substituted for
the digital loop modem circuit card assemblies. Up to 2 miles of field wire or 26-pair cable can be
used on the line side for digital signals and up to 2.4 miles for analog signals.
The digital data group modem (MD–1026) interfaces up to four groups of conditioned diphase
signals, up to four groups of dipulse signals, or a mixture of the two. The operation mode is selected
by installing the appropriate plug-in circuit card assemblies. The maximum acceptable cable lengths
for various diphase data rates are shown in the following table:
1–4

Bit Rates (Kbps) Maximum Cable

Length
75 - 576 2.0 miles
1,024 - 2,304 1.0 mile
4,096 - 4,608 0.5 mile

Besides mission traffic, each individual group of the diphase group modem interfaces a 2 Kbps data
orderwire and a 16 Kbps digital voice orderwire, or analog voice orderwire. A switch on the diphase
circuit card assemblies selects the particular voice orderwire to process.
The dipulse group modem connects an analog voice orderwire only. The main purpose of the group
modem is to change the cable-side conditioned diphase or dipulse signal to a balanced NRZ signal
and vice versa.
A low-speed cable driver modem (TD–1023) can be used instead of a group modem. The low-speed
cable driver modem changes the cable-side conditioned diphase signal to NRZ for use by the
AN/TRC–170. The low-speed cable driver modem connects analog voice, digital voice, digital data
orderwires, and supplies power to cable low-speed pulse restorers if required. The low-speed cable
driver modem accepts a group at bit rates of 72 to 2,048 Kbps on the equipment side. Transmission
on the cable side is at 2,304 Kbps.
The group modem (with the dipulse card installed) and the low-speed cable driver modem support
cable lengths up to 1 mile. If additional transmission range is needed, this distance can be extended up
to 40 miles by installing a low-speed pulse restorer every mile. However, with the advent of the line-
of-sight Tropo/Satellite Support Radio, which will be discussed in the next lesson; long-distance
cable runs have been made obsolete.
The trunk group multiplexer (TD–1236) multiplexes up to four groups of the 512 Kbps data rate
families or four groups of 576 Kbps data rate families into one supergroup. The trunk group
multiplexer will not process group data rates from both families simultaneously. It demultiplexes a
supergroup into separate groups at their original data rates. The trunk group multiplexer can control a
KG–81 trunk encryption device on both the group and supergroup side.

Figure 1–1. Multiplex and ancillary equipment.

 1–5

Figure 1–2. Modem and radio frequency sections.

Communications security equipment

Secure radio operation requires the following equipment list in the list below. A description of each
piece of equipment is provided following the equipment list.
• KG–81 trunk encryption device.
• KG–84 dedicated loop encryption device or KG–84A general-purpose encryption equipment.
• KY–58 VINSON.
• KY–68 digital secure voice terminal/telephone.
KG–81 trunk encryption device
This device does full-duplex encryption and/or decryption of group or supergroup mission traffic.
One or two trunk encryption devices are used as required. Trunk encryption device 1 is used on the
radio (supergroup) side, while trunk encryption device 2 is used on the cable (group) side.
KG–84 dedicated loop encryption device or KG–84A general-purpose encryption equipment
This device encrypts and/or decrypts the telemetry data processed through the alarm monitor.
Dedicated loop encryption device 1 is used on the cable side and dedicated loop encryption device 2
is used on the radio side.
KY–58 VINSON
The KY–58 VINSON encrypts and/or decrypts digital voice orderwire traffic originating and
terminating at the voice orderwire control unit. It must be installed in the shelter, because it is also
used to change the analog signal of the headset to the digital signal required by the radio.
KY–68 digital secure voice terminal/telephone
Although not an integral part of the AN/TRC–170, this is an associated piece of communications
security equipment that can be used. It may be used as a point-to-point telephone or with a telephone
switching system. It does analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion. The digital secure voice
terminal/telephone also encrypts and decrypts at a 16 or 32 Kbps rate to provide secure
communication.
Patch panels
Patch panels provide the flexibility required to reconfigure equipment for various missions and to
reroute, or bypass, failed equipment.
1–6

Baseband patch panel

The baseband patch panel connects the digital group multiplex equipment with the tropospheric
scatter modem. The dedicated loop encryption device patch panel connects the data orderwire to the
alarm monitor panel. The baseband patch panel is divided into three jack fields: upper, center, and
lower jack fields.
The upper jack field provides timing and data connections for the trunk group multiplexer,
tropospheric scatter modem and trunk encryption device 1. The right side provides patching facility
for black and red station clocks. Also provided are convenience patch groups A, B, and C, internally
hard-wired to similarly designated jacks in the center jack field.
The center jack field provides connections to the equipment side of the loop group multiplexers,
group modem groups and the low-speed cable driver modem. The black side of the trunk encryption
device 2 is also available at this level. The dejitterizer input and/or output jacks provide for patching a
group-timing signal directly into the tropospheric scatter modem. Inputs to the trunk group
multiplexer groups 3 and 4 are also available. Convenience patch groups A, B and C pass data and
timing signals from this level to the upper jack field.
The lower jack field provides data orderwire connections for through-patching or patching to and/or
from the dedicated loop encryption device patch panel by way of the level converter jacks. Also
provided are connections for the digital voice orderwire and resync commands to the group and
supergroup trunk encryption devices.
Dedicated loop encryption device patch panel
The dedicated loop encryption device patch panel provides for patching the local telemetry signals
(data orderwire) to the radio and/or cable side of the AN/TRC–170. They are included or omitted as
appropriate. The dedicated loop encryption device patch panel also provides for monitoring baseband
and dedicated loop encryption device patch panel activity.
Modem
The tropospheric scatter modem contains circuitry where digital data modulates a 70 MHz IF. The
tropospheric scatter modem processes mission traffic at data rates of 128 through 4,096 Kbps in the
512 Kbps data rate family and 72 through 4,608 Kbps in the 576 Kbps data rate family.
The modulator combines mission data, digital voice orderwire and up to four data orderwires into a
data stream that modulates a nominal 70 MHz IF. The IF signal is modulated using either quadrature
phase shift keying or binary phase shift keying. It then is used to drive the upconverters, producing an
output between 4.4 and 5.0 GHz. The demodulator performs the reverse function of the modulator.
IF test panel
This panel contains a loop back circuit and an antenna alignment circuit. The loop back circuit
provides a calibrated means of applying the tropospheric scatter modem modulator IF output to
anyone, or any combination, of tropospheric scatter modem demodulator inputs. The antenna
alignment circuit converts the level of an IF signal at 69.12 MHz to a DC voltage level proportional to
the log of any one of four IF signal levels. Because V2 and V3 terminal IF test panels are configured
differently, they are not interchangeable.
Electrical frequency synthesizer
The electrical frequency synthesizer provides stable outputs in the 4.47 to 5.07 GHz range. These
outputs supply local oscillator signals to the upconverters and downconverters. The local oscillator
frequencies are variable in 0.10 MHz increments. A rubidium standard contained in the tropospheric
scatter modem generates the reference frequency for the synthesizer. The V2 contains two
synthesizers, while the V3 contains one. Each synthesizer provides the local oscillator frequency to
one upconverter and two downconverters.
 1–7

Transmitter amplifier converter (upconverter)

The upconverter is part of the transmitter subsystem. It mixes the nominal 70 MHz IF with 4.47 to
5.07 GHz from the synthesizer to produce the 4.4 to 5.0 GHz output signal. The output frequency
filter is tuned in 5 MHz increments. The upconverter does bandpass filtering and amplifies the signal
to approximately 1 watt in LOS and 0.25 watt in tropospheric scatter. This signal then drives the
power amplifier klystron for tropospheric scatter operation. For line-of-sight operation, the signal is
applied to the antenna without additional amplification. The V2 uses two upconverters to drive two
power amplifiers for frequency diversity transmission.
Power amplifier
The RF HPA consists of three major subassemblies: (1) the microwave subassembly, (2) the high
voltage power supply and (3) the diplexer.
 The microwave subassembly consists of a klystron amplifier, tuning and built-in test
equipment circuitry. The klystron is a continuous-wave, HPA that is air-cooled and
mechanically tunable. The klystron is bypassed and the high voltage power supply is not used
when operating in the LOS mode.
 The high voltage power supply provides beam and filament voltages for the klystron.
 The diplexer enables the transmitter and receiver to operate from a common antenna port.
The diplexers are used only in the V2 model.
The V2 uses two 1 kW amplifiers operating at different frequencies to achieve frequency diversity.
The V3 uses one RF HPA and so cannot provide frequency diversity. The V3 1 kW amplifier does
not contain a diplexer because no V3 antenna port is common to the transmitter and receiver.
Receiver amplifier converter (downconverter)
The downconverters are part of the receiving subsystem. The downconverters provide preselection,
low noise amplification and postselection of the received microwave signal. The low noise amplifier
(LNA) and mixer combine the 4.4 to 5.0 GHz receive signal with a 4.47 to 5.07 GHz signal from the
synthesizer to produce the 70 MHz IF.
The V3 uses one downconverter with each of the two antennas to achieve space diversity reception.
The V2 uses a total of four downconverters. Two are used for space diversity and two are used for
frequency diversity reception. The tropospheric scatter modem processes the four 70 MHz IFs to
provide a recovered signal derived from a quadruple diversity input.
Alarm monitor
Equipment status and performance data from all major components, including individual digital group
multiplex and communications security units, are reported to the centralized alarm monitor by the
built-in test equipment circuits in each major subassembly. The data is sampled, processed and
evaluated. From this, overall system performance is determined. This assessment, as well as
summaries of individual equipment status, is locally displayed. It is also formatted into a standard
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) equipment status and performance
telemetry message. The alarm monitor multiplexes this message into a 2 Kbps data orderwire.
Besides processing status information and performance data for data orderwire telemetry, the alarm
monitor performs the following five functions:
1. Displays a local fault indication on the alarm monitor indicator panel.
2. Initiates an aural alarm and summary fault indication at the voice orderwire control unit and
remote orderwire control unit.
3. Displays the antenna position (azimuth and elevation).
1–8

4. Initiates a configuration alarm indicating configuration problems that prevent normal

operation of the station.
5. Indicates a receive signal level for each of the four receive paths.
Data orderwire
The data orderwire consists of a 20-character telemetry status message that can be combined with an
additional 12-character telemetry status message from other stations to form a 2 Kbps composite bit
stream that is transmitted to the communication nodal control element.
The data orderwire selected to insert the local telemetry message is one of four data orderwires that
may pass through the local AN/TRC–170. Three data orderwires can be patched directly from the
tropospheric scatter modem on the radio side to groups in the group modem or low-speed cable driver
modem on the cable side. The alarm monitor is patched into the selected data orderwire by way of the
baseband and dedicated loop encryption device patch panels. Transmission of the local telemetry
message can be in either or both directions.
Voice orderwire
The C–10602 voice orderwire control unit (VOCU) interfaces a VINSON secure voice instrument
with the 16 Kbps digital voice orderwire. This is a first-come, first-served party line system. The unit
includes an electronic bridge that provides a through connection between the group modems and low
speed cable driver modem or tropospheric scatter modem. The bridge also connects the local
VINSON and the signaling circuits into the orderwire. Switching allows the local technician to break
the through connection and terminate the circuit from either direction (line or radio) with the
VINSON, while still monitoring the signaling from the isolated side. Control circuitry does this
switching as well as a periodic test routine that checks the VOCU major functions. The alarm monitor
control panel shows the unit status. A corresponding signal is included in the terminal status message
to the communications nodal control element.
A signaling encoder generates messages that allow the local technician to signal any one of 15
stations on the orderwire by using a send code switch. When the orderwire through function is broken
at the local station, the encoder is tied to the selected side. A station assigned to each switch position
is shown by marking a station code directory provided on the front panel of the VOCU.
Also included in the VOCU is a signaling decoder that can be set by local technicians to respond to
any three of the 16 signaling codes by means of a receive code switch. An audible tone and visual
indication alerts the local technician when receiving any three of the selected signaling codes. The
data orderwire and voice orderwire are considered system-level orderwires.
Remote orderwire
The remote orderwire control unit (ROCU) accesses the digital voice orderwire through the VOCU.
The ROCU does not provide secure voice transmission to the VOCU. Up to one-fourth mile of field
wire can be used to connect the ROCU to the shelter. The ROCU can also monitor the status of the
van and provide visual and audible alarms if the status changes.
Analog voice orderwire
The analog voice orderwire (AVOW) provides unencrypted, full-duplex voice connection with
AVOW channels of the group modem and low-speed cable driver modem. The AVOW does not
connect to the radio side of the AN/TRC–170 terminal. It is also called the maintenance orderwire.
Shelter description
The following external entry panels can be seen in figure 1–3 for V2 and in figure 1–4 for V3.
 1–9

Power entry panel

The power entry panel connects the van to external power. Power for the environmental control unit
is also connected and controlled from this panel. The panel contains circuit breakers for an external
convenience outlet and the antenna feedhorn deicers, as well as an external main breaker that controls
the entire panel. All these are independent of the internal power and may be operated without opening
the van. The panel has the shelter ground lug that must be connected to the ground field for proper
operation.
Waveguide entry panels
The waveguide entry panels are located on either side of the door. The deicer cables are connected
here as well to include the remote antenna alignment meter and the noise generator.
Signal entry panels
The signal entry panels are where all external signal connections are made.
Surge protection fault assembly
The surge protection fault assembly provides protection against primary power surges. The assembly
contains four 8-amp (ampere) fuses and related blown fuse indicators. When used, a surge protection
circuit is placed across each phase and the neutral line. It is not required for the van to operate but
without it there is no prime power surge protection.
Power distribution unit
The power distribution unit is a hinged panel that contains indicators and meters used to control and
monitor primary power in the shelter. The power distribution unit provides a central location to
control all equipment using primary power for fast power-up and power-down capability. Besides
supplying primary power for the major components, it also provides power to the utility and
convenience outlets and ceiling lighting. The front panel meters indicate current, voltage, and
frequency.
Low voltage power supplies
The low voltage power supplies route the DC voltages required by the AN/TRC–170. Low voltage
power supply 1 provides 5.3, 15, and 28 VDC; low voltage power supply 2 provides 5.3, –5.3, –15,
and 28 VDC.
AC-AC converters
The AC-AC converters change the incoming alternating-current (AC) signal to a 255-volt peak-to-
peak (Vpp), 400-hertz (Hz) quasi-square wave to operate the cooling fans in the shelter. AC-AC
converter 1 runs all the blowers in the van, except those located in RF HPA#2. AC-AC converter 2
runs the blowers in RF HPA#2.
Heater assembly
The heater assembly heats the shelter equipment to help with turn-on during extreme cold weather
conditions. Thermostatic switches turn on heating elements when the shelter temperature is –46°C, or
lower.
1–10

Figure 1–3. AN/TRC–170 (V2) shelter S–280.

Figure 1–4. AN/TRC–170 (V3) shelter S–250.

 1–11

Environmental control unit

The environmental control unit is an air-conditioning unit that is set up to operate outside the shelter.
Flexible ducts bring cool air into the shelter. An 18,000 BTU (British thermal unit) unit comes with
the V2 shelter, and a 9,000 BTU unit comes with the V3 shelter. Both units are optional.
Timing standard
The tropospheric scatter modem has a 10 MHz rubidium standard in the modulator cabinet. This
highly stable frequency reference provides timing for the demodulator and is the reference standard
for the station frequency synthesizer. The rubidium standard can also provide master timing for the
modulator.
Antenna equipment
The antennas are linked with the shelters. Keep in mind that they are interchangeable with
corresponding gains of the antennas. This affects the length of the RF path. It may also change your
waveguide requirement, since the V2 requires four waveguides and the V3 needs only three.
The V2 antenna OE–353/TRC–170 has two 9.5-foot-diameter linearly dual-polarized antennas with a
rated gain of 40.5 dB. These antennas are fed by flexible waveguide and are normally elevated to 15
feet by field-assembled tripod structures. Each antenna transmits and receives. Four petals form the
parabolic reflectors. The petals are separated for transport and storage. The antennas and their
mounting structures are disassembled and packed into low-profile pallets for transport and storage.
Included with the antennas are azimuth and elevation sensors, position indicators and an erection kit
containing tools and storage containers. This system comes with four flexible waveguides. It is also
called the low-profile antenna.
The V3 antenna OE–354/TRC–170 quick reaction antenna for the V3 has two 6-foot-diameter
linearly dual-polarized antennas mounted on a single boom (fig. 1–5). The rated gain of each antenna
is 36.5 dB. These antennas are fed by flexible waveguide and are mounted on a crank-up support that
is integral to an M116A trailer chassis. The antenna assembly is elevated to 12 feet for operation. For
transport, the two antennas and mounting boom are disassembled from the support and stored in the
trailer. Included with the antenna system are azimuth and elevation sensors, position indicators, and
three flexible waveguides.

Figure 1–5. Quick reaction antenna.

1–12

Lightning protection assembly

The lightning protection assembly consists of two, four-section telescoping masts that are
approximately 30 feet tall (when assembled), a sky wire 135 feet long, six anchors, two ground rods
and two mast base plates. The masts are installed 65 feet apart and slightly behind the two antennas.
The sky wire is suspended between the two masts and is grounded on both ends. The lightning
protection assembly acts as a large lightning rod by being the highest point at your station.

402. Tropo/satellite support radio

The tropo/satellite support radio (TSSR) is a complete, lightweight, line-of-sight microwave radio
system that can be quickly set up and used to remote emitters from the headquarters and to provide
flexibility for missions in urban and rough-terrain areas. It can also be used to provide connectivity
for split-based headquarters or flexibility for rapid setup until cable systems are installed. Each
system has sufficient bandwidth to support remote multichannel satellite and terrestrial transmission
systems. Figure 1–6 shows how you can use the system in a typical deployment.

Figure 1–6. Typical TSSR deployment.

Main features
The TSSR is lightweight, compact, and self-contained. It is comprised of an RF assembly, baseband
assembly, RF feed, and antenna reflector (fig. 1–7). Frequency coverage extends from 14.4 to 15.25
GHz with RF output power of about 300 mW. The AN/GRC–239 can use either a 1-foot antenna with
a maximum range of 9.94 miles (16 km) or a 2-foot antenna with a maximum range of 24.85 miles
(40 km).
 1–13

Figure 1–7. Typical TSSR.

The TSSR antenna and its RF section can be erected on any one of three supplied mounts: (1) a
lightweight, 50-foot, erectable mast system (1-foot antenna only); (2) a field tripod with pan and tilt
assembly (fig. 1–7); or (3) a pipe mount system for attaching to an existing tower. Modern design
features include sophisticated, field-proven RF circuitry designed for rapid field deployment and
reliable operation.
Applications
The following are four typical applications of the TSSR system.
1. Remoting high power radiators, such as the troposcatter radios and satellite terminals, from
communication and/or command centers.
2. Reconstructing trunks and other communication links.
3. Linking to larger communication hubs such as digital switches and technical control vans.
4. Rapidly establishing communication across difficult terrain.
Baseband
The TSSR can carry digital traffic with a 3-Vpp conditioned diphase waveform ranging from 72 Kbps
to 4,608 Kbps. It supports an analog or digital orderwire interchangeably. It can also carry a 6.144
Mbps pseudo NRZ signal when operating with a tactical fiber-optic system. In addition, the newest
version of the TSSR can be employed with the digital multirate multiplexer/modem to interconnect
up to four commercial T1 (1.544 Mbps) or E1 (2.048 Mbps) signals. The TSSR is easy to configure
for video radio applications as well.
1–14

Transceiver design
Mechanically, the TSSR transceiver consists of two weatherproof assemblies that are either joined by
a 2-foot cable or a 150 foot cable. These two assemblies are the RF assembly and the baseband
assembly. The RF assembly contains all of the RF circuitry of the transmitter and the RF circuits of
the receiver through the second IF amplifier. The baseband assembly contains the transmitter
baseband circuits and the receiver baseband circuits.
Antennas
The TSSR system includes a 1- or 2-foot-diameter antenna that can be set by the operator to either
horizontal or vertical polarization. With the 1-foot antenna, the mast can be erected in winds up to 30
miles per hour (mph). The 1-foot-diameter antenna features a robust, lightweight design with 31 dBm
gain, providing a safe operating margin during adverse conditions. Polarization adjustment is quick
and easy; just rotate the antenna feed 90 degrees. Accurate alignment is also simple. Azimuth
adjustment of the antenna bore sight through 360 degrees is achieved by rotating the whole mast
where the RF head is mounted. A mechanical actuator controls elevation adjustment.
A lightweight composite telescopic mast that has been developed specifically for rapid deployment
can support the antenna and RF head. For tripod-mounted operation you can gain additional
performance by using a 2-foot-diameter, 37 dB gain antenna. The 2-foot antenna shares the same
mounting arrangements as the 1-foot antenna.
Reconfiguring from a 1- to 2-foot dish takes less than 1 minute. The two antennas, along with all of
their associated mounting hardware and the mast accessories bag, fit inside a single transit case
measuring 30 x 30 x 14 inches, and weighs less than 100 pounds. This feature makes it easy to store
and transport the TSSR system.
Transmitter operation
The TSSR uses a frequency-modulated transmitter that transmits conditioned diphase or NRZ mission
traffic within the 14.4 GHz to 15.25 GHz frequency band, selectable in 1 MHz steps. The mission
traffic deviates from the transmitter carrier by ±4 MHz. The following paragraphs uses the simplified
block diagrams to discuss transmitter operation.
Transmit baseband assembly
Refer to the highlighted areas in figure 1–8 as the transmit baseband assembly is discussed. The
information to be transmitted (mission traffic) is applied to the input attenuator in the transmitter
baseband unit. The attenuator is used to compensate for any variations in the input signal amplitude
caused by external equipment or varying cable lengths. A metering circuit monitors the output of the
attenuator so that the attenuator can be adjusted to keep the signal level applied to the input of the
baseband filter constant at 1 Vpp. This level controls the transmitter deviation ±4 MHz. If this level is
not correct and is less than 1 Vpp, the transmitter deviates less than ±4 MHz; if greater than 1 Vpp, it
deviates more than ±4 MHz.
 1–15

Figure 1–8. Baseband assembly transmit diagram.

Baseband filter
The baseband filter is used to attenuate any signals that may be present with the mission traffic that
are at the 8.5 MHz frequency of the transmitter subcarrier (orderwire). Any signal or noise at 8.5
MHz would interfere with the operation of the orderwire.
Diplexer
The output of the baseband filter is applied to a summing buffer amplifier, adding the 8.5 MHz
subcarrier to the mission traffic and applying the composite signal to the cable diplexer that is located
in the receiver baseband unit. The diplexer allows the use of a single piece of coaxial cable to pass the
transmitter baseband signal from the baseband assembly to the RF assembly (fig. 1–9). Also
transmitted on the same cable is the receiver’s 70 MHz IF signal from the RF assembly to the
baseband assembly.
1–16

Figure 1–9. RF assembly transmit diagram.

RF assembly
Refer to the highlighted areas in figure 1–9 as the RF assembly transmitter is discussed. The coaxial
cable from the baseband assembly is connected to the diplexer in the control and distribution unit.
The diplexer contains a low pass filter for the transmitter composite signal that eliminates the 70 MHz
receiver IF signal. The transmitter baseband signal is applied to an amplifier in the transmit portion of
the synthesizer unit. Then it is applied to a (transmit) voltage-controlled oscillator in the microwave
unit. The 7 GHz voltage-controlled oscillator is frequency modulated in response to the mission
traffic.
Transmit voltage-controlled oscillator
The long-term frequency of the 7 GHz voltage-controlled oscillator is controlled by a phase-locked
loop. A sample of the voltage-controlled oscillator signal is fed to a fixed divider (divide by 256). The
output of the divider varies between 28 and 30 MHz (the exact frequency is determined by the
selected RF frequency). The 28–30 MHz signal is then fed to the synthesizer unit. There it is applied
to a variable ratio divider whose division ratio is controlled by the front panel’s frequency selector
switches. Then it passes to a phase-locked loop that in turn controls the long-term voltage-controlled
oscillator frequency.
Circulator
The 7 GHz output of the voltage-controlled oscillator is multiplied by 2 and filtered by a bandpass
filter. A (transmit) 14 GHz voltage-controlled oscillator module then drives a field effect transistor
power amplifier that is coupled to the transmit circulator. The output of the transmit circulator drives
the output duplexing circulator permitting the transmitter and receiver to be connected to the same
antenna. Relay switch number 2 is associated with the built-in test equipment.
 1–17

Tunable filter
One port of the transmit circulator is connected to a tunable filter that is terminated with an
attenuator. This filter is always tuned to the receive frequency.
Notch filter
This combination of tunable filter and three-port circulator is used to form a notch filter. The notch
filter is tuned to the receiver’s frequency to reduce any noise generated by the transmitter that could
interfere with the receiver.
Receiver operation
The TSSR contains a single conversion heterodyne receiver with a 70 MHz IF. It may be tuned to
receive a selected frequency in the 14.4 to 15.25 GHz frequency band, in 1 MHz steps. The receiver
demodulates conditioned diphase or NRZ signals that deviate ±4 MHz and furnish a 3 Vpp output.
RF assembly
Refer to the highlighted areas in figure 1–10 as we discuss the RF assembly receiver. The 14.4 to
15.25 GHz RF signals from the antenna are fed through the duplexing circulator to the receiver
preselector filter. The preselector filter is tuned by a front panel control on the RF assembly, passes
the desired RF frequencies and rejects unwanted signals. Relay switch no. 1 is associated with the
built-in-test equipment.

Figure 1–10. RF assembly receive diagram.

Low noise converter

The signal from the preselector filter passes through an isolator and then goes to the LNA in the low
noise converter module. The LNA feeds the signal to an image reject mixer that mixes the signal with
the local oscillator to produce a 70 MHz IF. The local oscillator frequency is always on the low side
of the signal; that is, the local oscillator frequency equals the signal frequency minus 70 MHz.
1–18

Receive voltage-controlled oscillator

The receiver synthesizer controls the receiver 14 GHz voltage-controlled oscillator module,
generating the local oscillator signal. These circuits are identical to the transmitter circuits except that
the receiver voltage-controlled oscillator is not modulated.
Control and distribution unit
The 70 MHz IF from the image reject mixer is fed to a preamplifier whose output drives the control
and distribution unit. In the control and distribution unit, an input amplifier drives a bandpass filter
that provides the primary selectivity for the receiver. This filter passes signals within its 20 MHz
bandpass and rejects signals that are outside of the bandpass. The filter output feeds an amplifier that
has an automatic gain control. The gain control maintains constant signal amplitude at the output of
the amplifier. The automatic gain control IF output is coupled to the diplexer that passes the 70 MHz
IF signal through the interconnecting cable to the diplexer in the baseband assembly.
Receive baseband assembly
Refer to the highlighted areas in figure 1–11 as we discuss the receive baseband assembly. The 70
MHz signal proceeds from the diplexer to a second automatic gain control amplifier in the receiver
baseband unit. This amplifier compensates for changes in the interconnecting cable length to make
sure the level into the IF demodulator remains constant, even when the cable is changed from the
short jumper to the 150-foot cable. The demodulator is a discriminator that receives the 70 MHz
frequency-modulated signal and converts it to a composite baseband signal. The composite baseband
signal contains the digital mission traffic and the 8.5 MHz subcarrier signal for the orderwire. The
low pass filter and subcarrier notch filter that follow the demodulator eliminate the 8.5 MHz
subcarrier and pass only the digital mission traffic. The digital signal is processed in a circuit
controlled by the front panel group modem/fiber optics switch. When in the fiber optics position, the
circuit is conditioned for operation with the fiber optic set. In this mode, the circuit reshapes the NRZ
digital signals at a 6.144 Mbps rate. When the switch is in the group modem position, the circuit
passes diphase digital signals for operation with the group modem. The output from the receiver
baseband unit is then passed to the receiver baseband attenuator as receive mission traffic. The
attenuator is used to compensate for any variations in the signal level provided to the user.
 1–19

Figure 1–11. Baseband assembly receive diagram.

Orderwire operation
The orderwire provides full-duplex voice communication between the two TSSR terminals in a
microwave link. Refer to the highlighted areas in figure 1–12 as the orderwire operation is discussed.
Audio from the microphone in the handset, or headset, is fed to the 8.5 MHz subcarrier transmitter in
the transmit baseband unit. The audio frequency modulates the 6.5 MHz signal ±75 kHz at normal
speech level. The frequency-modulated signal is then combined in the summing buffer amplifier with
the mission traffic. Then the composite signal is transmitted to the remote radio terminal in a link.
The composite signal received from the distant end terminal is fed to the 8.5 MHz subcarrier receiver.
This frequency-modulated receiver demodulates the signal and furnishes an audio output. This audio
output is fed to the switching circuits in the built-in test unit, driving the speaker in the handset or
headset.
1–20

Figure 1–12. Orderwire/intercom baseband assembly diagram.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

401. Transportable wideband radio

1. State the types of traffic an AN/TRC–170 terminal might handle.

2. List the equipment included in an AN/TRC–170 tropospheric scatter terminal.

3. List the data rates processed by the tropospheric scatter modem.

4. Describe the upconversion process of the transmit amplifier.

5. Explain the difference in the transmission power requirements between tropospheric scatter and
line-of-sight.
 1–21

6. What is the minimum spacing used to separate receive antennas in space diversity and what is the
most common amount of antenna separation used to separate received antennas?

7. What principle of propagation does frequency diversity use to its advantage?

8. What is the ideal frequency separation in frequency diversity?

9. Define polarization diversity.

10. Explain quadruple diversity.

11. Explain the purpose of the digital data group modem.

12. Describe the main purpose of the digital data group modem.

13. Describe the purpose of the low-speed cable driver modem.

14. What data rates are used by the low-speed cable driver modem?

15. What is the range of the low-speed cable driver modem with and without pulse restorers?

16. Describe the capabilities of the trunk group multiplexer.

17. Describe the purpose of the KG–81 trunk encryption device.

18. Describe the purpose of the KG–84 dedicated loop encryption device and the KG–84A general
purpose encryption equipment.
1–22

19. Describe the purpose of the KY–58 VINSON.

20. What is the purpose of the baseband patch panel?

21. Describe the three divided fields of the baseband patch panel.

22. Describe the purpose of the dedicated loop encryption device patch panel.

23. Describe the data rates of the tropospheric scatter modem.

24. List the types of inputs to the tropospheric scatter modem.

25. What is the purpose of the loop back circuit in the IF patch panel?

26. Why are the IF patch panels between the AN/TRC–170 V2 and V3 terminals not
interchangeable?

27. Describe the outputs of the electrical frequency synthesizer.

28. List the major subassemblies of the RF HPA and state their purpose.

29. Describe the purpose of the downconverters.

30. How does the alarm monitor determine overall system performance?

31. List the orderwires and orderwire control units and describe each.

32. What else does the power entry panel provide power to besides the equipment in the van?
 1–23

33. Describe how a surge protection circuit is used and whether it is required for an AN/TRC–170
terminal.

34. List the functions of the power distribution unit.

35. Describe the functions of the AC-AC converters.

36. List the components and describe the function of the lightning protection assembly.

402. Tropo/satellite support radio

1. Describe the RF output power and frequency band of the TSSR.

2. What are the two TSSR antenna dimensions and what are their maximum ranges?

3. List the TSSR conditioned diphase waveform voltage and data rate.

4. What is the maximum distance that the TSSR’s RF and baseband assembly can be physically
separated from each other using the supplied cable?

5. What is the gain of the TSSR’s 1-foot antenna?

6. What is the gain of the TSSR’s 2-foot antenna?

7. What is the purpose of the input attenuator in the TSSR’s transmit baseband assembly?

8. What is the transmitter deviation in the TSSR’s transmit baseband assembly?

9. What is the frequency of the transmitter subcarrier (orderwire) in the TSSR’s transmit baseband
assembly?
1–24

10. Describe the function of the TSSR’s diplexer.

11. In the TSSR’s RF assembly, what is the frequency of the voltage-controlled oscillator and how is
its accuracy maintained?

12. What is the purpose of the circulator in the TSSR’s RF assembly?

13. In the TSSR’s RF assembly, at what frequency is the tunable filter set?

14. How is noise generated by the transmitter prevented from interfering with the receiver in the
TSSR’s RF assembly?

15. Describe the frequency conversion process in the TSSR’s receive section.

16. What is the bandpass frequency range of the 70 MHz IF in the TSSR’s control and distribution
unit?

17. Which unit compensates for changes in the interconnecting cable length in the TSSR’s receive
baseband assembly?

18. In the TSSR’s receive baseband assembly, what type of waveform and data rate is used when
operating in the fiber optic mode?

19. What type of orderwire capability does the TSSR provide?

 1–25

Answers to Self-Test Questions

401
1. Dedicated traffic such as analog and digital channels, point-to-point circuits, facsimile circuits, and teletype
circuits.
2. Antennas, transmitting and receiving equipment, digital multiplexing equipment, voice and data orderwire
facilities, built-in test equipment, and communications security equipment.
3. Mission traffic at 128 through 4,096 Kbps in the 512 data rate family, and 72 through 4,608 Kbps in the
576 data rate family.
4. The IF signal is upconverted in the transmit amplifier converter by mixing it with a local oscillator input
from the synthesizers. The difference frequency is selected as the final transmit frequency of 4.4 to 5.0
GHz.
5. The HPA is necessary for transmission in the tropospheric scatter mode (1 kW, 60 dBm). It is also possible
to transmit in LOS mode by not using the klystron. The output is 29 dBm (800 mW).
6. Minimum of 50 wavelengths; common receive antenna spacing is 100 or more wavelengths.
7. Frequency diversity uses the principle that two different microwave frequencies fade independently of each
other even though they travel the same propagation path.
8. A separation of 5 percent.
9. The same frequency radiates simultaneously in two different planes: horizontal and vertical.
10. A technique that employs a combination of two or more of the diversity types: a combination of frequency
and space diversity or space and polarization diversity—or a system that uses four reception paths.
11. It interfaces up to four groups of conditioned diphase signals, or up to four groups of dipulse signals, or a
mixture of the two.
12. Primarily, it changes cable-side conditioned diphase or dipulse signals to balanced NRZ signals, and vice
versa.
13. Changes the cable-side conditioned diphase signal to NRZ for use by the AN/TRC–170 and supplies power
to cable low-speed pulse restorers if required.
14. It accepts data at 72 to 2,048 Kbps on the equipment side; 2,304 Kbps on the cable side.
15. Up to 40 miles with pulse restorers and 1 mile without pulse restorers.
16. It multiplexes up to four groups of the 512 Kbps data rate families or four groups of 576 Kbps data rate
families into one supergroup. It will not process group data rates from both families simultaneously. It
demultiplexes a supergroup into separate groups at their original data rates. It can control a KG–81 trunk
encryption device on both the group and supergroup side.
17. Full-duplex encryption and/or decryption of group or supergroup mission traffic.
18. Encrypts and/or decrypts telemetry data, processed through the alarm monitor.
19. Encrypts and/or decrypts digital voice orderwire traffic originating and terminating at the voice orderwire
control unit.
20. Connects the digital group multiplex equipment with the tropospheric scatter modem.
21. (1) The upper jack field provides timing and data connections for the trunk group multiplexer,
tropospheric scatter modem, and trunk encryption device 1. The right side provides patching for black
station clock. Also provided are convenience patch groups A, B, and C, that are internally hard-wired
to jacks in the center jack field.
(2) The center jack field provides connections to the equipment side of the loop group multiplexers,
groupmodem groups, and the low-speed cable driver modem. The black side of the trunk encryption
device 2 is also available. The dejitterizer input and/or output jacks provide for patching a group
timing signal directly into the tropospheric scatter modem. Inputs to trunk group multiplexer groups 3
and 4 are available. Convenience patch groups A, B, and C pass data and timing signals to the upper
jack field.
(3) The lower jack field provides data orderwire connections for through patching or patching to and/or
from the dedicated loop encryption device patch panel by way of the level converter jacks. Also
1–26

provided are connections for the digital voice orderwire and resync commands to the group and
supergroup trunk encryption devices.
22. Provides for patching the local elemetry signals to the radio and/or cable side of the AN/TRC–170 and for
monitoring baseband and dedicated loop encryption device patch panel activity.
23. 128 through 4,096 Kbps in the 512 data rate family and 72 through 4,608 Kbps in the 576 Kbps data rate
family.
24. Mission data, digital voice orderwire, and up to four data orderwires.
25. Provides a calibrated means of applying the tropospheric scatter modem modulator IF output to
tropospheric scatter modem demodulator inputs.
26. The IF test panels are configured differently for each terminal.
27. Stable outputs in the 4.47 to 5.07 GHz range.
28. (1) The microwave subassembly consists of a klystron amplifier, tuning, and built-in test equipment
circuitry. The klystron is a continuous-wave, HPA that is air-cooled and mechanically tunable. It is
bypassed, and the high voltage power supply is not used when operating in the LOS mode.
(2) The high voltage power supply provides beam and filament voltages for the klystron.
(3) The diplexer enables the transmitter and a receiver to operate from a common antenna port. The
diplexers are used in the V2 model only.
29. They preselect, amplify, and postselect the received microwave signal. The LNA and mixer combine the
4.4 to 5.0 GHz receive signal with a 4.47 to 5.07 GHz signal from the synthesizer to produce the 70 MHz
IF.
30. Equipment status information and performance data from all major components are reported to the alarm
monitor by the built-in test equipment circuits in each major subassembly. The data is sampled, processed,
and evaluated. From this, overall system performance is determined.
31. (1) The data orderwire consists of a 20-character telemetry status message that can be combined with a
12-telemetry status message from other stations to form a 2 Kbps composite bit stream that is
transmitted to the communication nodal control element.
(2) The voice orderwire control unit connects a VINSON secure voice instrument with the 16 Kbps
digital voice orderwire. This is a first-come, first-served party line system. The unit’s electronic
bridge provides a through connection between the group modems and low-speed cable driver modem
or tropospheric scatter modem.
(3) The remote orderwire control unit accesses the digital voice orderwire through the voice orderwire
control unit. It does not provide secure voice transmission to the voice orderwire control unit.
(4) The analog voice orderwire (the maintenance orderwire) provides unencrypted, full-duplex voice
connection with analog voice orderwire channels of the group modem and low-speed cable driver
modem. It does not connect to the radio side of the AN/TRC–170 terminal.
32. The environmental control unit, an external convenience outlet, antenna feedhorn deicers, as well to as an
external main breaker that controls the entire panel.
33. It is placed across each phase and the neutral line. It is not required for the van to operate, but without it
there is no prime power surge protection.
34. It provides a central location to control equipment using primary power for fast power-up and power-down.
It also powers the utility and convenience outlets and ceiling lighting. The front panel meters indicate
current, voltage, and frequency.
35. They change the incoming AC signal to a 255 Vpp, 400 Hz quasi-square wave in order to operate the
cooling fans in the shelter. AC-AC converter 1 runs all the blowers in the van, except those in RF HPA#2,
these are run by AC-AC converter 2.
36. It consists of two, four-section telescoping masts approximately 30 feet tall (assembled), a sky wire 135 feet
long, six anchors, two ground rods, and two mast base plates. The masts are installed 65 feet apart and
slightly behind the two antennas. The sky wire is suspended between the two masts and is grounded on both
ends. The lightning protection assembly acts as a large lightning rod by being the highest point at your
station.
 1–27

402
1. 14.4 to 15.25 GHz with RF output power of about 300 mW.
2. 1 foot and 2 feet; 9.94 miles (16km) and 24.85 miles (40km) respectively.
3. 3 Vpp conditioned diphase waveform ranging from 72 to 4,608 Kbps.
4. 150 feet.
5. 31 dB.
6. 37 dB.
7. Compensates for input signal amplitude variations caused by external equipment or varying cable
lengths.
8. ±4 MHz.
9. 8.5 MHz.
10. It allows the use of a single piece of coaxial cable to pass the transmitter baseband signal from the
baseband assembly to the RF assembly. Also transmitted on the same cable is the receiver 70
MHz IF signal from the RF assembly to the baseband assembly.
11. 7 GHz; by a phase-locked loop.
12. Permits the transmitter and receiver to be connected to the same antenna.
13. Receive frequency.
14. The combination of tunable filter and three-port circulator is used to form a notch filter. The notch
filter is tuned to the receiver’s frequency to reduce any noise generated by the transmitter that
could interfere with the receiver.
15. The 14.4 to 15.25 GHz RF is mixed with the local oscillator frequency to produce a 70 MHz IF.
The local oscillator frequency is always on the low side of the signal; that is, the local oscillator
frequency equals the signal frequency minus 70 MHz.
16. 20 MHz.
17. Automatic gain control amplifier.
18. NRZ digital signals at a 6.144 Mbps rate.
19. Full-duplex voice communication.

Do the unit review exercises before going to the next unit.

1–28

Unit Review Exercises

Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each question, and circle
the corresponding letter. When you have completed all unit review exercises, transfer your answers to
the Field-Scoring Answer Sheet.
Do not return your answer sheet to the Air Force Career Development Academy (AFCDA).
1. (401) In the tropospheric scatter mode, the high power amplifier amplifies the radio frequency to
a. 1 milliwatt.
b. 1 watt.
c. 100 watt.
d. 1 kilowatt.
2. (401) Which type of diversity requires two antennas, two receivers, and two transmitters?
a. Polarization.
b. Crossband.
c. Frequency.
d. Space.
3. (401) The MD–1026 digital data modem can interface up to four groups of, which type of signals?
a. Balanced non-return-to-zero (NRZ).
b. Conditioned diphase.
c. Unbalanced NRZ.
d. Isochronous.
4. (401) The trunk group multiplexer TD–1236 can multiplex up to
a. one group of the 512 Kbps data rate family.
b. one group of the 576 Kbps data rate family.
c. four groups of the 512 Kbps data rate families or 576 Kbps data rate families.
d. four groups of the 12 Kbps data rate families and 576 Kbps data rate families.
5. (401) Digital voice orderwire traffic that originates at the AN/TRC–170’s voice orderwire control
unit, is encrypted by the
a. KY–68.
b. KY–58.
c. KG–84.
d. KG–81.
6. (401) Which jack field in the AN/TRC–170’s baseband patch panel provides timing and data
connections?
a. Middle.
b. Center.
c. Upper.
d. Lower.
7. (401) The tropospheric scatter modem processes mission traffic at data rates of 128 through 4,096
Kbps, within which data rate family?
a. 512 Kbps.
b. 576 Kbps.
c. 1,024 Kbps.
d. 1,152 Kbps.
 1–29

8. (401) Which unit in the AN/TRC–170 terminal contains the rubidium standard?
a. Electrical synthesizer.
b. Frequency subsystem.
c. Tropospheric scatter modem.
d. Transmitter-amplifier converter.
9. (401) The quick reaction antenna for the V3 AN/TRC–170 terminal uses how many linearly dual-
polarized antennas?
a. Two 6-foot-diameter.
b. Four 6-foot-diameter.
c. Two 9.5-foot-diameter.
d. Four 9.5-foot-diameter.
10. (402) The Tropo/Satellite Support Radio frequency coverage extends from
a. 4.4 to 5.25 GHz.
b. 7.25 to 8.4 GHz.
c. 14.4 to 15.25 GHz.
d. 17.25 to 18.4 GHz.
11. (402) Which maximum distance in miles can a Tropo/Satellite Support Radio operate with the 2-
foot antenna?
a. 9.
b. 24.
c. 90.
d. 240.
12. (402) What is the maximum distance in feet the Tropo/Satellite Support Radio’s radio frequency
and baseband assemblies can be separated?
a. 50.
b. 100.
c. 150.
d. 200.
13. (402) In the Tropo/Satellite Support Radio’s baseband assembly, a 1-volt peak-to-peak input
signal results in how much frequency deviation in the transmitter?
a. ±4 MHz.
b. Less than ±4 MHz.
c. More than ±4 MHz.
d. No signal deviation.
14. (402) Which frequency is the intermediate frequency of the Tropo/Satellite Support Radio?
a. 70 MHz with a 10 MHz bandpass.
b. 70 MHz with a 20 MHz bandpass.
c. 700 MHz with a 10 MHz bandpass.
d. 700 MHz with a 20 MHz bandpass.

Please read the unit menu for unit 2 and continue 

1–30

Student Notes
Unit 2. Satellite Communications Fundamentals
2-1. Satellite Communications Fundamentals................................................................................ 2–1 
403. Satellite communications principles .................................................................................................. 2–1 
404. Types of satellites .............................................................................................................................. 2–7 
405. Terminal access techniques ............................................................................................................... 2–8 
406. Satellite Look Angle calculations .................................................................................................... 2–10 
2-2. Timing and Frequency Standards ......................................................................................... 2–14 
407. Time scales ...................................................................................................................................... 2–15 
408. Time zones....................................................................................................................................... 2–16 
409. Time scale coordination, distribution, and synchronization ............................................................ 2–17 
410. Frequency sources ........................................................................................................................... 2–21 
2–3. Data Processing....................................................................................................................... 2–25 
411. Modem fundamentals ...................................................................................................................... 2–25 
412. Multiplexers ..................................................................................................................................... 2–26 

S
ATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS (SATCOM) are an integral part of most major
telecommunication systems. SATCOM extends the range of line-of-sight propagation and
provides coverage over large geographical areas. SATCOM can carry large amounts of data,
telephone traffic, and television signals. Because satellites can see a large portion of the earth's
surface, the resulting interconnectivity between communications sources provides major advantages
in applications.
For the military, SATCOM plays an indispensable part for our national security. An efficient, secure,
fast, reliable and mobile worldwide communications network is needed to support the needs of our
national security. Dependence on SATCOM for reach back capability is an ever increasing need. This
unit covers the basics of satellite communications.

2-1. Satellite Communications Fundamentals

SATCOM was a natural outgrowth of modern technology and the demands for greater capacity and
high-quality communications. During the post-World War II industrial boom, technical developments
made SATCOM possible. Communications satellites are designed for specific mission requirements
or to augment existing systems. This means that they constantly offer new ways to satisfy the ever-
increasing demand for communications services.
Thirty years ago few people in the Air Force ever heard of SATCOM. Today, SATCOM has
expanded its role into everyday command-and-control operations throughout the DOD. RF
Transmission Systems Airmen work with different satellite communication systems supporting the
Air Force and other DOD organizations with long haul communications capabilities.

403. Satellite communications principles

Continuous efforts to improve and expand communications can be viewed as an ongoing struggle.
Establishing an operational communications system based on satellites in space involves some factors
that are familiar to us, but it also introduces new factors.
Frequency spectrum involved
The earth’s atmosphere places a limit on the selection of usable frequencies for satellite systems. The
atmospheric radio window is the part of the radio-frequency spectrum that passes through the earth’s
atmosphere. The range of this usable frequency is roughly from 30 to 10,000 MHz very high
frequency (VHF) to extremely high frequency (EHF). All frequencies below this range are normally
2–2

absorbed or reflected by the ionosphere. Frequencies above this range are essentially absorbed by
water vapor and oxygen before they leave the atmosphere. This doesn’t rule out eventual use of
electromagnetic waves above the radio frequency band (such as infrared and light waves). Selection
of specific radio frequencies for communications satellites depends on the demand for maximum
traffic capacity, which requires maximum bandwidth. That’s why we normally select the upper end of
the usable spectrum.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates the microwave bandwidth in the U.S. and
the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) regulates it worldwide. Some bands are
exclusively dedicated to satellite transmission, while others are shared with their terrestrial
counterparts. The satellite transmission bands that the RF transmission technician should be interested
are listed in the following table.

Frequency Band Frequency Range Uses

L 1 to 2 GHz GPS, telemetry, Inmarsat, iridiums
S 2 to 4 GHz Sirius XM radio, command and control
C 4 to 8 GHz Data, voice, video distribution
X 8 to 12 GHz Military
Ku 12 to 18 GHz Direct TV, communications
Ka 18-30.4 GHz N/A, experimental communications

Uplink signals (from ground station up to the satellite) uses the upper portion of a frequency range
while the downlink (from the satellite down to one or more ground stations) uses the lower frequency
range. In order to maintain a proper orbit, ground stations control satellites by sending commands and
receiving status, as well as telemetry information from the satellite.
Orbit characteristics
Man-made satellites collect scientific data about the Earth and space as well as improve
communications, weather predictions and navigation. In this section, we cover satellite terminology
and orbital mechanics.
To achieve orbit, a satellite must be lifted above the atmosphere and move around the earth at the
exact speed that produces a centrifugal force equal and opposite to the earth’s gravitational force at
that altitude. Since the earth’s gravitational attraction decreases with altitude, high-altitude satellites
don’t have to circle the earth as fast as low-altitude satellites to stay in orbit. At roughly 22,300 miles,
satellites can remain fixed (geosynchronous) over a specific area of the earth for long periods of time.
The time period for each orbit is a result of the satellite’s altitude.
Before we cover satellite orbit characteristics, there are certain terms you will need to understand that
are located in the following table.

Term Definition
Ellipse An oval.
Major axis Longest distance across the ellipse.
Minor axis Shortest distance across the ellipse.
Eccentricity Flatness of the ellipse.
Inclination. Angle between the orbit and the equator.
Ascending node Northward orbital crossing of the equator.
 2–3

Term Definition
Descending node Southward orbital crossing of the equator.
Intercept point A given point on the orbit.
Slant range Distance from the site to the satellite.
Perigee Closest point of the orbit to the Earth.
Apogee Farthest point of the orbit from the Earth.
Period Time for one orbit.

Shape of an orbit
The shape of an orbit may be either a circle or an oval. The orbit is circular when the speed of the
satellite is constant. When the speed of the satellite is not constant, the orbit has to be oval because
gravity slows the satellite’s speed as it gets farther from the Earth and increases its speed as it nears
Earth (fig. 2–1).

Figure 2–1. Shape versus orbit speed.

An ellipse is a flattened or stretched circle. If you take a circle and stretch it as in figure 2–2, it
becomes an ellipse. An ellipse is longer than it is wide. The longest distance across the ellipse is the
major axis. The shortest distance across the ellipse is the minor axis. You could say that a circle is an
ellipse that’s major and minor axes are equal.

Figure 2–2. A circle is an ellipse.

A satellite can have two orbits, synchronous and non synchronous.

Synchronous
Synchronous orbit satellites are in an orbit that is equal in speed to the earth’s rotation. If you look at
these types of satellites, they appear to be stationary or fixed. A satellite launched into a circular orbit
over the equator is an example of a synchronous orbit satellite called geosynchronous. These satellites
normally orbit approximately 22,582 statute miles above the equator. They also take almost 24 hours
to complete one revolution—the same as the earth.
Nonsynchronous
Nonsynchronous orbit satellites are in an elliptical orbit. To maintain this orbit, the satellite must
obtain a velocity that balances the attraction created by the earth’s gravitational pull. As the satellite
2–4

approaches the earth, it increases in speed so it can reach breakaway velocity. The point at which the
satellite breaks away from the gravitational pull is its perigee. The perigee is the point where the
satellite is nearest to the earth. The perigee can be as close as 100 miles from the earth. As the
satellite shoots out into space, it decreases in velocity. This continues until it reaches a point where
gravitational pull starts drawing the satellite back towards the earth. This point—its apogee—is the
point where the satellite is farthest from the earth. You can remember the difference between apogee
and perigee if you think of the “A” in apogee meaning far away (fig. 2–3).

Figure 2–3. Perigee and apogee.

How much an ellipse resembles a circle determines its eccentricity value. Again, an ellipse with an
eccentricity of zero is a circle. The eccentricity becomes larger as the ellipse stretches or flattens (fig.
2–4). ECHO I, with almost a circular orbit, has an eccentricity of 0.01. EXPLORER VI had a very
large eccentricity of 0.76. The orbits of most satellites have low values of eccentricity.

Figure 2–4. Eccentricities.

An orbit is more than one-dimensional; it’s the entire three-dimensional path that a satellite travels
through space.
Orbit leans
There are different positions the orbit can take in space. For example, a satellite that passes over the
North and South Poles is in a polar orbit (fig. 2–5, A). Another type of orbit is equatorial when the
satellite travels along the Earth’s equator (fig. 2–5, C). Most orbits lie at some angle between the
polar and equatorial orbits.
The angle between the orbit and the equator is the inclination. An equatorial orbit has an inclination
of 0° while the inclination of a polar orbit is 90°. Figure 2–5, B shows an orbit with an inclination of
about 45°.
 2–5

Figure 2–5. Inclination of an orbit.

Position titles
All orbits inclined to the equator must cross over the equator at two points, once when the satellite
travels south to north and the other when it travels north to south. A satellite is ascending when it is
moving northward. The equatorial crossing point is the ascending node. On the other side of the orbit
the satellite travels southward and the equatorial crossing point is the descending node. The longitude
of the crossing point designates both the ascending and descending nodes (fig. 2–6).

Figure 2–6. Nodes.

Any definite position of the satellite is an intercept point. The ascending and descending nodes are
intercept points. However, the intercept point has more meaning when it is within range of (visible at)
your site.
Satellite distance
The distance from your site to the satellite is the slant range (fig. 2–7). The intercept point shows you
if your station can or cannot see the satellite.

Figure 2–7. Slant range.

2–6

Time of an orbit
When you wish to meet someone, you must set the place and the time. To intercept a satellite, you
must know the intercept point and the time of the intercept. You can calculate the intercept time of the
satellite by knowing its speed. The satellite’s speed is the time required for it to complete one orbit;
we refer to this as its period. A satellite with a period of one hour goes all around the Earth in one
hour or half way around in half an hour. A satellite traveling 4.6 miles per second has a period of
about 90 minutes.
Footprint
The inclination of a satellite, together with its orbital altitude and the period of its orbit, creates a
ground track or “footprint.” A satellite’s footprint is the area of the earth with which the satellite can
communicate. The footprint depends on the satellite’s orbit, inclination, and antenna beamwidth.
Height
A satellite’s height above the earth is another aspect of its orbit that interests communicators. We’ve
already mentioned the 22,582-statute-mile height, at which the satellite’s orbital velocity equals the
earth’s rotational speed and the satellite appears stationary to an observer on the ground. This type of
orbit is interchangeably called geosynchronous, synchronous, or geostationary. Other requirements
for a geosynchronous orbit are an equatorial angle of inclination and a circular orbit. The height at
which a satellite circles the earth affects many aspects of the communications system. Among these
are the number of satellites required for worldwide coverage, the area of coverage (footprint), access
time, cost of placing the satellite in orbit and life expectancy. As the altitude increases, the number of
satellites required for global coverage decreases.
Orbital control
Satellites must be controlled to maintain their orbits. Two types of orbital control that are used on
satellites are attitude control and station keeping.
Attitude control
Attitude control is used on practically all satellites. The attitude control system implemented has a
great effect on the design of directionally sensitive satellite subsystems, such as antennas for
communication and solar cells for prime power generation. Station keeping refers to keeping a
satellite in a fixed position relative to the earth (in the case of several satellites spaced along the same
nonsynchronous orbit). Station-keeping control is not used in the case of one satellite in a
nonsynchronous orbit, but is normally used in synchronous satellite systems.
Required pointing accuracy, system lifetime, reliability, weight, and cost are some of the factors
involved in attitude control system design. Early satellites, which were designed for long-term
operation, were spin stabilized. Because the more stringent requirements of present space missions
demand more precision, we now use five types of attitude control—spin stabilization, gravity
gradient, momentum storage, mass expulsion and mixed systems.
Station keeping
Station keeping is the procedure of keeping a satellite in a desired position in orbit within acceptable
limits. For example, a synchronous satellite is given occasional commands that adjust its position so
that it stays in a fixed position within a few degrees relative to the earth.
Station keeping is necessary to offset such orbit-disturbing forces as solar radiation, atmospheric drag,
gravity disturbances from the sun and moon and gravity variations due to the oblateness (spherical
shape) of the earth. Advantages of station keeping include simplified acquisition and tracking of
satellites with narrow beam antennas and provision of a satellite that permits continuous or
predictable links between selected earth terminals.
 2–7

For synchronous satellites, the strongest forces are those of the sun and moon which act in a north-
south direction to incline the orbit about 1° per year. The mass expulsion system used for station
keeping can be integrated with the attitude control system, certain combinations of gas jets fired
simultaneously for attitude control and others for station keeping. The satellite drifts slowly between
limits imposed by system and mission requirements. Station keeping is infrequent—every few weeks
or months.
Some satellites follow orbits that have particularly interesting ground tracks. A satellite with a 24-
hour period of revolution is one such case. If this satellite is in a circular orbit in the equatorial plane,
it is often referred to as a synchronous satellite; its ground track is a single point. If it orbits in the
polar plane, it completes half of its orbit while the earth is rotating halfway about its axis. The result
is a ground track that crosses a single point on the equator heading north and south. The complete
ground track would form a figure eight.
Orbital tracking
When a satellite is launched and positioned in orbit, the next thing to do is to establish a
communications link. Establishing a communications link requires tracking the satellite. Tracking the
satellite is accomplished through a transponder. This transponder has a transmitter attached to its
outer skin. The transmitter radiates a signal that allows ground stations to track the satellite through
its orbit. Once the ground terminals determine the satellite’s position, they can direct their signals
toward the satellite. Any error in aiming ground antennas may cause a complete communications
breakdown.

404. Types of satellites

The next aspect of satellite fundamentals is the type of satellite to be placed in orbit. There are
navigational satellites, land and meteorological remote sensing satellites, scientific satellites, and
communications satellites. Communications satellites are classified into general categories by
electromagnetic and orbital characteristics. Since orbital characteristics
(synchronous/nonsynchronous) were already discussed, lets now turn our attention to the
electromagnetic characteristics of communications satellites. More specific satellite communications
systems will be discussed later in this volume.
There are two types of satellites—passive and active. (This refers to whether the satellite has onboard
power or not).
Passive satellites
A passive satellite merely reflects signals transmitted toward it, much the same as a mirror reflects
light. There is no “onboard” equipment. With no function except to be there, it has the advantages of
economy, simplicity, and reliability. Though they haven’t been used as much as active satellites since
the 1960s, passive satellites are simpler, operate over a wider-frequency range and permit multiple
access, thus allowing simultaneous use of different communications links. As a result, one
transmitting station operating on a signal (a jammer for example) can’t overpower the satellite and
render it unusable, as is the case with active satellites. Another advantage of a passive satellite is that
the modulation methods, bandwidths and frequency allocations can be changed after the satellite has
been placed in orbit and the satellite remains as useful as it was before.
Four disadvantages of passive satellites are that they require larger transmitter power, larger antenna
systems, more sensitive equipment and a larger satellite size. Nonetheless, passive satellites have
been used successfully in the past as communications media. The technology to overcome their
disadvantages is currently available. For example, using automatic static antenna couplers, which
work with any type of antenna, can now solve the problem of antenna size. These couplers, added to
better designed antennas and more sensitive receivers, make passive satellites for HF communications
the next step in command, control and communications.
2–8

Active satellites
The active satellite is more complex and expensive than the passive satellite. It has, at a minimum, a
transmitter, a receiver, an amplifier, a power supply, and antennas. It may also have other components
depending on the satellite’s purpose. Active communications satellites receive signals, translate them
in frequency, then amplify and retransmit them at a higher-power level. They are considered repeater
stations in space. The use of active communication satellites makes possible the use of smaller ground
terminals. This in turn enhances flexibility of military operations. The number of satellites required
for continuous coverage of a given ground area varies; the higher the orbit, the fewer the satellites
that are required.
There are two types of active satellites—delay and real-time. The delay satellite has some type of
recording device onboard. As this type orbits the earth, certain ground stations “talk” to the satellite.
The “conversation” is stored (recorded) and when the satellite comes in “view” of another earth
station—and on command from that station—relays (transmits) the “conversation” to the receiving
station.
In contrast, the real-time active satellite receives a message from an earth station or stations and
immediately relays the message to another earth station or stations. Actually, there is a delay of about
0.6 seconds from earth to satellite and back to earth. Only in telephone conversations does this time
lag become readily apparent.

405. Terminal access techniques

A communications satellite is an expensive asset, so its capabilities must be sufficiently used to make
it cost-effective. In general, a single satellite must accommodate multiple users or user groups to
effectively use its capacity. The same satellite can serve several users by using multiplexing at an
earth terminal. This sharing may be on either a continuous or a time-assigned basis. “Multiple access”
is distinguished from multiplexing in that it’s the means by which multiple links (originating at one or
many earth terminals) can access the same satellite. Therefore, the communication links using the
satellite must be separated in some way. Multiple access communication links are accomplished in
the following four ways:
 Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
 Time division multiple access (TDMA)
 Code division multiple access (CDMA)
 Demand assigned multiple access (DAMA)
Frequency division multiple access
FDMA was the first multiple access method developed, and it’s still in use. FDMA permits many
stations to access the same transponder using carriers separated by different frequencies. The capacity
of the transponder reaches a limit when intermodulation between the carriers generates an intolerable
noise level. Multiple carriers amplified by any nonlinear device produce intermodulation products, an
effect that can be reduced only by operating the device in a nearly linear mode. Unfortunately such a
“back-off” in drive level reduces the transponder’s total power output. This reduces the effective
isotropic radiated power (EIRP) of each downlink carrier and increases the thermal noise generated in
the earth station receiver.
Time division multiple access
In TDMA, each earth station is assigned a time slot for its transmission and all uplinks use the same
carrier frequency within a particular transponder. In terms of total satellite performance, this is a
superior method because intermodulation noise isn’t a limiting factor and there’s an increase in
capacity. The back off is just enough to avoid excessive spectrum spreading. The price paid is a
considerable increase in complexity of the ground equipment. The long-term trend is toward TDMA-
type systems, since they compliment the digital communication systems.
 2–9

Code division multiple access

CDMA is also called spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA). In this system, the data stream
transmitted from each earth station is combined with a high-speed pseudorandom coded bit stream to
cause the transmission to occupy the entire bandwidth of the transponder. The receiving station has a
duplicate of the pseudorandom code and, by cross-correlating techniques, can extract the signal from
the “noise level” created by the simultaneous use of the transponder by many other stations. CDMA is
used in military systems primarily to reduce the susceptibility of the satellite receiver to jamming.
CDMA gives the added advantage that the spread spectrum reduces the probability of signal intercept.
CDMA systems also provide automatic multiple access. In a sense, the multiple access feature of
CDMA is a free bonus.
One disadvantage of CDMA is that it doesn’t effectively use the power and frequency spectrum
resources as the FDMA or TDMA systems. In addition, CDMA requires complex equipment at both
ends of the link. It has found widespread use in commercial systems as satellite users become
increasingly concerned with the possibilities of both malicious interference and unauthorized
listening. However, some form of encryption and decryption to the data stream is often adequate for
most purposes and allows a more efficient use of the spectrum. The spread spectrum techniques are
needed for jamming protection.
Demand assigned multiple access
Because of the limited availability of satellite power and bandwidth, many satellite user requirements
can’t be satisfied. Future architecture will reduce secure voice channels from 16 Kbps to 2.4 Kbps,
and more importantly, demand assigned multiple access (DAMA) techniques will be meshed with
TDMA principles.
With TDMA, the customer has a dedicated time slot, which means the time slot isn’t available to
others, even if it isn’t being used. DAMA provides other customers access to these dedicated channels
when they aren’t in use.
The multiple access schemes discussed so far have been related to channels separated by frequency,
time or codes. The channels are dedicated to assigned circuits in a preassigned connectivity that can
be changed only by a relatively time-consuming reconfiguration process. With such a preassigned
system, traffic to a particular destination may be light, resulting in poor satellite utilization. This
occurs because idle channels are tying up a particular link.
Demand assigned multiple access (DAMA) is a protocol that functions to allocate and share satellite
bandwidth on a demand-assigned basis. In a DAMA system, the network allocates a communications
channel and bandwidth to each user (on demand) from an available pool of channels. When a caller at
a remote terminal (such as AN/PSC–5) requests service (e.g. picks up the handset to make a call), the
request goes to a network control system (NCS) over the shared DAMA common signaling channel.
The NCS functions somewhat like a switchboard. It determines if the call is valid and then establishes
the channel (including bandwidth) between the originating site and the called site (distant end).
Circuits remain active only as long as needed, and then are broken to free bandwidth for other users.
When the call is completed, the remote terminals inform the NCS and the freed bandwidth returns to
the pool for use by other users.
Any remote terminal can be the NCS with the addition of some hardware and network management
system (NMS) software. The hardware, together with the NMS software, serves as the single focal
point for system-level control within the satellite communications network. The NCS can be located
anywhere within the satellite footprint. By using a DAMA system, a single transponder can support
several thousand subscribers. DAMA systems quickly and transparently assign communication links
or channels to users on a call-by-call basis. DAMA serves many users and needs only a fraction of the
satellite resources required by dedicated, point-to-point networks.
2–10

DAMA offers two main advantages compared to preassigned systems, which are the following:
 Better utilization of the space segment.
 Better utilization of the terrestrial interconnect facilities.
The primary disadvantage is delay in service, particularly to lower-priority users

406. Satellite Look Angle calculations

Once a satellite is launched and the orbit stabilizes, you can calculate its latitude, longitude, and
height from any point on Earth for any given time. We'll take a look at the formulas, but you will
need to know only the basic facts of calculating look angles.
Making the calculations
When you put the satellite orbit information into a computer, along with the latitude and longitude of
a ground terminal, you get ephemeris data (antenna azimuth and elevation) and slant range for the
terminal location. If you do not have access to the ephemeris data, then you get back to basics—a
pencil and a calculator. You need the same information as the computer, which is the following data:
 Latitude, longitude and height of the satellite.
 Latitude and longitude of your terminal.
 A calculator with scientific functions or a natural sine, cosine and tangent chart.
NOTE: In computing satellite look angles, ground distance on the earth’s surface is expressed in
degrees where 1 of arc equals 69 statute miles (figs. 2–8 and 2–9).

Figure 2–8. Geometry for elevation look angle.

 2–11

Figure 2–9. Geometry for azimuth look angle.

You use the following formulas to find the particulars of a satellite in any orbit from a point on earth:
Z = cos –1 (sinLa)(sinLb) + (cosLa)(cosLb)(cosLo)
Rv sin Z
Slant range =
cos(E  Z)
 Rv 
Elevation look angle = tan –1  cot Z  
 (As  Re) sin Z 

 tan Lo 
Azimuth look angle = tan –1  
 sin( La  Lb) 
WHERE:
E = elevation look angle.
Z = central angle (associated with ground distance on the Earth’s surface).
La = satellite sub-point latitude.
Lb = terminal latitude.
Lo = difference in longitude between the terminal and the satellite subpoint.
Rv = Re (for our purpose) = 6,378 km.
As = satellite altitude in km above sea level.
NOTE: Use minus sign (-) for all southern hemisphere latitudes.
1
REFRESHER — Cotangent = ; some calculators do not have this function.
tan
For satellites in equatorial orbit you can use the following formulas condensed from the above
formulas:
2
r r
Slant Range = R 1  2  (cos L) (cos ) +  
R R
2–12

r
(cos L)(cos ) 
Elevation Look Angle = tan–1 R
1  [(cos L)(cos )]2

 tan L 
Azimuth Look Angle = tan–1  
 sin  
WHERE:
R = 42,182 km, the distance from the earth’s center to the satellite.
r = 6,378 km, the earth’s radius.
L = The difference in the satellite’s and the ground terminal’s longitude.
 (Tau) = The ground terminal’s latitude.
NOTE:
1. You normally find  by taking the difference between the satellite and ground terminal
latitude. Since DSCS satellites are synchronous at 0 latitude,  equals the ground terminal
latitude.
2. L and  values are always positive in the equations.
3. There is a general relationship between the position of the satellite and the terminal when
calculating the azimuth look angle (by either formula). The satellite can be located 360° in
any direction while we reference the ground terminal 0° azimuth to true north (0°). After
finding the general direction of the satellite from the ground terminal (the calculated azimuth
angle), you have to apply a correction factor to get the correct azimuth look angle (fig. 2–10).

Figure 2–10. Correction factors for azimuth look angle calculations.

 Terminal is northeast of the satellite—180° plus the calculated azimuth look angle.
 Terminal is northwest of the satellite—180° minus the calculated azimuth look angle.
 2–13

 Terminal is southwest of the satellite—No correction factor.

 Terminal is southeast of the satellite—360° minus the calculated azimuth look angle.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

403. Satellite communications principles

1. What usable frequency range propagates through the earth’s atmosphere?

2. At what altitude are most geosynchronous satellites placed?

3. What are the terms for the nearest and farthest distances a satellite’s orbit comes to the earth?

4. What directions are descending and ascending nodes going?

5. Explain the term “slant range.”

6. Name the two types of orbital control used on satellites.

7. What are the five types of attitude control?

8. How is tracking a satellite accomplished?

404. Types of satellites

1. What terms describe the electromagnetic capabilities of communications satellites?

2. What are the advantages of the passive satellite?

3. What are the disadvantages of passive satellites?

2–14

4. What does the use of active communications satellites make possible?

5. Name the two types of active satellites.

405. Terminal access techniques

1. What disadvantages does CDMA present?

2. What’s the difference between TDMA and DAMA?

3. State the purpose of DAMA.

4. What does the network control system do with a call?

5. Who may function as a network control system?

6. What’s the primary disadvantage of DAMA?

406. Satellite Look Angle calculations

1. What information do you need to make manual look angle calculations?

2. When making calculations, how are distances measured on the earth's surface?

3. What must you do after finding the general direction from the ground terminal to the satellite (the
calculated azimuth angle)?

2-2. Timing and Frequency Standards

Ancient astronomers determined the time of the year by observing astronomical events, such as lunar
occultations and eclipses. Today’s military uses precision equipment to synchronize clocks on and
between aircraft, missiles, ships, submarines, satellites, and land vehicles. Regardless of the method,
accurate timekeeping is based on a predetermined reference point or time scale. This section discusses
the origin and principles of timekeeping.
 2–15

407. Time scales

There are a number of different time scales. The astronomical time scale, or solar time, is based on
the apparent motion of the sun in the sky. The atomic time scale is based on the frequency of atomic
oscillators, such as cesium beam oscillators. To see how the various time scales came about, let’s take
a brief look at the history of time.
Solar time
Consider a time system that uses the sun and a sundial. The earth rotates once every 24 hours; we call
this period one day. The shadow in the sundial can indicate fractions of cycles (time of day). As
complete days elapse, we can use calendars to count the days and divide them into weeks and years.
Clocks based on the earth’s rotation do not run at a constant rate. This is because the earth’s orbit
around the sun is not circular and the earth slows down and speeds up depending on its distance from
the sun. The early astronomers and mathematicians understood these laws of motion and were able to
correct the apparent solar time to obtain a more uniform time called mean solar time. This correction
is called the equation of time and is often found engraved in sundials. Universal time (UT0) is equal
to mean solar time if you make the correction at the zero meridian in Greenwich, England. This time
scale was given the name UT0, the first in a series of time scale designations that have evolved
through the years.
As better clocks were developed, astronomers began to notice a discrepancy in universal time
measured at different locations. This difference was eventually identified as being caused by a wobble
in the earth’s axis. The amount of wobble is about 15 meters (nearly 50 feet) at the pole. By careful
measurements made at various observatories throughout the world, this wobble was corrected, and a
new time designation, called universal time one (UT1) was born. In its search for uniformity, the
world community had now taken care of both the elliptical orbit (UT0) and the axis wobble of the
earth (UT1).
When better clocks were developed, it was found that UT1 displayed fluctuations whose origin was
unknown. Due to the availability of stable electronic clocks, these fluctuations could be and were
removed. This resulted in an even more uniform time called universal time two (UT2).
Atomic time
Another kind of time that can be generated and used is atomic time. Atomic time is different from
universal time, but the concept is similar. Universal time is obtained by counting cycles of the earth’s
rotation from some agreed-upon starting point. Atomic time is obtained from counting cycles of a
signal from an atomic frequency source.
Atomic time scales give us very accurate time of day because they use very stable atomic oscillators.
Furthermore; they give us essentially constant intervals of time. In other words, atomic time scales are
uniform timekeepers. Uniformity is desired when we are trying to make two events occur at the same
time.
Let’s review for a moment the two time scales we have discussed. First, the universal time family is
dependent on the earth’s spin on its axis relative to the sun. Second, atomic time, which is very
uniform and precise, depends on the fundamental property of atoms.
Coordinated universal time
Coordinated universal time (UTC) was adopted in 1971 and became effective in 1972. By
international agreement, multiple countries agreed to coordinate time and keep UTC time scales to
within ±1 millisecond (ms) of each other. Additionally, UTC is maintained within 0.9 second of the
navigator’s time scale UT1.
UTC is based on an atomic time scale. As a result, a UTC clock gradually gets out of step with the
sun. This is the same situation that causes us to have leap years. Since the year is not an exact
2–16

multiple of the day, we add a day every 4 years to keep our calendar in step with the seasons. The
same scheme was adopted to keep clocks in step with the sun, and the “leap second” was born. To
make adjustments in the clock, a particular minute would contain either 61 or 59 seconds instead of
the conventional 60 seconds. You could, therefore, have either a positive or a negative leap second. It
was expected and proved true that leap seconds would normally occur about once a year.
By adding positive or negative leap seconds, a good clock can keep approximate step with the sun.
Since the rotation of the earth is not uniform, we cannot predict exactly when leap seconds will be
added or deleted, but this usually happens on June 30 or December 31. UTC gives us a universally
agreed to standard time scale, we can depend on, with the stability and accuracy of atomic time and
synchronous operation with the earth’s motion about the sun as in solar timekeeping.

408. Time zones

UTC differs from your local time by a specific number of hours. The number of hours depends on the
number of time zones between your location and the location of the zero meridian (which passes
through Greenwich, England). When local time changes from daylight saving to standard time, or
vice versa, UTC does not change. However, the difference between UTC and local time does change
by one hour.
World time zones
Use the chart of world time zones (fig. 2–11) to find out how many hours to add to or subtract from
UTC to obtain your local standard time. If daylight saving is in effect at your location, subtract one
hour less in the United States than shown on the chart. Thus, eastern daylight time is only four hours
behind UTC, not 5 as shown on the chart for Eastern Standard Time.

Figure 2–11. World time zones.

 2–17

UTC is a 24-hour clock system. The hours are numbered beginning with 00 hours at midnight,
through 12 hours at noon, to 23 hours and 59 minutes just before the next midnight.
Standard frequency and time stations broadcast UTC, which is referenced to the zero meridian in
Greenwich, England. This we also refer to as “Zulu” time. However, many users want to display the
local time used in their city. If the time is being decoded from a time code (as opposed to a voice
time-of-day announcement), we can solve the problem by using clocks that can be offset to display
time for any of the world time zones, even though they are receiving and decoding UTC. Each time
zone differs from UTC by a specific number of hours. Figure 2–12 shows the time zones currently in
use in the continental United States.

Figure 2–12. US time zones.

409. Time scale coordination, distribution, and synchronization

Time of day is not a “standard” in the same sense as a meter stick or a standard set of weights. The
real standard is time interval, which is the length of time between two events. By agreement, a day is
simply the accumulation of 86,400 seconds. By referencing to a standard time interval of 1 second, a
number of organizations can maintain accurate time-of-day clocks. These clocks will always agree
with each other; the variations in time of day from country to country are extremely small.
Even though there is no physical standard for time of day, most countries keep a carefully controlled
frequency source with suitable electronics set “on time.” They do this by starting with the correct time
interval (usually cesium derived) and then generating other intervals such as the second or minute. As
a result, the time of day throughout the world is almost the same in every country. Once a standard is
set equal to other such standards, their differences (if any) in the future depend on the time interval of
the driving frequency source. In the same way that a watch depends on its balance wheel or quartz
crystal, the national standards of the world depend on their cesium “balance wheels.”
Coordination
There are three organizations that work behind the scenes to coordinate time for us. They are the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), the United States Naval Observatory
2–18

(USNO), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). See figure 2–13 for an
illustration of how time is coordinated globally and distributed in the United States.

Figure 2–13. Time signal coordination.

International Bureau of Weights and Measures

The international agency responsible for UTC time is the BIPM, or Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures, located in Paris, France. The BIPM determines the frequency (rate) of UTC by comparing
the primary frequency standards located in several countries (including the United States, Canada,
Japan and Germany).
The time for UTC is based on international time scale comparisons between hundreds of atomic
clocks located in many laboratories around the world. The BIPM evaluates the data rate from each
time scale and corrects the data from each contributor. By international agreement, all UTC time
scales must agree with the UTC time scale operated by the BIPM to within ±1 millisecond (ms). The
result is a uniform world frequency (and time) system that differs from country to country by only a
small amount. Whether you get your frequency and time from CHU in Canada or the PTB in
Germany, they will differ only slightly from the US standard.
United States Naval Observatory
Unlike other physical standards, we can obtain time interval or frequency from many sources. Many
countries, including the United States, have primary frequency standards that act as balance wheels
for accurate timekeeping.
 2–19

In the United States, one of these balance wheels is the USNO. The USNO has the primary
responsibility for making astronomical observations to determine UT1 for navigation purposes and to
keep atomic frequency sources running for use by the Department of Defense (DOD). They also
provide to customers UTC traceable to their own atomic clock—UTC (USNO).
The USNO serves as the main time and frequency reference for the DOD and its contractors. The
DOD in turn provides frequency and time services throughout the world. These include many
different radio transmissions, satellite signals, and portable clocks. For instance, the global
positioning system (GPS), which is used for precise navigation and precise timing, transmits highly
accurate time traceable to USNO atomic oscillators.
The USNO accomplishes its global responsibilities with a system of cooperating worldwide stations
that make measurements and keep very good frequency and time references. Many laboratories
throughout the world maintain primary frequency standards for their countries. The USNO
contributes timing data to the BIPM (along with a number of other laboratories throughout the world),
which combines the results into the final values of UTC and UT1.
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
The other balance wheel is the Time and Frequency Division of NIST, which is located in Boulder,
Colorado. NIST maintains our nation’s primary time/frequency standard. NIST keeps time-of-day
clocks running on its own time scale system. The division operates the NIST standard of frequency
and time interval for the United States, as well as several time scales based on this standard. The
Time and Frequency Division has many responsibilities, all pertaining to providing users (like you
and me) with time and frequency calibrations and comparisons. In addition to maintaining the
standard, the division carries out research efforts to improve its accuracy.
Like the USNO, the NIST time scale is coordinated through the BIPM, resulting in UTC. We refer to
UTC traceable to the NIST atomic oscillator as UTC (NIST). NIST distributes its time to users
through the various frequencies and time broadcast services.
NIST offers a direct service for calibration of oscillators and clocks. An extension of this is the
service provided by the military’s precision measurement equipment laboratory. Individuals wanting
to calibrate their local frequency source to a primary standard or to compare their own time/frequency
to another oscillator can use the NIST time scale as a master clock. They set their secondary local
clocks to agree with, or measure the difference between, the local clock and the master clock.
A similar situation has existed since human beings started keeping time. For example, one of the first
clocks used by mankind was the sundial. Sundials worked by measuring the sun’s angle. Someone
may have set an hourglass by carrying it outdoors and reading the time on the sundial. Once the
individual knew the correct time, he or she could turn the hourglass over and return indoors. By doing
so, the person could keep fairly accurate time for the next hour. In this example, the sundial is the
master clock; the hourglass is a secondary clock referenced to the master clock.
NIST distributes frequency and time signals to the general public. Most time and frequency data are
distributed by radio. Time of day, frequency and time interval are broadcast from radio stations
WWV, WWVH and WWVB. These services are controlled and operated by NIST. Precise time and
frequency can also be obtained by satellite via the geostationary operational environmental satellite
(GOES) system and the GPS satellite transmissions. These services are not operated by NIST but they
can provide an indirect reference to the NIST time scale when certain techniques are employed. NIST
also distributes time and frequency data by telephone both as voice and as data. The data can directly
synchronize a computer system.
Distribution
There are many reasons for time signal distribution. Test ranges are equipped with systems for
generating and disseminating accurately regulated time signals. These times are usually coded to
1/1000 of a second (0.001 sec). They are relied on for time correlation with corresponding test data
2–20

from several instrumentation locations. Data reduction would be impossible without reliable and
error-free timing signals. Precision timing also serves to start and stop programmed instruments, to
synchronize range instrumentation and to control firing operations.
A major test range is unique, both in physical arrangement and primary functions. As a result, each
range maintains independent timing systems. Local timing systems design is influenced by the range
communications network for signal transmission, the means for processing timing data and various
instrument compatibilities to which timing signals must be distributed (fig. 2–14). Global ranges
become more complex in somewhat more difficult timing problems. Their solution leads to timing
facility uniformity.

Figure 2–14. Time signal distribution.

Synchronization
All parties involved in a common mission must have their timing synchronized. Likewise, timing
errors must be minimized. For example, suppose the test project you are on is launching a missile
downrange to the Pacific Missile Range. A certain time is allowed in your launch “window.” The
missile will travel from Vandenberg AFB, California, to the Kwajalein Atoll area. In this instance,
timing errors must be reduced when attempting to predict the missile’s flight path.
Timing is extremely critical in this case. There must be coordination among all aircraft and surface
vessels to prevent their being in or near the missile flight path or in or near the downrange target
zone. The timing is maintained through a massive timing distribution network of underwater cable
and satellite systems. Timing synchronization errors must be very small for all range agencies.
 2–21

Timing errors must also be reduced when predicting satellite-tracking coordinates. For example,
suppose you are scheduled to acquire a polar orbiting satellite at a low angle to the horizon. You have
only a short window of time to acquire the satellite’s downlink signal and begin tracking the satellite.
If you begin tracking the satellite too late, you’ll miss some of the pass data.
In another example, the operations crew at the Mission Control Center has scheduled a navigation
upload for a global positioning system (GPS) satellite. They use the Cape Canaveral ground antenna
for the satellite support. The crew must ensure the Cape Canaveral ground antenna has the satellite in
view during the support. Also, the Cape Canaveral ground antenna and the Mission Control Center
both must use the exact timing so the equipment will execute the instructions at the correct time.
Timing synchronization is also critical in receiving downlink signals from the satellite. There must be
time coordination between the satellite, Mission Control Center and the ground antenna. As you can
see, timing synchronization plays an important role in the success of many types of missions.

410. Frequency sources

Through the ages man has used different sources to keep time. Early examples of time keeping clocks
included the movement of the sun across the sky (sundials), candles marked in increments, oil lamps
with marked reservoirs, sand glasses (hourglasses), and in the Orient, knotted cords and small stone
or metal mazes filled with incense that would burn at a certain pace. Modern clocks use a balance
wheel, pendulum, vibrating crystal or electromagnetic waves associated with the internal workings of
atoms as their regulators. In this section we will take a look at quartz oscillator (vibrating crystal) and
atomic oscillator frequency sources.
Quartz oscillators
Quartz oscillators are generally considered secondary frequency standards. What is a secondary
standard? Let's define the terms primary and secondary frequency standard and then look at the
operation and limitations of quartz oscillators.
Primary versus secondary
The terms “primary frequency standard” and “secondary frequency standard” refer to how oscillators
are used. Any frequency source, regardless of its accuracy or stability, can be a primary frequency
standard if it is used as the sole calibration reference for other frequency sources. A secondary
frequency standard is a device that is calibrated against a primary frequency standard and then used to
calibrate other frequency sources.
The oscillators used for primary standards, like the ones in the United States and other countries, are
in a class by themselves. Because of the way they are built and operated, they can be evaluated. This
means that experimental data are taken and used to calculate the errors in their output frequency due
to all known causes. It is because of this careful evaluation that their accuracy can be stated without
having to check these machines against others.
How crystal generates frequencies
Quartz oscillators (sometimes called crystal oscillators) are widely used. They range from tiny units
found in wristwatches to elaborate instruments found in laboratories. Quartz oscillators provide good
performance at a reasonable price and dominate the field of frequency sources. The quartz crystal in
the oscillator is a mechanical resonator. The resonator’s oscillations have to be excited and sensed.
Taking advantage of the piezoelectric effect in the quartz crystal does this; that is, mechanical
compression of the crystal generates a charge across the crystal. Conversely, the application of an
external voltage across the crystal causes it to expand or contract depending on the polarity of the
voltage (fig. 2–15).
2–22

Figure 2–15. Quartz crystal oscillator.

Factors that influence performance

Temperature and aging are two factors that influence quartz oscillator performance. There is
temperature dependence of the quartz crystal that affects its resonance frequency and there is also a
drift of the resonance frequency due to aging.
Two solutions for the temperature dependence are (1) enclosing the crystal in an electronically
regulated oven and (2) using a temperature-compensated crystal oscillator. The crystal in the
regulated oven maintains a constant temperature in spite of the temperature of the environment in
which it’s working. In this way a stable resonant frequency is maintained. In a temperature
compensated crystal oscillator, a temperature-sensing circuit is added to the crystal to cancel out the
effect temperature has on the resonant frequency.
Aging is a common trait of all quartz oscillators. There is a nearly linear (uniform) change in
resonance frequency with time. We can’t stop aging or prevent it, but good manufacturing designs
can limit it, and we can observe it and account for it. Depending on the quality, drift is typically
milliseconds per day. Periodic frequency checks and corrections are needed to maintain a quartz
crystal as a secondary frequency standard.
Atomic oscillators
Scientists long realized that atoms (and molecules) have resonances, meaning each chemical element
and compound absorbs and emits electromagnetic radiation at its own characteristic frequencies.
These resonances are inherently stable over time and space, so atoms constitute a potential
"pendulum" with a reproducible rate that can form the basis for more accurate clocks.
The operation of the atomic clock is based on the phenomenon that atoms release energy in the form
of radiation at a particular resonant frequency. An atom is a natural resonator that has a frequency
which is immune to the temperature and directional effects that plague mechanical clocks.
The development of radar and extremely high frequency radio communications in the 1930s and
1940s made possible the generation of the kind of electromagnetic waves (microwaves) needed to
interact with atoms. In 1949, NIST built the first atomic clock, which was based on the ammonia
molecule. However, its performance wasn't much better than the existing standards, and attention
shifted almost immediately to more promising atomic–beam devices based on cesium.
Other kinds of atomic clocks have also been developed for various applications; those based on
hydrogen offer exceptional stability, for example. Today, two of the most common types of atomic
oscillators are the cesium beam oscillator and the rubidium gas cell oscillator.
 2–23

Cesium standard
A cesium beam oscillator’s atomic resonance is at 9,192,631,770 Hz. Cesium metal is heated in an
oven and produces cesium gas in the form of an atomic beam. This beam passes through a cavity.
Eventually, the cesium atoms become electrically charged and produce an electric current. Cesium
beam oscillators are highly stable and drift only 200 nanoseconds (ns) in 24 hours. Cesium oscillators
are used extensively where high reproducibility and long-term stability are needed. They are the
workhorses in today’s accurate frequency and time distribution services. Cesium oscillators are
considered a primary frequency standard.
Rubidium standard
Rubidium oscillators use a “gas cell” containing rubidium gas whose atomic resonance is at
6,834,682,608 Hertz (Hz). A beam of light illuminates the gas cell and a photo detector observes
frequency changes near resonance. This is developed into a usable signal output. Rubidium oscillators
drift approximately 1 μs in 24 hours. Like the quartz oscillator, the rubidium oscillator is considered a
secondary standard because it must be calibrated against a primary standard such as the cesium beam.
Although of lower quality than cesium standards, rubidium standards are still important because they
are more compact, lower in cost and require less power than cesium standards. They are adequate for
many applications.
Figure 2–16 compares features of the three types of oscillators described.

Figure 2–16. Oscillator comparison.

2–24

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

407. Time scales

1. Which time scale is equal to mean solar time when you make the correction at the zero meridian
in Greenwich, England?

2. How is atomic time obtained?

3. Why do atomic time scales give us very accurate time of day?

4. What are the characteristics we can depend on of UTC that give us a universally agreed to
standard time scale?

408. Time zones

1. What kind of clock system is UTC?

2. Where is UTC referenced? To what is it referred?

409. Time scale coordination, distribution, and synchronization

1. By international agreement, all UTC time scales must agree with the UTC time scale operated by
the BIPM to within how many milliseconds?

2. What is the USNO’s primary responsibility?

3. Which organization maintains our nation’s primary time/frequency standard?

4. How does NIST distribute most time and frequency data?

 2–25

5. What are four uses of precision timing?

6. List some examples of when timing errors must be reduced.

410. Frequency Sources

1. Define primary frequency standard.

2. Against what is a secondary frequency standard calibrated?

3. Describe the piezoelectric effect of quartz crystals.

4. What two factors influence quartz oscillator performance?

5. What are the two solutions for the crystal oscillator temperature dependence?

6. What are two of the most common types of atomic oscillators?

7. What kind of frequency standard are cesium oscillators considered to be?

2–3. Data Processing

As sophistication in radio communications has increased throughout the years, digital signals have
become intertwined with radio communications systems. With digital, signals can be compressed to
fit more information, digital won't degrade in quality and digital is easier to manipulate. Whether
working on high frequency (HF) equipment or a SATCOM terminal, an RF Transmission Systems
technician has to understand the principles of data processing. In this section, we will specifically
look at modems and multiplexers as a transfer of information.

411. Modem fundamentals

Modems are used to perform a conversion. That conversion can be a format change for an electrical
signal or it may be transferring the data onto an RF or lightwave carrier. In volume 1, several
different methods of modulation were discussed. Lightwave communications were also discussed. In
this lesson, modems will be discussed.
2–26

Fundamentals
A modem is a device that converts digital signals into analog signals and analog signals into digital
signals. The term modem is derived from modulator-demodulator. A modem contains a modulator
(transmitter) and a demodulator (receiver) in the same unit.
The modulator converts the digital data into an analog signal which is suitable for transmission over
telephone lines or radio links. Voice modems send audio signals over telephone lines. Cable modems
transmit RF signals over coaxial cable. Wireless modems (also called RF or radio modems) use
microwave radio links to transmit RF signals.
The demodulator receives the telephone or radio transmissions and converts the analog signal back to
the digital data.
Modems are commonly associated with internal operations of other equipment such as hubs,
switches, routers, and multiplexers. For example, when a switch has the ability to network copper and
fiber-optic systems, the switch has an internal modem. Modems typically transfer data to and from the
computer through an electrical instead of an optical connection. To transmit and/or receive over
optical fiber, a fiber-optic modem must be used.

412. Multiplexers
When we need to transmit or receive multiple signals on a single line (metal or fiber) we use a
multiplexer. This lesson will focus on different techniques used to make more efficient use of
bandwidth to provide service to multiple users.
Multiplexing defined
Multiplexing is the combination of two or more signals into a single signal for transmission over a
single transmission path. Any device that permits the combination of different signals onto a single
line is called a multiplexer. The multiplexer provides various connectors to accept signals from
multiple users and contains the circuitry to combine multiple channels into an aggregate output. A
demultiplexer would provide the reverse operation, separating the individual channels from the
aggregate input. Normally one unit provides both multiplex and demultiplex operations and we
simply refer to it as a multiplexer. Fiber-optic multiplexers contain both source and detector modems
to transmit and receive capabilities over the fiber-optic link. This process is illustrated in figure 2–17.

Figure 2–17. Optical multiplexers in a fiber optics system.

 2–27

Multiplexing methods
There are several different methods used to combine the different signals onto a medium such as
frequency division, time division, and wavelength division multiplexing. Let's take a look at time
division multiplexing and wavelength division multiplexing.
Time division multiplexing (TDM)
TDM is a digital technique that interleaves bits or characters from the low speed channels and
transmits them at high speed by assigning parts of each digitized voice channel to specific time slots.
This is accomplished by sampling each channel in sequence. Figure 2–18 presents a simple
illustration to envision TDM.

Figure 2–18. TDM concept

This illustrates a three-lane highway coming to a tollbooth and continuing on to a one-lane road. The
tollbooth allows cars to pass one at a time, in sequence. The sequence goes gate 1, gate 2, gate 3, gate
1, gate 2, and so on. Each lane on the highway represents an input signal, and each vehicle represents
a data bit in the signal.
As you can see, this is a fair way to allow each signal onto the transmission medium. As you increase
your sampling speed, you increase your bandwidth capability. TDM is used in two popular
transmission standards, the T-Carrier system and the Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) system.
We will not discuss the operation of T-Carrier or SONET networks, but we will take a brief look at
the rates provided by each.
T-carrier
The T-Carrier is a standard established by Bell Systems in the 1960s and is still a popular method of
transmitting digitized information onto mediums like optical fibers, twisted pairs and coax. The basis
of this system is the T–1, which equals 24 voice circuits at a rate of 1.544 megabits per second
(mb/s). The table below illustrates the other rates built from the T–1.

Signal Carrier # of T1 Equivalent Voice Bitstream

Level System Signals Circuits (mb/s)
DS-0 1 64 kb/s
DS-1 T1 1 24 1.544
DS-1C T1C 2 48 3.152
DS-2 T2 4 96 6.312
DS-3 T3 28 672 44.736
DS-4 T4 168 4,032 274.176
2–28

Synchronous optical network (SONET)

SONET is an American National Standard for a high capacity optical carrier telecommunications
network. It defines optical carrier (OC) levels and equivalent electrical synchronous transport signals
for the fiber-optic based transmission hierarchy. A digital cross-connect system allows the
synchronous optical network to provide increased flexibility and more efficient use of available
bandwidth on optical fibers. The capabilities of SONET are illustrated below. Notice the dramatic
increase of data capability versus the T-Carrier standard.

Optical Carrier Synchronous Transport Line Rate (Mb/s)

Level Signal
OC-1 STS-1 51.84
OC-3 STS-3 155.52
OC-9 STS-9 466.56
OC-12 STS-12 622.08
OC-18 STS-18 933.12
OC-24 STS-24 1244.16
OC-36 STS-36 1866.24
OC-48 STS-48 2488.32 (2.488 Gb/s)

Using TDM, SONET makes much better use of the available bandwidth offered by fiber-optic
systems. Data rates of 2.5 Gbps (OC–48) are now used routinely, and 10 Gbps (OC–192) rates are
increasingly used. Recent advances have resulted in speeds of 40 Gbps (OC–768), but the electronic
circuitry that makes this possible is complex and expensive to purchase and maintain. There are
technical issues that may limit the use of this approach. For example, transmission at OC–192 over
single-mode (SM) fiber is affected 16 times more by chromatic dispersion than the next lower
aggregate speed, OC–48. The greater transmission power required by the higher bit rates also
introduces nonlinear effects that can affect waveform quality.
Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
Where TDM samples each channel one bit at a time, WDM assigns each incoming optical signal to a
specific frequency of light (wavelength) within a certain frequency band. See figure 2–19. Comparing
this to our TDM example, rather than alternating through the tollbooth onto a one-lane highway, the
cars now pass into a tunnel with three levels. Each input has its own level on the triple-decker.

Figure 2-19. WDM concept.

 2–29

This multiplexing closely resembles the way radio stations broadcast on different frequencies without
interfering with each other. Because each channel is transmitted at a different wavelength, we can
isolate them on the receive end using a tuner. You could also think of each channel as a different
color of light, so you are in a sense transmitting a “rainbow” down the fiber.
In a WDM system, each of the wavelengths is launched into the fiber, and the signals are
demultiplexed at the receiving end. Like TDM, the resulting capacity is an aggregate of the input
signals, but WDM carries each signal independently of the others. This means that each channel has
its own dedicated bandwidth and all signals arrive at the same time, rather than being broken up and
carried in time slots.
Using WDM technology, we can simultaneously multiplex signals of 2.5 to 40 Gbps over a single
strand of fiber. The specific limits of this technology are not yet known, but it has already extended
into a concept called Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM).
The concept of WDM and DWDM is the same, but DWDM spaces the wavelengths more closely
than does WDM, and therefore has a greater overall capacity. Systems with 128 and 160 wavelengths
are in operation today, with higher density on the horizon. DWDM has a number of other notable
features, including the ability to amplify all the wavelengths at once without first converting them to
electrical signals, and the ability to carry signals of different speeds and types simultaneously and
transparently over the fiber (protocol and bit rate independence).

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

411. Modem fundamentals

1. Describe the overall purpose of the modem.

2. What tasks do the modulator (transmitter) and the demodulator (receiver) perform?

412. Multiplexing and fiber-optic multiplexers

1. Define multiplexing.

2. What is a multiplexer and what additional devices do fiber-optic multiplexers contain?

3. What multiplexing process assigns parts of each voice channel to specific time slots?

4. What standard uses time division multiplexing and makes better use of the increased bandwidth
available in fiber optics?
2–30

5. Describe wavelength division multiplexing.

6. Beside higher data rates, what other features does dense wavelength division multiplexing
provide?

Answers to Self-Test Questions

403
1. 30 to 100.000 MHz (VHF to EHF).
2. 22,582 miles above the earth.
3. Perigee (nearest); apogee (farthest).
4. A satellite ascends when it travels northward and descends when it travels southward.
5. Attitude control and station keeping.
6. (1) Spin stabilization.
(2) Gravity gradient.
(3) Momentum storage.
(4) Mass expulsion.
(5) Mixed systems.
7. The distance from the site to the satellite.
8. By using a transponder.
404
1. Passive and active.
2. Simplicity, wider frequency range, and multiple accesses.
3. Larger required transmitter power, larger antenna systems, more sensitive receiving equipment, and a larger
satellite size.
4. The use of smaller ground terminals.
5. Delay and real-time.
405
1. CDMA doesn’t use the power and frequency spectrum resources as effectively as does FDMA or TDMA,
and it requires complex equipment at both ends of the link.
2. In TDMA, users have a dedicated time slot, whether they use it or not; in DAMA, the dedicated time slot
can be used by other low-priority users when it isn’t in use.
3. To allocate and share satellite bandwidth on a demand-assigned basis.
4. Determines if the call is valid and establishes the channel between the originating site and the called site.
5. Any unit with the required hardware and software.
6. Delay in service, particularly to lower-priority users.
406
1. Latitude, longitude, and height of the satellite; latitude and longitude of your terminal; a calculator with
scientific functions or a natural sine, cosine, and tangent chart.
2. In degrees, where 1° of arc equals 69 statute miles.
3. You have to apply a correction factor to get the correct azimuth look angle.
 2–31

407
1. Universal time (UT0).
2. From counting cycles of a signal from an atomic frequency source.
3. Because they use very stable atomic oscillators.
4. The stability and accuracy of atomic time and synchronous operation with the earth’s motion about the sun
as in solar timekeeping.
408
1. 24-hour.
2. The zero meridian in Greenwich, England. Zulu time.
409
1. ±1 ms.
2. Making astronomical observations to determine UT1 for navigation purposes and to keep atomic frequency
sources running for use by the DOD.
3. NIST.
4. By radio.
5. (1) Correlate test data from several instrumentation locations.
(2) Start and stop programmed instruments.
(3) Synchronize range instrumentation.
(4) Control firing operations.
6. When predicting a missile’s flight path, predicting satellite tracking coordinates, and uploading navigation
data to a satellite.
410
1. A device used as the sole calibration reference for other frequency sources.
2. A primary frequency standard.
3. Mechanical compression of the crystal generates a charge across the crystal; conversely, the application of
an external voltage across the crystal causes it to expand or contract depending on the polarity of the
voltage.
4. Temperature and aging.
5. (1) Enclosing the crystal in an electronically regulated oven.
(2) Using a temperature-compensated crystal oscillator.
6. (1) Rubidium gas cell.
(2) Cesium beam oscillators.
7. Primary.
411
1. An modem is a device that converts digital signals into analog signals and analog signals into digital
signals.
2. The modulator converts the digital data into an analog signal, which is suitable for transmission over
telephone lines or radio links. The demodulator receives the telephone or radio transmissions and converts
the audio signal back to the digital data.
412
1. The combination of two or more signals into a single signal for transmission over a medium.
2. Any device that permits the combination of different signals onto a single line is called a multiplexer. The
multiplexer provides various connectors to accept signals from multiple users and contains the circuitry to
combine multiple channels into an aggregate output. Fiber-optic multiplexers contain both source and
detector modems to provide transmit and receive capabilities over the fiber-optic link.
3. Time division multiplexing (TDM).
2–32

4. Synchronous optical network (SONET).

5. WDM assigns each incoming optical signal to a specific frequency of light (wavelength) within a certain
frequency band. The signals are carried down the fiber simultaneously, but each signal is independent from
the others.
6. The ability to amplify all the wavelengths at once without first converting them to electrical signals, and the
ability to carry signals of different speeds and types simultaneously and transparently over the fiber
(protocol and bit rate independence).

Do the unit review exercises before going to the next unit.

 2–33

Unit Review Exercises

Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each question, and circle
the corresponding letter. When you have completed all unit review exercises, transfer your answers to
the Field-Scoring Answer Sheet.
Do not return your answer sheet to the Air Force Career Development Academy (AFCDA).
15. (403) What is the inclination angle of a polar orbit?
a. 0°.
b. 45°.
c. 90°.
d. 180°.
16. (403) What is the procedure called when keeping a satellite in a desired position, in orbit and
within acceptable limits?
a. Shift.
b. Period.
c. Air drag.
d. Station keeping.
17. (404) Which satellite reflects signals transmitted toward it?
a. Active.
b. Delay.
c. Passive.
d. Real-time.
18. (404) An advantage of passive satellites is that they
a. have a larger transmitter power.
b. have a larger antenna system.
c. have more sensitive equipment.
d. operate over a wider-frequency range.
19. (404) What is the seconds delay of a real-time satellite?
a. 0.1.
b. 0.6.
c. 1.0.
d. 6.0.
20. (405) Which satellite access technique was the first multiple access method developed?
a. Code division multiple access (CDMA).
b. Time division multiple access (TDMA).
c. Demand assigned multiple access (DAMA).
d. Frequency division multiple access (FDMA).
21. (405) Which satellite access technique is being used when all channels are pooled and used by
any station, according to its instantaneous traffic load?
a. Code division multiple access (CDMA).
b. Time division multiple access (TDMA).
c. Demand assigned multiple access (DAMA).
d. Frequency division multiple access (FDMA).
2–34

22. (406) To calculate look angles (e.g. antenna azimuth and elevation) from the ground terminal to
the satellite, you need to know the terminal’s latitude and longitude, as well as the satellite’s
latitude, longitude, and
a. velocity.
b. height.
c. speed.
d. depth.
23. (406) When computing satellite look angles, the ground distance on the earth’s surface is
expressed in
a. degrees.
b. seconds.
c. minutes.
d. nautical miles.
24. (406) What does one degree of arc on the Earth’s surface equal?
a. One statute mile.
b. One nautical mile.
c. 69 statute miles.
d. 69 nautical miles.
25. (407) Solar time is based on
a. atomic clock oscillations.
b. apparent constellation movement.
c. the moon’s rotation about the sun.
d. the apparent motion of the sun in the sky.
26. (407) An atomic time scale could be based on the frequency of what type of oscillator?
a. Pendulum.
b. Crystal.
c. Quartz.
d. Cesium.
27. (408) What kind of clock system is coordinated universal time (UTC) based?
a. 12-hour.
b. 24-hour.
c. Daylight saving.
d. Amplitude modulation and pulse modulation.
28. (409) A number of organizations can maintain accurate time-of-day clocks by referencing a
standard time interval of one
a. second.
b. minute.
c. hour.
d. day.
29. (409) The agency responsible for coordinated universal time (UTC) is the
a. United States Naval Observatory (USNO).
b. International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM).
c. Precision Measurement Equipment Laboratory (PMEL).
d. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
 2–35

30. (409) Uploading satellite control data, tracking missiles, and predicting satellite tracking
coordinates are examples of missions where all parties involved must have
a. offset timing.
b. synchronized timing.
c. identical time code formats.
d. different time code formats.
31. (410) When any frequency source regardless of its accuracy or stability is used as the sole
calibration reference for other frequency sources, what kind of standard is it?
a. First generation.
b. Secondary.
c. Primary.
d. Class I.
32. (410) What two factors cause a quartz oscillator’s resonant frequency to drift?
a. Humidity and aging.
b. Temperature and aging.
c. Humidity and operating frequency.
d. Temperature and operating frequency.
33. (410) The operation of the atomic clock is based on the phenomenon that
a. crystals resonate when an electric charge is applied.
b. atoms release energy at a particular resonant frequency.
c. atoms are sensitive to temperature and directional effects.
d. when atoms are split they produce predictable nuclear reactions.
34. (411) To send information over telephone lines, the modulator in a voice modem converts the
a. audio signal into digital data.
b. optical signal into digital data.
c. digital data into an audio signal.
d. digital data into an optical signal.
35. (412) What is multiplexing?
a. Transmitting one signal over multiple transmission paths.
b. Transmitting one signal multiple times over a single transmission path.
c. Combining multiple signals for transmission over a single transmission path.
d. Combining multiple signals for transmission over separate, individual transmission paths.
36. (412) Which division technique of multiplexing, samples each low speed channel in sequence to
interleave bits or characters, and then transmit them at high speed?
a. Wavelength.
b. Frequency.
c. Code.
d. Time.
37. (412) What specifically does wavelength division multiplexing assign each incoming optical
signal?
a. Pseudorandom code.
b. Frequency of light.
c. Radio frequency.
d. Time slot.

Please read the unit menu for unit 3 and continue 

2–36

Student Notes
Unit 3. Multichannel Satellite Principles
3–1. Satellite System Segments ........................................................................................................ 3–1 
413. Space segment ................................................................................................................................... 3–1 
414. Command and control segment ......................................................................................................... 3–3 
415. User segment ..................................................................................................................................... 3–6 
416. Acquisition and tracking principles ................................................................................................... 3–8 
3–2. Earth Terminal Equipment ................................................................................................... 3–12 
417. Earth terminal functional description .............................................................................................. 3–13 
418. Major equipment groups .................................................................................................................. 3–18 

I NSTANTANEOUS WORLDWIDE COMMUNICATIONS IS now possible through

communications satellites. Through these satellites, we are able to access telephones, video, and
computer links around the globe. These global connectivity links provide our military
commanders with the ability to exercise nearly on-scene command and control. As a radio frequency
(RF) Transmission Systems technician, it will be your job to understand and maintain these systems.
In this unit, the three types of satellite system segments will be discussed. Additionally, multichannel
satellite fundamentals will also be discussed, using the AN/GSC-52 as our example.

3–1. Satellite System Segments

In this section, the three segments of space-based systems will be explored. They are space,
command and control (C2), and user. Together, they help provide the command, control,
communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (C4ISR) capabilities so
integral to the modern battlefield commander’s arsenal. Let’s begin by taking a look at the space
segment.

413. Space segment

The space segment provides the downlink information encompassing a coverage area required by the
program mission or the program operational requirements document.The coverage area is defined as
the surface area or space volume where the transmitted signals are adequate, permitting the mission
users a specified level of accuracy. This downlinked information is the telemetry data stream.
Telemetry is the science of measuring physical properties and other phenomena. In dealing with
satellites, a telemetry data stream involves transmitting these measurements to ground receiving
elements.The telemetry data stream contains the mission data and the mission satellite health and
status data.Let’s first discuss the mission data.
Mission data
Each space program’s satellites transmit the desired mission data or payload data. This data goes to
the C2 segment for display and analysis or for routing to the end user. The data can also go directly to
the end user. The routing of the payload data depends on the particular program requirements.
Mission satellite health and status data
In addition to the mission data, each satellite in the telemetry data stream provides mission satellite
health and status—also known as state-of-health data. The C2 segment eventually recovers, displays,
and analyzes these telemetry data streams. Also, because the space environment affects the satellite
operator’s ability to control or track satellites, there must be an accurate method of monitoring the
satellite’s operation. Health and status data typically contains the following types of operational
information that are in the table listed below.
3–2

Health and Status Data Type of Information

Category
Telemetry, tracking, and Contains data on the receiver and demodulator units, command decryptor unit,
command status downlink transmitter, telemetry formatting and encoding unit, telemetry
encryptor and satellite antenna configuration.
Power management status Describes the batteries’ status, the solar arrays’ condition, and the power
conditioning status.
Payload status Complements mission sensors in collecting specialized meteorological,
oceanographic, solar-geophysical, cloud or microwave imaging, satellite
navigation and timing, or other environmental parameters.
Thermal management status Monitors temperature of onboard satellite systems. As space is always either
too hot or too cold for most equipment, the thermal management of these
systems is extremely important. Without constant status monitoring, a
propellant tank could overheat and explode.
Station keeping status Indicates satellite stabilization, orbital changes, satellite spin, the selected
thruster and the firing period, attitude control and changes, satellite position,
and mission termination sequencing information.

Now, let’s look at the satellite that provides the telemetry data stream. You can divide the basic
satellite into two major sections: (1) the mission (or missions) payload and (2) the spacecraft bus.
Mission payload
The mission payload contains the equipment necessary to receive commands or mission updates and
holds the telemetry transmitters. The individual program determines what the satellite payload
contains.
Spacecraft bus
The spacecraft bus provides the supporting housing and subsystems for the satellite, while
maintaining a stable platform in space. The spacecraft bus must provide electrical power, stability,
heat dissipation or thermal warming, and maneuverability in space.
Provides electrical power
Usually, a solar array provides electrical power by converting sunlight directly into electricity. A
storage device, such as batteries, must be used when the sun is not available, such as during an eclipse
period. Without battery backup power, the satellite would not have the power to communicate or
maintain stability when returning to the light stream.
Maintains stability
Another important satellite bus function is to maintain a stable base for the life cycle of the satellite.
Stability allows the payload to operate accurately and the satellite bus to receive commands and
upload data reliably. Most of our program satellites use a configuration called the three-axis
spacecraft. The three-axis configuration uses a high-speed gyroscope system, often called a
momentum wheel, along with accelerometers to provide an inertial reference and navigation
computation. Accelerometers use the principle of inertial sensing that depends upon the measurement
of forces acting on a test mass. There are two primary forces acting on this test mass: gravity and the
inertial-reaction force from the propulsion system. Using these two forces, the accelerometer can
determine the direction and movement (acceleration, speed—or velocity, orientation, and position) of
the satellite when it’s maneuvered in space. Gyroscopes, or gyros, are angular sensors that provide
both reference coordinates for the accelerometers and angular orientation information for attitude
control. Most gyros today still use a spinning mass, a motor controlled pivot (or gimbal), and an
external fixed case.
 3–3

Monitors and controls temperatures

Thermal heat build up is caused by the visible and invisible radiation received directly in space. A
considerable drop in temperature during a solar eclipse can cause stress on satellite components.
Satellite transmitter electronics generate heat just as they do on Earth. This heat continues to build
and causes damage to the sensitive satellite components.
Earth-based systems can use convection, conduction, and radiation to remove excess heat. However,
the virtual absence of matter in space makes radiation the only economical heat reduction method.
Using radiators on the spacecraft enhances this heat radiation. As you can see, constant monitoring
and control of the heat flow and satellite temperatures are necessary throughout the life cycle of the
satellite.
Maneuvers the satellite
Geosynchronous spacecraft often require careful control of their position and orientation for long
periods of time. Other orbiting satellites also require position and orientation control. This control is
especially critical for the highly directional antennas presently used by many satellites.Spacecraft
thrusters provide this control in space maneuvering. The correct thruster firing time, firing period and
satellite positioning in relation to its orbit, all affect satellite maneuvering. This is one of the greatest
periods of danger for the satellite. If the thrusters fire for an extended period, fuel is wasted. This
decreases the fuel available for maneuvering in the satellite’s future. Also, the satellite can tumble or
spin. This can affect the satellite’s ability to receive the command to stop firing, thereby causing a
gain or loss in altitude.

414. Command and control segment

In the majority of our career field programs, the function of the command and control (C2) segment is
to support the satellites and enhance the downlinked mission data for the user segment. Mission data
can range from early warning to navigational information to weather imagery to voice and data
communications.
The C2 segment maintains the satellite health and status and recovers payload and health and status
data. This segment provides essential space support tasks (such as secure and reliable telemetry,
tracking and commanding support) for the assigned satellite program. Each time the C2 segment
contacts a satellite for commanding or to assess health and status, we use the term “satellite support”
(or contact support). All satellites, regardless of the program, require telemetry, tracking and
commanding support.
Telemetry function
The telemetry function requires sophisticated satellite, C2 segment hardware and software elements.
Telemetry data streams contain the payload data and the health and status data. These are formatted
into serial data streams, modulated onto a radio frequency carrier and transmitted to C2 segment
ground antennas and receiving equipment. The ground equipment receives the telemetry downlink
from the antenna and demodulates, formats, shapes and sends the data for processing.
Tracking function
The tracking function uses the C2 segment hardware and software elements. Prior to real-time satellite
support, the C2 segment performs a tracking readiness test to make sure the equipment and
communication links are ready for the satellite support. Tracking satellites requires two basic and
interrelated elements: antenna pointing data and tracking data.
Antenna pointing data
During the satellite support pre-pass phase, the operator or maintainer uses the antenna pointing data
(which, at this time, are unchanging azimuth [AZ] and elevation [EL] words) to position the antenna
to a predicted point in space. You may often hear someone call this data the acquisition angles,
acquisition data or ephemeris. Ephemeris is a tabular statement of the satellite’s location in space at a
3–4

specific time. When the time arrives for satellite support (or satellite acquisition time), the antenna
pointing data becomes dynamic; it continuously changes until the support ends. Whether dynamic or
unchanging, the antenna pointing data is sent to the servo positioning equipment to drive the motors
that move the antenna to specific acquisition angles.
Tracking data
Generating and using tracking data is an important tracking function requirement. The ground station
equipment generates the tracking data and sends it to the mission control complex. The mission
control complex does specific mission satellite support planning tasks and maintains the orbital
databases for the mission satellites. The tracking data from several satellite supports updates the
mission control complexes’ mission satellite’s orbital database. Accurate antenna pointing data
requires periodic updating of the specific spacecraft orbital database.
The tracking data consists of the following five separate words:
1. Azimuth—Antenna’s measured azimuth angle.
2. Elevation—Antenna’s measured elevation angle.
3. Range—Measured line-of-sight range between the satellite and ground antenna.
4. Range rate—Measured range rate a moving satellite exhibits to the tracking antenna.
5. Status—Ground antenna’s equipment status word.
These five words are returned to the mission control complex once every second during real-time
satellite support. The mission control complex displays, processes, and analyzes this data during and
after satellite support. During support, the tracking data and computed tracking deltas are displayed
on the mission control complex terminal screens. Tracking deltas are the computed difference
between a satellites’s predicted angular and range positions and the actual satellite’s position data
(or tracking data).
Commanding function
The commanding function uses the C2 segment hardware and software elements. Commands
configure and control the mission satellite’s operation. These commands are unique formatted words
for the specific satellite, using information from the satellite’s manufacturer. Command verification is
also an important part of the commanding function, because it makes sure the commands have been
properly executed.The mission control complex generates the command databases for every satellite
under its control. These databases are maintained and revised, as required, throughout the mission
satellite’s orbital life.
There are two types of commands: real-time commands and stored program commands. Real-time
commands are commands transmitted to the satellite for immediate execution. During real-time
support, the real-time commands are transmitted and executed while the satellite is in view of a
tracking antenna. The mission control complex can then verify that the satellite completes the
command. Stored program commands are commands received by the satellite and executed at a future
time when the satellite is not in view of the tracking antenna. These commands contain embedded
timing that specifies the time the satellite will execute the command.
In addition, the C2 segment provides other support tasks, such as planning satellite missions; verifying
that transmitted and received commands are correct; providing engineering support; processing,
displaying, recording, analyzing and/or routing telemetry data to external users; and monitoring
downlink data from satellites.
Planning satellite missions
The C2 segment must generate and validate contact support plans, thus, satisfying command and
telemetry plans for all scheduled satellite supports. The C2 segment continually checks and updates
satellite positioning, including the ephemeris data, star catalog, and timing. Ephemeris, or antenna-
pointing data, is a tabular statement of the satellite’s location in space at a specific time. With
 3–5

ephemeris data, you can predict where a particular satellite will be at a specific time. Timing is
critical to both the satellite and the C2 segment during all satellite supports. You must be able not only
to locate the satellite in space, but the satellite and the C2 segment must also have the same reference
time. Without the same reference time, operations such as commanding mission satellites, processing
and evaluating tracking data, or processing telemetry data would be impossible.Most satellites use
atomic clocks as frequency reference standards, but these clocks must be updated periodically.
Verifying transmitted commands
Each command consists of formatted words unique to the particular mission satellite. These
commands, and the sequence they are transmitted, direct a satellite to perform specific tasks. Specific
command plans typically contain some commands that must be transmitted to the satellite during
every support mission. Other commands are used less frequently. The satellite may receive some
commands only once.
Obviously, you should avoid transmitting a wrong command, or a wrong sequence of commands, to a
satellite. Wrong commands can cause the satellite to turn on a thruster and start spinning. Fortunately,
there is a method you can use to verify that the satellite received the proper command. During real
time support, the satellite transmits command verification data as part of health and status data. Then
C2 segment verification software performs validation (verification) checks to make sure the satellite
received the correct commands.
Providing maintenance support
The C2 segment also provides engineering support required to resolve anomalies and ensure system
sustainment. For each program, C2 segments must maintain the program’s hardware and software,
throughout the segment, in a condition to support the program’s mission. Without this maintenance,
satellite support contacts would not be possible or reliable; this would jeopardize a program’s
mission. In addition, the C2 segment must resolve all anomalies, whether hardware and/or software or
satellite.
To sustain the system, the C2 segment must support the space and obligated user segments by
providing all the manpower, funding and hardware and/or software development to support the
telemetry, tracking and commanding. The C2 segment often conducts or promotes research and
development. In other cases, the C2 segment is usually solely responsible for the development of
system software, hardware, modifications and test facilities. Each satellite program has specific
development and test facilities. These facilities perform valuable time- and resource-saving tasks,
since the operational systems are too busy to conduct these non-operational activities.
Processing and routing data
Another one of the C2 segment’s tasks is to receive and process, and in some programs route the
downlink data from the satellites to the user segment. The C2 segment ground equipment receives the
telemetry downlink data stream from an antenna that follows the satellite’s movement, usually by an
autotrack function. Autotrack allows the antenna to follow the satellite’s path by tracking the area of
greatest carrier field strength. Afterward, the telemetry data streams are demodulated from the carrier,
formatted, shaped, and routed to the processing equipment. This equipment processes, displays,
records, analyzes, and/or routes the telemetry data to the external users.
Monitoring satellite availability and quality
Still another C2 segment task is monitoring downlink data from satellites for acceptability according
to program specifications. As part of the performance assessment, each satellite program has a
method to make sure the downlink data meets the program requirements. Under the global positioning
system (GPS), operational requirements include documenting system integrity parameters. The GPS
program must provide timely warning to the users when specific satellites and/or the system are not
available for use. This warning to users also applies to other satellite programs. In addition, the C2
3–6

segment must monitor the quality of the satellite telemetry. The user segment must receive warning if
a satellite is transmitting degraded data that adversely impacts the mission.
Therefore, the C2 segment must have the ability to determine the impact of satellite outages to the
user segment on either a regional or global basis, depending on the satellite program coverage. If the
user segment is not aware of an outage and the C2 segment is unable to monitor the satellite downlink,
the user may not discover the missing data until the mission is impacted.
For example, a weather forecaster might request a specific Defense Metrological Satellite Program
(DMSP) satellite pass for a scheduled transatlantic aircraft mission. If the spacecraft is not
transmitting, the forecaster must find another satellite that is transmitting the specific mission region
and imagery quality. As a result, the aircraft commander’s receipt of the necessary weather data for
the flight is delayed, causing a mission impact.

415. User segment

In the majority of our career field programs, the user segment’s function is to use the mission data—
whether the data provided is already processed or is raw, unprocessed data—to perform the assigned
mission.
The user segment’s purpose is to receive, process, use, or distribute mission data, as required by a
program’s taskings.The exact requirements vary depending on the satellite program. This may seem
confusing to you, but remember that the ultimate goal is to provide the user with the data. The user
segment consists of many different types of unique program hardware and software elements. These
elements work together to provide the field commander, weather forecaster or even the commander of
the United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM/CC) with vital, accurate information to make
decisions. With this in mind, let’s review some programs’ user segments.
NOTE: In unit 4, we will provide more information on each of the following satellite
communications systems.
Defense Meteorological Satellite Program
Consisting of earth-based processing and communications facilities, the DMSP user segment
receives, processes, and distributes global weather data to support Air Force, Army, Navy, and
Marine Corps operations worldwide.The DMSP user segment has two major subdivisions. The Air
Force Weather Agency (AFWA) and Fleet Numerical Meteorology Oceanography Center (FNMOC)
represent one subdivision. The tactical terminals, using DMSP mission data in a real-time mode,
represent the other subdivision.
Air Force Weather Agency and Fleet Numerical Meteorology Oceanography Center
Although not DMSP agencies, both the AFWA and the FNMOC receive and process DMSP mission
operational data. They receive and process mission data in combination with other meteorological,
solar-geophysical and oceanographic observations to build and disseminate environmental products,
studies and observations to DOD and other government agencies.
The AFWA collects and processes weather data and related products to support Air Force and Army
requirements. These requirements include data on cloud cover, vertical moisture and temperature
profiles, albedo (incident light fraction or electromagnetic radiation that is reflected by a cloud),
visibility, precipitation, winds, surface temperatures, snow and landlocked ice cover, soil moisture,
clear air turbulence and ionospheric characteristics. The AFWA facilities demultiplex the received
telemetry data stream to separate the stored meteorological payload data from the real-time and stored
health and status data. Then, they process the stored data, combining it with data from other weather
sources to produce aviation forecasts, weather warnings and advisories, automated flight plans and
special payload support data.
The FNMOC uses the DMSP data to provide meteorological and oceanographic products to
operational elements of the Navy and Marine Corps. These products include sea surface and vertical
 3–7

temperature profile data, sea state (significant wave and swell height), sea ice (bergs and leads), cloud
cover, vertical moisture and temperature profiles, visibility, precipitation, winds and surface
temperatures.
The FNMOC facilities, like the AFWA facilities, take the received telemetry data stream and separate
the stored meteorological payload data from the real-time and stored health and status data. Then,
FNMOC combines the meteorological information with other related weather data to provide
oceanographic and marine weather forecasts and analyses at any global location to our naval forces
and other government users.
Tactical terminals
The tactical terminals represent the other DMSP subdivision. The Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps
operate these transportable and ship-based terminals as part of the user segment. These terminals
recover direct readouts from the DMSP or National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) satellites and from satellites processing local or regional real-time meteorological
information. They provide hard and soft copies of visible and infrared cloud cover and other
meteorological information as required.
Defense Support Program
The 460th Space Wing at Buckley AFB, Colorado has units that operate the space-based infrared
system (SBIRS) satellites. These units report ballistic missile warning and other information related
to missile surveillance and launch and detonation of nuclear weapons to the North American
Aerospace Defense Command and the United States Strategic Command early warning centers.The
early warning centers immediately forward data to various agencies and operational areas around the
world. Users and operation areas vary with the Air Force’s changing mission.
Global positioning system
The GPS user segment consists of various signal receivers, including embedded receivers and related
items, known as user equipment. This user equipment provides a user with the desired position,
velocity and time information or navigation data. The purpose of the GPS user segment is to enable
users to passively receive the satellite broadcast position, velocity and time data for their operational
mission.
Many different types of user equipment are available. There are sets designed only for military use,
and those designed strictly for civilian use. Military user equipment is designed to be lightweight, low
cost and low power consuming. Despite the type, all user equipment sets must perform the same basic
functions to provide the user with position, velocity, and time data. Each user’s equipment must use
an L-band antenna in a frequency range between 1381.05 and 1575.42 megahertz (MHz) to receive
the satellite downlink. Also, user equipment must have a GPS receiver to track the pseudo-random
noise (PRN) range codes on the L-band carrier, generate pseudo-range (PR) measurements and
demodulate the navigation message data (PR is the apparent range, not the exact range). The
navigation message contains the parameters to convert GPS time to universal time coordinated. In
addition, the user equipment must have a data processor to solve the mathematical equations for
position data and to control the receiver operation. Finally, the user needs a display to understand the
geographic coordinates and data output. All user equipment geographic or geodetic coordinates are
based on a model of the earth known as a geodetic datum. This datum consists of a mathematical
surface (spheroid or ellipsoid) and a point of origin.
Communication systems terminals
The primary function of Military Strategic and Tactical Relay (MILSTAR) is to support the National
Command Authority and provide the Navy, Army, and Air Force with interoperable command,
control and communications (C3) at all levels of conflict for both strategic and tactical forces.
MILSTAR is the first satellite system to allow all branches of the US armed services to communicate
3–8

with one another on the same secure network. MILSTAR compatible terminals can be found in
airborne, surface ship, submarine, and ground (fixed and mobile) platforms.
The DSCS mission is to provide nuclear-hardened, anti-jam, high data rate, long-haul, and worldwide
communications. Typical operations extend from 60-foot AN/FSC–78 heavy fixed terminals to
mobile 3-foot ASC–24 airborne and 4-foot WSC–6 shipboard terminals operating frequency division
multiple access (FDMA) and/or code division multiple access (CDMA) modes. A broad range of
transportable terminals such as the Army/Air Force/Marine Corps AN/TSC–168, AN/TSC–179 and
AN/USC–60A FTSAT support deployed forces.

416. Acquisition and tracking principles

Ground stations need to find the satellite in order to communicate. The satellites that the ground
stations use can have either a synchronous or a random orbit. A synchronous satellite maintains a
stable orbit over the equator, varying only a few degrees because of its inclination angle. A ground
station only has to make small antenna position changes to maintain communications with a
synchronous satellite. A randomly orbiting satellite does not appear over a single point above the
earth. With the random orbit satellite, the ground station antenna is in constant motion.
Unlike the more conventional radio stations where the antennas remain stationary, satellite
communications utilize ground-based antennas in constant motion, tracking the satellite. You have to
aim the antenna with high accuracy because of the narrow beamwidth.
There are four required steps involved in establishing and maintaining a link.
1. Satellite orbit prediction.
2. Ground station antenna pointing.
3. Satellite acquisition.
4. Satellite tracking.
Sequence of events
Before presenting these elements, let’s go over some preparatory details concerning the ground
station and the operations involved that are necessary to comprehend the ground station.
1. The ground station complex, while varying from one location to another, is essentially a
transmitting and receiving station equipped with a highly directional antenna. The antenna
autotracking system controls the antenna position with extreme accuracy.
2. Special considerations pertain to the synchronous satellites. Once their orbits are achieved,
the rate of motion is small and the antennas used with these satellites move very little.
3. Finally, it is necessary to define beacon and telemetry as they apply to communications
satellites. A beacon is generally a low powered, fixed frequency signal from the satellite.
Ground stations use this signal to locate, identify, and track a satellite. Telemetry refers to the
data transmitted by the satellite concerning the status of the on-board equipment and is
modulated onto the satellite beacon. The satellite beacons and telemetry components are
separate from the communication components.
Predicted orbit
There are a variety of orbital planes following different paths for a system with satellites. As you can
guess, the problem of knowing where initially to find a particular satellite could be like “looking for a
needle in a haystack.” It’s a big sky out there! Getting a satellite’s predicted orbit is the first step in
finding it.
Ephemeris data
Ephemeris is data showing the calculated positions of a satellite at regular intervals of time. A
satellite’s ephemeris is calculated from its orbital parameters and the laws of motion. To do this, it is
 3–9

necessary to specify six independent parameters. For example, assume that a satellite passes directly
over the tracking station. Then, the orbital parameters are the altitude of the satellite at zenith (directly
overhead), the tracking station longitude and latitude, the rate of altitude change, as well as its east-
west and north-south angular speed. These parameters apply at the precise time the satellite is at the
tracking station zenith.
Unfortunately, a satellite seldom passes through the zenith of a tracking station.. We may need a set
of orbital parameters for a specific instant, such as noon. Then, the orbital parameters are: satellite
altitude at the specific instant, satellite longitude and latitude, as well as the east-west and north-south
angular speeds.
By incorporating the recorded orbital parameters into the formulas for the laws of motion, we can
determine the satellite’s orbit. From this, we compile the satellite ephemeris data.
Collection of tracking data
We start collecting the constants defining an orbit from the time it is launched. We track the rocket
from lift-off to orbital injection. The tracking data obtained and recorded in this manner is sufficient
for making rough predictions of the orbit. A computer determines the satellite position predictions
and sends them to tracking stations at other points on Earth. These tracking stations watch for the
satellite during each orbit and record additional data to make more precise predictions. Thus, during
the first month of orbiting, the tracking stations obtain progressively more accurate data concerning
satellite positions. This data goes to a central computer to make the corrections to earlier orbit
estimates (guesses). Once the initial predictions are complete for synchronous and near-synchronous
satellites and the satellite links become operational, there is very little urgency in preparing additional
orbit predictions. Satellite orbits change only slightly over time, but the changes are so gradual that
predictions are accurate enough for weeks, or even months, without further corrections.
Information distribution
Once the satellite stabilizes, a computer generates the ephemeris data. Ephemeris data is the present
and estimated future satellite position. A satellite control facility distributes this information to the
ground stations, as required.
Application of ephemeris
The ground stations use the ephemeris data to get their initial antenna pointing angles. Each ground
station gets its own set of ephemeris data because the pointing angles are unique for each ground
station. Therefore, a satellite that bears due north of station A, at an elevation of 25°, may
simultaneously bear due east of station B at an elevation of 30°.
Methods of tracking
Once a ground station has acquired a particular satellite, the ground station antenna must continue to
track that satellite. There are several methods of tracking available; among them are computer
programmed tracking and automatic signal tracking.
Computer programmed tracking
The data and computations involved in pointing the antenna are extensive with programmed
(computer) tracking. In computer-programmed tracking, we load the satellite ephemeris data into the
tracking computer to get antenna-pointing angles. The generated antenna pointing angles command
the antenna to move to the estimated satellite position to find the satellite.
Automatic signal tracking
The automatic signal tracking system has advantages over computer programmed tracking systems in
that they track only the signals received from satellites, either beacon or communication signals.
We use the actual position of the satellite as a starting point to find the satellite. We then search for
the strongest signal from the satellite because autotracking systems track the “apparent position of the
3–10

satellite” (the direction of the microwave signal). The autotrack system continually generates its own
pointing data. This eliminates the need for continuous ephemeris data input and computation.
The following are three general methods of autotracking:
1. Pseudoconscan.
2. Power density.
3. Step track.
Pseudoconscan
Pseudoconscan autotracking uses a four-error horn array at the antenna. A unit called a comparator
sequentially samples these error horns to determine the amount of RF energy in each one. The output
of the comparator is raw change in azimuth (AZ) and change in elevation (EL). These signals then
go to the scanner unit. The scanner unit uses a form of time division multiplexing to form a serial data
stream. This serial tracking error data stream is then impressed onto the communications signals.
Along with the communications down converters, there is a tracking down converter. It uses crystals
to tune it to one of the two beacon frequencies the satellite generates. The 70 MHz intermediate
frequency (IF) output goes to an antenna interface assembly to remove the IF carrier and recover the
tracking error signal. Then, a tracking receiver demodulates the serial tracking error data stream back
to separate AZ and EL signals. After they go through a few more units, the error signals become
movement commands to steer the antenna.
Power density
Power density autotracking is very similar to pseudoconscan autotracking. In fact, several of the
antenna components (from the tracking error horns to the scanner) work the same way. The main
difference is the signal that each uses. Pseudoconscan autotracking tunes to one of the two beacon
signals (using the beacon down converter, tracking demodulator and tracking receiver). Power density
autotracking uses the complete 500 MHz downlink, reducing the number of pieces of tracking
equipment. The result is still the same; when each of the four error horns has equal amounts of power
in them, you are pointing at the apparent satellite location.
Random step track
Compared to other methods, random step track is a simple method of autotracking. Tactical 8- and
20-foot satellite antennas use random step track. Like most satellite tracking systems, the random step
track method uses the signal strength of either the satellite’s beacon or a communications downlink to
determine which direction to point the antenna. Unlike the large earth terminals that use four tracking
feedhorns, these antennas have only one feed horn. The disadvantage of using one feedhorn becomes
apparent when the satellite begins to move out of the antenna’s focal beamwidth; the single feedhorn
system detects a decrease in signal strength, but is unable to determine the satellite’s new location. To
correct this problem, autotracking is accomplished by constantly moving the antenna to determine
which antenna position produces the maximum signal strength. It has a tracking pattern similar to the
following pattern.
1. We start with cross elevation (these antennas do not have true azimuth motion). It takes the
position it is currently at and considers it the center position. The antenna steps right a small
amount and takes a power reading. It then goes back to the center position for another power
reading, and then left for a third power reading. The tracking drawer now has the three power
readings stored. It compares them and selects the position with the highest reading and moves
the antenna to that position.
2. The antenna now moves in elevation. Again, it takes its current position as the center and
steps up for a power reading. It then goes back to the center position for a power reading and
then down for the final reading. The tracking drawer compares the three power readings and
selects the position with the highest reading and moves the antenna to that position.
 3–11

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.
413. Space segment
1. What is the purpose of the space segment?

2. Define telemetry?

3. What types of information do the telemetry, tracking, and command status contain?

4. What are the two major sections of a basic satellite?

5. Why is stability important to the satellite?

6. For what types of satellites are position and orientation control especially critical?

414. Command and control segment

1. What is the function of the C2 segment?

2. What do all satellites require, regardless of the program?

3. What is the purpose of antenna pointing data?

4. Why is satellite command verification so important?

5. Why is using the same reference time between the C2 segment and the satellite so important?
3–12

415. User segment

1. What is the purpose of the user segment?

2. What is the purpose of the DMSP user segment?

3. In the DSP program, what agency operates SBIRS satellites?

4. Where do the DSP early warning centers forward their data?

5. What is the purpose of the GPS user segment?

6. What is the primary purpose of MILSTAR?

416. Acquisition and tracking principles

1. For what purposes do we use a satellite beacon?

2. How does telemetry differ from the satellite beacons?

3. What is ephemeris data?

4. How does computer programmed tracking differ from automatic signal tracking?

5. Which autotracking method cannot sense the satellite location without moving off the satellite
main beam?

3–2. Earth Terminal Equipment

Throughout your career as a RF Transmission Systems journeyman, you’ll work on many different
types of equipment under a variety of conditions. If you’re lucky, you’ll have the opportunity to work
at a fixed satellite earth terminal. The fixed earth terminal most closely parallels how SATCOM is
utilized in the civilian sector. In this section, we discuss the AN/GSC–52 fixed SATCOM terminal.
 3–13

The AN/FSC–78 and AN/GSC–39 are very similar in equipment and capabilities. We use this
terminal as a prime example of how earth terminal equipment operates. Once you understand how
this terminal works, you can easily transfer this knowledge to any type of SATCOM equipment.

417. Earth terminal functional description

The AN/GSC–52 satellite communications terminal (fig. 3-1) operates with the DSCS network to
provide a worldwide communications service for the United States Department of Defense and other
government users.
The main function of the earth terminal is to acquire and track a satellite and then provide
simultaneous uplink and downlink signal paths for various users of the communications network
connected to the terminal. It’s a high-capacity (multiple users) super high frequency (SHF) system
capable of simultaneous transmission and reception of up to 48 transmits and 56 receive carriers.
Each carrier can accommodate unmodulated carrier wave, phase-modulated, frequency-modulated,
FDMA or SSMA signals.

Figure 3-1. AN/GSC-52 satellite communications terminal.

At the system level, the earth terminal equipment is divided into the following major groups:
 Antenna group.
 Transmitter group (TG).
 Frequency converter group (FCG).
 Frequency and timing subsystem (FTS).
 Control, monitor and alarm (CMA).
 Interfacility link (IFL).
 Signal cabling group.
 Power and ground distribution group.
 Waveguide group (WG).
3–14

These major groups work together to perform various functions including uplink (transmit), downlink
(receive), tracking, frequency and timing generation, monitoring and switching, and system testing.
Refer to figure 3–2 as you read the following paragraphs. The figure briefly describes each of these
functions in relation to the earth terminal. You’ll get a closer look at some of the major groups in the
next lesson.
 3–15

Figure 3-2. AN/GSC-52 block diagram.

3–16

Uplink function
The uplink function consists of multiple user IF signal upconversion to X-band frequencies,
composite signal combining, amplification and transmission via the feed assembly and reflector
assembly.
Multiplexing and modulation of user traffic occurs in the Digital Communications Subsystem
(DCSS). The modulated 70 or 700 MHz transmit IF signals from the DCSS are connected through the
IF Patch Rack to the upconverter rack units. Nominal input levels are –10 dBm for the 70 Mhz signals
and –13 dBm for the 700-MHz signals.
Individual upconverters are tuned to frequencies in the 7.9 to 8.4 GHz transmit band and translate the
IF input to the assigned uplink frequency at the required power level. In each of the upconverter
racks, individual upconverter outputs are combined by an 8-way power combiner to form a composite
signal.
Composite signal outputs of the six upconverter racks are routed to another 8-way combiner. Here
they are combined with additional inputs to form the composite uplink signal. One input comes from
either the single channel transponder injection subsystem (SCTIS) or the radio frequency interface
subsystem (RFIS). The final input is the uplink pilot signal generated by the signal generator.
The composite uplink signal is routed through the interfacility link (IFL) to the transmitter group high
power amplifier (HPA) switching assembly where it is equally divided by a 4-way power divider.
Each divider output is connected to one port of a 4-port coaxial switch. Each coax switch also
receives an HPA offline test signal from the measurement switching assembly (MSA). The third port
of each Coax Switch is connected to a load. The fourth port of each Coax Switch is connected to a
HPA. The Coax Switch, which is controlled by Terminal Server B (TS-B), connects either the offline
test or the composite signal to the appropriate HPA to provide drive power.
The HPAs use air-cooled traveling wave tubes for RF amplification. Each amplifier can provide up to
2 kilowatts of output power. During normal operations, three of the HPAs are online and the fourth is
standby.
HPA outputs are combined via waveguide switches and variable ratio power combiners (VRPC) in
the HPA combiner assembly to form the high-power composite uplink signal. This signal is filtered
and radiated to the satellite via the feed assembly and reflector. Transmit power at the feed assembly
input is nominally +55.0 dBm in normal mode and +64.0 dBm in stress mode.
Downlink function
The downlink function consists of signal receipt by the antenna, receive composite signal
amplification, composite signal splitting and downconversion from X-band to IF, and signal
distribution to the user.
The low-power 7.25 to 7.75 GHz composite downlink signal received from the satellite via the
reflector and feed assemblies is filtered and fed to the radio frequency amplifier assembly (RFAA)
online low noise amplifier (LNA). Receive power is nominally in the range of –145 to –67 dBm at the
LNA input. The LNA amplifies the composite downlink signal by 72 dB (nominal); the signal is then
routed through the IFL and WG bandpass filters to the 8-way receive signal power divider.
The receive signal divider provides a composite SHF signal to each downconverter rack, RFIS/SCTIS
and the Defense Satellite Communications System frequency division multiple access control
subsystem (DFCS). RFIS/SCTIS signals are routed to the users via an IFL cable. Each downconverter
rack divides the composite SHF signal to provide input signals to the downconverters.
Downconverters are tuned to a frequency in the 7.25 to 7.75 GHz range, and translate the downlink
signal to a 70 or 700 MHz IF. The IF signal is routed through the downconverter switch assembly
(DSA) to the IF Patch Rack, and out through the top of the rack. The signals are routed to the DCSS
through cables.
 3–17

Tracking function
The tracking function maintains antenna alignment with the satellite via satellite beacon frequency
transmissions. The DSCS III satellites provide two beacon frequencies. Beacon A is 7600.00000
MHz and Beacon B is 7604.705882 MHz.
The tracking function provides the operator with three modes of satellite tracking by the antenna.
These include automatic beacon tracking, memory tracking, and manual tracking. Cassegrain feed 38-
ft diameter reflector OE-371(V)/G antennas are used with the AN/GSC–52. The antenna can be
positioned ±174 degrees in azimuth and from –1 to 92.5 degrees in elevation. The antenna feed is a 5-
horn tracking feed consisting of four tracking-error feed horns and a center sum horn.
In automatic beacon tracking, the four error feed horns receive quadrants of the beacon signal. If the
antenna is not perfectly aligned unequal signal strength occurs and an error signal is generated. In
autotrack, tracking is accomplished in the following manner: The outputs of the four error horns
(+AZ, +EL, –AZ, –EL) enter the comparator and are summed into Delta AZ and Delta EL signals.
The scanner uses pseudorandom scanning signals from the antenna interface assembly (AIA) to time-
multiplex tracking error onto the composite downlink. The composite SHF signal is provided to
downconverter 1 (in Downconverter Rack 1), which is the designated beacon downconverter. The
signal is translated to 70 MHz IF and provided to the AIA. The beacon IF signal is also provided to
SCTIS equipment. The beacon IF signal provided to the AIA is synchronously demodulated using the
original sampling control signal to produce elevation and azimuth velocity commands when a
tracking error is detected.
The Servo Amplifier in the Pedestal Base is powered by 3-phase AC. It provides status, control, and
interlock data to TS-B. Servo commands are routed from TS-B to the AIA to the Servo Amplifier
(located in the Pedestal Base), which provides drive to the AZ and EL Motor Brake Assemblies. As
the antenna moves in azimuth and elevation, mechanical linkage to the AZ and EL Data Boxes
provides azimuth and elevation synchro data signals to the AIA that define antenna position.
Information provided to the AIA includes current configuration and operational status, as well as
automatic-fault detection and isolation data.
The memory track unit maintains a 24-hour record of antenna movements. This data can be used to
control the antenna in memory track mode in the event of an autotrack failure.
TS-B provides the antenna positioning mode selection capability, including manual, which allows the
operator to position the antenna axes manually through command positioning or slewing.
Frequency and timing function
The frequency and timing function provides precise reference frequencies and timing signals for
terminal equipment and external users. Two cesium standards (CS) provide 5 MHz, 1 MHz and 1 pps
reference signals to the disciplined frequency source (DFS) and the FTS switch assembly. They also
provide unswitched 5 MHz and 1 pps signals to the distribution amplifiers (DA). The CSs operate
continuously and have 7.5 hour battery backup capability.
The DFS is phase-locked to the 5 MHz reference signals from both CSs and generates 1 MHz, 5 MHz
and 1 pps outputs that are routed through the FTS switch assembly to the 5 MHz, 1 MHz and 1 pps
DAs. The FTS switch assembly can select either of the two CSs, the DFS or an external 5 MHz signal
as the source for reference inputs under control of the terminal processor (TP). The DAs output the
reference signals to the converter racks, collocated earth terminals, DCSS and SCTIS.
Monitoring and switching function
The monitoring and switching function performed by the terminal servers monitors equipment
operating parameters and provides switching capability for redundant assemblies. The terminal
servers enable the operator to control the terminal, as required, and continuously monitor the status
and performance of various equipment items. The TP located in the Station Console Unit 6 interfaces
3–18

with the terminal servers to give commands and receive both status and performance measurement
information.
The earth terminal can be controlled locally by the TP or remote terminal processor (RTP) or
remotely by an external control element (ECE) or the laptop from any of the terminal access ports
(elevated equipment room [EER], pedestal base, etc.). The RTP and laptop provide the same
capabilities as the TP. The TP and RTP are connected to the terminal access ports by an Ethernet
cable and may be separated up to 500 ft, while the laptop can be separated up to 100 ft. Operator
commands are entered through the keyboard and status information is displayed on a color monitor.
Converter switching
Converter switchover is controlled by the converter control software in Terminal Server A (TS-A).
When a fault is detected in an upconverter or a downconverter, TS-A commands switchover to direct
signal flow from the defective converter to converter No. 8 in the same rack.
RF power switching
HPA and LNA switching are controlled by transmit and receive control software in TS-B. When a
fault is detected in any of the HPAs, TS-B automatically switches to a redundant HPA that is in
standby operation. If an LNA fails, TS-B controls switching of the RF input (via a dual waveguide
switch) from the online to the standby LNA.
Testing function
The testing function, which includes signal switching for testing purposes, is performed by MSA,
Test Translator, TS-A, and test equipment within the payload management subsystem (PMS) rack
assemblies. Performance monitoring uses built-in test and measurement equipment and TS-A to
routinely measure selected uplink and downlink performance parameters. Various parameters can
also be measured for maintenance purposes by using the MSA.
The MSA performs both automated and manual RF system test functions using the transmitter HPA
sample, uplink sample, downlink online and offline samples, upconverter and downconverter IF
samples, upconverter RF samples, RFIS sample, and SCTIS sample input signals. Spectrum Analyzer
6A3 provides the operator with uplink and downlink signal monitoring capability. Spectrum Analyzer
7A3 is part of the (PMS) built-in test equipment controlled by TS-A. Power Meter 8A3 provides for
automated power measurements and Signal Generator 8A4 generates test signals during uplink pilot,
downlink pilot tests and other PMS measurements.

418. Major equipment groups

The earth terminal is divided into major equipment groups. Each equipment group consists of a
number of related assemblies and units. The following paragraphs define the antenna, transmitter,
frequency converter, FTS and control, monitor, and alarm groups.
Antenna group
The antenna group, operating in conjunction with the DSCS, permits simultaneous, 2-way
communication via geostationary satellites to other compatible earth terminals. The antenna provides
high-gain, narrow-beam radiation of RF energy to the satellite and reception of low-gain, high-noise
RF energy from the satellite. The antenna group forms a medium terminal (MT) class of DSCS
satellite communications terminal in the X-band. The MT provides a communications capacity
comparable to that of the heavy terminal (HT), but can be more easily installed or disassembled for
shipment.
The antenna group (fig. 3–3) has been designed for intermodulation product-free performance and
complete compatibility with other system electronics. The antenna group consists of a Cassegrain
feed 38-ft diameter reflector assembly mounted on an elevation-over-azimuth pedestal with an EER
mounted above the azimuth axis. The EER is environmentally-controlled and houses the TG and
 3–19

RFAA with redundant LNAs and controls. The servo subsystem, power and signal distribution boxes,
and other ancillary equipment are housed in the pedestal base. The antenna feed is a five-horn,
pseudomonopulse assembly designed to prevent generation of intermodulation products (IMP). The
reflector is also specially designed to prevent metal-to-metal contact that can be a source of IMP.

Figure 3-3. Antenna group simplified block diagram.

Transmit RF energy from the TG in the EER passes through the transmission lines, filters, and
polarizers to the feed horn with right-hand circular polarization. A transmit filter rejects noise and
IMPs generated within the transmit lines, while a receive filter prevents the transmitted RF energy
from entering the receiving system.
RF signals from the satellite enter the system at the center sum (communication) horn and the four
peripheral error (tracking) horns. The received RF energy (left-hand circularly polarized) at the sum
horn passes through the polarizer to the receive filter. From the receive filter, the RF signals (sum
signals) are fed to a waveguide switch and routed directly to an LNA, or are combined with the error
signals from the error horns before routing to the LNA. Operation of the dual waveguide/coax switch
is controlled by TS-B in the EER.
The AIA provides the interface for control and status between the antenna and the CMA. It creates
AZ and EL tracking error signals. The tracking-error data is sent to TS-B and is used to create
antenna velocity commands. These velocity commands are sent to the antenna’s servo amplifier via
the AIA. The servo amplifier converts the velocity commands to drive power outputs to move the
3–20

antenna and/or to correct for tracking error. A key-operated switch located on the AIA front panel
provides the capability for antenna safe or operate mode selection.
In the TG, the composite uplink signal is sent through a power divider network and then through
redundant HPAs, and amplified to the assigned power level. See figure 3–4. Normally three HPAs
(each consisting of a high voltage power supply and a traveling wave tube amplifier) are active online
and one is in standby mode. Each HPA provides up to 2 kW transmit power, for a potential 8kW
combined output power if all four HPAs are placed online. VRPCs in the TG combine the signals as
the transmit uplink signal before routing it via waveguide to the feed.

Figure 3–4. TG block diagram.

TS-B, also part of the TG, is the prime controller for TG functions and serves as the control and status
unit for the HPAs, HPA switching assembly, VRPCs, HPA waveguide switches and 28 VDC power
supply. When a fault is detected in any of the HPAs, TS-B controls auto-switchover to a redundant
HPA, which is in standby operation.
Additionally TS-B provides auto-switching in the RFAA if an LNA fails. TS-B also provides
monitoring of waveguide (pressure status), status of the HPA external interlock (high-voltage
interlock), and transmitter emergency power-off interlock.
The phasing monitor assembly provides samples of each HPA output and a sample of the composite
transmit signal to TS-A.
Frequency converter group
The FCG performs four main functions: down conversion of receive RF signals, upconversion of
transmit IF signals, patching of IF inputs and outputs, and converter switching if a failure occurs.
Converter switching is controlled by the CMA. See figure 3–5.
 3–21

Figure 3–5. Frequency converter group simplified block diagram.

For the receive application, RF communications signals in the 7.25 to 7.75 GHz band are received by
the antenna and are preamplified by an LNA. These signals are then routed through the receive signal
divider of the WG, and then sent to the FCG down conversion function. At the FCG, the received
signals are routed through a power divider to downconverters. In the downconverters, RF signals are
translated to 70 or 700 MHz IF signals, then routed through a DSA and receive IF patch panel to
external users. The DSA (under control of TS-A) provides auto-switching of receive signals from a
downconverter in the event of a downconverter failure. On the uplink side, user data for transmission
to the satellite is routed to a DCSS, where it is multiplexed, then modulated onto a 70 or 700 MHz IF
carrier. This IF signal is routed to a transmit patch panel, which is used to route IF signals to the
upconverter switch assembly (USA). In the USA, the 70 or 700 MHz IF is routed to an upconverter.
The USA (under control of TS-A) provides auto-switching of inputs to an upconverter in the event of
an upconverter failure.
The upconverter amplifies and translates the 70 or 700 MHz IF to create a 7.9 to 8.4 GHz RF signal.
The 7.9 to 8.4 GHz transmit RF converter output signal is routed through a power combiner to the
transmit signal combiner of the WG. The combiner creates a composite uplink signal of all
upconverter outputs that is then routed through a band pass filter (BPF) and applied in to the TG. The
power combiner can also receive RF transmit signals from the RFIS and SCTIS inputs, which can be
output as part of the composite uplink signal.
The composite output is forwarded to the TG, amplified to the assigned power level in an HPA and
routed via waveguide to the feed as the uplink signal.
The FCG functions are controlled via the TP and TS-A. TS-A, which interfaces with the TP, is the
prime controller for FCG functions. In addition to controlling operational parameters of the
3–22

converters, it also continuously monitors converter operational status. When a fault is detected in any
one converter (upconverter or downconverter), TS-A commands the appropriate switch assembly
(DSA or USA) to automatically switch from the defective converter to the backup converter (No. 8 in
each rack) normally dedicated to auto-switchover. This designated converter is either in standby or in
online operation. If the backup converter is online and auto-switchover is enabled, any traffic flowing
prior to switchover is interrupted and the user IF is terminated as part of the switching.
Frequency and timing subsystem
Equipment comprising the FTS includes two CSs, a DFS, 1 MHz, 5 MHz and 1 pps DAs, an FTS
switch assembly, discrete interface unit, 15 volts direct current (VDC) power supply, and a standby
power supply. The purpose of the FTS is to generate and distribute precise 1 MHz and 5 MHz
reference frequencies and 1 pps timing signals (figure 3–6). Two types of outputs, switched and
unswitched, are provided by the FTS. Unswitched outputs are generated directly from the two CSs.
Switched output signals are normally provided by the DFS. Other sources for the switched outputs
can be from the two CSs or from an external input source as selected by the TP. The 1 MHz, 5 MHz,
and 1 pps DAs provide distribution of the switched output signals as selected by the FTS switch
assembly. When in the auto-switchover mode, if TS-A detects a fault in the selected frequency
source, control signals are sent to the FTS switch assembly to automatically select another source. A
particular frequency source can be manually selected at the TP.

Figure 3–6. Frequency and timing subsystem simplified block diagram.

Source selection in response to commands from TS-A are defined as the operating modes of the FTS.
The following are four modes or source selections of the FTS.
 3–23

1. DFS.
2. CS1.
3. CS2.
4. External source.
There are two main types of operating modes provided to the FTS for source selection: automatic and
manual mode.
Automatic source selection mode
TS-A provides auto-switchover when in automatic source selection mode. Normally the DFS is the
primary selected source. If the DFS fails, a summary alarm is sent to TS-A, triggering auto-
switchover. The first selected source is CS 1. If CS 1 is faulted or fails, CS 2 is selected. If CS 2 is
faulted, the external source is selected. (The source selection goes forward in auto mode only. It only
goes in reverse mode manually).
Manual source selection mode
When in the manual source selection mode, the four source selections can be manually selected by the
operator at the TP.
Control mointor and alarm group
The CMA (fig. 3–7) is a microprocessor-based, distributed processing system designed to provide the
functionality for configuration control of equipment, real-time equipment control, status and
performance monitoring, equipment calibration and fault isolation. The CMA subsystem provides the
earth terminals with the following capabilities.
 Automatic equipment status monitoring, alarming and fault isolation.
 Automatic and manual control of terminal equipment configuration.
 Terminal performance measurements.
 Standard automated measurement of select links.
 Remote terminal operation.
 Alternative terminal control from an ECE.
The CMA consists of the following major assemblies.
 PMS 2 Rack Assembly, Unit 7 (except the antenna deicing control).
 PMS 1 Rack Assembly, Unit 8.
 Remote Console, Unit 57.
 Station Console, Unit 6.
 Laptop, Unit 56.
The CMA consists of seven computers, three configured as TPs providing user interface and four as
terminal servers with their installed software, plus additional hardware such as switching devices, test
equipment, and input/output (I/O) panels. The TPs communicate with the terminal servers through a
local area network (LAN) in a peer-to-peer architecture. Although the RTP is connected via coaxial
cable and operational, it is not required for normal system operation.
The terminal servers serve as interfaces to separate individual subsystems within the equipment
complex. Each terminal server is responsible for control and status of specific groups of terminal
equipment and must be operational to allow for any remote control of these specific equipment
groups. A failure of all terminal servers, would require direct interface with individual equipment
front panels for control. This scenario has its limitations. The four servers contained within the CMA
are TS-As, 2 each (primary and secondary) and TS-Bs, 2 each (primary and secondary).
3–24

Each TP/RTP consists of a table-top chassis, mouse, keyboard, color monitor and software. The TPs
hardware and software are configured to control and monitor each of the terminal servers associated
with each subsystem. The TPs interface with each other and the terminal servers via LAN. A parallel
interface is provided for communications with the printer.

Figure 3–7. CMA group.

The TP operator can manually configure the terminal equipment that will be online for any given
operational plan up to the equipment complement. For example, the operator may configure up to
seven converters online per rack depending on availability. The eighth unit (A9 position) may be
initially configured for normal traffic depending on mission needs but is normally reserved as a hot-
standby.
The terminal equipment may also be configured from an ECE via a connection with the TSA. Each
terminal server consists of a rack-mounted computer with appropriate digital interface and software.
The TS-B configuration also includes analog circuit card assemblies. When power is first applied to
each discrete interface unit it is configured by the terminal server to control and monitor the status of
its specific subsystem.
The TP provides the operator with audible and visual notification of terminal major and minor alarms.
The 28 VDC power supply found within the transmit rack assembly provides the voltage required for
AIA and TS-B operations.
The MSA, controlled directly by the TS-A or indirectly by the TP, provides the operator with the
ability to direct testing of the system utilizing the rack-mounted test equipment.
The test translator, monitored by the CMA provides status of the following internal components.
 Oscillator Y1.
 Amplifier AR1.
 Amplifier AR2.
 Amplifier AR3.
 3–25

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

417. Earth terminal functional description

1. What two IF frequencies are used by the DSCS earth terminal? What’s their nominal signal level?

2. How are the HPAs cooled in a DSCS earth terminal?

3. What’s the downlink frequency range of a DSCS earth terminal?

4. What’s the size of an AN/GSC–52 antenna reflector, and what are the azimuth and elevation
limitations?

5. How many feed horns does an AN/GSC–52 terminal use to determine tracking errors?

6. Which downconverter is designated as the tracking downconverter?

7. What’s the purpose of the memory-tracking mode in a DSCS earth terminal?

8. What type of frequency standard is used in a DSCS earth terminal and what are its outputs?

9. How does the operator control the AN/GSC–52 terminal?

418. Major equipment groups

1. What feedhorns are in the AN/GSC–52 feedhorn assembly?

2. The AIA develops AZ and EL tracking error signals. What is done with those signals?

3. What type of HPA does the AN/GSC–52 use?

3–26

4. How many HPAs are normally operating at one time?

5. What happens if one of the AN/GSC–52 converters fail?

6. Which converter (up or down) is normally dedicated to auto-switchover?

7. What is the purpose of the FTS?

8. What is the purpose of the terminal servers?

9. What can the terminal operator do with the terminal processor?

Answers to Self-Test Questions

413
1. To provide the downlink information encompassing an area of coverage required by the program mission or
the program Operational Requirements Document.
2. The science of measuring physical properties and other phenomena onboard mission satellites and
transmitting these measurements to ground receiving elements.
3. Data on the receiver and demodulator units, command decryptor unit, downlink transmitter, telemetry
formatting and encoding unit, telemetry encryptor, and satellite antenna configuration.
4. (1) The mission (or missions) payload.
(2) The spacecraft bus.
5. Because it allows the payload to operate with accuracy and the satellite bus to receive commands and
uploaded data with reliability.
6. Those using highly directional antennas.
414
1. To support the satellites and enhance the downlinked mission data for the user segment.
2. Telemetry, tracking and commanding support.
3. It is used to drive motors to move the antenna to the specific acquisition angles.
4. To make sure commands have been executed properly.
5. Without it, operations—such as commanding mission satellites, processing and evaluating tracking data, or
processing telemetry data—would be impossible.
415
1. To receive, process, use, or distribute mission data as required by program taskings.
2. To receive, process, and distribute global weather data to support Air Force, Army, Navy, and Marine
Corps operations worldwide.
 3–27

3. The 460th Space Wing at Buckley AFB, Colorado.

4. To various agencies and operation areas around the world, varying with the Air Force’s changing mission.
5. To enable users to passively receive the satellite broadcast position, velocity, and time data for their
operational mission.
6. To support the National Command Authority and provide the Navy, Army, and Air Force with
interoperable command, control, and communications (C3) at all levels of conflict for both strategic and
tactical forces.
416
1. To locate, identify, and track a satellite.
2. Telemetry refers to the data sent by the satellite to give on-board equipment status.
3. Data showing the calculated positions of a satellite at regular intervals of time.
4. In computer programmed tracking, the position of the satellite is computed and the pointing signal is
generated from that information. Automatic tracking follows the apparent position of the satellite based on
the actual signals from the satellite.
5. Random step track.
417
1. (1) 70 MHz at –10 dBm.
(2) 700 MHz at –13 dBm.
2. Air cooled.
3. 7.25 to 7.75 GHz.
4. 38-foot dish. ±174 degrees in AZ and from –1 to 92.5 degrees in EL.
5. Four.
6. Downconverter 1 in Downconverter Rack 1.
7. Maintains a 24-hour record of antenna movements by the memory track unit. This data can be used to
control the antenna in memory track mode in the event of an autotrack failure.
8. Cesium. 5 MHz, 1 MHz, and 1 pps.
9. Locally by the TP or RTP, or remotely by an ECE or the laptop from any of the terminal access ports (EER,
pedestal base, etc.).
418
1. One center sum (communication) horn and four peripheral error (tracking) horns.
2. The tracking-error data from the AIA is sent to TS-B and is used to create antenna velocity commands.
These velocity commands are sent to the antenna’s servo amplifier via the AIA. The servo amplifier
converts the velocity commands to drive power outputs to move the antenna, and/or to correct for tracking
error.
3. Traveling wave tube.
4. Three are active online and one is in standby mode.
5. TS-A commands the appropriate switch assembly (DSA or USA) to automatically switch from the
defective converter to the backup converter.
6. Number 8 in each rack.
7. To generate and distribute precise 1 MHz and 5 MHz reference frequencies and 1 pps timing signals.
8. To serve as interfaces to separate individual subsystems within the equipment complex. Each terminal
server is responsible for control and status of specific groups of terminal equipment, and must be
operational to allow for any remote control of these specific equipment groups.
9. Manually configure the terminal equipment that will be online for any given operational plan up to the
equipment complement. Receive audible and visual notification of terminal major and minor alarms. Direct
testing of the system utilizing the rack-mounted test equipment.

Do the unit review exercises before going to the next unit.

3–28

Unit Review Exercises

Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each question, and circle
the corresponding letter. When you have completed all unit review exercises, transfer your answers to
the Field-Scoring Answer Sheet.
Do not return your answer sheet to the Air Force Career Development Academy (AFCDA).
38. (413) What comprises a telemetry data stream?
a. Mission data, mission satellite health, and status data.
b. Command data, mission satellite health, and status data.
c. Mission data, satellite ephemeris table, and satellite status data.
d. Command data, satellite ephemeris table, and satellite status data.
39. (413) Stability is important to a satellite in the space environment. What does stability allow that
makes it so important?
a. Payload to operate accurately and the satellite bus to receive commands and upload data
reliably.
b. Payload to operate accurately and the satellite bus to receive uploaded inertial reference and
data reliably.
c. Accelerometers to operate accurately and the satellite bus to receive commands and upload
data reliably.
d. Accelerometers to operate accurately and the satellite bus to receive uploaded inertial reference
and data reliably.
40. (413) On a satellite, position, and orientation control is especially critical for which type of
antenna?
a. Broadband.
b. Wide angle.
c. High frequency.
d. Highly directional.
41. (414) The purpose of satellite antenna pointing data is to
a. update the mission satellite orbital database and ephemeris table.
b. update the mission satellite orbital database and satellite acquisition timing.
c. direct the servo positioning equipment to drive motors that position the antenna to specific
acquisition angles.
d. direct the servo positioning equipment to position the antenna to specific acquisition angles,
and command the ground equipment to execute autotracking.
42. (414) This type of command, sent to the satellite by the space systems mission control complex,
contains embedded timing that specifies the time the satellite will execute the command.
a. Real-time.
b. Time-delayed.
c. Timed program.
d. Stored program.
43. (415) What is the purpose of the space system user segment?
a. Receive, process, use, or distribute mission data as required by a program’s tasking.
b. Receive, process, use, or distribute payload data and provide essential space support tasks as
required by a program’s tasking.
c. Transmit, process, use, or distribute mission data as required by a program’s tasking.
d. Transmit, process, use, or distribute payload data and provide essential space support tasks as
required by a program’s tasking.
 3–29

44. (415) The two major subdivisions of the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) user
segment are
a. Air Force Weather Agency and the Fleet Numerical Meteorology Oceanography Center and
tactical terminals.
b. Air Force Weather Agency and Fleet Numerical Meteorology Oceanography Center only.
c. Air Force Weather Agency and National Oceanographic Atmospheric Administration.
d. Fleet Numerical Meteorology Oceanography Center and National Oceanographic Atmospheric
Administration and tactical terminals.
45. (415) Which early warning center receives Defense Support Program warning data from the 460th
Space Wing units?
a. Air Force Weather Agency.
b. Mission Control Squadron.
c. Mission Control Command.
d. North American Aerospace Defense Command.
46. (415) What system supports the National Command Authority and provides all-service (Army,
Navy and Air Force) communication for interoperable command, control, and communications
(C3) at all levels of conflict?
a. Defense Support Program.
b. Global Positioning System.
c. Military Strategic and Tactical Relay.
d. Defense Satellite Communications System.
47. (416) Telemetry refers to
a. a low power signal transmitted from the satellite and is separate from the communications
components.
b. a low power signal transmitted from the satellite and is part of the communications
components.
c. the data transmitted by the satellite concerning on-board status and is separate from the
communications components.
d. the data transmitted by the satellite concerning on-board status and is part of the
communications components.
48. (416) Automatic tracking systems are superior to programmed tracking systems because they
a. use servomechanisms to control antenna movements.
b. track only signals received from the satellite.
c. track the actual position of the satellite.
d. use updated ephemeris data.
49. (416) What signal originating from the satellite do we use to acquire and track the satellite?
a. Beacon.
b. Ephemeris.
c. Telemetry.
d. Communication.
50. (417) The intermediate frequencies/levels used by Defense Satellite Communications System
(DSCS) earth terminals are 70 MHz at
a. –10 dBm and 630 MHz @ –13 dBm.
b. –13 dBm and 630 MHz @ –10 dBm.
c. –10 dBm and 700 MHz @ –13 dBm.
d. –13 dBm and 700 MHz @ –10 dBm.
3–30

51. (417) The super-high frequency (SHF) downlink frequency range of the Defense Satellite
Communications System (DSCS) is
a. 7.25 to 7.75 MHz.
b. 7.25 to 7.75 GHz.
c. 7.9 to 8.4 MHz.
d. 7.9 to 8.4 GHz.
52. (417) The AN/GSC–52 earth terminal uses a
a. front-feed 38-foot antenna.
b. front feed 60-foot antenna.
c. Cassegrain feed 38-foot antenna.
d. Cassegrain feed 60-foot antenna.
53. (417) In the AN/GSC–52 earth terminal’s tracking system, the azimuth-plus (+AZ), azimuth-
minus (–AZ), elevation-plus (+EL) and elevation-minus (–EL) signals are fed to the
a. scanner.
b. comparator.
c. servo amplifier.
d. optical converter.
54. (417) What information is used for satellite tracking on an AN/GSC–52 earth terminal operating
in the memory track mode?
a. Beacon signal.
b. Recorded data.
c. Ephemerous data.
d. Communications signal.
55. (417) Which of the following is not used to control the AN/GSC–52 earth terminal?
a. Remote terminal processor (RTP).
b. External control element.
c. Internal control element.
d. Terminal processor (TP).
56. (418) Which feedhorns are located in the AN/GSC–52 earth terminal feed assembly?
a. Single tracking and communication feedhorn.
b. One tracking feedhorn and one communications feedhorn.
c. One tracking feedhorn and four communications feedhorns.
d. Four tracking feedhorns and one communication feedhorn.
 3–31

57. (418) How are the high power amplifiers normally configured in the AN/GSC–52 earth terminal?
a. One operating online with three cold standby.
b. Two operating online with two hot standby.
c. Three operating online with one hot standby.
d. Four operating online with no hot standby.
58. (418) What happens in the event of a downconverter failure in the AN/GSC–52 earth terminal?
a. The downconverter switch assembly (under terminal server A control) automatically places a
spare online.
b. The downconverter alarm monitor (under terminal server A control) automatically places a
spare online.
c. The downconverter controller (under terminal server A control) automatically places a spare
online.
d. The spare downconverter must be configured and placed online manually.
59. (418) In the AN/GSC–52, the upconverter or downconverter normally dedicated to automatic
switchover is in rack position number
a. 1.
b. 2.
c. 7.
d. 8.

Please read the unit menu for unit 4 and continue 

3–32

Student Notes
Unit 4. Satellite Systems
4-1. Space Systems ............................................................................................................................ 4–1
419. Defense Meteorological Satellite Program ........................................................................................ 4–1
420. Defense Support Program ................................................................................................................ 4–14
421. Global positioning system ............................................................................................................... 4–19
4-2. Satellite Communication Systems .......................................................................................... 4–28
422. Military Strategic and Tactical Relay (MILSTAR) ......................................................................... 4–28
423. Defense Satellite Communications System ..................................................................................... 4–42
424. UHF Follow-on................................................................................................................................ 4–50
4-3. Commercial Satellite Communication Systems .................................................................... 4–55
425. Purpose and organizational oversight for commercial satellite use ................................................. 4–55
426. Narrowband services ....................................................................................................................... 4–57
427. Wideband services ........................................................................................................................... 4–61

S
ATELLITES have become essential for modern life. Satellites transmit and receive thousands
of signals, from simple digital data to complex television signals. Among its many applications
are communications, surveillance, weather forecasting, scientific exploration, and positioning.
Since communications satellites act as a relay station in space, it is available almost everywhere on
Earth. From direct-to-home TV to mobile phone services to global positioning systems (GPS),
satellites have become the defining moment of the modern age. In this unit, various satellite systems
will be described that you as a radio frequency (RF) Transmission Systems technician may encounter.

4-1. Space Systems

For thousands of years our ancestors navigated by the star constellations. They looked toward Orion
and the North Star to lead them to their destinations. They learned the stars were predictable and
accurate. Today, we live in an age where people are accustomed to phone transmission through
satellites or satellite-based television transmission. We receive near real-time weather reports and
accurate timing from satellites. Many cars can now use space-based navigation—once considered a
method only for advanced fighter aircraft. We can receive advanced warning of foreign hostile
actions and we can make decisions based on a total picture of these hostile actions within moments.
These advances have been made possible only through the system research and development of the
high frontier—space. This section covers the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), the
Defense Support Program (DSP), and the global positioning system (GPS) program, each
contributing to command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and
reconnaissance (C4ISR) capabilities.

419. Defense Meteorological Satellite Program

The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) is a space-and ground-based system used for
collection and timely dissemination of global environmental data to the DOD and other governmental
agencies. To support the warfighter, this environmental data consists of visible (V) and infrared (IR)
cloud cover and other specialized meteorological, oceanographic, and solar-geophysical information.
In the following lessons we discuss the DMSP mission and organization and then take a close-up look
at the MARK IVB system. This section will mention portions of the space and user segments for ease
of explanation and to give you an overall picture of how DMSP ties together.
4–2

Mission and organization

The DMSP mission is to generate terrestrial and space weather data for operational forces worldwide.
The Air Force is the Department of Defense's executive agent for this program. The data from this
program is also furnished to the civilian community through the Department of Commerce.
DMSP is composed of the space segment, the command, control, and communications (C3) segment,
and the user segment (fig. 4–1). Continue to refer to figure 4–1 during the following discussions. The
principal function of the space segment is to continually acquire environmental data through its
satellite sensors. Mission data downlinks include both stored data and real time transmissions. Raw
sensor data is stored onboard the satellite for delayed transmission to the C3 segment. Subsequently,
the data is relayed to strategic elements of the user segment for ground processing into environmental
data records and analysis. Raw data is also transmitted directly from the space segment to tactical
elements of the user segment for ground processing and analysis.

Figure 4–1. DMSP block diagram.

Space segment
The space segment consists of the DMSP spacecraft, the launch vehicle and ground and factory
support for the launch. The spacecraft is placed into a near-circular, sun-synchronous polar orbit at a
nominal altitude of 450 nautical miles. These orbital parameters mean that each satellite comes in
direct view of, or within the station circle of each contact station (strategic or tactical elements), six to
eight times daily. Tactical elements receive only real-time satellite imagery when the satellite is in
view. Strategic elements receive stored mission sensor and real-time telemetry data. Normally, two
spacecraft comprise the constellation, traditionally with one early morning earth terminator orbit and
one mid-morning orbit. The spacecraft is 3-axis stabilized and earth oriented. Sensing instruments are
maintained in a continuous orientation toward Earth or Space. The solar array rotates around the pitch
axis to provide single-axis Sun orientation. Satellites are known as F-xx when launched. Before
launch, they are designated by S-xx.
The 5D2 series of satellites encompasses F-6 through F-14, while the 5D3 series of spacecraft begins
with F-15. On-orbit 5D2 satellites weigh approximately 1810 lbs, including 520 lbs of sensor
payload. The 5D3 satellites weigh approximately 2684 lbs, including 677 lbs of payload. The sensor
suite of 5D3 differs from that on 5D2. Though F-15 was the first of the 5D3 spacecraft, F-16 was the
first to carry the new 5D3 sensors. The DMSP program has already procured all future DMSP
spacecraft. The final DMSP satellite, S20, is scheduled to launch in the spring of 2012. DMSP will
eventually be replaced by the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System
(NPOESS).
Each DMSP satellite carries a variety of meteorological, oceanographic, and solar-geophysical
mission sensors. The operational linescan system (OL-S) is the primary sensor on a DMSP
Spacecraft, and it supports air, ground, and naval operations. The DMSP cloud imagery is used to
 4–3

provide military weather forecasters, cloud cover intelligence critical to space, air, and ground
operations. This improves the capability to find, track, and locate critical targets during combat and to
also assess mission impact after engagement. The OL-S produces cloud imagery for areas of special
interest at a fine resolution (0.3 nm). Thermal infrared IR is slightly lower resolution than the daytime
visible fine-mode imagery. On board smoothing decreases the resolution and the data rate by a factor
of 25.
Cloud imagery is provided globally at smooth (1.5 nm) resolution. Regardless of the type of data
being transmitted, the OL-S provides imagery with approximate equal resolution across the entire
1600-nm width of its data swath. This means the resolution at the edge of scan is almost as good as at
nadir. The 1600 nm swath also produces contiguous coverage at the equator. DMSP data is also
applied in the civilian sector. The OL-S provides lowlight (night time) visible imagery that enable
mapping city night lights and distinguishing them from potential fires. The resulting benefit is the
efficient allocation of ground resources to fight fires that may endanger property or life. The OL-S
also detects ice cover and has become an important tool for the Naval Ice Center and Canadian Ice
Center while also serving as an aid for forecasting safe ship navigation.
Microwaves can provide information that conventional (visual and infrared) satellite data cannot.
They can give meteorologists information about vertical atmospheric temperature and moisture
profiles, surface winds over broad areas of the oceans, cloud water content, rain rate, water vapor
content, and land surface temperature. In addition, they offer information on ice concentration and
age, especially valuable to Navy support. Forecasters supporting Army operations can get data on soil
moisture, land surface characteristics, and vegetation type.
Space weather disturbances can result in a variety of system impacts including satellite disorientation
and sensor anomalies, radar fake targets and target masking, ultrahigh frequency (UHF) satellite
communication disruption, GPS positioning errors, and space track and missile detection radar errors.
The DMSP Space Environment Support System is comprised of both ground and space based sensors
to provide data for space weather alerts, warnings, and forecasts for the warfighter. With the addition
of special sensor ultraviolet limb imager (SSULI) and special sensor ultraviolet spectrographic
Imager (SSUSI), beginning with F-16, there are five sensors in the space environment sensor (SES)
suite aboard DMSP.
C3 segment
Successful use of DMSP data from the satellite requires more than placing the satellite in orbit and
receiving the data as an end product.
A number of functions must be performed during launch and during the satellite’s life span.
1. Test the satellite after it is placed in orbit.
2. Monitor telemetry (state of health) to determine if the satellite is operating properly.
3. Send commands to do such things as correct deficiencies, turn transmitters on and off, and
change data types.
4. Route data to users.
The C3 segment does all of these functions and more.
Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN)
The AFSCN is a group of Air Force satellite control systems arranged to strengthen system
communications and standardized operations to support DOD, non-DOD and allied nations space
vehicles. The command and control nodes are the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) Satellite Operations Control Center at Suitland, MD and the Environmental Satellite
Operations Center at Schriever AFB, CO. In addition, the AFSCN has eight remote tracking stations
located worldwide. These nodes are the DOD agencies responsible for providing the ground
equipment, computational resources, people and facilities to support the launch and early orbit
4–4

checkout, telemetry, tracking, and commanding for the AFSCN. The AFSCN is responsible for the
management, design, operation, and maintenance of a worldwide network of automated remote
tracking stations (ARTS).
Automated remote tracking stations
The table below lists the ARTS that track DMSP satellites along with their call signs, locations, and
number of satellites that can be simultaneously tracked (sides).

STATION SIDES CALL LOCATION

SIGN
Colorado Tracking Station 1 PIKE Schriever AFB, Colorado Springs, Colorado
Diego Tracking Station 1 REEF Diego Garcia, British Indian Ocean Territory
Guam Tracking Station 2 GUAM Guam, South Pacific
Hawaii Tracking Station 2 HULA Kaena Point, Oahu, Hawaii
New Hampshire Tracking Station 2 BOSS Manchester, New Hampshire
Telemetry and Commanding Station 2 LION Oakhanger, England
Thule Tracking Station 3 POGO Thule Air Base, Greenland
Vandenburg Tracking Station 2 COOK Vandenburg AFB, Lompoc, California

The DMSP uses these ARTS for DMSP satellite commanding and recovery of DMSP real-time
telemetry. Stored data recovery is not available through these ARTS. They’re accessible through the
DMSP back up satellite operations center at Schriever AFB, using the AFSCN’s primary Defense
Communications Agency Satellite Control Facility Interface System and alternate commercial
communication links.
With the AFSCN wide area network (WAN) upgrade the ARTS can receive both stored data and real-
time telemetry from the DMSP satellite. This stored data and real-time telemetry can then be
transmitted through communication links to Air Force Weather Agency (AFWA) and Navy Fleet
Numerical Meteorology Oceanographic Center (FNMOC). These sites are configured to allow direct
commanding as well as recovery, recording, and forwarding of stored mission data to AFWA and
FNMOC.
User segment
The DMSP user segment (fig. 4–2) supports the users of DMSP satellite data. DMSP data is stored
on-board and transmitted once per orbit to strategic users. The data is also transmitted in real time to
tactical users. The strategic customers include AFWA, at Offutt Air Force Base in Omaha, Nebraska,
and the Navy FNMOC in Monterey, California. Although neither AFWA nor FNMOC are DMSP
agencies, both receive and process DMSP data in combination with meteorological, solar
geophysical, and oceanographic observations from other sources. These users in turn disseminate
derived environmental information in various forms to the DOD and other governmental agencies as
required. The tactical users of DMSP data include the Mark IVB and Receiving Set Satellite (RSS)
series of transportable terminals, the Navy’s Shipboard Receiving Terminals, and other Army and
Marine terminals.
DMSP data used in typhoon and hurricane reconnaissance mission or Joint Typhoon Warning Center
(JTWC) is now used in place of WC-130 reconnaissance aircraft in the Western Pacific Ocean since
1987 and is also an important asset for reconnaissance in the Eastern Pacific, Southern Pacific, and
Indian Oceans. Civilian operational weather centers access DMSP data from AFWA by way of the
 4–5

Shared Processing Network. Any users can access archived DMSP data through NOAA’s National
Geophysical Data Center's Solar Terrestrial Physics Division (NGDC/STP).

Figure 4–2. DMSP user segment, tactical and strategic elements.

MARK IVB
The MARK IVB (AN/UMQ-13(V)) is a net centric system that provides timely environmental
database information and imagery from remotely sensed satellite observations to users and external
communications and/or processing systems globally by way of standard network ports and protocols.
The MARK IVB consists of six MARK IVB systems and MARK IVB Forecaster applications. The
MARK IVB Forecaster application is a Windows based application designed to work on standard
desktop configuration (SDC) government owned personal computers (PC). It is distributed by the Air
Force Weather Agency to authorized users globally. There are more than 200 user locations with an
estimated user base of more than 2000 user stations. The following material gives you a basic
overview of the MARK IVB system.
System overview
The MARK IVB system receives and processes real-time imagery and mission sensor data from polar
orbiting satellites and imagery from geostationary satellites. The MARK IVB can simultaneously
process data from one polar orbiting satellite and one geostationary satellite. Weather personnel can
manipulate and transform environmental databases using the MARK IVB’s enhanced database and
graphics capabilities. The MARK IVB Forecaster applications provide interactive and automatic data
retrieval, full interrogation capabilities and automatic and manual dissemination of products to
external systems by way of the Internet. Figure 4–3 illustrates the MARK IVB system equipment.
The equipment is located in two major areas:
• Antenna area.
• Processing area.
The Antenna Area consists of a pointing antenna that is responsible for acquisition of geostationary
satellites and a tracking antenna for acquisition of polar orbiting satellites. The Processing Area
contains a high-speed server and local maintainer workstation. The workstation can be used to
perform operator/maintainer and forecaster functions. Due to the physical separation of the areas,
4–6

communications are done by way of fiber optic cables. The Antenna area cannot be located more than
1500 feet from the Processing area. To prevent data loss due to facility power failure the processing
area contains an uninterruptible power supply.

Figure 4–3. MARK IVB system configuration.

Figure 4–4 shows the MARK IVB system hierarchy. We can functionally divide the MARK IVB
system into two subsystems: an acquisition subsystem and a product control subsystem. Let’s take a
closer look at the acquisition subsystem and the product control subsystem.
 4–7

Figure 4–4. MARK IVB system organization (hierarchy).

Acquisition Subsystem
Satellite imagery and sensor data is received and processed using the Acquisition Subsystem. The
Acquisition Subsystem consists of all the equipment in the Antenna area and in the Processing area
racks 2 and 3. The primary signal processing assembly is the Front End Processor, containing all the
actual signal processing components.
The Acquisition Subsystem receives and processes the geostationary and polar satellite data from the
antennas. The Acquisition Subsystem is divided into the following three groups:
1. Pointing antenna group.
2. Tracking antenna group.
3. Satellite data acquisition subsystem (SDAS) group, (racks 2 and 3 in the Processing Area).
Pointing and tracking antenna groups
The pointing antenna group receives the following weather satellite data from geostationary satellites,
which includes:
• Geostationary operational environmental satellite⎯next generation (GOES-Next).
• Multi-functional transport satellite (MTSAT).
• Meteorological satellite (METEOSAT).
• Feng-Yun Meteorological Satellite.
The tracking antenna receives the following weather satellite data from polar orbiting satellites, which
includes:
• Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP).
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
As mentioned before, the antenna groups can be located up to 1500 feet from the Processing Area.
Both antenna groups are provided with normal facility power by way of a switch box inside the
radome. Power to the antennas is not backed up by an uninterruptible power supply, but is supported
by facility provided automatic start generators in case of commercial power outages.
Each antenna is made up of a reflector and a pedestal. The diameter of the tracking antenna reflector
is 10 feet and the diameter of the pointing antenna reflector is 17 feet. Each reflector has a test probe
that is used during testing to transmit test patterns. The tracking antenna pedestal houses the drive
4–8

train electrical and mechanical equipment inside. The pointing antenna pedestal is similar in function
but has the motors and other equipment located on the pedestal’s exterior.
The pointing antenna is capable of receiving L-band (linear polarization) satellites in both auto and
program track modes. It is equipped with an integrated feed assembly that receives, filters, amplifies
and downconverts the L-band signal to the 140 MHz range. The tracking antenna is only capable of
using program tracking mode. It can receive L-band and S-band satellites in either right hand circular
polarization (RHCP) or left hand circular polarization (LHCP). The tracking antenna is equipped with
an integrated feed assembly that receives, amplifies, and downconverts the L-band or S-band signals
to the 140 MHz range.
The following are three functions of the pedestal control unit (PCU):
1. Provides software control of the mechanical and electrical actions of the antenna.
2. Receives program and control information from the antenna control unit located in the
Processing Area, to control all the functions of the antenna and pedestal.
3. Monitors all of the functions of the antenna and pedestal and reports their status back to the
antenna control unit by way of the fiber optics multiplexer and/or demultiplexer data link.
A pedestal control unit is located near the base of each antenna. The units for both antennas are
similar, differing only slightly due to additional signals in the tracking antenna.
Satellite data acquisition subsystem (SDAS) group
The SDAS group is comprised of the remaining acquisition subsystem equipment located in the
Processing Area’s telemetry processing rack (rack 2) and antenna control rack (rack 3), (fig. 4–5).
The SDAS group processes the signals received from the antenna group equipment and then sends the
data to the product control subsystem. The system is versatile in that only the pointing and tracking
antenna control units are dedicated to a single antenna. All other equipment can be configured to track
either polar or geostationary passes.

Figure 4–5. Telemetry processing and antenna control racks.

 4–9

The equipment items in racks 2 and 3 are automatically set up and controlled by the MARK IVB
system software using the Switch Matrix. Some equipment can also be manually configured and
operated if required.
Fiber optic patch panel
The fiber optic patch panel contains four fiber optic patch modules. These modules are used to create
the interface between the antenna areas (pointing and tracking) and the processing area racks. Fiber
optic wires from the Antenna Areas are connected to the rear of each module. Connections to
components within the processing area are made in the front of each module.
Fiber optic interface assembly (common name fiber optic module)
The fiber optic interface (I/F) assembly provides the fiber optic interface between the processing area
and the Antenna Areas (pointing and tracking). It contains a power supply, two mux/demux fiber
optic modules for status and control, and two fiber optic transmitter modules for uplink loop testing.
Fiber optic shelf
The fiber optic shelf contains two identical fiber optic receivers. One fiber optic receiver is for the
tracking antenna and the other is for the pointing antenna. The fiber optic analog receiver receives RF
data from the pedestal control unit fiber optic transmitter by way of a single mode optical fiber.
GPS receiver
The GPS receiver receives time data from the GPS antenna to give the system a very accurate time
source. It provides an inter-range instrumentation group B (IRIG-B) reference time pulse to the front
end processor and is the network time protocol (NTP) server for the main meteorological data station
server.
Front end processer (FEP)
The FEP is a 21-Slot VME chassis containing telemetry processing and testing hardware. The
following is a list of some of the major components and their purposes.
• System Controller (CPU)—Controls and monitors the components within the FEP Chassis.
• Format Processor—Synchronizes on raw digital serial data/clock data from and partially
unpacks data before sending to the meteorological data server (MDS). Consists of the frame
synchronizer, bit synchronizer and time code processor.
• Simulator—Creates a simulated pulse code modulated (PCM) data stream for open loop
testing.
• Modulator—Modulates PCM data stream (from the bit error rate tester [BERT] or Simulator)
for closed loop testing.
• IF Up Converter—Up converts frequency of test signal from Modulator to 140 MHz nominal.
• Tuner—Down converts RF signals and sends satellite data to the demodulator for processing.
• Demodulator—Demodulates satellite data and sends a serial bit stream to the bit
synchronizer.
Switch matrix
The MARK IVB system software commands the Switch Matrix (i.e. Switch Controller assembly) to
change the interconnections between the different equipment in the Acquisition Subsystem SDAS
group. Since nearly all Acquisition Subsystem equipment inputs and outputs are routed through the
switch controller, it is considered the focal point for automatic equipment selections. We can compare
its function to that of an automatic patch panel.
4–10

Bit error rate tester (BERT)

The BERT is the signal source for closed-loop testing. System software causes the BERT to output a
test pattern through the Switch Matrix to the modulator portion of the FEP. The test pattern is
modulated onto a 10 MHz sub-carrier. The 10 MHz sub-carrier is then upconverted (by the IUC002
module) to a 140 MHz carrier. The carrier is then sent to the tracking or pointing antenna uplink path
by way of the Switch Matrix. At the antenna, the carrier is routed up to the integrated feed assembly
and switched in behind the feed electronics and then routed back down the normal RF path. The
MARK IVB system demodulates, and bit synchronizes the data. The received test pattern is then sent
through the Switch Matrix back to the BERT for analysis.
KG-44 decryption units
The KG-44 decryption units (#s 1 and 2) decrypt polar satellite data from DMSP satellites. The
cryptographic units receive their inputs directly from either of the bit synchronizers.
Antenna control units (ACU)
There is an antenna control unit for each antenna (pointing and tracking). Each ACU controls the
commands sent to the pedestal control unit, monitors the status and position of the antenna and
reports the antenna status to the MDS. The MDS located in the Product Control Subsystem sends
antenna pointing and/or tracking commands to the antenna control unit. The antenna control unit
transforms these commands into a usable form for the pedestal control unit. The pointing ACU and
tracking ACU contain the same circuit card assemblies. Using the front panel of the antenna control
unit, the operator can manually position the antenna, execute tests on the antenna and the tracking
antenna, and select the L-band or S-band down-converters, to include the LHCP or RHCP. The
antenna control unit also contains a fiber optic transmitter for remotely powering up the pedestal
control unit and antenna.
Operation review
Now that all the equipment in the Acquisition Subsystem has been covered, let's see what it all does
by looking at the ingest (i.e. data download) process.
There are two independent strings of satellite signal processing equipment in the front-end processor.
This design enables the AN/UMQ-13 to process two separate satellite signals simultaneously,
typically one geostationary and one polar. The Switch Matrix selects the particular processing
equipment string a signal is routed to during processing.
At the beginning of a scheduled ingest, the antenna’s feed assembly first amplifies the satellite signal,
then sends the signal to a downconverter to be frequency down-converted. The signal is then routed to
a fiber optic transmitter in the pedestal control unit (PCU), where the radio frequency (RF) data signal
is converted to light and sent by way of fiber optic cables to a fiber optic receiver in rack 2 in the
Processing Area.
The fiber optic receiver in rack 2 converts the light signal from the fiber optic transmitter in the PCU
back to RF and outputs the signal to the Switch Matrix. The Switch Matrix routes the signal to a
Receiver Card Set in the front-end processor (FEP). The Receiver Card Set contains tuner and
demodulator sections. The Tuner amplifies the signal and sends it through several filters to clean off
any noise. The demodulator separates the carrier from the data and demodulates the data. The data, at
this point, is a series of bits. The Receiver Card Set output is fed through the Switch Matrix to a Bit
Synchronizer (daughter card on a Format Processor).
The bit synchronizer matches the data to a synchronized bit rate clock. The bit synchronizer outputs
clock and data and routes it through the Switch Matrix to the Format Processor (in the FEP).
Optionally (for DMSP encrypted data only), the Bit Synchronizer output is routed through the Switch
Matrix to a KG-44 for decryption and then back through the Switch Matrix to the Format Processor.
 4–11

The Format Processor takes the synchronized data and clock, correctly formats the data, and strips out
the individual data packets. Each frame of data is time-tagged by the Format Processor using the time
signal from the Time Code Processor. The time signal is provided by a GPS Receiver and antenna.
The Format Processor sends the data in packets to the Server by way of a gigabit Ethernet interface.
Discussed next, the Server is part of the Product Control Subsystem.
Product control subsystem
This section focuses on the second subsystem of the MARK IVB. Refer again to figure 4–4, notice
that the product control subsystem is functionally divided into four groups: computer group, storage
group, network group, and power group.
The Product Control Subsystem includes all the equipment in rack 1 (fig. 4–6). It has a high speed,
multitasking, multi-processor. The system operates in a Universal Information exchange (commonly
known as UNIX) environment and uses software written principally in the Ada, C, C++, and
FORTRAN programming languages to do its tasks.

Figure 4–6. MARK IVB rack 1.

4–12

Computer group
The computer group receives satellite data from the Acquisition Subsystem, manipulates the satellite
imagery and/or data and creates products when under control of the user, as well as provides system
control and status when under control of the operator. The computer group includes the following
components:
• Server (MDS) located in the Processing Area in rack 1.
• Maintainer workstation located in the Processing Area.
Meteorological data server (MDS)
The MDS (also called the Server) processes satellite data received from the Acquisition Subsystem
and then stores the processed data on the disk array. The MDS contains five physical buses, which
include the area system bus, PCI/EISA bus, and three PCI only buses. The system bus hosts two
central processing unit circuit card assemblies, two memory assemblies, two bridge modules, and a
power control module.
The Server has four major software responsibilities: antenna control, SDAS control, ingest, and
processing all user requests for data. The Server has interfaces to the Acquisition Subsystem and
Product Control Subsystem.
If you recall from our previous discussion of the Acquisition Subsystem, software controls the
selection and configuration of the equipment within that subsystem. Before satellite acquisition, the
MDS instructs the Switch Controller to make the necessary connections for the equipment items to be
used during the pass. In addition, the MDS properly configures these pieces of equipment, as well as
transfering the system time and AZ and EL tables for the impending pass to the antenna control unit
so the antenna is properly positioned to track the pass. The MDS performs data base function to
include, preparing the disk array for reception and storage of data.
The Server processes the individual data packets received from the Format Processor, calibrating the
data frames, and formatting them as imagery files. This processing takes the corrected satellite data
from the Format Processor, converts sensor readings into geophysical and atmospheric parameters
and earth-locates these parameters. If METEOSAT data is being processed, the Server retrieves the
proper encryption key from the METEOSAT Keying Unit (MKU) and applies it to the satellite data
being processed. The Server then saves the imagery files in the appropriate storage locations on the
disk array hard disks.
The server handles all user requests for data by way of an Iplanet web server and using standard
hypertext transfer protocol secure (HTTPS) ports and protocols. Using the MARK IVB
FORECASTER Windows application, users are able to retrieve all available data from any MARK
IVB server.
Maintainer workstation
The workstation acts as the primary interface between the operator/maintainer and the MARK IVB
system. It provides for power up/down, monitoring, and control.
Storage group
The storage group consists of the disk array assemblies. Satellite imagery and/or data are stored on
the disk arrays for use by the forecaster. The disk arrays also contain the operating system for the
MDS.
The disk array assembly is the main storage device for the system. It is located directly beneath the
MDS and interfaces to the MDS through an ultra-small computer system interface device (commonly
known as the SCSI). The disk array assembly is divided into two functional areas: system data storage
and satellite data storage and interfaces with the MDS.
 4–13

The first disk array contains the following components:

• Two 36.4 GB hard disk drives used for the operating system and application data storage.
• Three 36.4 GB hard disk drives used for satellite imagery and data storage.
• One 8 GB, 4-millimeter digital audio tape (DAT) drive used for loading the system operating
system.
• Two redundant 180-watt power supplies.
The second disk array contains the following components:
• Three 36.4-GB hard disk drives used for satellite imagery and data storage.
• Two redundant 180-watt power supplies.
Network group
The network group provides the necessary Ethernet interfacing between the MDS and the maintainer
workstation, and between the Product Control Subsystem and the Acquisition Subsystem. It provides
for the transfer of control and status information between the MDS and workstation. The network
group primarily provides the local area network connection to outside facilities for internet and/or
intranet connection for user based satellite data retrieval. The network group includes the following
components: Ethernet Switch and Port Server (RS-232).
Ethernet switch
The Ethernet switch provides a local area network (LAN) for all system Ethernet connections and
internet and/or intranet user data retrievals. The Ethernet switch also provides for future growth and
allows multiple systems to interconnect through established networks. The switch supports 10
megabit (Mb), 100 Mb, and 1000 Mb transactions.
RS–232 Port Server
The Port Server provides a means to convert RS-232 signals to an Ethernet signal for use by the
system software. It provides eight RS–232 asynchronous serial ports with RJ-45 connectors, one 10
BASE-T Ethernet port with RJ-45 connector, and one 10 BASE-2 Ethernet port with a BNC coaxial
connector.
Power group
The power group provides protected power and power distribution throughout the Product Control
Subsystem. The power group is distributed throughout the MARK IVB system. The power group
includes the following components:
• One 9 or 10 kilovolt-ampere (KVA) uninterruptible power supply.
• Two power distribution modules.
• Power distribution assembly.
10 KVA uninterruptible power supply
This uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is located in the Processing Area and provides the
equipment in the Processing Area with high-quality, uninterrupted power during operation. In the
event of a primary power failure, the uninterruptible power supply provides power until the facility
backup generator is operational or primary power is restored. This unit is not for sustained equipment
operation. It only provides for momentary power outages in the event of a sustained power failure.
Power distribution module
The power distribution module (PDM) is a power control unit that supplies power to the components
of the MARK IVB. There are two PDMs in the MARK IVB. Each PDM has 4 sets of 4 outlets and is
powered by the UPS. The primary power distribution module is located on Rack 1 and provides
power to all of the components in Rack 1. The Expansion PDM is located on Rack 2 and powers all
4–14

of the components in Racks 2 and 3. Both PDMs include software that allows the unit and the
powered components to be managed locally or remotely by way of an Ethernet connection.
Power distribution assembly
The power distribution assembly supplies 115 VAC to the pointing and tracking ACUs. It also
provides +5 VDC, +15 VDC, -15 VDC, and +28 VDC to each ACU.
Miscellaneous equipment
The environmental module monitors inside environmental conditions of the Processing Area. The
equipment consists of an environmental module connected to the PDM and a temperature and
humidity sensor.

420. Defense Support Program

The Air Force Space Command operated DSP satellites are a key part of North America’s early
warning systems. In their 22,000 mile plus geosynchronous orbits, the DSP satellites help protect the
United States and its allies by detecting missile launches, space launches, and nuclear detonations.
The DSP satellites use an infrared sensor to detect heat from missile and booster plumes against the
earth’s background. DSP’s effectiveness was illustrated during Desert Storm when it detected the
launch of Iraqi Scud missiles and provided warning to the civilian population and coalition forces in
Israel and Saudi Arabia.
The DSP program continues to undergo significant changes as the new space-based infrared system
(SBIRS) becomes fully operational. SBIRS combines national and DOD infrared detection systems
into a single architecture to fulfill the nation’s missile warning and defense, technical intelligence,
and battle space characterization requirements. It provides the transition from the DSP to a system
that meets a wider range of theater and national support needs.
Mission and organization
The 460th Space Wing at Buckley AFB, Colorado has units that operate SBIRS satellites and report
warning information to the North American Aerospace Defense Command and US Strategic
Command early warning centers. These centers immediately forward the data to various agencies and
operation areas worldwide. The 2nd Space Warning Squadron (2SWS), located at Buckley AFB,
Colorado, provides C2 of these satellites.
DSP is a highly available, survivable, and reliable satellite warning and surveillance system with the
capability to detect and report missile and space launches, and nuclear detonations in near real time. It
also detects and reports data of tactical and intelligence value. The specific missions are listed in the
following order of priority:
1. North American warning.
2. Theater warning.
3. US retaliatory strike.
4. Worldwide space launches.
5. Intelligence collection.
When we talk about the SBIRS organization we are looking at the ground stations, general operation,
command and control, and the satellite control authority.
Ground stations
SBIRS is a multiple-mission system consisting of satellites and supporting ground stations. The
legacy DSP mission ground stations are listed below:
 4–15

• Strategic mission stations

• Continental United States ground station (CGS).
• Overseas ground station (OGS).
• European ground station (EGS).
• Tactical mission station—Theater Ground Station, known as attack and launch early
reporting to theater (ALERT).
• Mobile strategic mission station—Mobile ground station (MGS).
Increment one of the SBIRS program consolidated all fixed-location (CGS, OGS, EGS and ALERT)
mission processing control centers into a single integrated site. The new ground station, known as the
SBIRS mission control station (MCS), is operated by the 2SWS and is located at Buckley AFB,
Colorado. The MCS provides integrated worldwide strategic and tactical missile warning. The MCS
was declared operational in December 2001 and is the first of three elements being developed for the
SBIRS program.
The mobile strategic mission station function is supported by the Mobile Ground Station (MGS).
Operation and maintenance is provided by the 137th Space Warning Squadron, located at Greeley
ANGS, Colorado. The 137th is a unit of the Colorado Air National Guard.
Both the OGS and EGS have been replaced with contractor logistics supported (CLS) remote ground
stations in Australia and Europe, respectively. The MGS’s are still operational.
General operation
The MCS uses the remote ground stations to detect and report on all detectable missile and space
launches and other infrared activity in their satellite’s field of view. The MCS processes the raw
infrared data from the satellites and outputs mission data (messages) by way of a communications
network to users.
Command and control
The commander of the United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM/CC) exercises combatant
command of the DSP. DSP operational control is the responsibility of Space Air Force (SPACEAF),
Fourteenth Air Force (14 AF), and DSP resource management is the responsibility of Headquarters
Air Force Space Command (HQ AFSPC), with both responsive to the requirements of
USSTRATCOM/CC. Real time control is maintained according to applicable USSTRATCOM
component force execution documents.
Satellite control authority
Satellite control authority is defined as the authority to direct, approve, and delegate the execution of
satellite C2 procedures on a specific satellite. This delegation provides the capability to maintain the
satellite in a safe operating configuration, to take necessary actions to save the satellite, and to
implement approved satellite hardware and flight software configuration.
Satellite control authority on DSP satellites is the responsibility of the MCS.
Satellite readout station
The satellite ground stations are the command and monitoring stations for the DSP satellites. A major
component of the ground station, the satellite readout station (SRS) receives the downlink data and
transmits the uplink commands to the satellite. It interfaces through the remote ground station master
control station 1 (RGSM1) to the mission control station (MCS). Let’s briefly describe the MCS and
RGSM1 functions then discuss the SRS.
4–16

Mission control station

The MCS performs the following three functions:
1. Monitors and interprets mission data. This includes reporting all significant events and
monitoring, interpreting and reporting on the quality of all mission data.
2. Monitors satellite housekeeping functions including interpreting indications of
malfunctioning satellite subsystems and analyzing troubles to identify faulty components.
3. Monitors the operational status of ground station equipment.
Remote ground station MCS1
The functions of the RGSM1 are as follows:
• Formats command data into serial ternary 1, 0, and S bits.
• Receives link 1/2 (L1/2) (I and Q) and discrete link 2 (L2) downlink data/clock from the SRS
and provides demultiplexing of L1/2 data and routing of L1 and L2 data/clock to the MCS.
• Frames synchronizes, time tags and formats the downlink data into packetized L1, L2 and
coordinated universal time (UTC) messages.
Satellite readout station
The SRS performs the function of transmitting commands and receiving the downlink data to and/or
from the satellite. As a RF Transmission Systems technician, it is your responsibility to maintain all
of the equipment within the SRS. The SRS includes three major sets called the radio frequency set
(RF set), transmit/receiver set (TR set), and the digital equipment set (DE set), refer to figure 4–7.

Figure 4–7. Satellite readout station block diagram.

 4–17

RF set
The RF set receives L1/2, L2 and/or link 4 (L4) (impact sensor) downlink signals in the 2.2 to 2.3
gigahertz (GHz) bandwidth. The RF set can process these signals in a benign (normal radiation
environment), interference or a scintillation environment. The antenna main feed horn and the four
tracking/scintillation feed horns receive downlink signals and the eight interference suppression feed
horns receive interference signals when present. The RF set also transmits the link 3 (L3) signals in
the 1.761 to 1.842 GHz range.
The RF set interfaces with the RGSM1 by way of the DE set, TR set, and antenna control group
(ACG) to perform the following functions: receive telemetry and ranging data from a satellite,
transmit commands and ranging data to a satellite, and provide for automatic or manual tracking of
the satellite signal. In the table below are the functions RF set performs.

RF Set Functions
1 Receives, amplifies, and conditions L1/2, discrete L2 and L4 downlink signals and routes the downlink signals to the
TR set. Discrete L2 is state of health data, L1/2 is multiplexed L1 and L2, and L4 is impact data.

2 Receives and amplifies L3 uplink signals from the TR set and routes the uplink signals to the ACG.
3 Inserts L1/2, discrete L2, or L4 test signals from the TR set into the ACG downlink path to support performance tests
and fault isolation.
4 Receives antenna position error signals from the TR set, processes those signals and routes position signals to the
ACG.
5 Receives control messages from the RGSM1, develops RF set control messages and ACG control signals, and routes
control signals to the ACG.
6 Receives status from the ACG, develops RF set and ACG status messages, and sends messages to the RGSM1.
7 Monitors uplink signals in the RF set from the High Power Amplifier System samples and routes the monitor signals
to the TR set.
8 Monitors uplink signals from the ACG by way of the vertex horn and routes the monitor signals to the TR set.
9 Monitors downlink signals from the ACG and routes the monitor signals to the TR set.
10 Controls ACG functions from the RF set workstation in Local mode. Local operation is only used as a backup or for
maintenance actions. The remote operations are performed using the RGSM1 workstation or MCS workstations for
remote control.

There are RF set workstations in antennas 1 and 2. These workstations have a central processing unit,
display, keyboard, and mouse. The primary purpose of the RF set workstations is to control the RF set
equipment during maintenance or when the local area network is inoperative.
TR set
The TR set supports the reception and processing of downlink satellite signals, and the generation and
transmission of uplink satellite commanding, and ranging signals. The TR set consists of three
downlink equipment strings and two uplink equipment strings used to interface with two antennas.
Downlink strings 1 and 2 are connected to antennas 1 and 2 respectively. Downlink string 3 is the
standby and can be switched to either antenna. Each downlink string consists of an uplink/downlink
switch (UL/DL SW), an RF unit, a L1/2 receiver and a L2/L4 receiver. Each uplink string is
dedicated to one antenna and consists of an UL/DL SW (shared with downlink strings 1 and 2), an RF
modulator and an echo check receiver. The major functions of the TR set are downlink, uplink, test
and monitor, and control and status. The MCS normally controls these functions by way of RGSM1.
The following table lists the functions the TR set performs.
4–18

TR Set Functions
1 Receive downconvert, demodulate and process RF signals received simultaneously from two satellites by way of the
RF set.
2 Downconvert, demodulate and provide data to the RGSM1.
3 Perform adaptive equalization to alleviate propagation anomalies caused by nuclear events.
4 Provide the RF set with monoscan modulator (Scanner) drive signals along with elevation and azimuth error signals
and automatic gain control (AGC) signals derived from the downlink L2 RF carriers.
5 Receive, demodulate and detect the L4 impact and provide alarms to MCS.
6 Receive two simultaneous independent 1/0/S serial command data signals from the RGSM1, modulate this data on two
L3 carriers and route them to RF set string 1 and string 2 equipment for amplification and transmission to two satellites.
7 Demodulate a sample (echo signal) of the uplink L3 RF carriers to recover the 1/0/S serial bit stream and provide
these bit streams back to the RGSM1. This is required to make sure the command send is correct.
8 Measure two-way range to two satellites simultaneously by modulating the L3 carriers with the PRN ranging
sequence and measuring the round trip delay of transmission to the satellites and back to the TR set using the L3 and
L2 frequencies.
9 Send status to the RGSM1 and receive control data from the RGSM1. In addition, provide the capability for observing
status and providing control on the TR set equipment front panel and the SRS workstations.
10 Route pertinent signals to the Spectrum Analyzer and Power Meter in the SRS.

Other equipment in the SRS

Besides the TR set and RF set, there are other groups of equipment not illustrated in figure 4–7. This
equipment includes the following:
• The ACG contains the antenna control and status functions, the AZ and EL silicon controlled
rectifier controllers, AZ and EL drives, data transducers, personnel safety equipment, rotary
joint and diplexer, and a dry air pressurization system. The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
controllers receive the antenna’s AZ and EL drive positions from the adaptor interface unit
(AIU) or front panel controls on the SCR controllers. The AZ and EL drives use these input
signals to position the antenna to the desired angles and then provide feedback on that
position.
• The spacecraft simulator electronically simulates satellite vehicle #14 and later satellite L2
and 3 functions for hardware operational check, software verification, ground station operator
training, fault finding, and other activities that require a simulated operation. For faultfinding,
this subsystem has two interconnected consoles, a printer and two display terminals in the
satellite readout station. The spacecraft simulator can receive L3 RF samples. It demodulates,
decrypts, routes, and interleaves these signals as needed into response data in the simulated
L2 signals. This subsystem generates simulated L2 RF signals for the satellite tracking set. It
applies this simulated L2 RF to the test and monitor switch in the SRS. Digital L2 is also
received from and supplied to the Programmable Switching unit.
• The digital equipment (DE) set provides configuration status of the satellite readout station
equipment using an Ethernet LAN. This LAN connects to Ethernet transceivers at the
workstations and inside the equipment racks. The LAN monitors the DE, TR and RF sets.
The DE set, TR set and RF set assemblies are all connected to the DE set workstations
through the Ethernet LAN. The primary purpose of the DE set workstations is to provide the
ability to monitor the satellite readout station equipment operations. There are two
workstations in the satellite tracking set room. The workstations provide status monitoring. A
DE set workstation has a central processing unit (CPU), display, keyboard, and a mouse
mounted on the workstation console. Also on the workstation console are a laser printer,
power meter, spectrum analyzer, master intercom station, and emergency power off switch.
 4–19

421. Global positioning system

The Navstar Global Positioning System (Navstar GPS) is a constellation of earth orbiting satellites
designed to provide authorized and appropriately equipped users with worldwide three-dimensional
positioning and navigation information. The system is designed to be used by military aircraft,
surface ships, submarines, weapons systems, land vehicles, US and allied ground troops, and by
civilian users. GPS offers worldwide coverage, passive operation, no saturation limits, resistance to
counter measures, real-time responsiveness, common coordinate reference with other services and
allies, and continuous availability. The system provides the navigation data 24 hours a day in all
weather conditions.
Mission and organization
GPS satellites are not in orbit simply as an exercise of physics. They provide war fighters around the
world essential navigation and combat timing.
The Navstar GPS is a multi-service DOD program, meeting both armed forces and civilian
navigational requirements. GPS performs its mission through a space-based, all-weather, worldwide
satellite constellation. GPS has two primary missions: navigation and nuclear detection. A third
mission, actually a part of the navigation mission, is to provide timing transfer (fig. 4–8). The
navigation mission allows users on earth, or in lower earth orbits, to accurately determine their
position and velocity. GPS guaranteed system accuracy for authorized users is 16 meters position in
three dimensions and 0.1 meters per second velocity in three dimensions. When included with other
systems, this accuracy allows DOD personnel to place troops and armament directly on target. Such
capabilities were tested during the US involvement in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm.
Allied troops relied heavily on GPS systems to navigate through the featureless Saudi Arabian desert.
Forward air controllers, pilots, tank drivers, and even cooks used the system so successfully that
several defense officials cited GPS as a key to the Desert Storm victory.

Figure 4–8. Global Positioning System overview.

4–20

The nuclear detonation detection mission uses light, x-ray, radiation and/or electromagnetic pulse
sensors to determine if a nuclear detonation (NUDET) has occurred on, or just above, the earth’s
surface. This part of the satellite’s payload uses the precise timing signals of the on-board atomic
clocks to assign a time-tag to the event. The satellites can transmit this information to each other over
an UHF cross-link called the integrated transfer subsystem. When the satellite is over Colorado
Springs, the event data is sent to the nuclear detection system users. This mission is not part of the
early warning network, but function is to monitor compliance with the limited test ban treaty.
Time transfer, as part of the navigation mission, is very important to many users. The GPS program is
responsible for maintaining GPS time to within 1000 nanoseconds (1 microsecond) of universal time
code. Time transfer users, thus, can approximate universal time code timing and, therefore, have an
accurate time standard.
Global positioning system components
The GPS program consists of three interacting components: space, control, and user.
Space segment
The space segment consists of a constellation of at least 24 active satellites (fig 4–9) that orbit the
earth every 12 hours. There are always additional satellites in the constellation to make sure the
minimum of 24 are available. The historic high for the constellation was 30 active satellites. The
current GPS constellation consists of Block II, IIA, IIR, and IIR-M satellites. GPS satellites fly in a
medium orbit at approximately 11,000 miles. These satellites are in six orbital planes spaced equally
apart (60 degrees), and inclined at 55 degrees from the equator. The satellites carry atomic clocks and
constantly broadcast the precise time according to their own clock, along with administrative
information including the orbital elements of their own motion.

Figure 4–9. GPS constellation diagram.

 4–21

Each satellite transmits two L-band signals, called Link 1/Link 2 (L1/L2), that are modulated with a
coded digital data stream called the pseudo-random noise (PRN) code. Each satellite transmits a
unique PRN code, allowing the ground receivers to distinguish between all the satellites transmitting
on the same frequencies. L1 (1575.42 MHz) carries the publicly usable coarse-acquisition (C/A) code
as well as an encrypted precision (P) code. L2 (1227.60 MHz) usually carries only the P code.
The satellites have selective availability management readily available. Selective availability
management has two parts, selective availability (SA) and anti-spoof (AS). Selective availability
allows the satellites to degrade their own navigation signals. Anti-spoof is a method to protect
authorized users from transmission of false P code signals. During anti-spoof, the P code is replaced
with an encrypted code called Y code. If the master control station needs to degrade the navigation
signal from the satellite, it uses the frequency standard distribution unit to add error to the clock
signal, altering the navigation signal.
GPS continues to modernize, with the next phase called GPS III. One of the main components of this
modernization is the addition of two new navigation signals for civil use. These signals are in addition
to the existing civilian service broadcast at 1575.42 MHz (L1). The first of these new signals is a new
civil code; called L2C, added on the existing L2 carrier, located at 1227.60 MHz. It is going to be
available for general use in non-safety critical applications. The Block IIR-M satellite, the first to add
this capability was launched September 25, 2005. A third civil signal, located at 1176.45 MHz (L5),
was initially provided on GPS Block IIF satellites beginning in 2007, and continuing with the Block
III satellites scheduled for launch beginning in 2012. This new L5 signal is protected worldwide for
aeronautical radio navigation use, and will support aviation safety-of-life applications. The addition
of L5 will make GPS a more robust radio navigation service for many aviation applications, as well
as all ground-based users (e.g. maritime, railways, surface, shipping, agriculture, and recreation) At
the current GPS satellite replenishment rate, all three civil signals (L1-C/A, L2C, and L5) will be
available for initial operational capability by 2012, obtaining full operational capability by
approximately 2015.
A new military-only signal (M-code) on the L1 and L2 links was programmed for completion in
2010. It is to have increased power and reduced vulnerability to signal jamming. The M-code will be
transmitted in the same L1 and L2 frequencies already in use by the P(Y) code. The new signal is
shaped to place most of its energy at the edges (away from the existing P(Y) and C/A carriers). The
M-code is designed to be autonomous, meaning that a user can calculate their position using only the
M-code signal. Users of the P(Y) code must typically first lock onto the C/A code and then transfer to
lock onto the P(Y)-code.
Control segment
The control segment, also known as the operation control segment, has all the people, hardware, and
software resources that control the space segment and interface with the user segment. The control
segment contains the master control station (MCS), monitor stations, and ground antennas. Refer to
figure 4–10 for the following discussion.
4–22

Figure 4–10. Operational control segment.

The MCS is located at Schriever AFB, Colorado and provides the C2 operations for the space
segment. It remotely controls GPS control segment assets worldwide. In addition, the master control
station performs satellite command authority for the constellation.
The monitor station collects the L-band navigation data from the satellites and then forwards the data
to the master control station. There are six monitor stations: Hawaii, Colorado Springs, Cape
Canaveral, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Kwajelein Island. Additional monitor stations will be
placed as part of GPS modernization. These additional monitor stations make sure each satellite is
simultaneously monitored by no less than two monitor stations. The data collected by these additional
monitor stations is combined with the data from the existing monitoring stations, and sent to the MCS
for processing. The result is improved accuracy of the navigation message broadcast by the satellite.
The ground antenna provides the interface between the satellites (space segment) and the master
control and monitor stations (exception: the Hawaii monitor station, as it is not collocated with a
ground antenna). The ground antenna has the necessary equipment, software and facilities to receive
satellite commands and upload data from the MCS, transmit this data to the designated satellite in
orbit, receive the satellite's downlink telemetry and record and/or send the downlink data to the MCS.
To simplify, each ground antenna is basically a remotely controlled satellite ground station that can
transmit signals and commands to the satellites (uplink) and receive telemetry from the satellites
(downlink). There are four ground antenna locations: Cape Canaveral, Ascension Island, Diego
Garcia, and Kwajelein Island.
User segment
The user segment is anyone, military or civilian, who has a GPS receiver and a need to use any part of
the missions. For example, before most sites had the GPS receivers, timing was derived from a WWV
receiver. This receiver had a severe drift problem and depended upon the atmospheric conditions for
 4–23

reception. With the GPS receiver, accurate timing is calculated from several satellites, not just one
signal. This method improves the availability of the signal, not to mention the accuracy. To have
three-dimensional navigation, the system must track at least four satellites. With a few exceptions, the
GPS constellation was designed to provide four-satellite visibility anywhere in the world.
GPS receivers convert satellite signals into position, velocity, and time estimates. A GPS receiver
calculates its position by trilateration. Trilateration is a method of determining the relative positions
of objects using the geometry of triangles. Trilateration uses the known locations of two or more
reference points, and the measured distance between the subject and each reference point.
Some of the major user segment applications are listed in the following table.

MILITARY AIR MILITARY NAVAL MILITARY LAND CIVILIAN

OPERATIONS OPERATIONS OPERATIONS APPLICATIONS
Aircraft navigation Oceanic navigation Troop landing navigation Air, water and land
navigation
Air interdiction Revering and small-craft Field artillery applications Enhanced search and
operations rescue techniques
All-weather air drops Mine sweeping and laying Reconnaissance Mineral exploration
Weapon delivery Anti-submarine warfare Target acquisition Geodetic surveying
and/or targeting enhancement
Reconnaissance Mapping Land surveying
Mapping Surveying Airborne collision-
avoidance systems
Vertical short takeoff Precise timing
and landing (VSTOL) applications

AN/PSN-13 Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR)

The DAGR is the latest military hand-held GPS receiver. It is the replacement for the AN/PSN-11
Precision Lightweight GSP receiver (PLGR). The DAGR is a light weight, self-contained, hand-held
unit with a built-in integral antenna, but can be installed in a host platform (e.g. ground facilities, air,
sea, and land vehicles) using an external power source and an external antenna. The DAGR collects
and processes the GPS satellite dual frequency Link One (L1) and Link Two (L2) signals to provide
position, velocity, and time (PVT) information, as well as position reporting and navigation
capabilities. The DAGR automatically performs self-testing upon power up and the operator can also
command self-testing to identify faults of operations. The DAGR used as a handheld unit can also
operate with an external L1/L2 antenna and a source of external power.
For proper operation, it is important that no obstructions block the line-of-sight satellite signals from
reaching the antenna. Be sure the DAGR antenna has an unobstructed view of the sky. When
operating in a secure environment, ensure valid crypto keys are loaded into the DAGR. This protects
the DAGR from intentionally false or spoofed satellite signals by hostile parties.
Equipment description
The DAGR has the five following characteristics:
1. Provides PVT in a jamming environment; including fast direct-Y acquisition and area
navigation functions. It contains a Selective Availability Anti-Spoofing Module (SAASM)
based Precise Positioning Service (PPS) receiver. DAGR incorporates code types
Coarse/Acquisition (C/A), Precise P and Encrypted PY code.
2. Dual frequency RF front end allows continuous track of both the L1/L2 GPS satellite
frequencies. Even when turned off, a precision time source runs continuously to allow rapid
acquisition of the GPS satellites when the receiver is turned on.
4–24

3. Input/output interface supports RS–422, RS–232, crypto key loading, ICD-GPS–153, NMEA
0183, RTCM 104, Differential, HAVE QUICK, SINCGARS time fill, One Pulse Per Second
In/Out (1PPS In/Out) and 10PPS output. DAGR serial interfaces are used to remotely control
the receiver and monitor receiver solution and status.
4. The keypad and display allow the user to control receiver operation and monitor receiver
solution and status.
5. Includes battery pack and internal antenna with options for external primary power and
antenna.
Equipment capabilities and features
The DAGR also has the following capabilities and features specified in the following table.
DAGR Capabilities and Features

Signal acquisition using up to 12 channels. Backlit display and keypad for night operation.
All satellites in view are tracked using 11 channels. One handed operation.
Operates in all weather, day or night. Operates in all weather, day or night.
Navigation using up to 10 channels. Produces no signals that can reveal your position.
L1: Coarse/Acquisition (C/A), Precise (P) and Encrypted Accepts differential GPS signals.
P (Y) code capability.
L2: Precise (P) and Encrypted P (Y) code capability. Automatically tests itself during power up.
Can operate on +9 to +32 volts direct current (VDC) Sealed against dust and water to a depth of 1 meter
external power. (3 feet) for 20 minutes.
Can perform area navigation functions, storing up to 999 Interconnects with other electronic systems
waypoints.
Stores up to 15 routes with up to 1000 legs for each route. Uses quick disconnect connectors and fasteners to
allow easy unit replacement.
Resists jamming. Compatible with night vision goggles and does not
cause blooming.
Resists spoofing when crypto keys are installed. Uses internal compass to compute track when
moving at or below 0.5 meters per second.

NOTE: Displaying a position on any type of GPS receiver involves some sort of coordinate system.
The system used most often is latitude/longitude. GPS receivers are also capable of position displays
in the military grid reference system (MGRS), as well as the universal transverse mercator (UTM)
coordinate system. Several other coordinate systems are also available. Make sure the datum that the
GPS receiver is using matches the datum on the map you are using. Also make sure to pass on the
datum you are using when giving out coordinates. Datum mismatches could result in 750 meter
difference in target coordinates. Also waypoint 0 is the position you are at not the position of your
target.
 4–25

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

419. Defense Meteorological Satellite Program

1. What is the mission of the DMSP?

2. What types of data do the DMSP strategic elements receive?

3. What is the primary weather sensor on the DMSP satellite?

4. What are the AFSCN control nodes?

5. What are the DMSP tactical users?

6. What type data does the MARK IVB receive and process?

7. How far can the antennas be located from the Processing Area?

8. Which MARK IVB subsystem receives and processes the geostationary and polar satellite data
from the antennas?

9. What equipment comprises the SDAS group and what does the SDAS group do?

10. What unit functions as an automatic patch panel?

11. After leaving the bit synchronizer, where does the data and synchronous clock go next?

12. What operating system does the Product Control Subsystem use and what are the program
languages of the software used to perform its tasks?
4–26

13. Name the major software responsibilities of the MDS.

14. Before satellite acquisition, which unit instructs the Switch Controller (Switch Matrix) to make
the necessary equipment selections?

15. Which unit is the primary interface between the operator/maintainer and the MARK IVB system?

420. Defense Support Program

1. What is the purpose of DSP?

2. List the DSP’s specific missions in priority order highest to lowest.

3. Which program ground station replaced the legacy DSP control centers after achieving initial
operational capability and where is it located?

4. How does the MCS use the Remote Ground Stations?

5. Which agency is responsible for DSP operational control?

6. What are the functions of the MCS?

7. What is the pupose of RGSM1?

8. What is the purpose of the RF set?

9. What comprises the TR set?

10. Which equipment group provides simulated satellite signals?

 4–27

11. What is the purpose of the DE set?

12. What is the purpose of the DE set workstations?

421. Global positioning system

1. What are the two primary GPS missions?

2. What is the purpose of the navigation mission?

3. What does the nuclear detonation detection part of the satellite payload use to determine if a
NUDET has occurred?

4. What time standard is the GPS program responsible for maintaining?

5. What are the components of the GPS space segment?

6. GPS has many orbital planes, what is the total amount?

7. What are the two L-band signals transmitted by the satellites?

8. Where is the MCS and what is its purpose?

9. What is the function of the ground antenna?

10. What is the minimum number of GPS satellites that must be tracked to have accurate three-
dimensional navigation?

11. Name the major user segment military air operation applications.
4–28

12. Describe the AN/PSN-13 Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR)?

13. What allows the DAGR to operate in a jamming environment?

4-2. Satellite Communication Systems

In the past, each of our military services developed and operated their own satellite communications
systems. This approach served the communications needs of each individual service; however, it
didn’t meet the requirements for joint operations. Joint operations (Army, Navy, and Air Force) are
necessary in today’s military. In this section, we will look at several satellite systems that provide
command and control (C2) communications system access to meet wartime operational requirements
associated with military communications.

422. Military Strategic and Tactical Relay (MILSTAR)

Although commercial systems can be used for routine DOD communications, critical command and
control (C2) information must always reach the decision makers in a timely manner. In fact, our
national security may well depend on a secure, survivable, reliable, and worldwide communications
network. The Military Strategic and Tactical Relay (MILSTAR) system is a key component of this
network.
Military Strategic and Tactical Relay mission
The cold war and incumbent strategic threat have given way to new third world threats and regional
conflicts. Rapid C2 capability is vital to 21st Century battlefield scenarios—arenas that demand
multiservice interaction, fast deployment and timely intelligence updates. With that concept in mind,
MILSTAR was designed for service interoperability.
NOTE: Interoperability ensures that systems are compatible in frequency range, type of modulation,
tuning increments and frame formats.
MILSTAR is the first satellite system to allow all branches of the US armed services to communicate
with one another on the same secure network. Each service is capable of operating within the system
by using terminals specifically designed to meet each service’s needs.
Designed to meet the minimum essential command, control and communications (C3) requirements
for the National Command Authorities (NCA) and the unified and specified commanders and their
operational forces, MILSTAR is the DOD’s core C2 communications system for US combatant forces
in hostile environments. In essence, MILSTAR is a global strategic and tactical communication
satellite system designed to survive all levels of conflict. The use of extremely high-frequency (EHF)
and advanced processing techniques enables this system to achieve a high degree of survivability
under conditions of both electronic combat and physical attack. Unlike the lower frequencies, EHF
satellite communications recover within seconds from scintillation effects caused by a high-altitude
nuclear detonation. This is important because the longer a signal is affected by scintillation the more
corrupted the data becomes.
System segments
The MILSTAR communications system consists of these three distinct segments: space, mission
control segment, and erminal.
 4–29

Space segment
The space segment consists of a constellation of satellites that are crosslinked in various
geosynchronous and low inclined orbits. The satellites are launched from Cape Canaveral Air Station,
Florida, aboard a Titan IV booster with a centaur upper stage. Each satellite is comprised of these two
basic parts: platform and payload.
The platform is the frame of the satellite and the payload is the reason why the satellite is in orbit.
Each MILSTAR payload has a variety of antennas to support the requirements of both tactical and
strategic users.
Encryption and/or encoding techniques are used on all uplinks and downlinks to provide anti-jam and
low probability of intercept system features. Satellite-to-satellite crosslinking provides worldwide
communications connectivity without the use of vulnerable and expensive ground relay stations for
worldwide coverage. The crosslinking function is very different from previous military and
commercial satellite communications systems.
MILSTAR satellites were the first communications satellites to provide enhanced communication
security by frequency hopping. There are five active MILSTAR satellites in the constellation. Two of
the satellites are classified as Phase I satellites and the other three are classified as Phase II satellites.
MILSTAR Phase I
The first Phase I satellite (MILSTAR Flight 1) was launched 7 February 1994. The second Phase I
satellite (Flight 2) was launched 6 November 1995. Phase I satellites are considered low data rate
(LDR) communications (voice, data, teletype and facsimile) at 75 binary digits bits per second (bps)
to 2,400 bps.
MILSTAR Phase II
The first Phase II satellite (MILSTAR Flight 3) was launched 30 April 1999, but developed problems
early on during the flight, and ended up in a very low, final orbit rendering it unusable for normal
communications. The second Phase II satellite (Flight 4) was successfully launched on 27 February
2001 followed by the third Phase II satellite (Flight 5) which was launched 15 January 2002. The
fourth Phase II satellite (Flight 6) was launched in April 2003. This was the sixth and final spacecraft
in the MILSTAR series. Phase II satellites are capable of LDR communications plus medium data
rate (MDR) communications (voice, data, teletype and facsimile) at 4.8 kilobits per second (Kbps) to
1.544 megabits per second (Mbps) (MILSTAR satellites 4 through 6 only).
Mission control segment
The MILSTAR system is designed to provide a survivable communications capability because
dependence on a centralized control station is avoided. The mission control segment provides satellite
control and mission support hardware and software. The office of primary responsibility is the 4th
Space Operations Squadron at Shriever AFB, Colorado. Within the 4th Space Operations Squadron is
the MILSTAR Satellite Operations Center (MSOC), which is broken down into four elements. These
elements are as follows:
• Mission control element (MCE).
• Mission support element (MSE).
• Mission development element (MDE).
• Mission planning element (MPE).
Mission control element (MCE)
The MCE provides distribution command and control via multiple satellite mission control
subsystems. The satellite mission control subsystem provides dedicated day-to-day satellite control.
One satellite mission control subsystem can control the entire constellation.
4–30

Mission support element (MSE)

The MSE provides mission-unique software and databases to control MILSTAR satellites.
Mission development element (MDE)
The MDE provides software tools for building satellite mission control subsystem and mission
support element databases. The newest tool, the MILSTAR communications planning tool integrated
(MCPT-I), is designed to simplify this process. The purpose of the MCPT-I system is to support the
MILSTAR users in meeting their requirement to provide flexible, decentralized management of
MILSTAR resources. In essence, the MCPT-I system is a communications planning tool designed to
manage MILSTAR complexity.
Mission planning element (MPE)
The MPE provides automated communications management system planning software and generates
satellite and terminal database information. It also supports the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
(CJCS) and combatant commander (COCOM) command communication planning staffs and allocates
communication resources.
Terminal segment
The terminal segment consists of Army, Navy, and Air Force terminals that are interoperable and
functionally similar but tailored to the specific service and platform requirements.
Military Strategic and Tactical users
The primary function of MILSTAR is to support the NCA and provide the Navy, Army and Air Force
with interoperable C3 at all levels of conflict for both strategic and tactical forces. The interoperability
requirements apply to several terminal functional areas and include network connectivity, baseband
equipment, network protocols, and signaling.
Navy
The Navy EHF satellite communications (SATCOM) program was developed to meet the Navy’s
strategic C2 operational requirements and tactical communications requirements. The Navy EHF
SATCOM program is compatible with both the fleet satellite communications extremely high
frequency package and the MILSTAR satellites.
There are three types of Navy EHF satellite communications program terminals in use. The three
types of terminals are as follows:
• Shore station terminals.
• Surface ship terminals.
• Submarine terminals.
Each terminal consists of a communications equipment group (CEG), high power amplifier (HPA)
and antenna group. All Navy EHF SATCOM program terminals have common hardware with some
exceptions in the antenna subsystems. The size of the antenna is the primary difference.
Shore station
The fixed shore station uses the large-diameter (72-inch) dish (the Navy also has a contingency
version).
Surface ship
The surface ship uses two medium-diameter (34.5-inch) dishes that have automatic switching to avoid
superstructure blockage.
 4–31

Submarine terminal
The submarine terminal has a small-diameter (5.5-inch) dish that’s mounted on top of a periscope.
Because of the limited gain of the antenna, the submarine version is considered a disadvantaged
terminal.
NOTE: In addition to shore station, surface ship and submarine terminals, the Navy has an airborne
terminal. This is carried on the Navy E-6B take charge and move out (TACAMO) aircraft. This
modified Boeing 707 uses the Air Force EHF/UHF airborne command post terminal.
Army
The Army has two basic MILSTAR compatible terminals, which are single channel anti-jam man-
portable terminal (SCAMP) and secure mobile anti-jam reliable tactical terminal (SMART-T).
SCAMP
This terminal is a true manpack unit that’s capable of the secure voice communications, secure data
entry, and data display on a liquid crystal display (LCD) screen.
The Block I version weighs 37 pounds. The Block II version weighs between 12 and 15 pounds and
has paging capabilities.
SMART-T
The SMART-T uses a 4.5-foot antenna and a small terminal mounted on a high mobility
multipurpose-wheeled vehicle (HMMWV). This system is a fully integrated communications system
that provides user data rates through T-1 (1.544 Mbps) (These are LDR and MDR capabilities). These
terminals are a part of the Army ground mobile forces satellite communications (GMFSC) program.
NOTE: In addition to the SMART-T and SCAMP, the Army also receives the Air Force contingency
terminal.
Air Force
The Air Force MILSTAR SATCOM program is designed to provide C3 in support of strategic and
tactical missions. The system allows for access and participation in Air Force data networks and Air
Force conferencing networks.
The Air Force MILSTAR Terminal Program provides the Air Force with both ground and airborne
terminals configured as either a command post or a force element (FE) version. The command post
terminals can be classified into the following three categories based on the requirements of the
platform:
1. Contingency terminal.
2. Fixed terminal.
3. Airborne terminal.
These terminals are designed to be reliable and to survive extreme environments. They also have a
high level of interoperability and depend heavily on "black box" installation. This should make
systems easier to maintain and operate. Also the command post terminals are backwards compatible
with the existing upgraded Air Force satellite communications (AFSATCOM) terminals in order to
make full use of existing assets.
NOTE: The airborne terminal is used on the E-4B National Airborne Operations Center (NAOC) and
the Navy’s TACAMO aircraft.
Military Strategic and Tactical satellite communications system
The MILSTAR satellites are designed to provide a nuclear-survivable communications capability.
The MILSTAR spacecraft is a complex vehicle, providing mechanical, thermal, electrical, propulsion
and data processing support to the communications payload that it carries. Each MILSTAR satellite
4–32

has a mass of approximately 10,000 pounds and produces nearly 5,000 watts of solar array power.
The first two MILSTAR phase I (MILSTAR I) satellites have a low data rate payload. The third and
subsequent MILSTAR vehicles (MILSTAR phase II [MILSTAR II]) feature a MDR payload. The
completed MILSTAR II constellation was to originally consist of four satellites in near-geostationary
equatorial orbits, but failure of the first MILSTAR II satellite to achieve a satisfactory orbit reduced
the final count to three. All subsystems can be managed from the ground or autonomously by the
satellites’ onboard computers through the use of redundancies designed into each subsystem.
Communications payload
The communications payload provides the networks for uplink (earth-to-satellite), downlink (satellite-
to-earth), and crosslink (satellite-to-satellite) communications. The communications payload receives
uplink communications reception at EHF and UHF frequencies and sends downlink communications
transmissions at super-high frequency (SHF) and UHF frequencies.The communications payload also
provides the following:
• Crossbanding from EHF to UHF (from one frequency bandwidth to another), UHF to SHF,
and EHF to SHF.
• Crosslinking between satellites (EHF only at 60 GHz).
• Transmission security (TRANSEC) support.
The satellites also perform on-board signal processing and employ common signaling waveforms to
provide joint service interoperability. The communications payload UHF/EHF/SHF subsystems each
include the appropriate antennas for uplink/downlink or crosslink coverage (fig. 4–11).

Figure 4–11. MILSTAR antenna configurations.

The MILSTAR communications payload includes the following seven subsystems:

1. Payload management subsystem (PMS).
2. UHF subsystem.
3. Crosslink subsystem (XLS).
4. Timing and frequency reference subsystem (TFRS).
5. EHF subsystem.
 4–33

6. SHF subsystem.
7. Payload integration subsystem (PIS).
Payload management subsystem
The payload management subsystem receives and processes data from these five sources: EHF
uplink, UHF uplink, Crosslink one, Crosslink two, and the spacecraft. This is illustrated in figure
4–12.

Figure 4–12. MILSTAR payload.

The payload management subsystem consists of these two major groups:

1. Resource control processor—The EHF signal processor demodulates and detects the EHF
uplink. The data is demodulated by the demodulator unit and then sent to the data detector
unit where it is then processed, buffered and routed to the message control processor.
2. Message processor—The message control processor is the other central computer processor
on board the satellite. It receives, monitors, and processes data from multiple sources and
commands and routes data to multiple destinations. The message control processor decodes,
deinterleaves and performs parity checks on the incoming and outgoing data. It also controls
frequency hopping, time and frequency permutation and beam pointing for the downlink. The
message control processor supports normalized terminal acquisition under various protocols
on the spot, earth coverage and agile beams. It accepts and processes the normalized coarse
probe, contention probe and fine time probe estimates from the data detector unit. In addition,
it determines probe type and assigns acquisition channel slots to command post terminals.
UHF subsystem
The UHF subsystem consists of a receiver/processor, frequency generator, UHF and fleet broadcast
transmitter, and two UHF antennas (one transmit and one receive).
4–34

The UHF subsystem receives a frequency shift keying (FSK) frequency division multiplex (FDM)
UHF uplink and transmits an FSK time division multiplex (TDM) UHF downlink, as well as
transmitting a single channel fleet broadcast downlink.
NOTE: The UHF and fleet broadcast frequency plan may be selected by a ground command.
Uplinked frequency-hopped channels are demodulated, processed, and time division multiple
accessed into a single data stream, which is then routed to the payload management subsystem. The
payload management subsystem processes and then reroutes the data back to the UHF subsystem
and/or the SHF subsystem for subsequent downlink transmission, or routes the data to be sent via
crosslink. The UHF downlink receives a channelized TDM digital data stream from the payload
management subsystem and transmits the data as an FSK frequency-hopped signal. The fleet
broadcast downlink receives a data signal from the payload management subsystem and transmits the
data as a binary phase shift-keying signal on one of several command selectable frequencies.
Crosslink subsystem
The crosslink subsystem allows for communications over the horizon. A constellation control station
can communicate with an element over the horizon by relaying its message from an in-view (line-of-
sight) satellite to another satellite in the constellation that’s in view with the element over the horizon.
A minimum of two satellites is required; but with several, a number of different networks can
function simultaneously. The crosslink subsystem is comprised of two major subassemblies.
1. The equipment assembly module.
2. Two identical millimeter wave assemblies.
The equipment assembly module contains the radio frequency (RF) generator, modulator, gimbal
control electronics, auto track demodulator, and receiver. The millimeter wave assemblies contain the
receiver and transmitter local oscillators, transmitter, mixer/amplifiers, diplexer, auto track drivers,
gimbals, up/down converters, and the antenna assemblies. The spacecraft provides crosslink pointing
(azimuth and elevation).
TFRS
The source of all timing and frequency references is the 5-megahertz (MHz) frequency reference
generated in the master oscillator. The accuracy of all payload and spacecraft timing is directly
dependent on the oven-controlled crystal oscillator in the master oscillator. The other units within the
TFRS provide fixed frequencies, rapidly hopped synthesized frequencies and timing, which are all
derived from the 5-MHz reference clock. Epoch word generation, although not part of the TFRS, is
derived in the payload management subsystem from TFRS outputs. The TFRS consists of the
following six components:
1. Master oscillator.
2. Master oscillator distribution unit.
3. Fixed frequency generator.
4. Frequency distribution unit.
5. Wideband frequency synthesizer.
6. Timing unit.
EHF subsystem
The EHF subsystem receives uplinked data and sends it to the payload management subsystem. The
EHF subsystem consists of the antennas shown in figure 4–13.
 4–35

Figure 4–13. MILSTAR antenna coverage.

Five EHF agile beam antennas

Each of the five-uplink antennas has the capability of receiving signals on any one of 37 preselected
beams or nodes.
Three EHF/SHF spot beam antennas
Two EHF/SHF narrow spot beam antennas and one EHF/SHF wide spot beam antenna provide EHF
reception and SHF transmission.These antennas provide high gain, selective coverage of any ground
station visible on the earth’s surface within its own footprint. An antenna positioner that controls the
antenna’s electrical bore sight axis relative to the spacecraft provides this selective coverage
capability. These antennas are steerable. (The Block II MILSTAR satellites have a total of six spot
beams.)
EHF earth coverage antenna
The EHF earth coverage antenna provides satellite reception of transmissions from a set of ground
stations over a large geographical area within the satellite view. The earth coverage’s footprint is one-
third of the earth. This is a fixed antenna.
SHF subsystem
The SHF subsystem consists of a SHF agile beam downlink antenna (of which there are 37
preselected beams or nodes), three EHF/SHF spot beam antennas, and an SHF earth coverage
antenna.
NOTE: SHF is used for transmit operations only.
Payload integration subsystem
The PIS distributes and controls power and internal signals. In addition, the PIS system houses all the
components to interface and control the MILSTAR satellite.
4–36

Military strategic and tactical relay demand assigned multiple access

MILSTAR demand assigned multiple access (DAMA) is a new generation of communications
providing a global C3 set of MILSTAR satellites and terminals that are designed to allow the
establishment of local and worldwide networks. DAMA’s enhanced capabilities broadcast
information and reserve resources for optimum communications.
A major factor in MILSTAR DAMA is its capability to provide an advanced waveform feature and
still retain a backward compatibility. For example, the old AFSAT FE terminals have been upgraded
into what’s known as a DMU, or dual modem upgrade, for use in the DAMA system.
The MILSTAR DAMA capability uses a crossbanded and crosslinking system that allows worldwide
coverage to MILSTAR terminals and upgraded AFSAT I terminals. Crossbanding is the capability to
communicate from EHF terminals to UHF terminals.
NOTE: DAMA is the only UHF capability on the MILSTAR satellite.
Crosslinking allows for communication between satellites so one net could operate over several
satellites. DAMA can also operate in the UHF-only mode if desired.
MILSTAR DAMA network
A MILSTAR satellite allows for up to three DAMA networks on a single satellite. Each network
allows for up to 1,021 net members and one net controller. There can be up to 10 groups in which the
net members can be part of, five at any given time. DAMA’s network communications runs at 75 bps
and uses FSK for modulation and linear sequence generator/improved linear sequence generator for
TRANSEC. As far as communications security (COMSEC) is concerned, DAMA doesn’t use on-line
COMSEC devices. COMSEC is accomplished off-line. Also, the MILSTAR satellite UHF payload
greatly improves the probability of correct message receipt compared to "bent pipe" systems by
regenerating the message and correcting for uplink errors.
MILSTAR DAMA terminal types
Because of its design, MILSTAR DAMA has the capability to use two major types of terminals. The
following are the two terminals:
1. MILSTAR command post terminal.
2. Upgraded force element/dual modem upgrade (DMU) terminals.
In addition, based on the terminal type and its equipment, there are different performance capabilities
in a DAMA net.
Command post terminals
The command post terminal is either an EHF/UHF or an EHF-only terminal. The capability of the
command post terminals varies depending on the modems—the EHF-only terminal having only the
EHF modem versus the EHF/UHF terminal having both full-duplex EHF and UHF modems.
Upgraded FE/DMU terminals
Upgraded FE terminals or DMU terminals carry a half-duplex modem and can’t perform the duties of
a net controller. A DMU terminal can only be a net member, meaning it will only receive and talk to
the net controller by means of UHF.
MILSTAR DAMA terminal roles
Each MILSTAR DAMA terminal can be set up as one of the following four roles:
1. Net controller (NC).
2. Alternate net controller (ANC).
3. Monitor net controller (MNC).
4. Net member (NM).
 4–37

Each role has its capabilities and its own mission. An EHF/UHF command post terminal can be any
of the four roles because it has both EHF and UHF capabilities and equipment. An EHF-only terminal
can be an NC, ANC and MNC, but it can’t be an NM because it doesn’t have a UHF modem. A DMU
or FE terminal can only be an NM because the only modem capabilities are UHF.
Net controller (NC) role
The NC sets up and controls a given DAMA net and, as a minimum, must be an EHF capable
terminal. The NC transmits emergency action messages and force direction messages to the net
members and also receives acknowledgments and messages from net members. There should only be
one NC per DAMA net.
Alternate net controller (ANC) role
The ANC is primarily a receive-only terminal with EHF capability. The ANC monitors all network
traffic including status and configuration messages. The ANC performs two forms of handovers,
which are emergency and planned.
NOTE: A handover is the transfer of network control from one terminal to another.
An emergency handover happens when the NC fails; then the ANC assumes control after a loss of
three control channel downlink frames.
The planned handover is when the NC has a planned shutdown; the ANC then takes control at the
specified time. During a scheduled handover, the NC updates the ANC’s database to ensure that the
ANC has the most current information before assuming control of the network.
During an emergency handover, the ANC uses its existing database and receives status and
configuration updates from the satellite. Another feature of the ANC is to inject an EAM that
preempts the NC until transmission is complete. To provide these capabilities, the ANC has a few
restrictions. The ANC must use the same satellite and satellite beam as the NC. There should only be
one ANC per DAMA net.
Monitor net controller (MNC)
The MNC, like the ANC, is primarily a receive-only terminal with EHF capability. The MNC
provides Joint Chiefs of Staff EAM. This preempts the net controller’s EHF signal until transmission
is complete. In addition, the MNC can support planned and planned emergency handovers. To
provide these capabilities, the MNC has a few restrictions. The MNC must use the same satellite and
satellite beam as the NC. Also, an MNC can only function in the crossbanded mode for DAMA
(it can’t function in UHF-only DAMA). Unlike the ANC, there can be many MNCs in a given
DAMA net.
Net member (NM)
NM terminals receive EAMs and FDMs and communicate with the NC only. All NM terminals
transmit and receive UHF signals only. There can be many NMs in a DAMA net.
MILSTAR DAMA communication channels
The MILSTAR DAMA communications involve the usage of the three types of channels. These
channels consist of the following:
1. Local channel (LC).
2. Control channel (CC).
3. Reportback channel (RC).
NOTE: Both the CC and the RC are fully processed and have specific formats. The LC is partially
processed and doesn’t have a specific format. Each channel has specific functions that it is set up to
do.
4–38

Local channel (LC)

The LC uses UHF for both uplink and downlink but is a partially processed channel. No
communications data is sent over this channel. Basically the LC has three uses, which are the
following:
• Timing.
• Contention resolution.
• Logins.
The LC is used primarily for probing by NMs to acquire and track the payload downlink and uplink
channel timing.
Control channel (CC)
This is the channel that the NC uses to transmit commands and report back assignments to the net
members. The CC is also used for one-way EAM communications and force direction messages. The
CC uses EHF for communications from the NC to the satellite. The satellite then crossbands the EHF
signals into UHF signals for the downlink to net members. There’s also an SHF downlink to the net
controller. The NC receives a copy of everything that it sends out by way of the SHF CC downlink.
This is a means to monitor system health. When the NMs respond back to the NC, the NC receives
the communications by way of that same SHF CC downlink.
Report back channel (RC)
A MILSTAR network may have one or up to three report back channels. NMs use the RC to
communicate satellite access request (SAR) status messages, as well as acknowledgments and
requests to the NC. The RCs use UHF for uplink to the satellite. The satellite then transfers the net
member’s UHF signals into SHF for downlink. This SHF downlink is the same SHF CC downlink
that was described earlier. (The NC receives SARs by way of the SHF CC downlink.) The NC sets up
the RCs on the UHF pseudo channels U1, U2 and/or U3. The NC directs the control and usage of the
RC via the CC.
Extremely high frequency military strategic and tactical relay communications
The EHF and EHF/UHF command post terminals are capable of entering the MILSTAR
communications system and providing positive C3 functions within the constellation of MILSTAR
and FLTSATCOM (Navy's SATCOM system for UHF radio communications for ships and ground
stations) EHF Package satellites. It does this through control of network integrity and discipline for
user networks like COCOM internet and intranet, Joint Chiefs of Staff EAM dissemination network,
report back network, integrated tactical warning and attack assessment (ITW/AA) networks and Air
Force Intelligence Command (AFIC) networks.
MILSTAR EHF capabilities
The MILSTAR terminal simultaneously transmits a satellite uplink using the EHF range (43.5–45.5
gigahertz [GHz]) and receives the satellite downlink in the SHF range (20.2–21.2 GHz). EHF
communications operate on all the MILSTAR satellites and certain FLTSATCOM EHF Package
satellites. Any communications crosslinked (MILSTAR only) between satellites are performed in the
EHF range at a higher frequency than is used in the uplink frequency (60 GHz). This higher
frequency is unusable on earth, but works well in space.
EHF environmental considerations
Due to the small wavelengths associated with the EHF uplink (43.5–45.5 GHz) and SHF downlink
frequencies (20.2–21.2 GHz), EHF SATCOM is more susceptible to performance degradation in the
presence of rain than other SATCOM systems. Although humidity, fog, clouds, and snow may
introduce losses to uplink and downlink signals, the loss associated with these conditions is small
compared to potential rain losses. Losses induced by humidity, fog, clouds, and snow are adequately
 4–39

accounted for in weather margins used to establish default terminal operating modes. In some
circumstances, heavy rain introduces signal losses that prohibit communications at the default modes.
The extent to which rain degrades communications capabilities varies with a number of conditions.
The most important of these conditions are instantaneous rain rate (i.e., mist versus downpour, or how
hard it’s raining), the latitude of the earth terminal, and the look angle to the satellite. The terminal’s
latitude and look angle are important because attenuation from rain occurs only in a portion of the
atmosphere that is close to the earth’s surface. With a low look angle, the uplink and downlink must
propagate through more of the high attenuation rain region below the freezing level. In high latitudes
(latitudes above 30° North or South), water in the atmosphere begins to crystallize (freeze) at a lower
altitude. The crystallized water molecules introduce much less loss than in water vapor or raindrops.
Accordingly latitudes near the equator and low look angles result in higher path losses for a given rain
rate.
Uplink capacity describes the composite data rate supported by a particular terminal. The uplink
capacity is dependent on a number of parameters including terminal type, assigned satellite beam and
weather loss. High data capacities require better link performance. Increased signal losses caused by
rain decrease a terminal’s uplink capacity.
The downlink modulation mode is also dependent on terminal type, assigned satellite beam, and
weather losses. Higher modulation modes, which provide more data per hop, require better signal
quality. Typically, higher modulation modes are used because they use satellite resources in the most
efficient manner.
Waveform features
The MILSTAR waveform has been designed to provide communications among multiple terminals
and users. The MILSTAR waveform also provides protection against uplink and downlink jamming
threats. Its waveform also protects against an enemy’s locating a terminal by detecting its radiated
energy because the uplink uses a microwave signal in the EHF band (43.5–45.5 GHz) and the
downlink uses the SHF band (20.2–21.2 GHz).
The MILSTAR waveform derives its anti-jam capabilities by using a large bandwidth to hide a
relatively small information band (75 to 2,400 bps communication channel) and by the use of narrow
antenna beamwidth.
Each MILSTAR satellite has a resource controller computer that controls the distribution of
communications services according to its own predefined algorithms. Orderwire signaling protocols
between the terminals and the satellite’s resource controller are used to set up, modify, and terminate
communications services. The satellite also provides downlink synchronization signals for the
terminals to acquire and track the satellite.
There are nine signal processing features built into the EHF waveform. These provide protection
against jamming and signal interception. They are listed as follows, which a brief description.
1. Robustness.
2. Frequency hopping.
3. Time permuting.
4. Symbol hop redundancy.
5. Encoding/decoding.
6. Interleaving/deinterleaving.
7. Frequency permuting.
8. Frequency shift keying.
9. Differential phase shift keying (DPSK).
4–40

Robustness
Robustness is the communication link signal strength and is based on data rate, modulation, and
access mode. Robustness isn’t necessarily power, but more of a way to ensure that the data is sent. On
the uplink, the access mode and data rates are factors that determine robustness. On the downlink,
data rate and modulation determine robustness.
Frequency hopping
Frequency hopping is accomplished by breaking up the information signal into short time slices and
sending each time slice out on a "random" frequency within the allocated total bandwidth. The
receiver can recover the signal and the information because it’s time synchronized with the
transmitted random pattern of frequencies. Since a potential jammer doesn’t have knowledge of this
pattern, the threat is eliminated. The MILSTAR waveform provides both a low hop rate (LHR) and
high hop rate frequency spreading capability.
Time permuting
Time permuting randomizes the order in which net data is transmitted within the frame. Time
permuting provides protection against a pulse jammer whose duty cycle is synchronized to the
system’s frame rate. Without time permuting, a pulse jammer may be able to concentrate its energy
on a particular part of the waveform.
Symbol hop redundancy
The waveform provides for various levels of link performance or robustness by sending the same data
on several different frequency hops. This increases the probability that the information will get
through.
Encoding/decoding
Encoding/decoding is used to enhance the link bit error rate (BER) by taking one bit and creating two
derivative bits. This in effect doubles the data. The MILSTAR EHF modem uses half rate
convolutional coding.
Interleaving/deinterleaving
The EHF modem can minimize the impact of a burst of errors by using random bit interleaving.
Interleaving/deinterleaving allows for the encoded data to be shuffled. Separating the same two bits of
encoded data provides protection against the pulse jammer, which can cause a burst of errors. The
burst of errors are spread out in time by the deinterleaving process, so the decoder is presented with
isolated errors that can be easily overcome.
Frequency permuting
Frequency permuting is like frequency hopping except there isn’t a set pattern. The big difference is
that the actual assigned frequencies of the FDM accessed channels are randomized even before the
random frequency hopping. This feature prevents a jamming platform with knowledge of the hop
frequency plan of one of the users from jamming other users by jamming the relative frequency offset
from the known hopping frequency.
Frequency shift keying
FSK is a type modulation in which the modulated wave is shifted between two frequencies. One is
called the mark frequency and the other is called the space frequency. The mark frequency contains
the intelligence. This method of transmitting intelligence results in increased signal stability. FSK is
link strengths for a variety of data rates.
DPSK
DPSK is provided only on the downlink to provide hops with higher information content than on
FSK. Instead of the frequency shifting above or below a center frequency, the phase is shifted to
 4–41

represent the data. Varying the information content per frequency hop provides a variety of DPSK
robustness strengths. The highest efficiency of information content per hop is provided using DPSK
modulation (at low robustness levels). High hop rate FSK modulation is the next in efficiency for
information content per hop and provides a more robust link. LHR FSK modulation is the least
efficient in information content, but it provides the best link robustness.
Military strategic and tactical relay terminals
MILSTAR is a system that has both strategic and tactical terminals deployed on aircraft, ships,
submarines, ground vehicles, transportable shelters, and ground installations. Each military service
independently obtains terminals to meet the specific needs of that service. We begin by covering the
terminals within the Air Force.
MILSTAR Air Force terminal segment
The MILSTAR Air Force terminal segment has terminals that are classified in either of these two
ways: command post terminals and/or FE terminals.
Command post terminals
The command post terminals are capable of entering the communications system and providing C3
functions within the constellation of MILSTAR communications satellites. These terminals provide
the five communication and network control station capabilities specified below:
1. Command post terminals are configured for EHF operation or EHF/UHF operation.
Regardless of platform, all EHF command post terminals have the same basic equipment. The
EHF/UHF terminal adds the additional UHF equipment.
2. Operation and control of the Air Force voice and data protocols using the transmission
security/KGV–11A encryption device. The command post terminal exercises Air Force
network control and provides connectivity and network management functions as a net
control station (NECOS) through control of network integrity and discipline for user
networks.
3. Control and operation of an interoperable joint service tactical data network employing the
transmission security/KG–84A.
4. Control and operation of an interoperable joint service voice communication network using
the advanced narrowband digital voice terminal (ANDVT).
5. Communication and control to support the mission control element interface. This interface
supports the mission control segment requirements of a command post terminal operating as a
network communication and control station (NCCS).
FE terminals
An FE terminal is capable of entering the communication system and providing control and
communications functions. The FE terminals use their current AFSAT terminal with a dual modem
upgrade.
Basic terminal installations
The command post and FE terminals are presently configured for three basic terminal installations:
fixed ground command post terminals, transportable ground command post, and airborne command
post.
The MILSTAR's fixed ground command post terminals come in configuration to fit a variety of user
requirements. The following are two user requirements of the MILSTAR system.
4–42

1. EHF/UHF fixed ground command post terminals—AN/FRC–181 (V) 1. These terminals

provide the same capabilities as the EHF/UHF airborne command post terminal. The
EHF/UHF fixed ground command post terminal has a 90-inch EHF antenna dish enclosed in
a radome. A two-axis antenna pedestal with servo amplifiers allows control of the antenna
drive. It also uses two 14 decibel (dB) gain "wagon wheel" UHF antennas. The terminal is
similar to the airborne command post terminal with the addition of an optional MILSTAR Air
Force terminal remoting system. The fixed EHF/UHF ground command post terminal doesn’t
use inertial data assembly (IDA) or an accelerometer.
2. EHF-only ground command post terminals—AN/FRC–181 (V) 2. These terminals have the
same EHF communications capability and line replaceable units (LRU) as the EHF/UHF
ground command post terminal but without the UHF capability.
The EHF/UHF transportable ground command post terminal is a contingency terminal. As such, it
provides the same capabilities as the fixed EHF/UHF ground command post terminal. This terminal
uses a unique 96-inch erectable antenna without a radome for EHF and two 14 dB AFSATCOM
antennas for UHF. The terminal is housed in a modified S–280 shelter and may be quickly moved to
anywhere on earth.
The highly mobile airborne platforms are designed to ensure that strategic C2 elements will survive
any type of threat. Two terminals are installed in a variety of aircraft to fulfill this vital role. The
following are the two terminal and descriptions.
1. EHF/UHF airborne command post terminals—AN/ARC–208 (V) 1/2/3, this airborne
command post is the most general case of a command post terminal. It provides EHF
command post capabilities and integrates the UHF capabilities inherent in present
AFSATCOM command post terminals. All EHF/UHF airborne command post terminals
employ the 26-inch Cassegrain antenna (EHF) and 3-blade antenna UHF for airborne
operations. Like the EHF/UHF ground terminal, the airborne command post terminal has two
printers, two plasma display monitors, and two keyboards to provide dual operator positions.
This terminal is used on the E–4B, E–6B and EC–135 aircraft.
2. EHF-only airborne command post terminals—AN/ASC–208 (V) 4/7/8, this command post
terminal has the same EHF communications capabilities and LRUs as all other command post
terminals; however, it has no UHF capability. The LRU composition is identical for all EHF
airborne command post terminals. This terminal is used on the Navy’s E–6A TACAMO
aircraft.

423. Defense Satellite Communications System

The purpose of military satellite communications (MILSATCOM) is to provide assured command
and control (C2) communications system access to meet wartime operational requirements associated
with military communications. MILSATCOM consists of space, ground, and control segments of the
major space communications programs. Earlier, we covered the MILSTAR system. In this lesson, we
cover the Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS). Each of these systems has unique
features that are best suited for satisfying communications requirements to ensure the Air Force
continues to fly, fight, and win.
Organization
As the backbone of the US military’s global satellite communications (SATCOM) capabilities, the
DSCS mission is to provide nuclear-hardened, anti-jam, high data rate, long-haul, and worldwide
communications. This daunting task falls on the shoulders of several organizations. In this section, we
will provide you an idea of everyone’s roles and responsibilities. Organizational relationships for
operation and management of DSCS resources are illustrated in figure 4–14.
 4–43

Figure 4–14. DSCS operational control structure.

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff

The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) allocates MILSATCOM resources to satisfy
national defense requirements and specifies operational procedures and responsibilities for system
managers, operators, and users through the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA), the DSCS
system manager.
Commander of the United States Strategic Command
The Commander of the United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM/CC) is responsible to
CJCS for maintaining the health, availability, and survivability of the DSCS space segment. In this
role, USSTRACOM/CC plans and executes satellite tracking, station keeping and ephemeris data
generation, and executes payload control planned by DISA.
Unified and specified combatant commanders
Unified and specified combatant commanders (COCOMs) manage and distribute bandwidths
allocated from CJCS for their respective theaters of responsibility. These commanders are responsible
to CJCS for operational and contingency planning of all DOD resources within their assigned
geographic area of responsibility, to include the use of the DSCS to support assigned missions,
contingency plans, and crisis response.
4–44

Defense Information Systems Agency

Personnel assigned to DISA are the system managers for the DSCS. They execute the operational and
bandwidth priorities established by the CJCS. Because they have overall responsibility for planning,
developing, and supporting command, control, communications, and information systems, DISA
personnel establish configuration standards for the earth and control segments. The Defense
Information Systems Agency Network Operations Center (DISANOC) is the point of contact for
DSCS technical direction and resource allocation. Essentially DISA personnel are responsible for the
following requirements.
• Technical direction (communications tasking) to the Defense Satellite Communications
System operations centers (DSCSOC) through the DISANOC and area communications
operations centers (ACOC).
• Conducting an annual review of the DSCS system to figure out the total satellite capacity
available for allocation planning in each satellite coverage area. The results are sent to the
CJCS.
• Ensuring user compliance with configuration standards for the terminal and network control
segments.
• Developing and maintaining operational network management procedures, communications
control system procedures and, in conjunction with USSTRATCOM, satellite payload control
system procedures.
• Providing personnel at the regional satellite communications support center (RSSC) with
parameters for resource allocation. DISA personnel also help to resolve conflicts regarding
allocation of satellite bandwidth and power to ground mobile forces satellite communications
(GMFSC) when requested by the RSSC.
• Providing trunk/tail circuit activation directives and DSCS GMFSC gateway access planning
guidance to support tactical users when interfacing with a DSCS ground mobile forces
(GMF) gateway station. DISA personnel also ensure that GMFSC terminals and their DSCS
GMF gateway stations are compatible.
United States Army Space and Missile Defense Command/Army Forces Strategic Command
As a component of USSTRATCOM, personnel assigned to the US Army Space and Missile Defense
Command/Army Forces Strategic Command (SMDC/ARSTRAT) performs the following functions.
• Exercise operational command according to figure 4–14.
• Operate and maintain all DSCSOCs, fixed or transportable.
• Ensure coordinated, accurate, and responsive control functions for the DSCS networks.
• Provide personnel at each RSSC to perform GMFSC network planning and coordination.
• Initiate planning for DSCS control and provide personnel to operate in the corresponding
consolidated space operations center mission control centers and contingency locations in
coordination with Air Force Space Command (AFSPC).
Air Force Space Command
As a component of USSTRATCOM, personnel assigned to the AFSPC perform the following
functions.
• Exercise operational command according to figure 4–14.
• Operate the mission control centers (MCC) that provide DSCS spacecraft control through the
satellite control network.
• Provide technical direction for spacecraft operations by establishing, publishing and updating
spacecraft procedures, and by providing detailed data and trend analysis.
 4–45

DISA Operations Control Complex

The director of DISA exercises operational control of the Defense Communications System (DCS)
through the Defense Information Systems Agency operations control complex (DOCC). Problems are
resolved through coordination by the DOCC between operation and maintenance (O&M) agencies
and users.
The terrestrial critical control circuit (TCCC) is a teletype orderwire used by the DOCC for
operational direction. The TCCC is used to coordinate DCS status information between the DOCC
and user elements.
Defense Satellite Communications System operations control system
Defense Satellite Communications System operations control system (DOCS) earth terminals are
operated and maintained by personnel in the services. The DOCS function is a key element in the
DCS network control process. Terminal operations are coordinated with the local technical control
facility or user and/or the DSCSOC. Specifically the control system can perform the following
functions:
• Resource allocation.
• Satellite link establishment.
• Maintenance of link quality.
• Satellite signal monitoring.
• Satellite housekeeping functions.
DISANOC
The DISANOC exercises worldwide control of the DCS. Personnel at the center ensure the timely
and satisfactory resolution of problems of a persistent, unusual or complex worldwide nature. The
SATCOM management portion of the DISANOC forms the highest level of the DOCS. DISANOC
personnel perform technical direction of the worldwide DSCS by carrying out the planned control
objectives of the DSCS network management directorate. They also act as the focal point for satellite
status and command by way of the DOCS, the consolidated space test center or the consolidated
space operations center.
ACOCs
Personnel assigned to the ACOCs provide technical direction of the DSCS operations and enhance
system survivability in their geographical areas of responsibility. They also conduct network control
actions through the DSCSOCs for links traversing or ending in their area of responsibility.
DSCSOCs
DSCSOCs are collocated with selected dual earth terminals; they’re the DOCS facilities used to
perform SATCOM network and satellite control. DSCSOC personnel conduct daily operation and
control of the network associated with the designated satellite under the authority of the ACOC.
In addition, DSCSOC personnel provide direct operational control of the DSCS earth terminals and
the satellite payload by using the DOCS equipment to maintain the corrected network parameters.
DSCSOC personnel also ensure that all satellite links perform according to baseline parameters. To
accomplish this, terminals, links, networks, and satellites are monitored, and their performance as a
system is predicted and analyzed.
DSCS jam-resistant secure communications program
The DSCS jam-resistant secure communications (JRSC) program provides critical C2 to DOD users
who require responsive, survivable communications service during crisis and nuclear war. JRSC uses
the DSCS satellite connectivity to support the integrated tactical warning and assessment network,
4–46

and critical C2 functions for selected COCOMs during all levels of conflict. JRSC modifies the DSCS
to provide jam-resistant, secure, hardened capabilities. These terminals types include the following:
• ASC–24.
• AN/GSC–39.
• AN/GSC–49.
• AN/GSC–52.
• AN/FSC–78.
The interconnect facility (ICF) connects the earth terminals and DSCS equipment to the DCS
technical control facilities.
DSCS–GMF gateway operations
When GMF community users are deployed, the theater commander needs to communicate with the
subordinate commanders and maintain C2 of field operations. DSCS–GMF gateway terminals are
used to enter the DCS, allowing access to the Defense Switched Network (DSN), the defense data
network and various other information reporting systems. To facilitate this service, certain DSCS
terminals are equipped with standardized tactical entry point (STEP) equipment to allow
interoperation between the deployed GMFSC community and the DSCS terminal.
Users
The DSCS III satellites support globally distributed users and serves all DOD branches. The overall
DSCS is managed by DISA personnel, who have operational responsibility for all DSCS operations
as part of the defense communications systems.
Multiservice
The DSCS III satellite is used in five synchronous orbital positions over the East and West Atlantic,
East and West Pacific and Indian Oceans to support the worldwide diverse requirements of the DoD.
DSCS supports the following functions:
• Defense communications system.
• Air Force ground and airborne terminals.
• Army ground mobile forces.
• Navy shipboard and shore terminals.
• Diplomatic telecommunications.
• The White House.
• North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
• United Kingdom needs.
Multimission
Typical operations extend from 60-foot AN/FSC–78 heavy fixed terminals at major Defense
Information Systems Network (DISN) nodes to mobile 3-foot ASC–24 airborne and 4-foot WSC–6
shipboard terminals operating frequency division multiple access (FDMA) and/or code division
multiple access (CDMA) modes. A broad range of transportable terminals such as the Army/Air
Force/Marine Corps Fly-away Tri-band Satellite Terminal (FTSAT) and Quad-band Hub/spoke
SATCOM Terminal (QHSAT) support deployed forces.
User communications at X-band are monitored/controlled at five DSCS operations centers, which are
under the responsibility of the US Army SMDC/ARSTRAT. The DSCSOCs located at major
communications gateways contain the satellite configuration control element (SCCE) for payload
 4–47

control as well as spectrum analysis and control computers to monitor users’ links. Satellite control
(launch support, orbit maintenance, relocation) is the responsibility of the Air Force Space Command
operating through the eight remote tracking stations (RTS).
Space segment
DSCS III operates with large or small terminals, using code division multiple access (CDMA), and
frequency division multiple access (FDMA) or time division multiple access (TDMA). Its
independent channels can provide resources on command, grouping users by their operational needs
or geographical situation, and allocating receiver sensitivity or transmitter power among them for
maximum efficiency.
Key features
Although the military uses commercial satellites for a variety of purposes, we still need a dedicated
satellite constellation that we control. The DSCS III system provides the capabilities required for
effective implementation of worldwide MILSATCOM. It can adapt rapidly to dynamic operating
conditions and perform under stressed environments. Here are some of its key design features.
High survivability
A waveguide lens receive antenna with electronically steerable beams provides selective coverage for
anti-jam (AJ) nulling. An SHF/S-band command control system protects the command link. The
system is hardened to Joint Chiefs of Staff guidelines.
High radio frequency power
Total transponder radio frequency (RF) power, distributed among six independent channels is
transmitted by way of earth coverage and multibeam antennas (MBA) to provide effective isotropic
radiated power (EIRP) margins for all users and missions.
Long service life
Design life is 10 years, seven years-mean mission duration.
Growth capability
Since their inception, the DSCS satellites have been continually upgraded. Modifications included the
following:
• Telemetry link survivability improvements.
• An super-high frequency (SHF) single channel transponder (SCT) downlink.
• Reliability enhancements.
• Higher power amplifiers.
• More selective filters.
• More sensitive receive amplifiers.
• More efficient gallium arsenide solar cells.
Satellite payload
The communications subsystem has eight antennas that can be connected in various ways to the six
transponders. Each transponder has its own limiter, mixer and transmitter; thus, it can be configured
to meet any user requirement. The configuration includes the choices of receiving antenna,
transmitting antenna and transponder gain level. Also each transponder can be used with either
FDMA or TDMA transmissions.
A secondary communication subsystem is the AFSATCOM SCT. The SCT has its own UHF
transmitting and receiving antennas but can be connected to the X-band earth coverage or MBA
4–48

receiving antennas. The SCT demodulates the received uplink and remodulates it for transmission. It
can also store messages for repeated transmission. The X-band uplink has AJ protection.
The DSC III satellite communications subsystem consists of the following equipment types: jammer
location electronics, receive and transmit antennas, SCT, and six transponder channels.
Jammer location electronics
The jammer location electronics equipment is associated with the receive MBA and has three major
components, which are 61:1 port RF selector switches, RF detector, and digital controller.
Received signals are sampled from each coupler on the input ports of the beam forming network
(BFN). They’re then processed in the jammer location electronics RF detector and subsequently
transmitted to the satellite controller. Based on the received power levels of the 61 discrete ports, the
satellite configuration control elements (SCCE) can determine the locations of the interference,
determine a new or revised pattern, and then reconfigure the MBA, in effect eliminating the undesired
radiation signal. Prestored patterns can be maintained in the spacecraft control computer to increase
the system response time.
Multiple-beam antennas
The DSCS III 61-beam receive (RX) and two 19-beam transmit (TX) MBAs provide the capability to
shape antenna patterns to suit user coverage and connectivity requirements. The antennas can be
commanded from the ground to form patterns ranging from individual spots, to multiple individual
spots, to large composite patterns all the way up to earth coverage. The receive MBA can be
commanded to generate pattern nulls to negate interference signals and enhance the DSCS AJ
capability.
The MBAs use a waveguide lens technique to focus the patterns of the 61/19 element feed arrays into
individual spot patterns. The individual spots are combined in the BFN to achieve the desired
composite pattern shape. The BFN consists of ferrite variable power dividers arranged in a tree
network to combine the individual elements. The receive antenna has an additional set of 61 ferrite
phase shifters that provide the phasing needed for null generation. Each antenna’s pattern is
individually tailorable to match the traffic assigned to the channels served both in required gain and
coverage.
SCT
A special-purpose SCT is integrated into the spacecraft for secure and reliable dissemination of
emergency action messages (EAM) and Single Integrated Operation Plan (SIOP) communications
from airborne and ground command posts.
The SCT receives C2 communications at both SHF and UHF. A high degree of security and AJ
protection is provided for both uplink and downlink communications by a regenerative repeater and
the SHF receive MBA. Digital signal processing and digitally controlled frequency synthesizers are
used to give flexible, efficient uplink demodulation, and downlink modulation.
The SCT’s transmission formats are fully compatible with Air Force satellite (AFSAT) I and II user
terminals. The SCT operations can be controlled by a command post using integral secure command
systems as well as the DSCS III telemetry, tracking and command (TT&C) system. Downlink can be
at UHF by way of high-power transmitter and earth coverage antenna or via SHF by way of channel 1
of the SHF communications systems. The SHF downlink can use earth coverage; transmit (TX) MBA
or the gimbaled dish antenna (GDA) as needed to ensure connectivity.
Transponder and antenna connectivity
Figure 4–15 illustrates the transponder and antenna connectivity. There are two earth coverage
antennas and one multibeam-receiving antenna. Four of the six transponders can be connected to the
MBA. Two transmitters are always connected to earth coverage antennas, but the other four may all
 4–49

be connected to one of two 19-beam transmit MBAs. These antennas have the same capabilities as the
receive MBA, except they don’t have a nulling capability and also have lower resolution. Three of the
channels can also be switched to a GDA that generates a single beam with high EIRP. The transmit
GDA provides high gain and narrow coverage for use with small ground terminals. Channels 1 and 2
are high-power channels, each operating with a 40-watt traveling wave tube (TWT). Channels 3 to 6
are low-power channels, operating with a 10-watt TWT.
Each of the six independent RF channels operates in the SHF region and can relay telephone, data and
secure digital voice signals using frequency modulation (FM), binary phase shift keying (BPSK),
offset quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK), and pseudo noise/frequency-hopping spread spectrum
modulation.

Figure 4–15. Typical frequency plan of a DSCS satellite.

4–50

Satellite telemetry, tracking, and control

A dual-mode system is provided to support spacecraft and payload during all mission phases. An S-
band space ground link system provides telemetry, tracking, and control during launch, deployment,
and on-orbit operations. A dedicated SHF capability operating through the communications
transponders provides payload telemetry and command capability for the DOCS. Telemetry and
command functions are fully interchangeable between the two systems, as needed for the mission.
The SHF system provides secure AJ command links by way of satellite configuration control
elements at the DSCS operations centers, operated by the US Army SMDC/ARSTRAT. The primary
function of the SHF system is to control the payload configuration and antenna patterns and to
respond to payload anomalies. A telemetry link survivability mode permits the SHF system to
provide uninterrupted performance in the presence of a scintillated environment.
The S-band system is primarily for support from the Air Force satellite control network (AFSCN)
through their remote tracking stations. Dedicated S-band antennas located fore and aft on the DSCS
III provide full coverage during all mission phases. Dual S-band space ground link system
transponders provide a high reliability path for power and thermal management, satellite orbit
determinations and, as needed, spacecraft relocation.

424. UHF Follow-on

UHF Follow-on (UFO) supports thousands of users, including manpack, ships, aircrafts, and a variety
of other US military fixed and mobile terminals. The UFO's purpose is to provide satellite
communications for DOD and other government agencies through satellites in geosynchronous orbit.
The UFO constellation is designed to replace the current satellites (FLTSATCOM and LEASAT) that
are approaching the end of their life cycle. The satellites are electromagnetic pulse protected and can
operate for 30 days without ground commands. The strategy for replacement is to use the existing
FLTSATCOM and LEASAT ground terminals, while deploying the UFO satellites with minimal
disruptions.
Communications capability
Through its eleven satellite constellation, UFO provides global coverage and global broadcast
services (GBS). A pair of satellites covers each of the four geographical footprint that includes the
Atlantic, Indian, and the Pacific oceans, to include the CONUS. UFO is compatible with DAMA for
improved channel usage. DAMA is a modified time sharing technique to allow more users to share
the same UHF channel, 5 kHz or 25 kHz.
The UFO satellite subsystem consists of receive and transmit antennas, a low-noise preamplifier, 25-
and 5-kHz channel receivers and transmitters, and an output multiplexer. The SHF communication
subsystem uses spread spectrum technology for anti-jam up-link capability (which is downlinked as
UHF) and consists of receive and transmit antennas, the receiver, a dual channel processor, and the
beacon transmitter. Signals received by the SHF receive antenna are fed to the SHF receiver. In turn,
the processor provides outputs that are fed to UHF communications subsystem for down-link. The
multiplexed broadcast capability of the UFO permits up to three broadcast channels to be up-linked
and down-linked simultaneously.
The UFO satellites enhance the constellation capabilities. Flights 1 thru 3 carry UHF and SHF
payloads. Flights 4 thru 10 contain an EHF package for secure, anti-jam communications, and
telemetry and command data. An EHF communications subsystem will provide three EHF broadcast
channel up-links and seven EHF communications channel up-links. Each of these EHF up-links will
be capable of being down-linked as EHF only, UHF only or simultaneously as UHF and EHF. User
interfaces for UFO are identical to those of the current FLTSATCOM and LEASAT constellation.
The EHF transponders are used by MILSTAR ground terminals. Lastly, flights 8 through ten contain
EHF Ka band transponders for use by the Global Broadcast Service (GBS). GBS provides one-way,
high data rate, communications and broadband multimedia. GBS broadcasts missile warning,
 4–51

intelligence, video, and imagery data to tactical units across the global information grid. The Air
Force Satellite Control Network and the Navy Satellite Control Stations provides telemetry, tracking
and control.
Channel allocations
The UFO satellites increase communications channel capacity over the same frequency spectrum as
the current systems. Since there are two satellites at each orbital position, 78 UHF channels are
available. Each satellite provides 39 UHF channels for two-way communications, a SHF anti-jam,
command and tracking link, and communication uplink for fleet broadcast over UHF signals using S-
band communications for the Space Ground Link Subsystem. The 39 UHF channels are broken down
as 18 channels of 25 kHz and 21 channels of 5 kHz bandwidths. The satellite channels are allocated
and grouped as follows in the following table.

SATELLITE
BANDWIDTH
GROUP TRANSLATION
CHANNEL
FREQUENCY
I 25 kHz Variable
II 25 kHz 41 MHz
II 25 kHz 33.6 MHz
IV 5 kHz 73.1 MHz
V 5 kHz 53.6 MHz

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

422. Military Strategic and Tactical Relay

1. To ensure interoperability between all US armed services, in which areas must MILSTAR
systems be compatible?

2. Name the DOD’s core C2 communications system for US combatant forces in hostile
environments.

3. Name the three distinct segments of the MILSTAR communications system?

4. What’s the benefit of satellite-to-satellite crosslinking?

5. Which MILSTAR element provides dedicated day-to-day satellite control?

6. Which MILSTAR element’s responsibilities include allocating communication resources?

4–52

7. Briefly describe the primary function of MILSTAR.

8. Name the three types of EHF SATCOM terminals in use by the Navy.

9. Briefly describe the Army’s SMART-T.

10. On which types of military aircraft would you find the MILSTAR airborne terminal?

11. The completed MILSTAR II constellation consist of how many satellites?

12. Name the MILSTAR satellite uplink, downlink, and crosslink frequency spectrums.

13. What does the MILSTAR satellite payload management subsystem message processor control?

14. Briefly describe the purpose of the MILSTAR satellites’ spot beam antennas.

15. How many DAMA networks and network members can a MILSTAR satellite support?

16. Each MILSTAR DAMA terminal can set up to act in one of four roles. What are they?

17. Name the types of MILSTAR DAMA communications channels.

18. What are the most important factors when determining the impact of rain on the EHF
communications link?

19. How does the MILSTAR waveform derive its anti-jam capabilities?

20. Why can frequency hopping prevent intentional jamming?

 4–53

21. What benefit do encoding/decoding techniques in the MILSTAR EHF modem provide?

22. What are the command post terminal functions within the constellation of MILSTAR
communications satellites?

23. What are the FE terminal functions within the constellation of MILSTAR communications
satellites?

24. Briefly describe the difference between the EHF/UHF ground command post terminal and the
EHF/UHF transportable ground command post (CONTINGENCY) terminal.

25. What type of antennas are used with the EHF/UHF airborne command post terminals?

423. Defense Satellite Communications System

1. Which agency is the system manager for the DSCS?

2. Which agency ensures that GMFSC terminals and their assigned DSCS GMFSC gateway stations
are technically compatible?

3. Which agency operates and maintains all DSCSOCs?

4. Which agency operates the MCC to provide DSCS spacecraft control?

5. How does the director of DISA exercise operational control of the DCS?

6. What’s the purpose of the TCCC?

7. What are the functions of the DOCS?

8. What’s the function of the DSCSOCs?

4–54

9. How many DSCS III satellite orbital positions are used to provide worldwide coverage?

10. Who is responsible for satellite control (i.e., launch support, orbit maintenance, and relocation)?

11. How many independent transponder channels does the DSCS III satellite have?

12. Name some ways the DSCS satellites have been upgraded.

13. What three configuration choices are available on the DSCS III satellite?

14. What information is derived from the receive power levels of the 61 discrete ports of the BFN?

15. What are the capabilities of the transmit MBA assemblies?

16. What’s the difference between the transmit and receive MBAs?

17. What types of modulation can the six independent RF channels of the DSCS III satellite handle?

18. What’s the frequency translation for channel 6?

424. UHF Follow-on

1. Describe the UFO's purpose.

2. Which UFO flights contain an EHF package for secure, anti-jam communications, telemetry, and
command data?
 4–55

4-3. Commercial Satellite Communication Systems

Commercial satellites abound in the skies, offering excellent resources to meet the military’s
communication needs. In this unit we looked at why the military uses commercial satellite services
and present some considerations and concerns. We then examined the roles of the DISA and other
agencies in procuring and controlling the use of commercial systems. Finally we looked at two major
categories of commercial satellite services: narrowband and wideband.

425. Purpose and organizational oversight for commercial satellite use

Before we describe the commercial systems, you should understand why the military would
communicate over systems that it does not own and control. You should also understand how the
military controls access to those systems. Let’s begin by looking at the pros and cons.
Pros and cons of using commercial systems
The growing warfighter demands for higher data rates and bandwidth exceed the capacity of the
military satellite communications (MILSATCOM) systems. The MILSATCOM capacity increases
with planned upgrades including the wideband gapfiller system (WGS), advanced extremely- high
frequency (AEHF), advanced narrowband system (ANS) and advanced wideband system (AWS), but
that still does not meet all the anticipated communication needs for the DOD. This is the main reason
the DOD determined that commercial satellite systems would serve as part of the global information
grid (GIG) to augment certain communications requirements, and to also relieve the demand on
government-owned systems.
There are other factors in favor of using commercial systems. Besides simply meeting the increasing
communication needs, other factors that make commercial services appealing include the following:
• Research and development savings—The DOD doesn’t have to spend resources on research
and development since the commercial industry has already borne the cost of developing and
launching the satellites. This also saves time because it can take several years to produce a
military-unique satellite system.

• No maintenance cost—The military does not have to maintain the satellite constellation
because it is the property of the corporation.
• Technology—Advances in technology can be used quicker by using commercial-off-the-shelf
(COTS) equipment.
• Change in service—Services may be contracted depending on the mission need. Once the
need is gone, there are options available to alter, transfer, or terminate the contract.
While commercial systems have definite appeal, there are some serious factors to consider.
Depending on the mission, these factors may make it unfeasible to use commercial services. Some of
these factors include the following:
• Control of the satellite—Since the military does not control the satellite system, it is possible
that the satellite owner-operators could turn off the transponders being used.
• Competition for bandwidth—The DOD would be just one more user on the satellite. We must
compete with private organizations, businesses, and news media for bandwidth.
• Vulnerability—Commercial satellites may be susceptible to unintentional and intentional
jamming. Saturation jamming is not difficult and the equipment can be purchased fairly
cheaply. Commercial operators are often not trained to rapidly identify that jamming is
occurring, resolve the problem, and restore service.
4–56

• Financial liability—There is a potential for a DOD terminal’s uplink to interfere with other
customers operating on adjacent frequencies. This could incur penalty fees from the service
provider to the DOD.
• Service area—Commercial service may not be available when or where the DOD needs it.
For example, Ku-band is not worldwide, but located primarily over land masses and highly
populated areas. C-band is worldwide between roughly 65 degrees North latitude and 65
degrees South latitude, but it may be difficult to get a nation’s permission to transmit and
receive in a particular region.
Agencies providing general oversight and guidance
Like all resources, the use of commercial satellite services must be controlled and accounted for. In
this area, we discuss some of the agencies that provide general oversight and guidance for military
use of commercial satellites and we also provide assistance resolving questions and investigating
solutions.
DISA
The DISA is designated by the Office of the Secretary of Defense as the agency responsible to
procure all commercial satellite communications (SATCOM) services for the DOD.
Within DISA, the commercial satellite communications branch (CSB) is the primary office
responsible for assisting all DOD customers with commercial SATCOM needs. Services provided by
the CSB include the following functions:
• Evaluate customer requests to see if commercial service is the best option.
• Obtain required transponder capacity.
• Recommend and/or obtain ground terminals.
• Supervise terminal installation.
• Help in obtaining host nation approvals (HNA).
• Monitor the operation of the network and respond to any problems or needs.
The Defense Information Technology Contracting Organization (DITCO) is the primary directorate
within DISA that actually negotiates contracts. The CSB supports commercial SATCOM
requirements using three primary DITCO contract vehicles: the Defense Information Systems
Network Satellite Transmission Service-Global contract (DSTS-G) for wideband services, the iridium
enhanced mobile satellite service (EMSS), and international maritime satellite contracts for
narrowband services.
DITCO contracts, particularly the DSTS-G, can assist with host nation approva1 (HNA) negotiation
support for "landing rights", obtaining US and foreign bandwidth, and terminal licenses and
approvals. Landing rights are a set of agreements between a country and a satellite provider to receive
the satellite’s signals in that country. Approvals are permissions to operate a terminal within a
country’s borders. Licenses deal with the technical issues including beamwidth and transmission
frequency clearance. Politics can certainly play a factor but another reason a HNA may be difficult to
obtain is because of the saturation of the frequency spectrum, particularly in technically advanced
countries. This causes more competition for bandwidth. One more reason these issues must be
negotiated is because terminal transmit and receive signals to foreign-owned satellites are bypassing
the host nation’s normal communications channels causing a loss of revenue for the host nation. To
compensate for lost revenue, there may be fees involved with landing rights, approvals, and licenses.
 4–57

DISA field activities and regional satellite communications support centers

We mentioned earlier that DISA provides personnel at the regional satellite communications support
centers (RSSC) to assist with the DSCS network. There are also personnel at each center who can
provide guidance for commercial SATCOM. Field offices and RSSCs are involved with the use of
commercial SATCOM in several ways to include the following capabilities.
• Educate customers about the potential and limitations of commercial SATCOM.
• Market the DSTS-G contract.
• Develop combatant commander (COCOM) and component awareness of available services.
• Refer potential customers to DISA’s CSB.
• Work with the CSB to develop the capability of the RSSCs to be the interface for DOD
customers.
Air Force Communication Agency
The Air Force Communication Agency (AFCA) is the lead command for the mobile satellite system
(MSS). Their mission is to support the warfighter in the selection, acquisition, activation, and
management of MSS. Responsibilities of the AFCA are included in the following list.
• Act as the day-to-day Air Force MSS system manager on behalf of HQ USAF Installations
and Logistics Directorate of Communications Operations.
• Provide a single point of contact for HQ USAF, MAJCOMs, vendors, and other parties to
improve MSS support and formulate policy changes for HQ USAF review and approval.
• Monitor MSS technological advances and changes to identify the types of systems that can
best satisfy Air Force requirements and provide recommendations to MAJCOM, field
operating agency (FOA) and direct reporting unit (DRU) MSS managers.
• On request, provide training to MAJCOM/FOA/DRU MSS managers in activation,
deactivation, and procurement of MSS systems and service.

426. Narrowband services

Narrowband satellite services are also known as MSS and refer to satellite-based services (digital
voice, data, paging, or fax) provided by existing and emerging commercial communications providers
through increasingly smaller and lighter mobile terminals. Data rates for these services are typically
64 Kbps and below and some terminals are as small as laptop computers and cell phones. The two
primary service providers for the DOD are Iridium and Inmarsat.
Iridium
Operated by Iridium Satellite LLC, the Iridium system is a satellite-based, global wireless
communications network designed to permit voice, data and paging to reach its destination with
minimal reliance on land-based infrastructures. The system supports DOD missions and operations
and other federal, national security and, emergency preparedness communications. Cross-linking
among satellites and up/down-linking through the government-owned terrestrial satellite gateway
enables the system to provide secure, global access. According to the DOD Policy on Procurement of
MSS, all DOD users requiring handheld MSS shall use only iridium, unless iridium cannot meet the
requirement. Disaster relief operations in recent years highlighted a need for additional MSS
capabilities, so the procurement policy was amended in 2006 to allow the DOD to use other MSS
providers, for unclassified purposes only, when both the source and destination are within the
continental United States (CONUS).
4–58

System description and coverage

The iridium constellation consists of 66 active satellites in a near polar low earth orbit (LEO) of only
485 miles from the earth’s surface.
The satellites are arranged in six planes with 11 active satellites in each plane. There are also spare
satellites in each plane that can be moved to replace a failed active satellite. Each satellite is
crosslinked to those around it and provides 48 spot beams on the earth’s surface. This arrangement
allows iridium to offer true pole-to-pole global coverage. With this coverage, iridium services are
available worldwide, except in areas where Iridium Satellite LLC does not have HNAs. Currently the
only locations that do not have HNAs are Poland, Hungary, North Korea, and northern Sri Lanka.
On the ground there are gateways that interconnect the satellites with public switched telephone
networks (PSTN). The DOD purchased a dedicated government EMSS gateway in Wahiawa, Hawaii
for government use through the Defense Switched Network (DSN). Through this gateway, EMSS
subscribers have direct connection into the DISN, which is capable of providing secure services, in
addition to non-secure access to commercial telephone services.
Operation
The Iridium constellation is the foundation of the DOD enhanced MSS system which complements
existing DOD communications resources by providing portable global service between enhanced
MSS terminals, desktop telephones, STU-III/STE, or between individual enhanced MSS terminals.
The frequencies used by the system include L-band (1616 – 1626.5 GHz) for telephone and message
service signals, Ka-band (23.18 – 23.38 GHz) for intersatellite links and Ka-band for ground segment
(gateway) uplinks (29.1 – 29.3 GHz) and downlinks (19.4 – 19.6 GHz).
Typical operation involves using the Iridium telephone, which is much like a cell phone. The user
dials the number and the telephone transmits the signal to the satellite in view. The call is relayed
through inter-satellite cross-links to the government gateway, which routes it through the most
efficient path to connect users. If both users are using MSS handsets the gateway monitors the
channel for call length, but does not monitor communications. For calls from MSS handset to non-
MSS device, the gateway relays communications between called parties via the DISN.
Services
Iridium services include worldwide voice, paging, short message service (SMS) (e.g. text messaging)
and data communications using lightweight handheld phones and paging devices. Current data rates
are up to 2.4 Kbps.
A 9601 modem for use with 9505 and 9505A satellite telephone handsets has added the capability for
short burst data (SBD) to the satellite cell phone. SBD service enables value-added applications to
send and receive short data transactions efficiently over the iridium network. The maximum length of
mobile-originated messages is 1,960 bytes. Mobile-terminated messages can be up to 1,890 bytes.
According to MSS policy, voice communications must be secured using the iridium secure module
(ISM), which provides protection at security levels up to, and including Top Secret. The ISM is
designed for use with the Iridium 9505 and 9505A satellite telephones.
Globalstar
Globalstar, Incorporated (Globalstar) is one of the first companies to begin providing unclassified
CONUS communications for the DOD under the amended MSS procurement policy.
The Globalstar space segment consists of 40 LEO satellites orbiting at an altitude of 876 miles. Four
additional satellites are in orbit as spares. The satellites use code division multiple access techniques
and highlight 80 percent of the Earth’s surface. Areas not covered include the extreme polar regions
and some mid-ocean regions.
 4–59

Similar to iridium, gateways form a key part of the ground segment. Each gateway receives
transmissions from orbiting satellites, processes calls and switches them to the appropriate ground
network. They use a standard T1/E1 interface to the existing PSTN and public land mobile network
(PLMN) systems. Encryption is also provided for voice and signaling security for individual
transmissions.
Gateway use of the satellite resources is planned and controlled by the ground operations control
center (GOCC). The GOCC also coordinates with the satellite operations control center (SOCC). The
SOCC overseas Globalstar satellite launch and deployment, tracks the satellites, controls their orbits,
and provides telemetry and command services for the constellation. The Globalstar Data Network
(GDN) connects the gateways, GOCC and SOCC via wide-area intercommunications facilities.
Globalstar provides service to over 100 countries, most territorial waters and several mid-ocean
regions. Services include normal voice communication, internet, and private data network
connectivity, position location, SMS, and call forwarding. Terminals include portable handsets, fixed
phones, data communications modems, and aviation and marine terminals.
Inmarsat
Inmarsat Limited began as the intergovernmental "treaty" organization called International Maritime
Satellite Organization (INMARSAT). It is now a privatized, limited company headquartered in
London, England. Originally established in 1979 to provide satellite communications support to the
maritime community, Inmarsat services have been extended to airborne, offshore, and land-mobile
users. Services provided by Inmarsat include direct-dial telephone, telex, facsimile, and data
connections. The DOD Policy on Procurement of MSS authorizes Inmarsat services to be used for all
non-handheld MSS requirements.
"Peaceful Purposes" clause
A major requirement of the Inmarsat charter is that the system must be used exclusively for peaceful
purposes. This clause raised many questions about military usage of the system, so the following
guidelines were established:
• Use of Inmarsat by armed forces (military use) not involved in armed conflict or any threat to
or breach of peace is permitted.
• Use of Inmarsat by UN peacekeeping or peacemaking forces acting under the auspices of the
UN Security Council is permitted, even if those forces are engaged in armed conflict to
accomplish their mission.
• Use of Inmarsat by armed forces not acting under the auspices of the UN Security Council
but involved in international or non-international armed conflict (civil war) is not permitted,
except in the case of legitimate individual or collective self-defense against armed attack
within the limitations established by UN charter, Article 51; the latter exclude preventive
action and self-help involving armed force in the absence of armed attack.
• Use of Inmarsat by armed forces engaged in armed conflict is permitted for distress and
safety communications, and for communications relating to the protection of the wounded,
sick, shipwrecked, prisoners of war and civilians, pursuant to the Geneva Red Cross
Conventions, 1977; also permitted are personal and private, non-tactical communications by
members of the armed forces; however, use of Inmarsat for non-tactical governmental
communications related to or in support of the war effort that do not originate from
governments of, or are directed to armed forces engaged in activities sanctioned by the UN
Security Council, or self-defense pursuant to UN Charter, Article 51, is not permitted.
4–60

System description
Inmarsat provides worldwide coverage from about 75 degrees North latitude to about 75 degrees
South latitude using geosynchronous satellites. Inmarsat currently has ten active satellites (3 I–2s, 5
I–3s, and 2 I–4s) in its constellation. Each satellite provides two different types of coverage that you
should already be familiar with: earth coverage (global beam) and spot beam. Global beam footprints
cover roughly one third of the earth. Spot beams provide tighter coverage with more power. Coverage
is separated into different ocean areas (East Atlantic, West Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, and Indian Ocean)
with large overlaps. Most Inmarsat services may be used anywhere within the earth coverage
footprint, but some services require the spot beams.
Land earth stations link the satellites with national and international telecommunications networks.
Mobile users can access any land earth station within the satellite service area for connectivity to the
public switched telecommunications networks. Mobile users can be interfaced to the public telephone
system for voice and low-speed data communications or to the Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN) for high-speed data communications.
The satellites are controlled from the Satellite Control Centre at Inmarsat headquarters in London to
keep the satellites in position above the Equator and ensure that the onboard systems are fully
functional at all times.
Four tracking, telemetry and control (TT&C) stations supply data on the status of the satellites to the
Satellite Control Centre. The stations are located at Fucino, Italy, Beijing, China, Lake Cowichan,
western Canada, and Pennant Point, eastern Canada. There is also a back-up station at Eik in Norway.
Services
There are several different services provided by the Inmarsat system. A few of them are covered in
the following lesson.
Inmarsat B
On land, Inmarsat B provides a full office communications in remote areas, such as disaster and
reconstruction relief efforts. Customers who uses Inmarsat include the media (compressed video and
broadcast quality audio transmission over high-speed data links), government agencies, peacekeeping
forces (using the encryption capability), and aid organizations.
Inmarsat B service uses digital technology to make more efficient use of satellite capacity. Inmarsat B
offers the same array and quality of services as Inmarsat A service, including accommodating full
duplex data speeds of up to 64 Kbps. Inmarsat is also ideal for a wide range of applications, including
compressed real-time video, store-and-forward high resolution video, broadcast quality audio,
multiplex voice channels, and wide area network (WAN) bridging. The service provides 16 Kbps
voice and up to 9.6 Kbps fax. Land mobile Inmarsat B terminals are smaller in size and similar in
appearance to Inmarsat A terminals. Typically they have a one meter flat array antenna and weigh
between 30-40 lbs. Voice and data may be secured.
Inmarsat M
Inmarsat M service uses a briefcase-sized portable terminal for digital voice at 4.8 Kbps, low-speed
data, and fax communications at 2.4 Kbps. These terminals are produced in a number of
configurations. Voice and data may be secured.
Land mobile units are typically briefcase-sized portable terminals with a flat array antenna. Some
have internal battery packs, while others have optional external battery packs. The terminals typically
weigh between 20-30 lbs. Some units come with roof-mounted antennas or compact vehicle-mounted
antennas.
 4–61

Inmarsat Mini-M
Inmarsat Mini-M service takes miniaturization to the next step by using portable, notebook-sized
terminals typically weighing less than 6 lbs (2.7 kg). Capabilities include voice (4.8 Kbps), fax (2.4
Kbps), data (2.4 Kbps), internet access, and e-mail. Voice and data may be secured. This service is
provided via satellite spot beams.
Inmarsat M4
The Inmarsat M4 service (i.e. Global Area Network) is a combination of mini-M’s low-speed voice,
fax and data capabilities with Inmarsat B’s high-speed data (HSD) feature. Voice is provided at 4.8 or
64 Kbps, data at various rates up to 64 Kbps, and fax at 2.4 Kbps. Additional features of M4 include
internet, e-mail, video conferencing, and mobile packet data service (MPDS). Users of MPDS only
pay for data packets transmitted and received rather than by time online. Inmarsat M4 also uses the
same spot beam satellite technology as mini-M, making it very small, lightweight, and power
efficient. A typical transportable terminal is the size of a laptop.
Aero I
Aero I service provides aircraft with 1-4 simultaneous voice/data channels. Capabilities include
digital voice at 4.8 Kbps, fax at 2.4 Kbps, real-time data at 2.4 Kbps, and cockpit data at up to 1.2
Kbps. Aero I is used for communications in narrow-bodied commercial, business, and government
aircraft. Aero I use smaller, less-expensive satellite communications equipment and antennas. It is
designed to meet the regional needs of short- to medium-haul aircraft operators. Aero I voice, fax, and
data services operate in the Inmarsat spot beams, while packet data transmissions use global beams.
Aero I service is International Civil Aviation Organization/Standards and Recommended Practices
(ICAO/SARPS) compliant.
Aero Mini-M
A low-cost alternative to Aero I, Aero Mini-M supports 1 channel of 4.8-Kbps voice, 2.4-Kbps fax or
2.4-Kbps data service using a small, lightweight satellite communications terminal. Aero Mini-M
operates in the Inmarsat spot beams and is ideal for smaller aircraft. Aero Mini-M is not
ICAO/SARPS compliant.
Regional broadband global area network
This high-speed internet protocol-based service stretches beyond what we normally consider
"narrowband services." It gives users instant plug-and-play data communications over a 144 Kbps
shared channel in up to 100 countries across Europe, the Middle East, north and central Africa, and
much of Asia. Using a lightweight satellite modem, users have immediate access to e-mail, the
internet and corporate local area networks (LAN) at more than twice the speed of current general
packet radio service (GPRS) cellular networks. Applications include internet access, e-mail, LAN and
private networks, store-and-forward video, and data transfer.
Broadband global area network
With the launch of its I–4 satellites, Inmarsat began offering a nearly global broadband global area
network (BGAN). BGAN enables the delivery of internet and intranet content, video-on-demand,
video conferencing, fax, e-mail, voice, and LAN access at speeds up to 432 Kbps, almost anywhere in
the world. The network became operational during 2005 and is compatible with third-generation (3G)
mobile systems.

427. Wideband services

In this lesson we look at the types of wideband services typically provided, a few commercial
providers that the military may use and typical areas of coverage.
4–62

Types of service
Wideband services meet DOD customer requirements involving higher, more complex data rates than
those typically associated with narrowband services. Frequencies that you could expect to use over
commercial wideband services include C-band (3.625-6.425 GHz), Ku-band (10.95-14.5 GHz), and
soon Ka-band (20.2-31.0 GHz). C-band typically provides coverage to wide geographic areas, but
with lower transmission power, and usually requires larger ground terminals for reception. Ku-band
covers smaller geographic areas with higher transmission power allowing reception by smaller
ground terminals. Ka-band is expected to allow high transmission speeds with small ground
terminals.
Almost any high-data-rate communications application you can imagine would fit in the wideband
services category, but a few of the more common ones are included in the following list:
• Very small aperture terminal (VSAT) networks for private communications. These are COTS
terminals with antennas typically ranging from 3-to-12 feet (0.9 to 3.7 meters) in diameter.
• Deployable video teleconferencing.
• Real-time command, control, communications, computers and intelligence (C4) functions for
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV).
• Emergency response and restoral.
• International high-speed internet connectivity.
Service providers and coverage areas
While any satellite service provider or satellite constellation could potentially be used to meet the
DOD’s communication needs, we only present three of the larger systems in use today. The satellites
that are currently in use under the DSTS-G contract and their areas of coverage.
International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) established the first
commercial global SATCOM system in 1964. It operates over 20 geosynchronous satellites that ring
the globe and provide C-band and Ku-band services to the Americas, Europe, Africa, the Middle East
and Asia. INTELSAT has maintained a 99.997 percent transponder availability since 1985. The
networks feature built-in redundancy and back-up capabilities to ensure channel availability, as well
as encrypted satellite routers and other devices to protect network service and transmissions end-to-
end.
Pan American Satellite Corporation
Founded in 1984, the Pan American Satellite Corporation (PanAmSat) system uses over 30 satellites,
24 of which are wholly owned by PanAmSat. All of the satellites are in geosynchronous orbit and
provide services in C-band and Ku-band. Coverage includes the Americas, Europe, Africa, the
Middle East and Asia.
European Telecommunications Satellite Organization
Headquartered in Paris, France, the European Telecommunications Satellite Organization
(EUTELSAT) system uses 23 satellites in geosynchronous orbits ranging from 15 degrees West
longitude to 70.5 degrees East longitude. Coverage is provided to Europe, the Middle East, Africa,
Asia, South America and eastern North America in C-band and Ku-band.
XTAR
Headquartered in Rockville, Maryland, XTAR, LLC (XTAR) is a new satellite communications
company specifically dedicated to provide commercial X-band services exclusively to US and Allied
governments to support military, diplomatic, and security communication requirements. It is a
privately financed network jointly owned by Loral Space and Communications (Loral) and
 4–63

HISDESAT Servicios Estrategicos, S.A. (HISDESAT). XTAR provides services on two satellites:
XTAR-EUR and XTAR-LANT.
The XTAR-EUR satellite is located at 29 degrees East longitude and is owned and operated by
XTAR. It provides coverage to Eastern Brazil, the Atlantic Ocean region, Europe, Africa, and the
Middle East as far east as Singapore.
XTAR-LANT is a payload on HISDESAT’s SPAINSAT satellite located at 30 degrees West
longitude. It provides coverage to the United States as far west as Denver, all of South America,
Africa, and much of Europe and the Middle East. XTAR is specifically designed to interface with all
current X-band terminals without the need for additional infrastructure requirements.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

425. Purpose and Organizational Oversight for Commercial Satellite Use

1. What is the main reason the DOD uses commercial satellite systems?

2. What additional factors make using commercial systems appealing?

3. List the negative factors that must be considered when using commercial systems.

4. What agency is designated with the responsibility to procure all commercial SATCOM services
for the DOD?

5. List some of the services provided by the CSB.

6. When dealing with host nation approvals, what are landing rights, approvals, and certifications?

7. List some of the responsibilities of the AFCA.

426. Narrowband services

1. What is another name for narrowband services and to what does it refer?

2. Narrowband services are typically below what data rate?

4–64

3. The DOD policy on procurement of MSS required that handheld MSS services be provided by
iridium unless a waiver was granted. Is that policy still effective?

4. What allows iridium to offer coverage to all parts of the globe including the poles?

5. What is the purpose of the dedicated government EMSS gateway?

6. What is required when using the iridium handheld phone for voice communications?

7. What company besides iridium is now providing unclassified CONUS-based handheld MSS
services?

8. What is a major requirement of the Inmarsat charter?

9. List the peaceful purpose clause guidelines for military use of the Inmarsat system?

10. Describe the Inmarsat constellation and its area of coverage.

11. Match each Inmarsat service in column B with the appropriate description in column A. Items in
column B may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
 4–65

Column A Column B
____ (1) Uses portable, notebook-sized terminals typically a. B.
weighing less than 6 lbs (2.7 kg). Provides up to 4.8 b. M.
Kbps voice, 2.4 Kbps fax and data, internet access and c. Mini-M.
email. This service is provided via satellite spot beams.
d. M4.
____ (2) Also called global area network. Provides voice at 4, 8,
e. Aero I.
or 64 Kbps, data at various rates up to 64 Kbps, and fax
at 2.4 Kbps. f. Aero Mini-M.
____ (3) Provides aircraft with 1-4 simultaneous voice/data
channels. Capabilities include digital voice at 4.8 Kbps,
fax and real- time data at 2.4 Kbps and cockpit data at
up to 1.2 Kbps. Used in narrow-bodies aircraft and is
ICAO/SARPS compliant.
____ (4) Provides digital voice at 4.8 Kbps and low-speed data
and fax communications at 2.4 Kbps. Land mobile
units are typically briefcase-sized portable terminals
with a flat array antenna.
____ (5) Accomodates up to 64 Kbps full duplex data, 16 Kbps
voice and up to 9.6 Kbps fax. Terminals typically have
a one meter flat array antenna and weight between 30-
40 lbs.
____ (6) Provides aircraft with 1 channel of 4.8 Kbps voice, 2.4
Kbps fax or data services using a small, lightweight
terminal. Operates in the Inmarsat spot beams and is
ideal for smaller aircraft. It is not ICAO/SARPS
compliant.

427. Wideband services

1. Over what frequencies could you expect to operate when using commercial wideband services?

2. List some of the common commercial wideband applications.

3. What are some of the major wideband service providers, currently used by the DOD?

4. Which commercial wideband service system is specifically designed to interface with current X-
band terminals?
4–66

Answers to Self-Test Questions

419
1. To generate terrestrial and space weather data for operational forces worldwide.
2. Stored mission sensor and real-time telemetry data.
3. The operational linescan system (OL-S).
4. The Environmental Satellite Operations Center at Schriever AFB, Colorado, and the NOAA Satellite
Operations Control Center at Suitland, MD.
5. The Mark IVB and receiving set, satellite (RSS) series of transportable terminals, the Navy’s Shipboard
Receiving Terminals and other Army and Marine terminals.
6. Real-time imagery and mission sensor data from polar orbiting satellites, and imagery from geostationary
satellites.
7. Up to 1500 feet.
8. Acquisition.
9. Equipment in the telemetry processing rack (rack 2) and antenna control rack (rack 3) in the processing
area. The SDAS group processes the signals received from the antenna group equipment and then sends the
data to the product control subsystem.
10. Switch Matrix (Switch Controller).
11. If the data is not encrypted, it goes directly to the Format Processor (in the FEP) by way of the Switch
Matrix. If the satellite data is encrypted, the data and synchronous clock are sent through the Switch Matrix
to the designated cryptographic unit (KG-44) and then back through the Switch Matrix to the Format
Processor.
12. UNIX operating environment. Ada, C, C++, and FORTRAN software programming languages.
13. (1) Antenna control.
(2) SDAS control.
(3) Ingest.
(4) Processing all user requests for data.
14. MDS.
15 Maintainer workstation.
420
1. It is a highly available, survivable, and reliable satellite warning and surveillance system with the capability
to detect and report missile and space launches and nuclear detonations in near real time. It also detects and
reports data of tactical and intelligence value.
2. (1) North American warning.
(2) Theater warning.
(3) US retaliatory strike.
(4) Worldwide space launches.
(5) Intelligence collection.
3. The SBIRS mission control station that is operated by the 2nd Space Warning Squadron; it is located at
Buckley AFB, Colorado.
4. To detect and report on all detectable missile and space launches, and other infrared activity in their
satellite’s field of view. The MCS processes the raw infrared data from the satellites and outputs mission
data (messages) by way of a communications network to users.
5. SPACEAF (14th AF).
6. Monitors and interprets mission data, including reporting all significant events, and monitoring,
interpreting, and reporting on the quality of all mission data. Monitors satellite housekeeping functions
including interpreting indications of malfunctioning satellite subsystems and analyzing troubles to identify
faulty components. Monitors the operational status of ground station equipment.
 4–67

7. Format command data into serial ternary 1, 0, and S bits. Receive L1/2 (I and Q) and discrete L2 downlink
data/clock from the SRS and provides demultiplexing of L1/2 data and routing of L1 and L2 data/clock to
the MCS. Frame synchronize, time tag, and format the downlink data into packetized L1, L2 and UTC
messages.
8. Receives L1/2, L2 and/or L4 (impact sensor) downlink signals in the 2.2 to 2.3 GHz bandwidth. Transmits
the L3 signals in the 1.761 to 1.842 GHz range.
9. The TR set consists of three downlink equipment strings and two uplink equipment strings used to interface
with two antennas. Downlink strings 1 and 2 are connected to antennas 1 and 2 respectively. Downlink
string 3 is the standby and can be switched to either antenna. Each downlink string consists of an
uplink/downlink switch (UL/DL SW), an RF unit, a L1/2 receiver, and a L2/L4 receiver. Each uplink string
is dedicated to one antenna and consists of an UL/DL SW (shared with downlink strings 1 and 2), an RF
modulator, and an echo check receiver.
10. Spacecraft simulator.
11. It provides configuration status of the satellite readout station equipment using a LAN.
12. They provide the ability to monitor the satellite readout station equipment operations.
421
1. (1) Navigation.
(2) Nuclear detection.
2. Allows users on earth, or in lower earth orbits, to accurately determine their position and velocity.
3. Light, x-ray, radiation, and/or electromagnetic pulse sensors.
4. GPS time within 1000 nanoseconds (1 microsecond) of universal time code.
5. A constellation of at least 24 active satellites. 6. satellites.
6. Six.
7. (1) L1.
(2) L2.
8. Schriever AFB, Colorado. Provides the C2 operations for the space segment.
9. Provides the interface between the satellites (space segment) and the master control and monitor stations.
Each ground antenna is basically a remotely controlled satellite ground station, transmitting signals and
commands to the satellites (uplink), and receiving telemetry from the satellites (downlink).
10. Four.
11. Aircraft navigation, air interdiction, all-weather airdrops, weapon delivery and/or targeting, reconnaissance,
mapping, and vertical short take-off and landing.
12. The DAGR is a light weight, self-contained, hand-held unit with a built-in integral antenna, but can be
installed in a host platform (ground facilities, air, sea, and land vehicles) using an external power source
and an external antenna. The DAGR collects and processes the GPS satellite dual frequency Link One (L1)
and Link Two (L2) signals to provide position, velocity, and time (PVT) information, as well as position
reporting and navigation capabilities.
13. It is a SAASM based PPS receiver.
422
1. (1) Frequency range.
(2) Type of modulation.
(3) Tuning increments.
(4) Frame formats.
2. MILSTAR.
3. (1) Space.
(2) Mission control.
(3) Terminal.
4. Worldwide communications connectivity without the use of vulnerable and expensive ground relay stations
for worldwide coverage.
4–68

5. Mission control.
6. Mission planning.
7. To support the NCA and to provide the Army, Navy, and Air Force with interoperable C3 at all levels of
conflict for both strategic and tactical forces.
8. (1) Surface ship.
(2) Submarine.
(3) Shore station terminals.
9. A 4.5-foot antenna and a small MILSTAR terminal mounted on a HMMWV. Provides user data rates
through T-1 (1.544 Mbps).
10. The Air Force’s E-4B NAOC aircraft and the Navy’s TACAMO aircraft.
11. Three.
12. Uplink (UHF and EHF), downlink (SHF and UHF), and crosslink (EHF).
13. Frequency hopping, time and frequency permutation, and beam pointing for the downlink.
14. Provide selective coverage of any ground station visible on the earth’s surface within the antenna’s
footprint.
15. Three DAMA networks—each network allows for up to 1,021 NMs and one NC.
16. (1) NC.
(2) ANC.
(3) MNC.
(4) NM.
17. (1) LC.
(2) CC.
(3) RC.
18. (1) Instantaneous rain rate (i.e., mist versus downpour, or how hard it’s raining).
(2) The latitude of the earth terminal.
(3) Look angle to the satellite.
19. By using a large bandwidth to hide a relatively small information band (75 to 2,400 bps communication
channel) and by the use of narrow antenna beamwidth.
20. A potential jammer doesn’t know the hopping pattern.
21. Enhances the link BER threshold.
22. C3.
23. Control and communications.
24. The ground command post terminal has a 90-inch dish enclosed in a radome (EHF), and two 14dB gain
"wagon wheel" antennas (UHF); the transportable ground command post (CONTINGENCY) terminal has a
96-inch dish without a radome (EHF), and two 14 dB AFSATCOM antennas (UHF).
25. 26-inch Cassegrain antenna (EHF), and a 3-blade antenna (UHF).
423
1. DISA.
2. DISA.
3. SMDC/ARSTRAT.
4. AFSPACECOM.
5. Through the DOCC.
6. To coordinate DCS status information between the DOCC and user elements.
7. (1) Resource allocation.
(2) Satellite link establishment.
(3) Maintenance of link quality.
 4–69

(4) Satellite signal monitoring.

(5) Satellite housekeeping.
8. Provide direct operational control of DSCS earth terminals and satellite payload by using DOCS equipment
to maintain the corrected network parameters.
9. Five.
10. AFSPC.
11. Six.
12. (1) Higher reliability and higher power amplifiers.
(2) More selective filters.
(3) More sensitive receive amplifiers.
(4) More efficient gallium arsenide solar cells.
13. (1) Receiving antenna.
(2) Transmitting antenna.
(3) Transponder gain level.
14. The position of an undesirable radiation signal.
15. Capability to shape antenna patterns to suit user coverage and connectivity requirements. The antennas can
be commanded from the ground to form patterns ranging from individual spots, to multiple individual
spots, to large composite patterns all the way up to earth coverage.
16. Transmit MBAs don’t have nulling capability, and they have lower resolution.
17. FM, BPSK, OQPSK, and pseudo noise/frequency-hopping spread spectrum modulation.
18. 200 MHz.
424
1. The UFO's purpose is to provide satellite communications for DoD and other government agencies through
satellites in geosynchronous orbit.
2. Flights 4 thru 10 also contain an EHF package for secure, anti-jam communications, telemetry, and
command data.
425
1. Because even with planned upgrades, MILSATCOM cannot meet the increasing data rate and bandwidth
demands of the warfighters.
2. (1) Financial savings because research and development are done by the owner/operator.
(2) Financial savings because there are no maintenance costs.
(3) Quick access to the latest technology.
(4) Service can be changed or discontinued once the mission is completed.
3. (1) Since the military does not control the satellite, there is a chance the owner/operator could terminate
access involuntarily.
(2) The DOD must compete with private organizations, businesses, and news media for bandwidth.
(3) Satellites are vulnerable to jamming but commercial operators are not usually trained to rapidly
identify that jamming is happening to resolve the problem and restore service.
(4) If the transmit carrier of a DOD terminal interferes with another customer, the DOD could incur
penalty fees from the service provider.
(5) Service may not be available when or where the DOD needs it due to coverage limitations or
difficulty getting a host nation’s approval.
4. DISA
5. (1) Evaluate requests to see if commercial service is the best option.
(2) Obtain required transponder capacity (using DITCO contracts).
(3) Recommend and/or obtain ground terminals (using DITCO contracts).
(4) Supervise terminal installation.
4–70

(5) Help obtain HNA.

(6) Monitor the operation of the network and respond to any problems or needs.
6. Landing rights are a set of agreements between a country and a satellite provider to receive the satellite’s
signals in that country. Approvals are permissions to operate a terminal within a country’s borders.
Licenses deal with the technical issues including beamwidth and transmission frequency clearance.
7. (1) Act as the day-to-day Air Force MSS System Manager on behalf of HQ USAF Installations and
Logistics Directorate of Communications Operations.
(2) Provide a single point of contact for HQ USAF, MAJCOMs, vendors, and other parties to improve
MSS support and formulate policy changes for HQ USAF review and approval.
(3) Monitor MSS technological advances and changes to identify the types of systems that can best
satisfy Air Force requirements and provide recommendations to MAJCOM/FOA/DRU MSS
managers.
(4) On request, provide training to MAJCOM/FOA/DRU MSS managers in activation, deactivation, and
procurement of MSS systems and service.
426
1. MSS. It refers to satellite-based services (digital voice, data, paging, fax, etc.) provided by existing and
emerging commercial communications providers through increasingly smaller and lighter mobile terminals.
2. 64 Kbps.
3. The policy is still active but was amended in 2006 to allow the DOD to use other MSS providers, for
unclassified purposes only, when both the source and destination are within the CONUS.
4. A constellation of 66 cross-linked satellites in near polar LEO.
5. Provides a dedicated entry point from the Iridium network into the DISN for secure and non-secure
services. Also provides entry to non-secure commercial telephone services.
6. Handheld voice communications must be secured using the ISM.
7. Globalstar.
8. That the Inmarsat system must be used exclusively for peaceful purposes.
9. (1) Armed forces not involved in armed conflict or any threat to or breach of peace may use Inmarsat.
(2) UN peacekeeping or peacemaking forces acting under the auspices of the UN Security Council may
use Inmarsat, even if engaged in armed conflict to accomplish their mission.
(3) Armed forces not acting under the auspices of the UN Security Council involved in international or
non-international armed conflict (civil war) may not use Inmarsat, except in the case of legitimate
individual or collective self-defense against armed attack within the limitations established by UN
charter, Article 51. This exception excludes preventive action and self-help involving armed force in
the absence of armed attack.
(4) Armed forces engaged in armed conflict may use Inmarsat for distress and safety communications,
and for communications relating to the protection of the wounded, sick, shipwrecked, prisoners of war
and civilians, pursuant to the Geneva Red Cross Conventions, 1977. Personal and private, non-tactical
communications by members of the armed forces are permitted; however, use of Inmarsat for
nontactical governmental communications related to or in support of the war effort are not permitted
unless they originate from governments of, or are directed to armed forces engaged in activities
sanctioned by the UN Security Council, or self-defense pursuant to UN Charter, Article 51.
10. The Inmarsat constellation currently consists of nine geosynchronous satellites and provides coverage from
about 75 degrees North latitude to about 75 degrees South latitude. Services are provided using overlapping
earth coverage beams and spot beams. Each earth coverage beam covers roughly one third of the earth’s
surface. Spot beams provide tighter coverage with more power.
11. (1) c.
(2) d.
(3) e.
(4) b.
 4–71

(5) a.
(6) f.
427
1. C-band (3.625-6.425 GHz), Ku-band (10.95-14.5 GHz), and Ka-band (20.2-31.0 GHz).
2. (1) Private communication networks using VSAT.
(2) Deployable video teleconferencing.
(3) Real-time command, control, communications and intelligence functions for unmanned aerial
vehicles.
(4) Emergency response and restoral.
(5) International high-speed internet connectivity.
3. INTELSAT, PanAmSat, EUTELSAT, and XTAR.
4. XTAR.

Do the unit review exercises before going to the next unit.

4–72

Unit Review Exercises

Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each question, and circle
the corresponding letter. When you have completed all unit review exercises, transfer your answers to
the Field-Scoring Answer Sheet.
Do not return your answer sheet to the Air Force Career Development Academy (AFCDA).
60. (419) Which Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) elements receive only real-time
satellite imagery when the satellite is in view?
a. Strategic.
b. Tactical.
c. Air Force Weather Agency.
d. Automated remote tracking stations.
61. (419) The MARK IVB antennas can be located up to how many feet away from the processing
area?
a. 1000.
b. 1500.
c. 2500.
d. 3000.
62. (419) The MARK IVB product control subsystem uses, which type of operating system?
a. NT.
b. DOS.
c. UNIX.
d. Windows.
63. (419) The primary interface between the operator/maintainer and the MARK IVB system is the
a. storage disk array.
b. maintainer workstation.
c. network interface switch.
d. meteorological data server.
64. (420) Which mission is the most important of the Defense Support Program (DSP)?
a. Theater warning.
b. US retaliatory strike.
c. North American warning.
d. Worldwide space launches.
65. (420) Which agency is responsible for Defense Support Program (DSP) operational control?
a. HQ Air Force Space Command (AFSPC).
b. HQ AFPC (10 AF).
c. Space Air Force (SPACEAF) (14 AF).
d. United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM) Commander (CC).
66. (420) What does the transmit/receive set do in the satellite readout station?
a. Transmits weather imagery to the satellite and receives telemetry data from the satellite on a
2.2 to 2.3 gigahertz bandwidth.
b. Receives and processes downlink satellite signals, and generate and transmit uplink satellite
commanding and ranging signals.
c. Monitors precise range measurements from the satellite vehicle and recovers almanac data
from transmitted signals to measure signal quality.
d. Receives and processes the transmit signal for the satellite, and generates and receives
downlink satellite commanding and ranging signals.
 4–73

67. (421) What is the number of global positioning system (GPS) orbital planes?
a. Four.
b. Five.
c. Six.
d. Seven.
68. (421) What provides command and control (C2) operations for the space segment?
a. Space monitor station.
b. Master control station.
c. Ground antennas.
d. Monitor station.
69. (421) What is the purpose of the global positioning system (GPS) ground antenna?
a. Interface between the master control station and user sets.
b. Interface between the master control station and the satellites.
c. Provide all commanding and resources to process the satellite telemetry.
d. Provide all tracking and resources to process the monitor station downlinked telemetry.
70. (421) Which global positioning system (GPS) operation control segment component is remotely
operated and also transmits and receives telemetry to and from the satellites?
a. Monitor station.
b. Ground antenna.
c. Master control station.
d. Transmit ground station.
71. (421) What is the minimum number of global positioning system (GPS) satellites that must be
tracked to have accurate three-dimensional navigation?
a. Two.
b. Three.
c. Four.
d. Five.
72. (421) For global positioning system (GPS) receivers, how much of a difference in target
coordinates is there if the Datum mismatches?
a. 7.5 meters.
b. 75 meters.
c. 750 meters.
d. 7,500 meters.
73. (422) What is the primary advantage of using an extremely high frequency communications link
for critical command and control (C2) data?
a. Cannot be jammed.
b. Not affected by weather.
c. Can pass higher data rates.
d. Less affected by scintillation.
74. (422) Which Military Strategic and Tactical Relay (MILSTAR) capability is very different from
previous military satellite communications (MILSATCOM) and commercial satellite
communications systems?
a. Crossbanding.
b. Crosslinking.
c. Multi-service.
d. Secure networking.
4–74

75. (422) Which element of the military strategic and tactical relay (MILSTAR) mission allocates
communication resources?
a. Development.
b. Planning.
c. Support.
d. Control.
76. (422) The secure mobile anti-jam reliable tactical terminal (SMART-T) provides user data rates
through what type of cable?
a. T–1 (128 Kbps).
b. T–1 (256 Kbps).
c. T–1 (1.544 Mbps).
d. T–1 (2.048 Mbps).
77. (422) The military strategic and tactical relay (MILSTAR) waveform derives its anti-jam (AJ)
capabilities by using a
a. large bandwidth.
b. narrow bandwidth.
c. large antenna beamwidth.
d. large amount of output power.
78. (422) Encoding/decoding of a digital signal
a. quadruples the data rate.
b. increases the signal-to-noise-ratio.
c. decreases the signal-to-noise-ratio.
d. enhances the link bit error rate.
79. (422) Which type of extremely high frequency (EHF) antenna is used on the military strategic and
tactical relay (MILSTAR) EHF and ultrahigh frequency (UHF) airborne command post
terminals?
a. Cassegrain 16-inch dish.
b. Cassegrain 26-inch dish.
c. Front-feed 16-inch dish.
d. Front-feed 26-inch dish.
80. (423) What agency plans and executes satellite tracking and ephemeris data generation?
a. Commander, United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM).
b. Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA).
c. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS).
d. Defense Information Systems Agency Operations Control Complex (DOCC).
81. (423) Which agency provides the regional satellite communications (Regional SATCOM) support
center with resource allocation parameters?
a. Commander, United States Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM).
b. Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA).
c. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS).
d. Defense Information Systems Agency Operations Control Complex (DOCC).
82. (423) Who is responsible for satellite launch support, orbit maintenance, and relocation?
a. Army Space and Missile Defense Command (SMDC)/Army Forces Strategic Command
(ARSTRAT).
b. Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS).
c. Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA).
d. Air Force Space Command (AFSPC).
 4–75

83. (423) Modifications on the Defense Satellite Communications System phase III (DSCS III)
satellite include
a. larger solar panels.
b. smaller solar panels.
c. multibeam array antenna.
d. single-channel transponder (SCT) downlink.
84. (424) Which satellite system provides Global Broadcast Services (GBS)?
a. Global positioning satellite (GPS).
b. Defense Meteorological.
c. Commercial L-band.
d. Ultrahigh frequency (UHF) Follow-on.
85. (425) Which of the following is not a service provided by the commercial satellite
communications branch (CSB)?
a. Help obtain host nation approvals.
b. Recommend and/or obtain ground terminals.
c. Act as the day-to-day mobile satellite services (MSS) system manager.
d. Evaluate customer requests to see if commercial service is the best option.
86. (426) Which commercial satellite communication system can offer true pole-to-pole global
coverage?
a. European Telecommunications Satellite Organization (EUTELSAT).
b. International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT).
c. International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT).
d. Iridium.
87. (427) Which service provider is a new satellite communications company specifically dedicated to
provide commercial X-band services exclusively to US and allied governments?
a. International Telecommunications Satellite Organization.
b. European Telecommunications Satellite Organization.
c. Pan-American Satellite Corporation.
d. XTAR.

Please read the unit menu for unit 5 and continue 

4–76
Unit 5. Network Bandwidth Management
5–1. Operations ................................................................................................................................. 5–1
428. Types of circuit actions ...................................................................................................................... 5–1
429. Accessing the satellite........................................................................................................................ 5–8
430. Checking/protecting the link.............................................................................................................. 5–9
5-2. Promina System....................................................................................................................... 5–13
431. Basic terms and concepts ................................................................................................................. 5–14

HE FOUNDATION FOR command, control, communications and computers (C4) is the

T continuous, uninterrupted flow and processing of information in support of warrior planning,

decision and execution. Warfighters must have C4 systems that are interoperable, flexible,
responsive, mobile, disciplined, survivable, and sustainable. Information must be made
accessible. In general, the value of information increases with the number of users.
With this in mind, let’s take a look at what goes into planning and establishing a communications link
and finally how bandwidth is managed in a military communications network.

5–1. Operations
Communications links don’t just happen; they are planned. The more complicated the circuit, the
more planning is required to ensure timely activation and sustained operations. Initiating a request for
circuit activation or accessing a different satellite isn’t something you’ll do on a daily basis. However,
understanding the why and how of circuit actions and satellite access requirements will help you see
the “big picture” and make you a better technician.

428. Types of circuit actions

The following information on telecommunication service requests, telecommunication service orders,
command communication service identifiers and restoration priority codes comes from material
normally used by cyber transport technicians (systems controllers). Considering the trend for cross-
utilization and career field mergers, one day you may have to do some or all of their functions.
Circuits
Radio frequency (RF) Transmission System personnel will set up many different types of
telecommunications equipment. These systems make use of dedicated landline, computer networks,
radio, and satellite communications. In this lesson, we will briefly touch on some circuits you may
have to install.
Defense Switched Network (DSN)
The Defense Switched Network (DSN) is one of the most common forms of communications for
official business. Personnel can access DSN from the telephone instrument provided by the base's
telephone system.
DSN is a telephone network servicing most military installations in the continental United States and
overseas. This system is an upgraded, all-digital network that has replaced the former Automatic
Voice Network (AUTOVON). The DSN incorporates many special features, such as automatic
callback, call forwarding, call transfer, and call waiting. All DSNs are connected and maintained on a
precedence basis. Low precedence calls are initially connected only if there are free circuits available
between the caller and destination. Higher precedence calls may initially be connected even if all
circuits are in use by a process called "preemption."
5–2

NIPRNET and SIPRNET

One of the fastest methods of disseminating information is through the use of computer networks. A
computer network consists of two or more computers connected for the purpose of exchanging
messages and sharing data and system resources. By connecting these computers through a wide area
network (WAN), anyone with a computer and Internet access can connect to thousands of different
networks all over the world, enabling them to transmit and retrieve information worldwide. However,
the U.S. military operates its own environment on the Internet that provides more security than
commercial methods. This environment, known as the Defense Information Systems Network
(DISN), is managed by the Defense Information Services Agency (DISA). It consists of two primary
networks, the NIPRNET (Nonsecure Internet Protocol Routing Network) and the SIPRNET (Secure
Internet Protocol Routing Network). These networks require special dedicated circuits as directed by
higher authority. NIPRNET is used to exchange sensitive but unclassified information between
"internal" users as well as providing access to the Internet. SIPRNET, on the other hand, is a system
of interconnected computer networks used by the Department of Defense (DOD) to transmit
classified information (up to and including Secret) in a completely secure environment.
Defense Red Switch Network (DRSN)
The Defense Red Switch Network (DRSN) is the DOD global senior level secure voice telephone and
conferencing system. Its mission is to provide rapid, high quality secure and non-secure
communications services to special command and control (C2) and other users. The DRSN is
composed of state-of-the-art, modularly expandable, digital switches with user instruments capable of
providing either secure or non-secure service. The DRSN provides its users access to the strategic and
tactical communities (ground networks, airborne and seaborne platforms), DOD, federal, U.S. public
switched networks, foreign post, telephone and telegraph organizations, some Allied equipment, and
networks from a single, multifunction, user-programmable instrument. The user terminal can be
configured as a single line or multi-line device capable of processing secure or non-secure voice. The
DRSN is responsive to the requirements of the FLASH and FLASH Override users by providing non-
blocking service. It also employs multilevel precedence and preemption. In addition, the network
passes security access levels between users as a further means of verifying end-to-end security and
also allows processing of calls and conferences from Secret to Top Secret SCI.
Request for service
When subscribers or users need a new communication circuit, a request for service is coordinated
through their chain of command to their serving technical control facility (TCF). This request for
service should specify the type of service required, its purpose, the location of the required
equipment, hours of operation for the circuit, a point of contact, and other pertinent information. TCF
personnel must ensure all required information is provided to process the request and initiate a
telecommunications service request (TSR).
Telecommunication service request
The TSR is a request to DISA to start, stop or change circuits, trunks, links or systems. The users’
TCF submits a feeder TSR according to applicable DISA directives to a telecommunications
certification office (TCO). The TCO ensures the telecommunications service requested is a validated,
coordinated, and approved requirement of the department or agency. They also ensure the department
or agency pays for the work. The TCO sends the request to DISA and then uses the information from
the feeder TSR to build another TSR. This is transmitted to personnel at the National
Communications System (NCS) for restoration priority certification and then to DISA for further
processing.
The TSR specifies service date, nature of requirement, type of action required, funding code,
restoration priority, contact people, users’ locations, details of service and user equipment, DCS
interface data and type and grade of service required. The TSR is normally submitted by message. It
may be telephoned in if there’s an urgent requirement where lead-time is insufficient for use of
 5–3

normal transmission means. Written confirmation with complete TSR information is then sent within
48 hours. The TCO is the only office authorized to submit a TSR to DISA.
Telecommunications service order
DISA uses the information submitted, along with information from a database, to issue a
telecommunications service order (TSO), an order completing the activation, deactivation or change
of circuits, trunks, links, or systems. Each DISA area has the responsibility for issuing TSOs on the
circuits/systems that traverse or terminate within its area.
The TSO is the authority for the operation and maintenance agencies to procure specific devices and
ancillary equipment necessary for the installation or operation of the circuit. Verbal TSOs are issued
when there’s insufficient time to prepare and distribute a record TSO. Verbal TSOs are issued as an
operational direction message, when possible and confirmed by record TSO within five working days
of issue.
Distribution
The TSO is normally sent for action to each DCS station on the trunk or circuit, the designated DCS
control office, the leasing agency (if applicable), and the other DISA circuit allocation and
engineering offices if the trunk or circuit enters their area of responsibility. Information copies are
sent to the operation and maintenance agency headquarters of the DCS stations, the TCO and the
using agency. Additional distribution is done only as necessary to meet specific requirements that
may arise within a DISA area or to support a major project in which engineering or logistics
considerations are involved.
TSO numbering
Each TSO is assigned an alphanumeric number. For example, TSO number D40019/B350–02 is
broken down in the table below.
TSO Numbering
Description TSO Number Identifiers
The beginning letter designates the issuing office. D—Headquarters, DISA
E—Europe
P—Pacific
A or W—DISA Allocations Engineering Division (AED).
The first digit designates the year the TSO is issued. 4 for 1994
The next four digits represent sequential TSO serial 0019
numbering within the year, beginning on 1 January.
The next character is a diagonal (/). The diagonal (/) show separation.
Following the diagonal are the last four characters B350
(circuit number) of the command communications
service designator (CCSD) of the circuit or the
entire six-character designator of the trunk being
acted upon.
The next character is a dash (–). The dash (–) shows separation.
Following the dash is a two-digit number to identify 02
the sequential action being taken on the circuit or
trunk. The number 01 always designates the first
action or start. Numbers 02 through 99 are used in
sequential order to show changes in and
discontinuance of the service.
5–4

A message or letter may contain more than one TSO. Each circuit or trunk action requiring service
availability carries a separate TSO number. Each separate TSO of a multipart TSO is in a separate
part of the message or letter. The makeup of the TSO number illustrated above shows it was issued by
Headquarters DISA. It was the 19th TSO issued by that office, and it was the second action taken on
circuit B350.
Command communications service designators (CCSD)
Each of the thousands of circuits in the DCS must have a specific identity. The CCSD provides this
identification as well as information about a circuit. For example, it shows the type of circuit and who
uses it. DISA assigns a CCSD to each circuit in a TSO. The CCSD is used for status-keeping and
reporting purposes. CCSDs are divided into these two classes: permanent and temporary.
DISA assigns permanent CCSDs for the life of the circuit. Special temporary CCSDs are assigned to
overload circuits to support on-call patches for a period not to exceed 72 hours. Each CCSD, whether
permanent or temporary, has eight characters. Each character is a symbol for specific information on
the circuit. The first character shows the military department or agency requiring the service (see
example below). The second and third characters identify the purpose of the circuit. The fourth
character shows the type of service provided. The fifth through eighth characters identify the
individual circuit and may be all letters, all numbers or a combination of both. A temporary CCSD is
comprised of letters only, while a permanent CCSD usually has a combination of letters and numbers.
Example:
CCSD D U U C 9 C M N
Position 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

The positions are described below:

• 1st position (D)—Military department or agency requiring service. In this example, D is the
Department of Defense or DISA.
• 2d and 3d positions (UU)—Purpose of circuit. “UU” stands for DCS, Defense Switched
Network.
• 4th position (C)—Type of service. In this example, “C” is Defense Switched Network, an
interswitch trunk circuit.
• 5th through 8th positions (9CMN)—Individual circuit number.
Satellite communication database
All satellite communication (SATCOM) network requirements must be documented and submitted
for validation by the Joint Staff. If approved, the SATCOM requirement will be assigned a number
and reside in the SATCOM database (SDB).
The SDB is the official Department of Defense (DOD) centralized database containing current and
future SATCOM requirements on all satellite systems, to include military owned, commercial, allied,
and civil. The director of DISA, maintains the database for the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
The SDB is the only Joint Staff-validated database for this purpose. Every Army, Navy, Air Force, or
Marine organization that operates a network using satellites to communicate, must have a SDB
number in order to compete for access to satellite resources. Military SATCOM resources are joint
resources and must be shared among all the services.
In its entirety the SDB is classified, although many requirements in the SDB are unclassified. On any
given day, the SDB contains over 4,000 active requirements.
 5–5

SATCOM connectivity requirements originate from users who recognize there is an unfulfilled need
for SATCOM services. Requirements can also be generated from the services or agencies who may
have determined that a need will exist based upon future changes to the force structure or doctrine.
Requirements for SATCOM connectivity are broken down into two categories: current and future.
Combatant commanders manage the majority of current requirements and the Services manage the
majority of future requirements.
Current requirements
SATCOM connectivity needs associated with existing or soon-to-be warfighting systems (normally
within two years). Examples of these warfighting systems would be weapons/targeting systems,
intelligence/sensor systems, or logistical support systems that would require information transfer
using a commercial, DOD or civil satellite system. The user is the first to recognize the need and
therefore usually initiates the submission of current requirements.
Future requirements
Those anticipated needs that extend beyond the timeframe of current requirements, usually two years
or more. Normally, future requirements are submitted by services and agencies. They are generated
by ongoing changes to operational strategy, doctrine, forces, weapons systems, or advances in
technology, which may not be satisfied by available SATCOM systems. They are used to aid in the
development of future system capabilities and provide the initial baseline in system definition.
Satellite communication database requirement
This requirement is tracked in the database by a unique SDB number. The number is a combination of
the sponsoring Command plus a 5-character identifier, for example, PACOM 01234 or CENTCOM
56789. Having a validated SDB number does not guarantee access to SATCOM resources; it only
allows a command to compete for them. An SDB number provides the combatant commander the
information required to determine what is needed within his AOR for SATCOM support. The
combatant commander still controls all assets and requests. Any user wishing to compete for access to
a SATCOM system must provide an approved SDB number in their request. The request is then
verified against that SDB requirement before access is granted.
CJCSI 6250.01C provides a standing process for the submission of SATCOM connectivity
requirements to obtain access to current systems and to influence future systems. It defines in detail
the procedures necessary to ensure essential SATCOM support for DOD mission requirements, which
include the planning, management, employment, and use of DOD SATCOM resources. The intent of
CJCSI 6250.01C is to promote a joint approach to achieve the most effective use of constrained
SATCOM resources as well as plan for future systems.
Once a user completes documenting the requirement using either the SDB management tool or DISA
Form 772, it is forwarded up the chain of command to the combatant commander that the submitted
requirement supports. Combatant commanders are the advocates for SATCOM requirements in their
respective area of operations. As the advocate, combatant commanders collect, consolidate, assess,
validate, prioritize, and record all SATCOM requirements of subordinate elements operating or
expected to operate within their area of operations.
The combatant commanders forward their prioritized requirements to the Joint SATCOM Panel
Administrator (JSPA) where they are checked for completeness. Each requirement undergoes a
technical assessment to determine if using other media could satisfy the requirement or if a SATCOM
solution is required. The JSPA consolidates all requirements with their respective technical
assessments and presents them to the Joint SATCOM Panel (JSP). The JSP meets monthly and is
comprised of representatives of each service, DISA, Joint Staff/J-3, and J-6. They review each
requirement and their associated technical and operational assessments. Approved requirements are
considered validated and entered into the SDB where each is assigned a unique number. Some
5–6

submitted requirements are held in suspension until further information can be obtained? Whatever
the decision is, users are notified promptly. The validation process is illustrated in the table below.
SATCOM Database Requirements Validation Process

1. 2. 3. 4.
Unit level COCOM/Service/Agency SATCOM System Joint SATCOM
Steps of the insures integrated with Expert/SATCOM Panel (JSP )
SDB approval develops overall CONOPS Operational Manager Approves as
process requirement verifies technical approach appropriate
(may develop some and compliance with High
requirements as level Policy
appropriate)
Formal Senior
Communications
Level of review Communications planners Communications Engineers Service/Joint Staff
officers
membership
Verifies request is
Requirement: complete,
Integration/Compliance accurate and
based on Technical capability/ overall
Area of focus with operation plans and supported by
equipment and concept of use
other unit capabilities DoD, JCS and
plans service
doctrine/policy
Review and map network Ensure technical ability to
Develop
Action with overall concept of satisfy request and compliance Approve
requirement
operations with high level policy
Supports current
Develop concepts of
Request circuits and future satellite
Use of approved operations and plans/ approve
based on approved planning using
SDB entries circuit request& development
SDB approved
of future system capabilities
scenarios

CJCSI 6250.01C directs a complete revalidation of all requirements contained in the SDB every year.
The purpose is to make sure that all SATCOM requirements are current and accurately stated in the
SDB. It is critical that commanders with validated requirements in the SDB conduct periodic checks
to ensure that their requirements remain in the SDB.
Restoration priority system
When circuits fail, you must restore service as quickly as possible. If this involves several circuits,
restorative efforts are determined by the priority of the circuits involved. NCS assigns a restoration
priority (RP) code to each circuit. Using these codes you know which circuits to restore first.
The following is a description of restoration priority codes. Each circuit is assigned a National
Communications System restoration priority (NCS RP).
The TCO sends a copy of the TSR to the NCS for confirmation of a restoration priority. The NCS
either confirms the RP, or assigns a realistic one and advises DISA, who inserts the NCS RP into the
TSO. When an activation TSO is sent out as one RP, and the NCS review downgrades it, a second
(change) TSO must be issued that reflects the RP change. If the code changes at some point during
the life of the circuit, DISA issues another TSO reflecting the change.
A restoration priority code is a combination of a number and a letter, for example 1A. The code
establishes a sequence for restoring communication circuits. In other words, it tells you how
important a circuit is, compared to other circuits. The RP codes in use are listed in the following table.
They’re listed by group, in descending order of importance, from top to bottom and left to right.
 5–7

Restoration Priority Codes

RP1 RP2 RP3 RP4
Category Category Category Category
1A 2A 3A 4A
1B 2B 3B 4B
1C 2C
1D 2D
1E 2E
1F 2F
1G 2G
2H
2I

An exception to the number/letter rule occurs when no restoration priority is assigned. Some minor
circuits, such as teletypewriter news, fall into this group. Then, a “00” code is assigned. Spare
channels also are assigned RP code “00.” However, there’s a big difference between a spare channel
and a user circuit with an RP “00” code.
Circuit restoration
Generally you restore circuits by using spare channels and equipment. This is called “rerouting.” It’s
the primary means of restoring circuits when channel trouble is the problem.
Faulty circuits must be restored even if there are no spare channels. This requires preempting other
circuits. The NCS RP system identifies circuits to preempt in favor of higher-priority ones.
The number part of the RP shows the order of importance, by major category. For example, a 1G
circuit is a category RP1 circuit. It’s higher on the priority scale than any RP2, RP3, or RP4 circuit.
Remember this when restoring circuits by reroute. Restore highest-priority circuits first. This doesn’t
mean disregarding low-priority circuits that have failed. Circuits must be restored as fast as possible,
with emphasis on restoring highest-priority circuits. Restore all as fast as possible, according to their
restoration priority and the availability of equipment. Use the following list as a guide to restoring
circuits. It tells what equipment to use in order of preference:
• Spare channels.
• Channels containing on-call circuits when the circuits aren’t active.
• Circuits having no assigned RP code.
• Circuits in ascending order of restoration priority, commencing with the lowest-priority
circuit you have, for example, 4B.
Use all available spares first, and then go to the next item on the list and so on. Besides the list,
remember these three important points in the following list:
1. Don’t restore a circuit by preempting a higher-priority circuit unless DISA directs such
action.
2. Maintain reroutes for high-priority circuits until the normally prescribed route is again usable.
3. Whenever a circuit is preempted, advise the user being denied service of the time, reason, and
expected duration of loss of service.
Now consider a final question. Which is more important—an individual circuit or a trunk? By
definition, a trunk is “a single or multichannel communication medium between two stations.” Since
5–8

a trunk may be multichannel, it can represent many circuits. Therefore a trunk is more important than
a single circuit. In most cases a trunk failure means the outage of many individual circuits and is a
major outage.
Most trunks don’t have restoration priorities! Nevertheless when a trunk fails, you must quickly
restore it or reroute the circuits. Trunk identifiers don’t include RP codes. Only circuits and spare
channels have RP codes.

429. Accessing the satellite

The Space and Missile Defense Command/Army Forces Strategic Command (SMDC/ARSTRAT),
previously known as the US Army Space Command established regional space support centers (now
called regional satellite communications support centers) (RSSC) under the direction of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff. The RSSC is a planning cell that provides ground mobile forces (GMF) access to the
unified and specified commands on the DSCS. An RSSC is located in the continental United States
(CONUS), European, and Pacific theaters. All operational and maintenance functions of the RSSC
are supervised by the theater director. Ground mobile forces satellite communications (GMFSC)
network planning is performed by the GMFSC managers assigned to the RSSC in support of the
GMF deployed in the area of responsibility of the theater director. RSSC co-locations with the DISA
element enhance coordination and ensure timely and effective support of critical combatant
commander (COCOM) requirements.
The RSSC reviews, analyzes and approves the satellite access request (SAR) submitted by the
GMFSC mission planner. The RSSC allocates the satellite resources used by all GMFSC terminals
deployed in a certain geographical area by generating satellite access authorizations (SAA), which
specify detailed plans for each mission’s usage of satellite resources. When DSCS GMFSC gateway
access is required, a gateway access request (GAR) must be submitted to the DISA Regional
Contingency/Exercise Branch. The RSSC develops the satellite access authorizations only after
gateway assignment is made by DISA. The RSSC helps consolidate planning, provides technical and
planning assistance to COCOMs, and also ensures GMFSC access to the DSCS satellite.
NOTE: Commercial satellite access is currently requested via the RFS/TSR/TSO process, not the
SAR. Pre-positioned DISN services are requested for these links via the GAR portion of the
SAR/GAR process. Eventually the commercial satellite request is expected to be included in the
SAR/GAR process.
Satellite access request
Because DSCS satellites are shared resources, the exact frequency, bandwidth, and power of every
carrier transmitted through satellite must be rigidly controlled. This constraint requires that the user-
specific satellite communication requirements for each mission be submitted to a central planning
authority for inclusion in the overall satellite access authorizations. DSCS gateway and associated on-
call contingency circuit accesses are controlled and scheduled by DISA Operations Center
Washington and DISA Area Communications Operations Center (ACOC) Europe and Pacific to
ensure that there are no conflicts in gateway circuit requirements.
Users must coordinate gateway assignments with DISA before SAR submission. Additionally where
DCS gateway access is required, the RSSC/GMF manager can’t develop the satellite access
authorizations until gateway assignment is made.
The RSSC reviews the SAR for completeness and coordinates with the mission planner (SAR
originator) to resolve any ambiguities. The SAR is analyzed to determine if the deployment
configuration can be supported by the satellite payload configuration planned to be in effect at the
time of the mission. If the RSSC is unable to support mission requirements, it coordinates with DISA
for additional satellite resources. Conflicts regarding DSCS GMFSC satellite resource allocation and
mission/user precedence that can’t be settled by DISA and RSSC are referred to the Joint Staff for
resolution. The SAR may be approved, approved with modifications, or disapproved. In any case, the
 5–9

SAR originator is notified of the disposition. DISA and the Joint Staff are notified if any required
satellite access is disapproved.
Satellite access authorizations
Upon approval of the SAR, the RSSC uses the DSCS operational support system to develop a
detailed SAA to establish mission operational parameters and authorize satellite access. Action copies
of the SAAs are transmitted to the mission planner (i.e., SAR originator), GMFSC terminal operators,
primary and alternate GMF network controllers assigned to the mission, DSCSOC satellite network
controller (SNC) responsible for the assigned satellite, and DSCS GMFSC gateway site(s), if
applicable. The RSSC originates SAAs for GMFSC missions with information copies to DISA
Network Operations Center, DISA ACOCs, adjacent RSSCs, joint staff and the appropriate area
COCOM. DISA originates SAAs for missions using AN/TSC–86/Rack 15, LST–8000, GT2000 and
other types of nonstandard tactical terminals.
If the mission includes a DSCS GMFSC gateway access, the SAA also forms an order to establish
and maintain control of the DSCS GMFSC gateway link throughout the mission. Based on the
information provided in the SAA, the mission planner issues deployment orders to each terminal
operator that reflects the approved operating plan for that terminal.
Approval of satellite access doesn’t constitute frequency approval, and vice versa. Before a GMFSC
can begin operation, it must be authorized access to the DSCS satellite on a specific frequency by the
RSSC. The frequency must be cleared for the terminal location by the local frequency authority to
ensure the terminal won’t interfere with other operations or services in that area of the country. It’s
the responsibility of the mission planner or area commander to obtain frequency clearance from the
local base/post/area frequency coordinator for each terminal location, except in the European theater.
The GMFSC network’s terminals must be carefully managed and controlled to ensure that satellite
and terminal resources can be applied to user requirements and mission satisfaction. All GMFSC
missions are controlled by time, frequency, bandwidth, and uplink power. Satellite access by a
GMFSC terminal is allowed only under the condition of positive control. Positive control ensures
effective use of the satellite resources and prevents interference to other users on the same
transponder. A GMFSC terminal may access the satellite only if direct control communication is
maintained between the GMF network controllers and the terminal operator. The GMF network
controllers ensure each GMFSC terminal is operating according to the satellite access authorization.
The GMF network controllers are closely supervised by the technical control of the SNC, who must
approve actions taken by the GMF network controllers affecting mission satellite deviation from the
SAAs.

430. Checking/protecting the link

In this lesson we discuss performance assessments and counter-counter measures (CCM). While these
are two very different topics, we discuss them together because in the end they have the same goal,
which is to ensure that communications traffic gets from source to destination.
Performance assessments
DISA Circular 310–70–1 provides detailed guidance for quality control and the application of
performance standards to all global information grid (GIG) trunks and circuits.
To provide quality service to users, each individual segment of the communication system must be
operated and maintained at its optimum performance level. The method to achieve optimum
performance is through an effective quality control (QC) program. The GIG QC program consists of
in-service performance monitoring, out-of-service testing and trend analysis. An efficient QC
program may prevent interruption to user service by detecting and correcting adverse trends before
user service is affected. If your facility is manned with cyber transport technicians, they perform
5–10

system monitoring and service testing with your assistance. You must perform these tasks if there are
no cyber transport technicians at your facility.
In-service performance monitoring
The purpose of in-service performance monitoring is to provide performance information that
indicates the quality of the operating signal traversing the network without interruption to the signal.
Performance monitoring gives you an insight into how the system is performing on a daily basis. In-
service performance monitoring is mostly a manual function on analog systems and an automated
function on digital systems.
Out-of-service testing
Out-of-service testing removes user traffic from the transmission media to allow complete access and
end-to-end testing of the trunk or circuit. The purpose of out-of-service testing is to periodically
verify the quality of prescribed specifications from terminal equipment to terminal equipment and to
make necessary end-to-end adjustments to interface and transmission equipment. Coordinate this type
of testing with all affected users prior to beginning the tests.
Trend analysis
You can identify any substandard performance by comparing the results of the periodic readings to
the established standards. The analysis points out any degrading trend in the system.
Counter-counter measure (CCM)
Whenever your unit deploys there is the chance, maybe even the strong likelihood that your
operations will be under surveillance by enemy forces. Given the opportunity, those forces might try
to interfere with, disrupt or terminate your communications using electronic warfare techniques.
Since electromagnetic interference, electronic warfare and anti-jamming was discussed previously,
this section looks at CCM techniques used to ensure our communications get to the distant end.
CCMs are those measures taken to ensure the continued use of the frequency spectrum by DOD and
friendly forces. Those measures include, but are not limited to, various security techniques,
operational procedures, and electronic signal processing techniques. A few techniques are listed here.
Although not all-inclusive, these should give you a good idea of some available techniques.
Protect the information
Communications security protects the transmitted information, whether it is routine, sensitive or
classified by applying the following measures to telecommunications:
1. Transmissions security—Includes all measures (except physical protection) designed to
protect transmissions from interception and exploitation. Examples include changing RFs or
call signs and imposing radio silence.
2. Cryptographic security—Includes designing and using technically sound cryptosystems.
Persons using cryptographic equipment, codebooks, ciphers, authentication systems, and
similar materials are involved in cryptographic security.
3. Physical security—Includes all physical measures necessary to safeguard classified material
from access or observation by unauthorized persons. Examples include using approved
storage facilities and containers to store classified materials, ensuring that only authorized
persons have access to classified materials, conducting required inventories of classified
materials, and disposing of classified materials properly.
4. Emission security—Denying unauthorized persons information of value that they might
derive from the intercept and analysis of intelligence bearing signals emitted from
cryptographic or telecommunication systems. Examples of emission security measures are
using properly shielded telecommunications equipment to prevent unintentional
electromagnetic radiation of classified information.
 5–11

Reduce the probability of detection and intercept

There are several techniques used to reduce the probability of detection and intercept. The following
are three techniques:
1. Data burst transmission—Transmitting data in bursts rather than on a continuous carrier.
2. Antenna selection—Highly directional antennas lower the probability of intercept and
direction finding. Using mobile antennas makes it even more difficult for an enemy to
pinpoint our location.
3. Spread spectrum modulation—A technique which uses a wideband signal to convey
intelligence through the satellite. The signal may be many hundreds of megahertz wide. The
advantage of a signal spread over a great bandwidth is that power density (watts per hertz) is
lowered by the same amount that the spectrum is widened. If you widen the spectrum
bandwidth enough, you can reach a point where signals can be transmitted and received while
hidden below the background noise. Such low density signals can reduce the problem of
interception and, at the same time, prevent interference to other satellite users. Two common
types of spread spectrum modulation are direct sequence (also called CDMA) and frequency
hopping, which we discussed earlier.
Even with the best application of CCMs, transmission signals often experience interference. Keep in
mind that it could be an EA or it could be another type of EMI. For additional information and
procedures on reporting EMI, refer to AFI 10–707.

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

428. Types of circuit actions

1. Define SIPRNET?

2. Describe the information that should be in a request for service.

3. Describe the purpose of a TSR.

4. List the information included in a TSR.

5. What does DISA uses TSOs for?

6. What document authorizes operation and maintenance agencies to procure specific devices and
ancillary equipment?

7. Are verbal TSOs allowed? If so, what are the guidelines?

5–12

8. Describe the numbering system used for TSOs.

9. What’s the purpose of a CCSD?

10. Describe the numbering system used for CCSDs.

11. Who validates all SATCOM network requirements?

12. What is the official DOD centralized database called containing current and future SATCOM
requirements on all satellite systems?

13. Where do the SATCOM connectivity requirements originate?

14. Differentiate current and future SATCOM connectivity categories.

15. Under CJCSI 6250.01C, how often are all requirements contained in the SDB revalidated?

16. Who makes the final decision on the restoration priority of circuits?

17. What’s the exception to the restoration priority system numbering system?

18. What’s the primary method of circuit restoration for outages?

19. List the suggested sequence for restoring circuits.

20. Is an individual circuit or a trunk more important?

21. Do trunks have restoration priority codes?

 5–13

429. Accessing the satellite

1. What’s the function of the RSSC?

2. Which agency approves the satellite access requests submitted by the GMFSC mission planner?

3. Which agency initiates SAAs for nonstandard tactical terminals?

4. What must be done before a GMFSC terminal can operate on a given frequency?

5. What’s the function of the GMF network controllers?

430. Checking/protecting the link

1. List the components of the GIG QC program.

2. What is the benefit of an efficient QC program?

3. What is the purpose of in-service performance monitoring and out-of-service testing?

4. What is trend analysis?

5. Define CCM.

6. List some of the CCM techniques.

5-2. Promina System

Prominas provide an adaptive and reliable foundation on which to build wide area networks or
interface to a broad range of carrier services. Prominas can handle legacy voice and data applications
in a wide range of environments. Their broad range of user interfaces and network services provide
multiple analog and digital interfaces to public phone exchanges, local area networks, routers, and
video sources, as examples. The Prominas are the backbone for mission-critical communications and
5–14

you, the RF Transmission Systems technician, are responsible to maintain them. In this section we
discuss the Promina system as a key component of a standard DISA bandwidth management network
that can be monitored and remotely controlled.

431. Basic terms and concepts

The Promina is a complex piece of equipment acting as a communications resource manager. As
such, it performs many functions of equipment you’ve learned about, but on a more expanded level.
For example, a Promina may act as a smart router capable of multiplexing and demultiplexing, both
digital data and analog signals to include voice, video and facsimile information. In addition, it can
interface with multiple transmission mediums, such as satellite, line of site (LOS) radios, and fiber
optic cables to meet network requirements. Promina can also traverse several different paths so
communications can continue even if one link or trunk fails by automatically rerouting trunks and
circuits on alternative paths based on priorities. Moreover, a Promina can build circuits and provide
switching to complete calls. Finally it can optimize the use of bandwidth to insure it isn’t wasted to
allow more efficient use of the communications network.
Primary functions
There are three main functions that the Promina provides to users. They are as follows speed,
reliability, and economic use of the bandwidth. The first two functions are self-explanatory. The third
function addresses the “dynamic bandwidth allocation” capability of the Promina. Let’s examine this
third function in more detail.
In order to understand what the term “dynamic bandwidth allocation” means, let’s take a look at the
way digital bandwidth is used in other equipment processes. The bandwidth of most multiplex sets is
fixed. They usually have a limited amount of transmission data rates available. A good example is a
channel bank multiplexer with 24 voice subscribers. Voice subscribers are probably the least efficient
of all circuits in a communications system, but are usually the most common. The data transmission
rate of the channel bank multiplexer for those 24 voice subscribers is 1.544 Mbps. Let’s assume that
at any one time only 12 of the 24 subscribers are using their telephones. In this case, only half of the
allotted bandwidth would be used. Approximately 768 Kbps would be wasted. The Promina may
assign bandwidth according to what’s needed (e.g., a 9600 bps digital circuit would get 9600 bps or a
64 Kbps pulse code modulation (PCM) channel would get 64 Kbps—but only when it’s needed). One
of the most desirable features of the Promina is the way bandwidth is assigned.
Assigning bandwidth
There are four ways that bandwidth may be assigned in the Promina. The ways are by the
conventional method, demand assigned bandwidth allocation method, dynamic bandwidth allocation
method, and by time-of-day restrictions method.
Conventional method
Bandwidth may be assigned in a conventional method as described above with a fixed amount as the
channel bank multiplexer. The conventional method is still necessary for some circuits and some
user’s demand to have a certain amount of bandwidth at all times. However these types of users
usually pay more for the dedicated bandwidth.
Demand assigned bandwidth allocation
Demand assigned bandwidth allocation assigns (on demand) the exact amount of bandwidth needed
to complete the call. This is the most efficient use of the bandwidth.Each user gets the amount of
bandwidth required as needed. Other subscribers use these circuits on a priority basis when they
aren’t in use. Seldom is there a case in which the capacity of the communications system is such that
not enough bandwidth is available. If problems like this occur frequently, it’s a sure sign that the
communications network has expanded beyond its current capacity and an upgrade may be required.
 5–15

Dynamic bandwidth allocation

Dynamic bandwidth allocation is when the total bit rate of the multiplexers end circuits exceeds that
of the network trunk. In other words, the total user’s bandwidth would exceed the trunk bandwidth.
This would only cause problems if all users decided to go on-line at the same time. Since no one
communicates continuously, if demand assigned bandwidth allocation is used, then the trunks can use
the dynamic method of assigning bandwidth.
Time-of-day restrictions
The last way bandwidth may be allocated is by use of time-of-day restrictions. This way of allocating
bandwidth is very useful in special cases. It allows bandwidth to be set aside for specific dates, or
times of the day in which additional circuits may be needed on a priority basis. An example of this
would be a business that had a video teleconferencing meeting every Tuesday from 0900–1000.
Video requires a large bandwidth; without prior notice of this significant event, the Promina would
tend to bog down all traffic during this period and would process things much more slowly.
A good example of this is how slow the worldwide web operates during high traffic conditions. With
a time-of-day-restriction in place, the Promina would specifically build a circuit and dedicate
bandwidth for the video, improving the quality of the link. It could also compress voice calls to 16
Kbps, as opposed to the normal 64 Kbps transmission rates, with users of the voice circuits being
unaware of any noticeable change to their service.
Analog-to-digital conversion using PCM
You should be familiar with analog-to-digital conversion and PCM from your 3-level apprentice
technical training, but we need a short review before we continue.
The first step in PCM is sampling. This requires the voice channel to be sampled 8,000 times per
second in order to provide enough intelligence to reproduce the original voice signal. For each of the
samples, a pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) signal is generated in which the amplitude of the
sample is reproduced as a pulse equal in amplitude.
The second step is to quantize and encode the analog signal. This requires the PAM sample
representation to be assigned a decimal value. What’s this decimal value based on? It’s actually based
on or compared to a scale known as a companding table, which is an algorithm that’s computed by
the central processing unit (CPU). The measured voltage levels of the voice signals are assigned
specific decimal values during encoding. There are two companding tables in use today.
The first is the “A-Law” companding scale. This is used in European telephone networks and is
standardized for analog-to-digital conversion. The other companding scale is the “Mµ-Law,” which is
used in the United States.
In order to transmit voice/data between the United States and European countries (with these differing
conversion scales), “transcoding” must take place. This is equivalent to converting metric
measurements to English measurements, and vice-versa. There are some card features in the Promina
in which this function is performed. If some of your equipment is processing information from
overseas areas, you may require cards with these features. The last step in the PCM process is
encoding the decimal assigned values to a binary code.
T–1/T–3 carrier systems concepts
Over the years, as telephone carriers moved into the digital age, equipment complexity increased, as
did the bandwidth required for transmitting the large amounts of digital information. Because of this,
a way was soon needed to standardize bit rates in order to make equipment compatible and to allow
different users access to the networks. As equipment complexity increased, so did the flexibility of
the newer systems. Some of the first developments were devices that interfaced equipment formats
from the customer premise equipment (CPE) to the long distance network. Network circuit
terminating equipment (NCTE) was developed for this reason.
5–16

Two of the most common pieces developed and still widely used today are channel service unit
(CSU) and digital service unit (DSU).
CSU
The CSU was specifically designed to police one’s density on the network and to aid in performing
loopbacks to the network.
DSU
The DSU provides data formatting to alternate mark inversion (AMI) and offers customer loopback
capability.
NOTE: AMI is the commercial term for bipolar. Today CSUs have integral CSU/DSU functionality
and are simply called CSUs.
Common transmission rates
After data formatting was standardized, Bell Systems Laboratories developed the digital network
hierarchy system. This system was a logical sequence in building transmission rates in a network and
aided in equipment interfaces. The following table lists the most common transmission rates in the
hierarchy system that you may be exposed to while working in the field.

Common Transmission Rates

Level Line rate VF Channels
DS–0 64 Kbps 1
DS–1/T–1 1.544 Mbps 24
DS–2/T–2 6.312 Mbps 96
DS–3/T–3 44.736 Mbps 672
DS–4/T–4 274.17 Mbps 4032
NOTE: “T–” is a general description of any Bell digital transmission system.

Although the preceding table lists the most common transmission rates, there are some other terms
with which you should be familiar. We now discuss these in more detail.
Fractional T–1
The fractional T–1, or FT–1, is a digital service that offers bandwidth at greater speeds than the
American Telephone & Telegraph’s (AT&T) 4-wire digital data service, which allows 2,400 bps to
64 Kbps. FT–1 permits users to lease portions of a T–1 facility in 64 Kbps increments. Obviously the
more bandwidth used, the higher the customer cost.
E–1
The E–1 is a Committee of European Postal Telegraph (CEPT) standard, which is comparative to the
United States T–1. The major difference is that the European standard is based on 30 channels of
information, at a rate of 2.048 Mbps, as opposed to the US standard of 24 channels. Most US
standards use channel associated signaling (CAS) by robbing bits during certain frames in the
multiplexing process. The European standard uses common channel signaling (CCS). This uses two
64 Kbps slots to pass all signaling and supervisory information from trunk to trunk.
NOTE: From our previous discussion you should remember that “transcoding” is necessary to
convert European analog-to-digital converted standards to US standards, and vice-versa.
Flexibility
As you can see, with all the different hierarchies, flexibility has been integrated into modern day
communication networks. This aids in supporting the customer’s changing needs. You’ll find that
flexibility and innovation are also necessary in military communications systems. Since the military
 5–17

has moved into the digital age, its needs have constantly changed and continue to do so. As Air Force
members in the communications field, we must insure we meet these challenges. We must change
with the environment and meet the mission needs. Insuring all of our customers get the service they
need, on time and with a high degree of reliability, is our primary mission in the RF Transmission
Systems career field.
Functions defined
The Promina has four basic needs that are required in order for it to function in a communications
network, which are timing, space, power, and a path for connectivity.
Timing
Each Promina, like all digital systems, needs a reliable timing source to ensure all data being
processed is synchronized to the network. Some common timing sources could be cesium or rubidium
clocks, GPS timing or station clocks.
Space
Most Promina systems come with self-contained mounting rack enclosures and require a fair amount
of space to install. The amount of space needed depends upon which model of the Promina you have.
If you required a Promina 800 with expansion shelves, you’d need more space to install the system. If
your system is the Promina 200 or the Promina 400, these systems require less space and are even
compact enough to operate in the tactical environment.
Power
Power is another major concern when you’re connecting a network. The network should be connected
to a highly reliable power system. Backup systems should also be built into the installation for
reliability. If your power system is susceptible to frequent outages, due to severe weather or
otherwise, you may want to consider an uninterruptible power supply (UPS). Some Promina front
cards are quite expensive, the T–3 or E–3 trunk modules being good examples. These cards cost
approximately $20,000 each and are very sensitive to any power surges and interruptions. A UPS
system can usually provide enough battery backup power to keep a system operating until primary
power can be restored.
Path for connectivity
The last requirement is a path for connectivity. This can be done in a variety of different ways. Many
Promina systems are being carried over fiber optic cables due to the large information carrying
capacity of the system. However, some of the smaller networks may use satellite or LOS systems to
send the information from one location to another (fig. 5–1).

Figure 5–1. Typical Promina network.

5–18

System vocabulary
Promina systems are composed of various different pieces of equipment interconnected into a
network. Before discussing the specifics of the Promina, you need to have a working knowledge of
the vocabulary. A good place to start is with the types of input and output connections and how
they’re used. Just as with everything else you’ve been taught previously, you must first learn the
language.
Terms defined
The terms listed and explained in this table are used throughout this lesson as we discuss the
functioning of the Promina.

TERM EXPLANATION
Trunk The physical connection between two nodes.
Link The logical connection between two nodes. A link consists of one or more trunks.
Port The physical interface between the Promina and the customer’s equipment.
Call A logical connection between two ports. Also referred to as a circuit. A call may traverse multiple
paths or hops until completion.
Hops The path between two Promina nodes. The term hops is used when describing or building a circuit for
a call. Many times the maximum number of hops must be defined.
Network Two or more Prominas and the interconnecting links.
Node A Promina.
Digroup The physical interface between the Promina and the customer’s voice devices.
Path The route that a call takes through the Promina network.
Card A printed circuit board.
Module A set of one or more cards in which a single logical function is performed. In the Promina, a front
card plus a rear card equal a module.
Front card This card contains the logic associated with the specific processing function performed by a module.
Rear card This card provides the physical interface to external devices.
Backplane The backplane is a printed circuit board that separates the front card and the rear card. It also provides
shelf-to-bus connections.

In addition, to the information shown in the table, we need to further explain these three terms node,
port, and trunk.
Node
Any Promina connected in a network is called a node. A Promina may have up to 64 neighbor nodes
if all nodes in the network are Prominas. It may have up to 32 neighbor nodes if there’s a combination
of Prominas and older Integrated Digital Network eXchange (IDNX) systems. A neighbor node is any
other Promina in which your Promina has a physical connection.
Port
The port is an input that the CPE uses to interface to the Promina. They’re the input connections to
the Promina. Outputs leaving the Promina are normally called “trunks.”
Trunk
A trunk is the physical connection between two nodes. Trunk cards on a Promina may also be inputs
from a customer. Figures 5–2 and 5–3 should help you understand the basic concepts of typical
Promina networks. Figure 5–2 illustrates a nodal configuration in a network. The connections
between the nodes are trunks. Remember that in a network each Promina could have up to 64
neighbor nodes. As you can see, a network could become quite complex if it were to have many
neighbor nodes. However keep in mind that a complex communications network is normally built so
 5–19

that many paths are available to process the information even if some paths fail. The more neighbor
nodes connected to a Promina, the more alternate path routing is available if some trunks fail. In most
cases, failures aren’t noticeable to users due to the automatic switching and routing functions of the
Promina. Figure 5–3 shows the trunk connections and the kinds of data transfer that can take place
between facilities. Also, notice that data transmission hierarchies are being used to represent some of
the trunk rates.

Figure 5–2. Promina links, nodes and neighbor nodes.

Figure 5–3. Promina trunk connections.

A typical Promina system operating in a communications network contains all of the components we
discussed. Understanding the terminology will assist you when reading technical references relating
to networking, and specifically the Promina. A good understanding of how the overall network
functions also assists you in understanding how important your part is as an operator/maintainer of
these subsystems. In the military, we sometimes tend to forget how our particular workcenter fits into
the larger mission picture. As with any network, one component breakdown can lead to failure of
other components. Understanding the whole network picture can aid you in concise, thought out,
decision making. The result will be the overall success of the Air Force mission.
5–20

Self-Test Questions
After you complete these questions, you may check your answers at the end of the unit.

431. Basic terms and concepts

1. Which of the three primary functions of the Promina addresses its “dynamic bandwidth
allocation” capability?

2. Which of the four methods used by the Promina to assign bandwidth is the most efficient?

3. What bandwidth assignment method does the Promina use to set aside bandwidth for specific
dates or times?

4. Which companding scale do European telephone networks use for analog-to-digital conversion?
Which method is used in the US?

5. What’s the purpose of “transcoding” in telephone networks?

6. What NCTE was specifically designed to police one’s density on a network and to aid in
performing loopbacks to the network?

7. Name the four basic requirements for the Promina to function in a communications network.

8. Match the following Promina system terms in column B to their functions in column A. Items in
column B may be used once, more than once, or not at all.
 5–21

Column A Column B
____ (1) The physical connection between two nodes. a. Backplane.
____ (2) The logical connection between two nodes. It consists of b. Call.
one or more trunks. c. Card.
____ (3) The physical interface between the Promina and the d. Digroup.
customer’s equipment. e. Front card.
____ (4) A logical connection between two ports. Also referred to as f. Hops.
a circuit, it may traverse multiple paths or hops until
g. Link.
completion.
h. Module.
____ (5) The path between two Promina nodes. This term is also
used when describing or building a circuit for a call. i. Network.
____ (6) Two or more Prominas and the interconnecting links. j. Node.
____ (7) A Promina. k. Path.
____ (8) The physical interface between the Promina and the l. Port.
customer’s voice devices. m. Rear card.
____ (9) The route that a call takes through the Promina network. n. Trunk.
____ (10) A printed circuit board.
____ (11) A set of one or more cards in which a single logical
function is performed. In the Promina, a front card plus a
rear card equal this item.
____ (12) It contains the logic associated with the specific
processing function performed by a module.
____ (13) It provides the physical interface to external devices.
____ (14) A printed circuit board that separates the front card and
the rear card. It also provides shelf-to-bus connections.

Answers to Self-Test Questions

428
1. SIPRNET is a system of interconnected computer networks used by DOD to transmit classified information
(up to and including SECRET) in a completely secure environment.
2. (1) Type of service required.
(2) Its purpose.
(3) Equipment location.
(4) Hours of operation.
(5) A point of contact.
(6) Any other pertinent information.
3. It’s a request to DISA to start, stop, or change circuits, trunks, links, or systems.
4. (1) Service date.
(2) Nature of requirement.
(3) Type of action required.
(4) Funding code.
(5) Restoration priority.
(6) Contact people.
(7) Users’ locations.
(8) Details of service and user equipment.
(9) DCS interface data.
(10) Type and grade of service required.
5. To order the activation, deactivation, or change of circuits, trunks, links, or systems.
5–22

6. TSO.
7. Verbal TSOs are issued when there’s insufficient time to prepare and distribute a record TSO. They are
issued as an operational direction message, when possible, and confirmed by record TSO within five
working days of issue.
8. Each TSO is assigned an alphanumeric TSO number, derived as follows: The beginning letter designates
the issuing office. The first digit designates the year the TSO is issued. The next four digits represent
sequential TSO serial numbering within the year, beginning 1 January. The next character is a diagonal (/)
to show separation. Following the diagonal are the last four characters (circuit number) of the CCSD of the
circuit or the entire six-character designator of the trunk being acted upon. The next character, a dash (–),
shows separation. Next, a two-digit number identifies the sequential action being taken on the circuit or
trunk. The number 01 always designates the first action, or start; numbers 02 through 99 show changes in
and discontinuance of the service.
9. It provides identification and information about a circuit.
10. Each CCSD has eight characters. The first character shows the military department or agency requiring the
service. The second and third characters identify the purpose or use of the circuit. The fourth character
shows the type of service provided. The fifth through eighth characters identify the individual circuit; they
may be all letters, all numbers, or a combination; for example, a temporary CCSD is composed of letters
only, while a permanent CCSD usually has a combination of letters and numbers.
11. All Satellite Communication (SATCOM) network requirements must be documented and submitted for
validation by the Joint Staff.
12. The SDB is the official Department of Defense (DOD) centralized database containing current and future
SATCOM requirements on all satellite systems, to include military owned, commercial, allied, and civil.
13. SATCOM connectivity requirements originate from users who recognize there is an unfulfilled need for
SATCOM services. Requirements can also be generated from the services or agencies who may have
determined that a need will exist based upon future changes to the force structure or doctrine.
14. Current requirements are SATCOM connectivity needs associated with existing or soon-to-be warfighting
systems (normally within two years). Future requirements are those anticipated needs that extend beyond
the timeframe of current requirements, usually two years or more. Normally, future requirements are
submitted by services and agencies.
15. Every year.
16. The NCS.
17. When no restoration priority is assigned.
18. Using spare channels and equipment. This is called “rerouting.”
19. (1) Spare channels.
20. Channels containing on-call circuits, when the circuits aren’t active.
(2) Circuits having no assigned restoration priority code.
(3) Circuits in ascending order of restoration priority, commencing with the lowest-priority circuit.
20. A trunk.
21. Most trunks don’t have restoration priorities.
429
1. It’s a planning cell that provides GMF access to the unified and specified commands on the DSCS.
2. RSSC.
3. DISA.
4. It must be authorized access to the DSCS satellite by the RSSC.
5. Ensures each GMFSC terminal is operating according to the satellite access authorizations.
430
1. (1) In-service performance monitoring.
(2) Out-of-service testing.
(3) Trend analysis.
 5–23

2. An efficient QC program may prevent interruption to user service by detecting and correcting adverse
trends before user service is affected.
3. In-service performance monitoring provides performance information that indicates the quality of the
operating signal traversing the network without interruption to the signal. The purpose of out-of-service
testing is to periodically verify the quality of prescribed specifications from terminal equipment to terminal
equipment, and to make necessary end-to-end adjustments to interface and transmission equipment.
4. Comparing the results of the periodic readings to the established standards to point out any degrading trend
in the system.
5. CCMs are those measures taken to ensure the continued use of the frequency spectrum by DOD and
friendly forces.
6. Applying communications security (transmission, cryptographic, physical and emission security), using
data burst transmission, using directional and mobile antennas, using spread spectrum modulation (direct
sequence (CDMA) or frequency hopping).
431
1. Economic use of bandwidth.
2. Demand assigned bandwidth allocation.
3. Time-of-day restrictions.
4. European: “A-law”; and US: “Mµ-Law.”
5. It’s used when transmitting voice/data between the US and European countries, and is equivalent to
converting metric measurements back to old English measurements, and vice-versa.
6. CSU.
7. (1) Timing.
(2) Space.
(3) Power.
(4) A path for connectivity.
8. (1) n.
(2) g.
(3) l.
(4) b.
(5) f.
(6) i.
(7) j.
(8) d.
(9) k.
(10) c.
(11) h.
(12) e.
(13) m.
(14) a.

Do the unit review exercises before going to the next unit.

5–24

Unit Review Exercises

Note to Student: Consider all choices carefully, select the best answer to each question, and circle
the corresponding letter. When you have completed all unit review exercises, transfer your answers to
the Field-Scoring Answer Sheet.
Do not return your answer sheet to the Air Force Career Development Academy (AFCDA).
88. (428) One of the functions of the telecommunication certification office is to
a. assign a circuit number to the telecommunications service request.
b. ensure the user agency is prepared to pay for the service.
c. review the circuit priority against mission needs.
d. maintain case files on all major commands (MAJCOM) circuits.
89. (428) Telecommunications service orders are issued by the
a. Department of Defense (DOD).
b. users’ technical control facility.
c. National Communications System (NCS).
d. Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA).
90. (428) Command communications service designators (CCSD) are divided into two classes, what
are they?
a. Continental United States (CONUS) and overseas.
b. Primary and secondary.
c. Permanent and temporary.
d. Terrestrial and extra-terrestrial.
91. (428) All approved satellite communication network requirements will be assigned a number and
reside in the
a. SATCOM Database (SDB).
b. Core Automated Maintenance System (CAMS).
c. Integrated Maintenance Database System (IMDS).
d. Maintenance Management Information Center (MMIC).
92. (428) Telecommunications circuit restoration is normally done by
a. the user.
b. rerouting to spare channels.
c. demand within five minutes of circuit failure.
d. automatic fault location equipment.
93. (429) Which agency does the regional satellite communications support center (RSSC) coordinate
for additional satellite resources, if the planned deployment configuration cannot be supported by
the satellite payload configuration?
a. Ground mobile forces (GMF) network controller.
b. Consolidated Space Operations Center (CSOC).
c. Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA).
d. Defense Information system Agency Network Operations Center (DISANOC).
 5–25

94. (429) Which office resolves conflicts regarding Defense Satellite Communications System
(DSCS) ground mobile forces (GMF) satellite resources that cannot be settled by the Defense
Information Systems Agency (DISA), and the regional satellite communications support center
(RSSC)?
a. Joint Staff.
b. Combatant commander (COCOM).
c. Defense Information Systems Agency Operations Control Complex (DOCC).
d. Consolidated Space Operations Center (CSOC).
95. (429) What agency initiates satellite access authorizations for missions using nonstandard tactical
terminals?
a. Ground mobile forces (GMF) network controller.
b. Defense Satellite Communications System operation center (DSCSOC) satellite network
controller (SNC).
c. Regional space support center (RSSC).
d. Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA).
96. (430) An effective global information grid (GIG) quality control program consists of all of the
following except
a. out-of-service performance monitoring.
b. in-service performance monitoring.
c. out-of-service testing.
d. trend analysis.
97. (430) Which term is defined as those measures taken to ensure the continued use of the frequency
spectrum by Department of Defense (DOD) and friendly forces?
a. Electronic attack (EA).
b. Electronic warfare (EW).
c. Electronic support (ES).
d. Counter-counter measures (CCM).
98. (431) What is the name of the companding scale used in US telephone networks, and standardized
for analog-to-digital conversion?
a. Metric.
b. A-Law.
c. Mμ-Law.
d. Old English.
99. (431) Because they use differing conversion scales, which process must take place in order to
transmit voice/data between telephone networks in the US and European countries?
a. Encoding.
b. Decoding.
c. Quantizing.
d. Transcoding.
100. (431) What is the logical connection between two nodes that consists of one or more trunks?
a. Call.
b. Port.
c. Link.
d. Hops.
5–26

Student Notes
Glossary of Terms, Abbreviations, and Acronyms
Terms
access—An individual one-way transmission of a signal carrying user information through a
communications satellite. As an example, a full duplex transmission between two individual sites
would be two accesses. A simplex broadcast from a central location to multiple receive locations
would be a single access. Also, the right to enter a SATCOM network and make use of
communications payload resources.
A-Law—A-law is the companding standard used in the analog-to-digital conversion process (and
vice-versa) in PCM systems, European telephone networks.
anti-spoof—A method to protect authorized users from transmission of false precision code.
apogee—Farthest point of the orbit from the Earth.
ascending node⎯Northward orbital crossing of the equator.
azimuth (AZ) —The angle of the compass bearing, relative to true (geographic) north, of a point on
the horizon directly beneath an observed object.
backplane—A printed circuit board that separates the front card and the rear card. it also provides
shelf-to-bus connections.
bit—Binary digit, equivalent to one mark or space in data transmission.
call—A logical connection between two ports. Also referred to as a circuit. A call may traverse
multiple paths or hops until completion.
card—A printed circuit board.
C-band—Per IEEE Standard 521–1984, the “C” band frequency range is 4.0 to 8.0 GHz. Military
and civilian “C” bands may deviate from this due to a lack of frequency standardization in the
communications industry.
channel—A specific frequency and bandwidth available as a communications path. A channel will
normally be the operating frequency and bandwidth of a satellite transponder or portion thereof or
a specified element/portion of a processed (e.g., TDMA) signal.

code division multiple access (CDMA)—An access technique in which every earth station may
transmit at the same frequency and at the same time, but only at a given, limited power level. This
technique requires that each earth station use a unique identifying code, which is modulated with
the communications signal. CDMA is the access technique used with spread-spectrum data
distribution.
coordinated universal time (UTC)—A time standard based on International Atomic Time with leap
seconds added at irregular intervals to compensate for the earth’s slowing rotation.
crypto—The encryption and decryption of classified messages. An abbreviation for cryptography.
coverage—The portion of the earth’s surface over which SATCOM services are provided.
crossband—The practice of transmitting a signal to a satellite in one frequency band (e.g., X-band)
and re-transmitting the signal to a terminal in another frequency band (e.g., Ka-band).
Crossbanding should not be confused with the normal frequency translation performed by
communications satellite transponders.

Defense Information System Network (DISN)—A network of communications paths that support
information transfer within the DoD.
G–2

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP)—A space-and ground-based system used for
collection and timely dissemination of global environmental data to the DOD and other
governmental agencies.
Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS)—Provides assured command and control
communications system access to meet wartime operational requirements associated with military
communications.
Defense Support Program (DSP)—A program of the USAF that operates the reconnaissance
satellites which form the principle component of the Satellite Early Warning System currently
used by the US.
demand assigned multiple access—A technique used to permit a relatively larger number of earth
stations to share a smaller pool of channels on demand.
descending node—Southward orbital crossing of the equator.
digroup—The physical interface between the Promina and the customer’s voice devices.
downlink—The communications path from a satellite to its ground station.
eccentricity—Flatness of the ellipse.
elevation (EL)—The elevation angle, also called the altitude, of an observed object is determined by
first finding the compass bearing on the horizon relative to true north, and then measuring the
angle between that point and the object, from the reference frame of the observer. Elevation
angles for objects above the horizon range from 0 (on the horizon) up to 90 degrees (at the
zenith).
ellipse—An oval.
ephemeris—data showing the calculated (predicted) position of a satellite at regular intervals of time.
Federal Communications Commission—An independent government agency that regulates
interstate and international communications by radio and television and wire and cable and
satellite.
footprint—The area of the earth with which the satellite can communicate.
frequency division multiple access (FDMA)—FDMA is a technique used to allow more than one
earth station to share the bandwidth of a satellite transponder. Each earth station is assigned a
specific carrier or set of carriers for transmission over a specific portion of the bandwidth.
front card—This card contains the logic associated with the specific processing function performed
by a module.
gateway—A ground station that acts as a relay between satellites in a system.
geosynchronous orbit—Satellite orbit positioned to view the same portion of the earth constantly.
global information grid (GIG)—Globally interconnected, end-to-end set of information capabilities,
associate processes and personnel for collecting, processing, storing, disseminating, and
managing information on demand to warfighters, policy makers, and support personnel. The GIG
includes all owned and leased communications and computing systems and services, software
(including applications), data, security services, and other associated services necessary to
achieve information superiority.
global positioning system (GPS)—A US space-based global navigation satellite system that
provides reliable positioning, navigation, and timing services to worldwide users on a continuous
basis.
Globalstar—A low earth orbit satellite constellation for satellite phone and low-speed data
communications.
 G–3

high data rate—Rates greater than 2.048 Mbps.

hops—The path between two Promina nodes. The term hops is used when describing or building a
circuit for a call. Many times the maximum number of hops must be defined.
inclination—Angle between the orbit and the equator.
Inmarsat—A satellite communications company that provides voice and data services to the
maritime, transportation and aeronautics markets as well as providing general Internet access
from any location in the globe with its Broadband Global Area Network.
intercept point—A given point on the orbit.
International Telecommunications Union—An international organization established to
standardize and regulate international audio and telecommunications.
iridium—A large group of satellites used to provide voice and data coverage to satellite phones,
pagers and integrated transceivers over Earth’s entire surface.
link—The logical connection between two nodes. A link consists of one or more trunks.
K-band—Per IEEE Standard 521–1984, the “K” band frequency range is 18.0 to 27.0 GHz. Military
and civilian “K” bands may deviate from this due to a lack of frequency standardization in the
communications industry.
Ka-band—Per IEEE Standard 521–1984, the “Ka” band frequency range is 27.0 to 40.0 GHz.
Military and civilian “Ka” bands may deviate from this due to a lack of frequency standardization
in the communications industry.
Ku-band—Per IEEE Standard 521–1984, the “Ku” band frequency range is 12.0 to 18.0 GHz.
Military and civilian “Ku” bands may deviate from this due to a lack of frequency standardization
in the communications industry.
L-band—Per IEEE Standard 521–1984, the “L” band frequency range is 1.0 to 2.0 GHz. Military and
civilian “L” bands may deviate from this due to a lack of frequency standardization in the
communications industry.
link—A general term used to indicate the existence of communications (facilities) between two
points.
load unit—A measurement of the processing capability of each processor module in the node.
low data rate (LDR)—Data rates falling between 75 bps and 19,200 bps.
major axis—Longest distance across the ellipse.
medium data rate (MDR)—Rates greater than 19,200 bps up to and including 2.048 Mbps including
voice grade circuits.
mesh—Two or more hub-spoke networks connected together through the hubs.
military satellite communications—The satellite communications resources that are owned and
operated by DoD primarily in the government frequency bands.
military strategic and tactical relay (MILSTAR) satellite—US satellite communications system
that provides secure, jam-resistant, worldwide communications to meet wartime requirements.
minor axis—Shortest distance across the ellipse.
modem—A device for transmitting usually digital data over telephone wires by modulating the data
into an audio signal to send it and demodulating an audio signal into data to receive it.
module—A set of one or more cards in which a single logical function is performed. In the Promina,
a frond card plus a rear card equal a module.
G–4

multiplexing—The combination of two or more signals into a single signal for transmission over a
single transmission path.
Mμ-Law—Mμ-law (also called “U” law) is the companding standard used in the analog-to-digital
conversion process (and vice-versa) in PCM systems, North American telephone networks.
network—A communications service of terminals connecting users (or a set of users) in order to
provide a particular communication function.
network control—Network control is the ability to plan and effectively manage user accesses to
satellite communications capabilities. It encompasses the techniques and procedures over
networks, terminals, satellites, and up/downlinks to effectively plan, monitor, control, and
configure/reconfigure those assets in dynamic response to user needs while optimizing the overall
throughput of the satellite.
network manager—A combatant command, component, or other organization that uses or manages
a SATCOM apportionment and allocation. The network manager has operational control over the
communications payload as defined by the CJCS-provided apportionment.
nonsynchronous orbit—An elliptical orbit.
node—A Promina.
perigee—Closest point of the orbit to the Earth.
period—Time for one orbit.
path—The route that a call takes through the Promina network.
port—The physical interface between the Promina and the customer’s equipment.
priority—A user category defined by CJCSI 6250.01 that ranks SATCOM services based on mission
and support of national survival. There are currently seven levels of priority.
Promina—Platforms that provides an adaptive and reliable foundation on which to build wide area
networks or interface to a broad range of carrier services.
protection—Measures taken to ensure continuous access to satellite communications. This includes
defensive information warfare, anti-jam, covertness, nuclear survivability, resistance to physical
destruction, and US control of SATCOM access.
radio frequency—Any of the electromagnetic wave frequencies that lie in the range extending from
below 300 kilohertz to about 300 gigahertz and that include the frequencies used for radio and
television transmission.
rear card—This card provides the physical interface to external devices.
regional SATCOM support center—The regional SATCOM support centers that provide the day-
to-day operational management of SATCOM resources in support of designated combatant
commands, services and defense agencies, and other users.
satellite communications (SATCOM)—The term SATCOM includes military satellite
communications, and DoD use of commercial, allied, and civil satellite communications.
scintillation—In radio propagation, random fluctuations in amplitude, phase, or frequency of the
received field about its mean value. The effects of nuclear explosions include levels of
scintillation that will disrupt communications signals that try to pass through the scintillated
environment
slant range—Distance from the site to the satellite.
 G–5

synchronous optical network—An American National Standard for a high capacity optical carrier
telecommunications network. It defines optical carrier (OC) levels and equivalent electrical
synchronous transport signals for the fiber-optic based transmission hierarchy.
synchronous orbit—An orbit that is equal in speed to the earth’s rotation.
Telemetry—the science of measuring physical properties and other phenomena on board mission
satellites and transmitting these measurements to ground receiving elements.
terminal—The ground component of a SATCOM system, which includes all system and subsystem
components including modems and antennas.
time division multiple access (TDMA)—A technique used to provide more than one earth station
with access to the same carrier by taking turns transmitting bursts.
time division multiplexing—A digital technique that interleaves bits or characters from the low
speed channels and transmits them at high speed by assigning parts of each digitized voice
channel to specific time slots
trunk—The physical connection between two nodes.
Ultra High Frequency Follow-on (UFO)—Program sponsored and operated by the US Navy to
provide satellite communications for airborne, ship, submarine and ground forces. The UFO
constellation replaces the FLTSATCOM and LEASAT.
unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)—Remotely controlled or autonomous aircraft used for surveillance
and strike missions.
uplink—The communications path from a ground station to its satellite.
wideband—Encompasses data rates greater than 64 kilobits per second.
WWV—The call sign of the National Institute of Standards and Technology’s shortwave radio
station located in Fort Collins, Colorado. Its main function is the continuous dissemination of
official US government time signals by broadcasting on five frequencies (2.5 MHz, 5 MHz, 10
MHz, 15 MHz, and 20 MHz).
X-band—Per IEEE Standard 521–1984, the “X” band frequency range is 8.0 to 12.0 GHz. Military
and civilian “X” bands may deviate from this due to a lack of frequency standardization in the
communications industry.
G–6

Abbreviations and Acronyms

AC alternating current
ACG antenna control group
ACOC area communications operations centers
ACU antenna control unit
AEHF advanced extremely high frequency
AFCA Air Force Communication Agency
AFSAT Air Force satellite
AFSATCOM Air Force satellite communications
AFSCN Air Force satellite control network
AFSPC Air Force Space Command
AFWA Air Force Weather Agency
AIA antenna interface assembly
AICS airborne integrated communications subsystem
AJ anti-jam
ALERT attack and launch early reporting to theater
AMI alternate mark inversion
ANC alternate net controller
ANDVT advanced narrowband digital voice terminal
ANS advanced narrowband system
ARTS automated remote tracking stations
AS anti-spoof
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
AT&T American Telephone & Telegraph
ATS automatic transfer switch
AVOW analog voice orderwire
AWS advanced wideband system
AZ azimuth
BERT bit error rate tester
BFN beam forming network
BGAN broadband global area network
BIPM International Bureau of Weights and Measures
BPF band pass filter
BTU British thermal unit
 G–7

BX bus extender
C Celsius
C/A course acquisition
2
C command and control
C3 command, control, and communications
C4ISR command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and
reconnaissance
CAS channel associated signaling
CC control channel
CCM counter-counter measures
CCS common channel signaling
CCSD command communications service designators
CDL common data link
CDMA code division multiple access
CEG communications equipment group
CENTCOM Central Command
CEPT Committee of European Postal Telegraph
CGS continental United States ground station
CJCS Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
CJCSI Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff instruction
CLS contractor logistics supported
CMA control, monitor, and alarm
COCOM combatant commander
COMSEC communications security
CONOPS concept of operations
CONUS continental United States
COTS commercial-off-the-shelf
CPE customer premise equipment
CPU central processing unit
CS cesium standard
CSB commercial satellite communications branch
CSU channel service unit
DA distribution amplifier
DAGR Defense Advanced GPS Receiver
DAMA demand assigned multiple access
DAT digital audio tape
G–8

dB decibel
dBm decibel (referenced to 1 milliwatt)
DC direct current
DCE data communication equipment
DCGS distributed common ground system
DCSS digital communications subsystem
DE digital equipment
DFS disciplined frequency source
DISA Defense Information Systems Agency
DISANOC Defense Information Systems Agency Network Operations Center
DITCO Defense Information Technology Contracting Organization
DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program
DMU dual modem upgrade
DOCC Defense Information Systems Agency operations control complex
DOCS Defense Satellite Communications System operations control center
DoD Department of Defense
DOS disk operating system
DPSK differential phase shift keying
DRAM dynamic random access memory
DRU direct reporting unit
DSA downconverter switch assembly
DSCS Defense Satellite Communications System
DSCSOC Defense Satellite Communications System operations centers
DSN Defense Switched Network
DSP Defense Support Program
DSTS Defense Information systems Network Satellite Transmission Service-Global
DSU digital service unit
DTE data terminal equipment
DWDM dense wavelength division multiplexing
EAM emergency action message
ECE external control element
EER elevated equipment room
EGS European ground station
EHF extremely high-frequency
EIRP effective isotropic radiated power
EL elevation
 G–9

EMSS enhanced mobile satellite service

EPROM erasable programmable read-only memory
ESF extended super frame
EUTELSAT European Telecommunications Satellite Organization
EXS expansion shelf
FCG frequency converter group
FDM frequency division multiplex
FDMA frequency division multiple access
FE force element
FEP front-end processor
FLTSATCOM fleet satellite communications
FM frequency modulation
FNMOC Fleet Numerical Meteorology Oceanographic Center
FOA field operating agency
FSK frequency shift keying
FTS frequency and timing subsystem
FTSAT fly-away tri-band satellite terminal
GAR gateway access request
GB gigabyte
Gbps gigabytes per second
GBS global broadcast services
GCS ground control stations
GDA gimbaled dish antenna
GDN Globalstar Data Network
GDT ground data terminal
GHz gigahertz
GICS ground integrated communications systems
GIG global information grid
GMF ground mobile forces
GMFSC ground mobile forces satellite communications
GOCC ground operations control center
GOES geostationary operational environmental satellite
GPRS general packet radio service
GPS global positioning system
HMMWV high mobility multipurpose-wheeled vehicle.
HNA host nation approvals
G–10

HPA high power amplifier

HSS high-speed shelf
HT heavy terminal
HTTPS hypertext transfer protocol secure
I/F interface
I/O input/output
ICAO/SARPS International Civil Aviation Organization/Standards and Recommended
Practices
ICF interconnect facility
IDA inertial data assembly
IDNX Integrated Digital Network Exchange
IF intermediate frequency
IFL interfacility link
IMP intermodulation products
Inmarsat International Marine/Maritime Satellite
INTELSAT International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
IR infrared
IRIG-B inter-range instrumentation group B
ISM iridium secure module
JRSC jam-resistant secure communications
JSP Joint SATCOM Panel
JSPA Joint SATCOM Panel Administrator
JTWC Joint Typhoon Warning Center
Kbps kilobits per second
KTAS knots true air speed
kW kilowatts
LAN local area network
LC local channel
LCD liquid crystal display
LDR low data rate
LEASAT leased satellites
LED light emitting diodes
LEO low earth orbit
LHR low hop rate
LNA low noise amplifier
LOS line-of-sight
 G–11

LRE launch and recovery element

LRGCS launch and recovery ground control station
LRU line replaceable units
Mb megabytes
MBA multibeam antennas
Mbps megabits per second
MCC mission control center
MCE mission control element
MCPT-I Milstar communications planning tool integrated
MCS mission or master control station
MDE mission development element
MDR medium data rate
MDS meteorological data server
METEOSAT meteorological satellite
MGRS military grid reference system
MGS mobile ground station
MHz megahertz
MILSATCOM military satellite communications
MILSTAR military strategic and tactical relay
MIMPS modular integrated mobile power system
MNC monitor net controller
MODEM modulator-demodulator
MPDS mobile packet data service
MPE mission planning element
mph miles per hour
MSA measurement switching assembly
MSE mission support element
MSOC Milstar Satellite Operations Center
MSS mobile satellite service
MT medium terminal
MTSAT multi-functional transport satellite
mW milliwatts
NAOC National Airborne Operations Center
NC net controller
NCA National Command Authority
NCCS network communication and control station
G–12

NCS National Communications System

NCTE network circuit terminating equipment
NGDC/STP National Geophysical Data Center’s Solar Terrestrial Physics Division
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
NM net member
NMS network management system
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NPOESS National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System
NRZ non-return-to-zero
NTP network time protocol
NUDET nuclear detonation
O&M operation and maintenance
OGS overseas ground station
OL-S operational linescan system
P Precision
PACOM Pacific Command
PanAmSat Pan-American Satellite Corporation
PBX private branch exchange
PC personal computers
PCM pulse-code modulation
PCU pedestal control unit
PDM power distribution module
PDU power drive units
PIS payload integration subsystem
PLM Promina logic module
PLMI Promina logic module interface
PLMN public land mobile network systems
PMS payload management subsystem
PPM Promina processor module
PPS precise positioning service
PPSL predator primary satellite communications link
PRC primary rate card
PRC/TMCP proprietary primary rate card/two megabit channelized port
PRN pseudo-random noise
PSM Promina server module
PSM Promina logic module
 G–13

PSTN public switched telephone networks

PVAC prime voice analog with compression
PVEC prime voice echo canceller
PVT position, velocity, and time
PY encrypted
QASD quad asynchronous/synchronous data
QC quality control
QHSAT quad-band hub/spoke SATCOM terminal
RC reportback channel
RF radio frequency
RFAA radio frequency amplifier assembly
RFIS radio frequency interface subsystem
RGSM remote ground station master control station
ROCU remote orderwire control unit
ROM read-only memory
RP restoration priority
RPA remotely piloted aircraft
RSS receiving set, satellite
RSSC regional satellite communications support center
RTP remote terminal processor
RTS remote tracking stations
RX receive
SA selective availability
SAA satellite access authorization
SAASM selective availability anti-spoofing module
SAR satellite access request
SATCOM satellite communications
SBD short burst data
SBIRS space-based infrared system
SCAMP single channel anti-jam man-portable terminal
SCCE satellite configuration control element
SCLP signaling channel link protocol
SCT single channel transponder
SCTIS single channel transponder injection subsystem
SDAS satellite data acquisition subsystem
SDB SATCOM database
G–14

SDC standard desktop configuration

SES space environment sensor
SHF super high frequency
SIGINT surveillance imagery and signals intelligence
SINCGARS single channel ground and airborne radio system
SMART-T secure mobile anti-jam reliable tactical terminal
SMDC/ARSTRAT Space and Missile Defense Command/Army Forces Strategic Command
SNC satellite network controller
SNMP simple network management protocol
SOCC satellite operations control center
SONET synchronous optical network
SPACEAF Space Air Force
SRS satellite readout station
SSC secondary signaling channels
SSULI special sensor ultraviolet limb imager
SSUSI special sensor ultraviolet spectographic imager
STEP standardized tactical entry point
STS standard shelf
SX–2 switching exchange module type II
TACAMO take charge and move out
TCCC terrestrial critical control circuit
TCF technical control facility
TCO telecommunications certification office
TDM time division multiplex
TDMA time division multiple access
TFRS timing and frequency reference subsystem
TFT tactical field terminal
TG transmitter group
TP terminal processor
TR transmit/receive
TRANSEC transmission security
TS-A terminal server-A
TS-B terminal server-B
TSR telecommunications service request
TSSR tropo/satellite support radio
TT&C telemetry, tracking, and command
 G–15

TTL transistor-to-transistor logic

TWT traveling wave tube
TX transmit
UAV unmanned aerial vehicles
UFO UHF Follow-on
UHF ultra high frequency
UN United Nations
UNIX universal information exchange
UPS uninterruptible power supply
USA upconverter switch assembly
USD universal synchronous data
USNO United States Naval Observatory
USSTRATCOM United States Strategic Command
UT0 universal time zero
UT1 universal time one
UT2 universal time two
UTC coordinated universal time
UTM universal transverse mercator
VC62 voice compression 62
VDC volts direct current
VHF very high-frequency
VOCU voice orderwire control unit
Vpp volts peak-to-peak
VRPC variable ratio power combiners
VSAT very small aperture terminal
WAN wide-area network
WDM wavelength division multiplexing
WG waveguide group
WGS wideband gapfiller system
WWV call sign of National Institute of Standards and Technology Time & Frequency
shortwave radio station
Y-code encrypted code
G–16

Student Notes
Student Notes
AFSC 3D153
3D153 03 1208
Edit Code 02